fields of vision

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D e n i s D e l a n e y C i a r a n Ward C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

A Introduction to Literary Appreciation B From the Origins to the Middle Ages C The Renaissance D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages E The Romantic Age

ure | the English language I

D e n i s D e l a n e y C i a r a n Ward C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

M O D U L E S

A IntroductionI B From the Origins C The Renaissance D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages E The Romantic Age

Literature in the English language 1

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INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY

APPRECIATION 'May God keep us From single vision'

Will iam Blake

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Introduction

What is literature? Since the dawn of civilisation many men and women have felt a vital need to communica te their thoughts and feelings beyond their immediate circle of family, friends and acquaintances to a wider world. Thanks to the invention of writing and printing they have been able to hand down to successive generations a priceless treasury of manuscripts and books. Literature is generally taken to mean those pieces of writing which, despite the passing of the years and even of the centuries, still inspire admiration, reflection and emotion in readers. Poems, plays, novels and short stories in a given language that have stood the test of time collectively make up a national literature. This does not mean, however, that only older works can be called literature. Today, millions of books are produced every year but only some of them find their way into literary magazines or onto the literary pages of newspapers. In these cases it is the critics and not time that decide what is and what is not to be regarded as literature. Whether their choices are appropriate or not will be a matter for future generations to decide. It is impossible to formulate a total ly comprehensive and all-encompassing definit ion of literature because literature is never static. Writers, genres and styles of writing have fallen in and out of favour throughout history and even today arguments rage about whether more popular forms of f ict ion such as detective stories should be considered literature. These disputes can be left to the critics because, for the reader, l iterature is simply beautiful , meaningful writing.

Why read literature? The most obvious answer to this question is because it is enjoyable. Everybody loves a good story, and many great works of literature tell memorable stories. These stories provide an escape from our daily lives by transporting us to different times and places. We can travel back to the depression era in the United States with John Steinbeck, or we can journey through the African jungle with Joseph Conrad, or we can be projected into the future by science fiction writers like H.G. Wells. Escapism is only one reason for reading literature. Literature can also be viewed as a source of knowledge and information.^If we read one of Chaucer's tales, a poem by Wilfred Owen and a novel by Chinua Achebe, we learn about a range of subjects from life in England in the Middle Ages, to conditions at the battle front in the first World War I, to the unresolved tensions in colonial Nigeria. Almost every poem, play or novel we read gives us more information about the world we live in.

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Perhaps the most important reason for reading literature is because it breaks down our personal barriers. Literature invites us to share in a range of human eXpertences that we otherwise would be denied. It allows us to leave beh ind our age, sex, family background and e c o n o m i c condi t ion so that we can see the world from the perspective of people who are completely different from us. Great writers make us understand how other people think and feel. Literature stirs up our emotions . It amuses, frightens, intrigues, shocks, consoles, frustrates and challenges us. It helps us to understand ourselves and others. Literature widens our field of vision.

Why analyse literature? Literary analysis, in its broadest sense, is any attempt to understand a literary text. Every time we close a book and think about what we have read we are doing some form of literary analysis. An analytical approach to literature involves careful observation and drawing conclusions. IjjiJiQt^siiT^lyLa-QUPstion ° f tearing a poem or story asunder and labelling the parts; it entails discovering patterns of meaning and becoming aware of the writer's intentions. . -:> (}>vjo[\)^) Literary analysis is a way of learning more about how literary texts are structured. The more we learn about the art of writing, the more receptive and responsive we become as readers. The analytical approach also provides the vocabulary we need to define and communicate our responses to literary texts. We must know the definitions of terms such as setting, character, plot and point of view in order to express and exchange opinions.

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SELECTED POEMS 1

A t ® TWO PLAYS OF WILLiAM BUTLER

YEATS EDITED AMD INTRODUCTION

M. L. ROSENTHA1.

The Colossus

THOM GU NN

of Practical Cats

One modern poet, when asked the question 'What is poetry?' , replied that poetry, unlike prose, is a form of writing in which few lines run to the edge of the page! The American poet Robert Frost contended that 'poetry is the kind of thing poets write ' . Whi le these replies, at first, may not seem serious, they inadvertent ly reveal two important aspects of poetry: the first quotat ion indicates the arrangement of the words on the page as an important element of poetry, while the second emphasises that there is a special 'poetic' way of using language. A working definition may, therefore, be that poetry emerges form the interplay between the meaning of words and their arrangement on paper; or - as the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge put it - 'poetry is the best words in their best order'. Although poems come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain characteristics. Imagery, metaphors and symbols make poetry dense with meaning. Sound features, such as rhyme, rhythm and repetition, give the language a special musical quality. The standard rules of grammar and syntax are often ignored, so that the language may be used in a striking or original way. Poetry, like all l iterature, is a writer's at tempt to communicate to others his emotional and intellectual response to his own experiences and to the world that surrounds him. The poet puts words together to make the reader feel what he has felt and experience what he has experienced.

SYLVIA PLATH

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Figures of speech

A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in everyday conversation when we say, for example, 'money talks' (personification) or 'I've got butterflies in my stomach' (metaphor) or 'he's like a bull in a china shop' (simile). The density and originality of a writer's use of figures of speech is part of his characteristic style.

There are many different figures of speech. The most widely used are:

A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different things is indicated by the word 'like' or 'as'. A simile is made up of three elements: • the tenor: the subject under discussion; • the vehicle: what the subject is compared to; • the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common. We can therefore analyse the simile 'life is like a rollercoaster' as follows: tenor . ground vehicle life it has its ups and downs rollercoaster

A m e t a p h o r is an implied comparison which creates a total identif icat ion between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. Like a simile, a metaphor is made up of three elements: • the tenor: the subject under discussion; • the vehicle: what the subject is compared to;

• the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.

We can analyse the metaphor 'he's a live wire' as follows: tenor ground vehicle he is full of energy/is very lively live wire

is potentially dangerous

In metonymy (Greek for 'a change of name') the term for one thing-is applied to another with which it has become closely associated. 'The crown', for example, can be used to refer to a king.

In synecdoche (Greek for 'taking together') a part of something is used to signify the whole or vice versa, although the latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'. An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'I'm reading Dickens', where an attribute of a literary work (i.e. it was written by Charles Dickens) is substituted for the work itself.

Personification is a form of comparison in which human characteristics, such as emotions, personality, behaviour and so on, are attributed to an animal, object or idea: 'The proud lion surveyed his kingdom'. The primary function of personification is to make abstract ideas clearer to the reader by comparing them to everyday human experience. Humanising cold and complex abstractions can bring them to life, render them more interesting and make them easier to understand.

K > s e e p .Sa 8 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G FIGURES OF SPEECH

Are comparisons drawn through metaphors or similes? What information, attitudes or associations are revealed through these associations? Are there any examples of synecdoche or metonymy? What is the writer's purpose in using these figures of speech? How do they affect the style and tone of the poem? Are animals, objects or ideas personified in the poem? How does personification contribute to our understanding of the poem?

CASE STUDY 1 American poet and novelist Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) dedicated much of her work to exploring various states of mind. While much of her work is dark and disturbing, some of her poems reveal a more playfid and witty nature.

JgL GLOSSARY

1. riddle: puzzle 2. ponderous: heavy,

large 3. strolling: walking 4. tendrils: thin leafless

branches that plants wrap around things

5. timbers: pieces of wood

6. yeasty: yeast is the substance that makes bread expand

7. new-minted: newly made

q Metaphors by Sylvia Plath

I'm a riddle1 in nine syllables, An elephant, a ponderous2 house, A melon strolling3 on two tendrils4. O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers5! This loaf's big with its yeasty6 rising. Money new-minted' in this fat purse. I'm a means, a stage8, a cow in calf9. I've eaten a bag of green apples, Boarded the train there's no getting off10.

8. stage: phase of development

9. calf: young cow 10. there's no getting off: you cannot descend from

C O M P R E H E N S I O N

Which of the following is the solution to the riddle posed in the opening line of the poem? • A | wo | man | who | fa | ces | a | cri | sis • A | wo | man | ex | pect | ing | a | ba | by • A | wo | man | who | thinks | she's | ov | er | weight Justify your answer by referring to the text.

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A N A L Y S I S - F I G U R E S O F S P E E C H

1 Which metaphor do you find most effective and why?

2 Through which metaphors does the poet convey the following ideas about her condition? • Physical discomfort and disproportion • The sense that her destiny has been decided and

there is no turning back

• A loss of personal identity • The sense of carrying something precious • The idea of nausea and indigestion which is

associated with her condition • Her communion with the animal kingdom • The sense of growing and expanding.

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What is Poetry? 7 CB

CASE STUDY 2 v J wmm^mn mrr. ...

American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) lived most of her life in total isolation. Only seven of her nearly 2,000 poems were published during her lifetime. Her contemporaries found her work bewildering, but today she is considered a major writer of unsurpassed originality.

q Apparently with no Surprise by Emily Dickinson

Apparently with no surprise To any happy Flower, The Frost1 beheads it2 at its play -In accidental power — The blonde assassin passes on — The Sun proceeds unmoved To measure off3 another Day For an approving God.

GLOSSARY

1. Frost: frozen drops of water

2. beheads it: cuts its head off

3. To measure off: to bring to a close

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1 What does the frost do to the flower?

2 How does the sun respond to this act?

3 How would you define God as He is portrayed in the poem? • Loving • Cruel • Indifferent • Sadistic • Detached • Paternal • Other:

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A N A L Y S I S - F I G U R E S O F S P E E C H

1 Make a list of the elements that are personified in the poem.

2 Personification adds drama to the poem. Which words do you find particularly dramatic?

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The association of very different elements that we find in metaphors is also used to sell products in advertising. Consider this advertisement for a banking service:

You've got a completely individual set of fingerprints. How about a financial plan to match?

We could analyse this advertisement in the same way as we analyse literary metaphors: tenor ground vehicle financial plan individual fingerprints

personalised unique

Find other advertisements which associate either visually or verbally diverse elements, for example: children's snacks - being a good mother beauty products - being sexy and desirable car - being adventurous and manly

In class, discuss the implied message in the advertisements and decide whether or not you find them effective.

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Imagery

Images are words or phrases that appeal to our senses. Consider these lines taken from Wilfred Owen's poem Dulce et Decorum Est.

Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags we cursed though sludge.

The poet is describing his experience as a soldier during the First World War. Through his choice of words he creates: % • visual images: bent double, old beggars under sacks,

knock-kneed; • aural images: coughing like hags, cursed; • a tactile image: sludge.

If we replace the imagistic words that Owen uses with more generic terms:

Physically exhausted, the soldiers marched across the wet terrain cursing their fate.

the impact on our senses is lost. A writer may use an image to help us: • re-live a sense experience that we have already had. We may be able to conjure

up the sound of old women coughing or the sensation of walking through mud from past experience;

• have a new sense experience. This is achieved when our sense memories are called forth in a pattern that does not correspond to any of our actual experiences. Exploited in this way, images allow us to see, hear, feel, smell and taste experiences that are new to us.

We use the term imagery to refer to combinations or clusters of images that are used to create a dominant impression. Death, corruption and disease imagery, for example, creates a powerful network in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. Writers often develop meaningful patterns in their imagery, and a writer's choice and arrangement of images is often an important clue to the overall meaning of his work.

Few battles in human

history have caused such

devastation as the Battle

of the Somme during the

First World War.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G A WRITERS USE OF IMAGERY

• What does the writer want the reader to see, hear, taste, feel and smell? • What revealing details bring the place, the people or the situation to life? Does the writer use details that

people would usually overlook? • Which are the most striking and revealing images? Which images tend to linger on in our minds? Are

they important to the overall meaning of the work? • Does the work appeal to one sense in particular or to all the senses? • What emotions or attitudes do the images arouse in the reader?


CASE STUDY 3 British-born poet and novelist Vernon Scanned (1922-) was a soldier, a boxer and a teacher before he became a writer. His work often takes its starting point from everyday domestic incidents.

Q Nettles by Vernon Scannell

My son aged three fell in the nettle1 bed. 'Bed' seemed a curious name for those green spears2, That regiment of spite3 behind the shed4: It was no place for rest. With sobs and tears The boy came seeking comfort and I saw 5 White blisters5 beaded6 on his tender skin. We soothed7 him till his pain was not so raw8. At last he offered us a watery grin9, And then I took my hook1 0 and honed the blade11

And went outside and slashed12 in fury with it 10 Till not a nettle in the fierce parade Stood upright anymore. Next task: I lit A funeral pyre to burn the fallen dead But in two weeks the busy sun and rain Had called up tall recruits13 behind the shed; is My son would often feel sharp wounds14 again.

GLOSSARY 2. spears: sharp pointed pole 3. spite: malicious 1. nettle: stinging grass used as a weapon intent

4. shed: small building for storing garden tools

5. blisters: watery swellings under the skin containing watery fluid

6. beaded: formed bubbles

7. soothed: comforted 8. raw: acute 9. grin: smile 10. hook: tool used to

cut grass 11. honed the blade:

sharpened the cutting instrument

12. slashed: cut with furious strokes

13. recruits: new soldiers 14. sharp wounds:

painful injuries •


1 What happened to the poet's son while playing outdoors?

2 We refer to a patch of nettles as a 'bed of nettles'. Why does the poet question the use of the word 'bed'?

3 What did the poet do when he had finished comforting the boy?

4 What happened after two weeks?

5 What reflection did the poet make about his son's future?

A N A L Y S I S - I M A G E R Y

1 Pick out the military imagery in the poem. What association is established through the use of these words?

2 'White blisters beaded on his tender skin'. Which senses does this image appeal to?

3 What is conveyed by the image 'watery grin'?

Music videos are a powerful example of the impact of combining sound and visual images. Choose a music video that you particularly like. Identify the ideas and emotions that are conveyed by the lyrics and music of the song. Explain how the visual images of the music video reinforce or expand the impact of the song.


Cultural or shared symbols

Literary or personal symbols

Symbols

Guidelines for identifying and under-

standing symbols

A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning. Writers take a concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place - and attribute a deeper meaning to it. A symbol may be a detail, an object, a character or an incident. It exists first as something literal and concrete in the work, but it also has the capacity to evoke in the mind of the reader a range of invisible and abstract associations. By definition symbols are open-ended. A given symbol will evoke different responses in different readers. There is, however, an acceptable range of possible readings and any interpretation of a symbol must be confirmed by the rest of the work. The identi f icat ion and understanding of symbols demands awareness and intelligence of the reader. It involves the reader directly in the creative process, asking him to add his own intellectual and emotional responses. Through this collaboration the work is enriched and enlarged.

Many symbolic associations are widely recognised and accepted: the dawn with hope, the serpent with evil, the colour white with innocence , l ight with knowledge, dark with ignorance. Writers often make use of these cultural or shared symbols. Readers must not, however, automatically apply conventional meanings to these symbols. Sometimes writers will enlarge or narrow the meaning of a cultural symbol. The reader must first carefully examine how the symbol is used in the text before assigning meaning.

Authors also use their own original symbols. Personal or literary symbols do not have pre-established associations: the meaning that is attached to them emerges from the context of the work in which they occur. A particular landscape or certain atmospheric condit ions may become associated with a character 's emotional state. A colour or an object may take on a secondary meaning. A recurring gesture or a character may be given symbolic meaning.

When does an object, character or action cease to be just part of the story and begin to develop symbolic associations? There is no simple answer to this question. Ultimately, the reader must develop his own awareness through receptive and responsive reading. There are, however, some broad guidelines he can follow. The principal techniques that writers use for creating symbols are: • repetition: the reader should take note of multiple references to a particular

object or the recurrence of the same gesture; • emphasis: does the author seem to pay particular attention to some element,

describe it in detail or use poetic or connotative language when referring to it? • associations automatically made with shared symbols: the reader should try

to understand if the author wishes him to make conventional associations with the symbol or if he has added his own personal significance.

While there is a risk that a reader may not identify symbols, there is also the danger that he may see symbolic importance where the writer did not intend it. 'Symbol hunting', i.e. attributing symbolic status to objects, characters or actions when there is little evidence in the text that they should be viewed as a symbol, should be avoided.

What is Poetry? 11 C B

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SYMBOLS

Does the writer refer repeatedly to any objects or gestures in his work? Does he make any concrete items in the story emerge and assume importance? Does he use poetic or connotative language when describing particular objects or gestures? Does he use any shared or cultural symbols? Does he attribute the conventional meaning to these symbols? How does the use of symbols help the writer to convey the meaning of his work?

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CASE STUDY 4 Peter Meinke was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1932. He has published eleven books of poetry, and his poems and short stories have appeared in many journals and periodicals.

q Advice to my Son by Peter Meinke

The trick1 is, to live your days as if each one may be your last (for they go fast, and young men lose their lives in strange and unimaginable ways) but at the same time, plan long range2

(for they go slow: if you survive the shattered windshield3 and the bursting shell4

you will arrive at our approximation here below of heaven or hell).

To be specific, between the peony5 and the rose plant squash and spinach, turnips6 and tomatoes; beauty is nectar and nectar, in a desert, saves -but the stomach craves7 stronger sustenance than the honied vine8.

Therefore, marry a pretty girl after seeing her mother; speak truth to one man, work with another;

and always serve bread with your wine.

But, son, always serve wine.

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GLOSSARY

1. trick: skillful way of doing something

2. long range: in the long term 3. shattered windshield: front

window of the car broken into many pieces

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The Persistence of Memory (1931) by Salvador Dali. 'Live your

days as if each one may be your

last... but at the same time, plan

long range.'

20

4. bursting shell: exploding bomb 5. peony: flower 6. squash ... turnips: types of

vegetables 7. craves: has a strong desire for 8. honied vine: sweet wine

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1 What advice does the poet give his son in the opening lines of the poem?

2 The poet makes references to ways in which young men lose their lives in line 7. What are they?

3 What does the poet suggest that his son should plant among his flowers?

4 What should his son do before marrying a pretty girl?

5 Should his son speak truth to and work with the same man?

6 What should his son always serve with his wine?

A N A L Y S I S - S Y M B O L S

1 Throughout the poem the poet is telling his son to have both prudence and joy in his life. Which approach to life is symbolised by: - the peony and the rose? - squash and spinach, turnips and tomatoes? - nectar? - bread? -wine? Based on these associations, what is the final piece of advice he gives his son?

2 Are bread and wine personal or shared symbols? Does the poet use them in the conventional way?

Symbols do not exist only in literature. We are surrounded by symbols in our everyday life. What associations do you make with the following symbols?

9


Sound features

Think of a sound that makes you relax, like the gentle lapping of water against 1 rocks. Now think of a sound that you cannot stand, perhaps the screeching of chalk against a blackboard. Different sounds have different effects on us. The sounds of language also create different responses in us and writers, especially<

poets, use this in their work. By choosing words for their sound as well as their meaning, writers create a musical i ty in their work that can evoke strong emotional responses and reinforce the meaning they wish to convey. The most c o m m o n sound features are rhyme, al l i terat ion, assonance and onomatopoeia.

The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same sound at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions: • it adds a musical quality to the poem; • it marks the end of each line; • it makes the poem easier to remember; • it affects the pace and tone of the poem.

There are several different types of rhyme: single-syllable or masculine rhyme: the beginning of the syllable varies while the rest stays the same, for example day/say light/night; double-syl lable or f e m i n i n e r h y m e matches two syllable words or parts of words: ocean/motion, pretending/bending-, triple-syllable rhyme matches three-syllable words: beautiful/dutiful, comparison/ garrison; true or perfect rhyme: the rhymed sounds correspond exactly, for example: boat/float, double/ trouble; imper fec t r h y m e (hal f r h y m e or s lant rhyme) : the sound of two words is similar, but it is not as close as is required in true or perfect rhyme. Generally the words contain identical vowels or identical consonants but not both, for example loads/lids/lads, road/moan/boat; end rhymes fall at the end of the lines; internal rhymes occur within the same line:

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary (The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe)

CASE STUDY 5 American poet Ogden Nash (1902-1971) is renowned for his humorous verse and epigrams. Find examples of end rhymes and internal rhyme in this short poem. How does rhyme contribute to the theme of the poem that hunting degrades man?

The hunter crouches1 in his blind2

'Neath3 camouflage of every kind,

q The Hunter by Ogden Nash GLOSSARY • -

1. crouches: kneels down

2. blind: hiding place 3. 'Neath: under


And conjures up4 a quacking5 noise To lend allure to his decoys6, This grown-up man, with pluck7 and luck 5 Is hoping to outwit8 a duck.

4. conjures up: creates 6. lend ... decoys: make his 7. pluck: courage and 8. outwit: surpass in 5. quacking: imitating hunting technique more determination intelligence

duck sounds effective •

Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a sequence of nearby words. In Anglo-Saxon times, before the introduction of rhyme, alliteration gave the language of poetry its musical quality and made the poems, which were often recited, easier to remember. Alliteration is still popular in modern poetry and can also be found in songs, headlines and everyday expressions such as 'black and blue', 'safe and sound' and 'right as rain'.

Assonance Assonance is the repetition of similar or identical vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words containing different consonants. It creates 'vowel rhyme' as in break/play, hope/spoke. Like alliteration, assonance adds a musical quality to the language and it also establishes rhythm: • open, broad sounds 'o', 'u', 'a' (flow, burn, heart, flame) tend to slow the rhythm down; • slender 'i' and 'e' (hill, met) sounds create a quicker pace.

CASE STUDY 6 Find examples of alliteration and assonance in this poem by English novelist and poet Thomas Hardy (1840-1928).

q Last Week in October by Thomas Hardy

The trees are undressing, and fling1 in many places On the gray roads, the roof, the window-sill2 -Their radiant robes and ribbons and yellow laces3; A leaf each second so is flung at will4, Here, there, another and another, still and still5. 5

A spider's web has caught one while downcoming6, That stays there dangling7 when the rest pass on: Like a suspended8 criminal hangs he, mumming9, In golden garb10, while one yet green, high yon11, Trembles as fearing such a fate for himself anon12 .

• GLOSSARY

6.

fling: throw window-sill: flat piece at the base of a window robes ... laces: clothes and ornamental accessories

at will: following the wind's desire still and still: more and more downcoming: falling

10

7. dangling: hanging and swinging about

8. suspended: there is a play on two meanings of the word:

a. hanging b. with a suspended sentence mumming: acting playfully

10. garb: clothes

11. yon: over there

12. anon: very soon

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The use of the sound of words to suggest the sound they denote is called onomatopoeia. We hear this sound-echoing effect in the 'slamming' of a door, the 'buzzing' of bees, the 'ticking' of a clock. In his poem 'OnaMaTaPia', the poet Spike Milligan suggests that it more difficult to spell onomatopoeia correctly than to understand and identify it!

OnaMaTaPia Onamatapia! Thud - Wallop - Crash! Onamatapia Snip - Snap - Gnash! Onamatapia Whack - Thud - Bash! Onamatapia Bong - Ting - Splash.

Onomatopoeia

CASE STUDY 7 Find one striking example of onomatopoeia in this poem by the contemporary Irish poet Seamus Heaney, born in Northern Ireland in 1939. Many of his poems have the rural setting of his youth and describe Insxhildhood experiences. In this poem he describes how a simple chore like folding sheets brought him closer to his mother.

q The Cool that Came off Sheets by Seamus Heaney [ [ / f / i A ^ - ''

/ ' f e l n V ; » t ' / ^ The cool1 that came off sheets2 just off the line Made me think the damp3 must still be in them But when I took my corners of the linen And pulled against her4, first straight down the hem5

And then diagonally, then flapped and shook6 5 The fabric like a sail in a cross-wind, They made a dried-out undulating thwack7. So we'd stretch and fold8 and end up hand to hand For a split9 second as if nothing had happened For nothing had that had not always happened 10 Beforehand10, day by day, just touch and go, Coming close again by holding back11 - £ ^ / c In moves12 where I was x and she was o Inscribed in sheets she'd sewn13 from ripped14-out flour sacks.

GLOSSARY

1. cool: freshness 2. sheets: pieces of cloth used

in bed to lie between 3. damp: humidity

4. pulled against her: helped his mother to fold sheets

5. hem: lower edge of the sheets

6. flapped and shook: waved up and down,

backwards and forwards 7. thwack: sharp sound 8. fold: turn one part so that it

covers another part 9. split: fraction (of a second) 10. Beforehand: before

11. by holding back: staying distant

12. moves: turns in a game 13. sewn: joined together

by sewing 14. ripped: cut

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Rhythm The beating of the heart, breathing, walking, running - rhythm is at the core of human existence. Rhythm is also an important part of the language of literature. Writers build on the natural rhythms of language, putting words with the same stress pattern side by side and creating an underlying beat or rhythm in their work.

CASE STUDY 8 Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was born in Edinburgh ami is perhaps best remembered for his novels Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. However, he was also an accomplished poet. Listen to the recording of his poem From a Railway Carriage and say what the rhythm of the poem suggests.

• GLOSSARY

1. hedges: bushes in rows forming a boundary ditches: horizontal holes dug in the ground, often along roads meadows: fields sights: views driving: strong ever again: repeatedly in the wink of an eye: in an instant whistle by: flash by clambers and scrambles: moves frantically using feet and hands

10. brambles: blackberries 11. tramp: homeless

person

2.

9.

q From a Railway Carriage by Robert Louis Stevenson

f ^ f » * t W >W f / ^ Faster than fairies, faster than witches, f I f '«V. jfl J f , - ^ _ _ I * ry Bridges and houses, hedges and ditches ; And charging along like troops in a battle, All through the meadows3 the horses and cattle; All of the sights4 of the hill and the plain Fly as thick as driving5 rain; And ever again6, in the wink of an eye7, Painted stations whistle by8. Here is a child who clambers and scrambles9, All by himself and gathering brambles10; Here is a tramp11 who stands and gazes12; And there is the green for stringing the daisies13! Here is a cart14 run away in the road Lumping along15 with man and load16; And here is a mill17, and there is a river: Each a glimpse18 and gone for ever!

( t O W i-y^Oi

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10

15

12. gazes: looks fixedly 13. green for stringing

the daisies: the grass where you can find daisies to make chains

14.cart: small hand-pushed vehicle with wheels

15.Lumping along: moving inelegantly

16. load: what is being carried

17. mill: building where grain is ground to produce flour

18. glimpse: very quick incomplete look

METRICAL TERMS AND SCANSION

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The regular and rhythmic arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables found in poetry is called metre. The basic unit of metre is the foot, which consists of one stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The most common feet are:

• iamb (adj.: iambic) - one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable: (a | way);

• trochee (adj.: t rochaic ) - one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable: (fa | ther); >.•

• anapest (adj.: anapestic) - two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable: (in | the | light);

• dactyl (adj. : dactyl ic ) - one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables: (o | ver | the);

f


• monosyllable (adj.: monosyllabic) - one stressed syllable: sky; • spondee (adj.: spondaic) - two.stressed syllables: (rain | bow).

Analysing metre is called scansion. When we scan a poem we first count the number of syllables and identify the position of the stresses or accents. We then divide the line into feet and determine the metrical length of the line: monometer - one foot ^ f pentameter - five feet dimeter - two feet ' u'U hexameter - six feet

heptameter - seven feet octameter - eight feet

'SSL**-trimeter - three feet tetrameter - four feet

ftu'lzr / UXU When we have identified the kind of feet and the line length, we combine the two to give the metre a name, for example iambic pentameter , t rochaic hexameter, anapestic heptameter. Iambic pentameter is the metrical form that most closely resembles natural speech and it is the most widely used metre in English poetry. The following are examples of the scansion of a line of iambic pentameter and a line of anapestic tetrameter. The feet are marked by vertical lines, the unstressed syllables by w and the stressed syllables by ' :

Scansion

The cur | few tolls | tire knell | of part | ing day | (Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray)

| The Assyr | ian came down | like the wolf | oh the fold |, (The Destruction of Sennacherib, Lord Byron)

Metre is not a straitjackfet and in most poems there are deviations from the principal pattern. W h e n scanning a poem it is important to identify the prevailing metre, but also to notice variations. The analysis of metre is meaningful only if it contributes to our understanding of a poem. The rhythm may establish an atmosphere or create a tone, and deviations from the predominant metrical pattern may highlight key elements.

CASE STUDY 9 Scan My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth (1770-1850), who is considered to be one of the finest nature poets in the history of English literature. Identify the prevailing metre. What effect does the shortened line 6 have? Which word is highlighted by the addition of an added foot in the final line?

q My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth

My heart leaps1 up when I behold2

A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old; Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; And I could wish my days to be Bound3 each to each by natural piety

GLOSSARY

1. leaps: jumps 2. behold: look at 3. Bound: connected


End-stopped line

Enjambement or run-on line

Other rhythmic devices When a pause occurs naturally at the end of a line we refer to it as an end-stopped line:

The trees are in their autumn beauty, The woodland paths are dry,

(The Wild Swans at Coole, W.B. Yeats)

E n j a m b e m e n t or run-on line are the terms we use when the sense of the sentence extends into the next line:

The room was suddenly rich and the great bay-window was Spawning snow and pink roses against it

(Snow, Louis MacNeice)

If a strong break occurs in the middle of a line it is referred to as caesura: A thing of beauty is a joy forever Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness

(Endymion, John Keats)

Enjambement and caesura give their own particular rhythm to poetry.

CASE STUDY 1 0 Find examples of end-stopped lines, enjambement and caesura in this extract from William Wordsworth's (1770-1850) long autobiographical poem The Prelude.

Q Skating by William Wordsworth

>Jt**> l

GLOSSARY

1. frosty season: cold season

2. blazed: shone with a bright light

3. twili; 4. 5.

And in the frosty season1, when the sun Was set, and visible for i The cottae

heedei' pay att

6. summc 7. indeed: 8. rapture: 9. tolled: raj 10. wheeled a

moved alo, skates

•

a mile through twilight3 gloom4,

happy time me nd loud

heeled about10, d horse shod with steel12, ce in games (...)

rotected by metal

along: continued

making a sharp sibilant sound while skating

14. polished: shining

N C S O U N D F E A T U R E S • What is thi >ut?

Are there ai • Does the po • Are there an • How would > xiiythm of the poem? Is there a predominant metrical structure?

Does the rhytnm of the poem reinforce the meaning? • Are there any run-on lines or caesura in the poem? How do they affect the rhythm of the poem?

K

W h a t is Poetry? 19 fl

Standard poetic forms

Ballads are short stories in verse, often accompanied by music, that belong to an j jgHgj oral tradition of poetry. Ballads share the following features: • they rarely tell a story from beginning to end. They take us immediately into

the story and often open when the narrative has turned towards its catastrophe or resolution. We know little of the events leading up to the climax;

• description is brief and conventional and very little information is given about the characters;

• the narrative is impersonal - the narrator tells the story without expressing his personal attitudes or feelings. There is no moral comment on the characters' behaviour, and the motives behind their actions are largely unexplained;

• in many ballads, words, expressions and phrases and entire verses are repeated. A line or group of lines which is repeated throughout the ballad is called a refrain; , t

• many ballads contain stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white steed', ,vL

'blood-red wine', 'gallant knight' or 'snow white'. While other forms of poetry are characterised by individualistic or original figures of speech, the ballad employs a l imited stock of images and descriptive adjectives which the performer could easily memorise;

• ballads are composed in simple two or four line stanzas. The stanza usually consists of alternate four and three stress lines rhyming on the second and fourth line:

Tire wind so cold blew south and north

And blew into tile floor;

Quoth our goodman to our goodwife

'Go out and bar tiie door' (Get up and bar the door)

CASE STUDY 11 Listen to this famous ballad which exists in numerous versions.

q Barbara Allen In Scarlet town where I was born, There was a fair maid1 dwellin'2

Made every youth cry Well-a-day3, Her name was Barb'ra Allen.

All in the merry month of May, 5 When green buds4 they were swellin'5

Young Willie Grove on his death-bed lay, For love of Barb'ra Allen.

He sent his servant to her door To the town where she was dwellin' 10 'Haste ye6 come, to my master's call, If your name be Barb'ra Allen.'

GLOSSARY • -

1. maid: young woman 2. dwellin': living 3. Well-a-day: Alas 4. buds: undeveloped

leaves or flowers 5. swellin': getting

bigger 6. Haste ye: hurry you

m

E ) 20 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

La Belle Dame Sans Merci by Frank Dicksee.

7. nigh: near 8. unto: towards 9. knelling: ringing 10. briar: thorny stem 11.spire: cone shaped

structure on a church 12.(en)twined: twisted

around each other •

So slowly, slowly got she up, And slowly she drew nigh7 him, And all she said when there she came: 'Young man, I think you're dying!' He turned his face unto8 the wall And death was drawing nigh him. Good bye, Good bye to dear friends all, Be kind to Barb'ra Allen.

When he was dead and laid in grave, She heard the death bell knelling9. And every note, did seem to say Oh, cruel Barb'ra Allen.

'Oh mother, mother, make my bed Make it soft and narrow. Sweet William died, for love of me, And I shall die of sorrow.'

15

20

25

They buried her in the old churchyard Sweet William's grave was nigh hers And from his grave grew a red, red rose From hers a cruel briar10.

They grew and grew up the old church spire11

Until they could grow no higher And then they twined12 in a true love knot The red, red rose and the briar.

30

35

I C O M P R E H E N S I O N

w

1 What effect did Barbara Allen have on the young men of Scarlet town?

2 Why was Willie Grove dying?

3 How did Barbara Allen react when she was called to the young man's bedside?

4 What was Willie's last wish?

5 When did Barbara Allen realise she had been cruel?

6 Where was Barbara Allen buried?

7 What grew from Willie Grove's grave? What grew from Barbara Allen's grave? Where did they become entwined?

A N A L Y S I S - T H E B A L L A D

1 Does the ballad tell the story from the start, or are some of the events leading up to the starting point left untold?

2 Are there any descriptive details of setting or physical descriptions of the characters?

3 Does the speaker comment on the story, or is the storytelling impersonal?

4 Underline phrases and words that are repeated in the poem.

5 Identify the rhyming scheme in the poem. Note that in some cases two words may rhyme with one (for example, nigh him - dying). Is the rhyming pattern regular throughout the poem?

6 Work out the metre of the first stanza.


The term sonnet comes from the Italian word 'sonetto', which means 'little song or sound'. In a sonnet a poet expresses his thoughts and feelings in fourteen lines. The sonnet originated in Italy, where it was popularised by the fourteenth-century poet Petrarch. In the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet the first eight lines -the octave - introduce the subject while the last six lines - the sestet - provides a comment and express the personal feelings of the poet. The rhyming scheme is usually ABBA-ABBA-CDC-CDC. The first poet to introduce the Italian sonnet to England was Sir Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt 's sonnets are largely translations or imitations of those of Petrarch. However, he changed the rhyming scheme of the sestet to CDDC-EE, thus creating a quatrain (four lines) and a couplet (two lines). The Earl of Surrey developed the sestet even further, separating the couplet from the quatrain and using it to comment on the previous twelve lines. The final pattern for the English sonnet comprised of three quatrains (four lines) and a couplet (two lines) with the following rhyming scheme: ABAB-CDCD-EFEF-GG. This is the sonnet form that Shakespeare inherited, and indeed this form is often referred to as the Shakespearean sonnet.

The sonnet

• Meanwhile, Elsewhere p. C62

CASE STUDY 12

q Shall I Compare Thee (Sonnet by William Shakespeare

18)

Shall I compare thee1 to a summer's day? Thou art2 more lovely and more temperate: Rough3 winds do shake the darling buds4 of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date5:

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines And often is his gold complexion dimmed6, And every fair from fair some time declines7, By chance8, or nature's changing course, untrimmed9

But thy10 eternal summer shall not fade11, Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest12, Nor shall death brag13 thou wander'st14 in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou growest15

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

10

GLOSSARY • 1. thee: you 2. Thou art: you are 3. Rough: violent 4. buds: unopened flowers 5. lease ... date: does not

last long 6. dimmed: made less

bright 7. every fair ... declines:

beautiful things become less beautiful

8. By chance: accidentally 9. untrimmed: unstopped 10. thy: your 11. fade: become less strong 12. owest: possess 13. brag: boast, say 14. wander'st: walk around

directionless 15.When ... growest:

because you have been made eternal by the lines of the poem

—

c o m p r e h e n s i o n :

1 Why is the poet's addressee superior to a summer's day, according to lines 1-4? 2 What is 'the eye of heaven'? When is its 'gold complexion dimmed'?

3 What destroys beauty in line 8? 4 Why will the poet's addressee not fade?

A N A L Y S I S - T H E S O N N E T «

1 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. 2 Outline the central idea of each of the quatrains. In what sense does the final couplet sum up the preceding twelve lines?


-

W Layout

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mm •'•Шт

Layout refers to the visual form a poem takes on a page. It is important because it helps the reader's understanding by indicating, for example, where he should pause or where a new line of thought begins. Certain conventions have been established in the lay-out of poems. The lines: • do not cover the full page as they do in prose; • are usually grouped together into units called verses; • are occasionally grouped into units that repeat the same number of lines, the

same metre and the same rhyming scheme. These units are called stanzas. In what is referred to as concrete poetry, the visual form of the poem is almost as important in conveying meaning as the verbal communicat ion . Here is an example:

CASE STUDY 13

Q 40-Love by Roger McGough

Read this poem by the contemporary poet Roger McGough.

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middle aged couple playing ten nis when the game ends and they go home the net will still be be tween them.

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A N A L Y S I S - L A Y O U T

1 The poem describes a middle-aged couple, who no longer love each other. As you read the poem how do your eyes move? How does this relate to the fact that the couple are playing tennis?

2 The title of the poem may be read as a tennis score. The dash may also be read as minus, in which case, what does the title mean?

3 The most impressive visual feature of the poem is the large empty space between the two columns. What, in your opinion, does it represent?

The word 'drama' refers to any work that is intended for performance by actors on a stage. It is a type of writing or genre that is very different from poetry or fiction because the written text, what we call the play, is only one component of the work. Other elements are needed to bring a dramatic text to life:

• the actors, the people who interpret the parts of the play; • the director, the person who decides how the play should be performed; • the audience, the people who watch the play.

When reading a play, we should always try to imagine how it could be presented on stage. It always helps to see as many live or filmed versions of the play as possible.

A play takes place on a stage. On the stage, a set representing the place where the action takes place is built. The set usually includes props, stage furniture, objects, coloured backcloths, etc. The set will immediately give us information about the play, for example, which historical period it is set in. It will also create expectations about what we are about to see. There are, of course, a great variety of set designs from complex multi-storey sets to simple bare stages. A set is described as naturalistic, when it represents real life, or symbolic, when it tries to convey ideas or meaning.

Lighting plays an important role in conveying the meaning of a play. Its primary function is to illuminate the actors and the stage but it can also focus attention on a particular area of the stage while the rest is in darkness or semi-darkness. Lighting is used to show the time of day when the action takes place. It also creates atmosphere. Filters are used to produce coloured light which may create warm, cold or eerie atmospheres. Today it is possible to incorporate spectacular lighting effects into a performance by using strobe lighting, ultraviolet light, underfloor lighting and other special techniques.

Like l ighting, sound effects may also play an important part in theatrical productions. Sounds that come from the stage or sounds made offstage can make the product ion more realistic and credible. Music is of ten used to create atmosphere or to underline particularly significant moments in the play.

Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Dialogue

Dialogue has two major functions in drama: • it contributes to the telling of the story; • it reveals characters.

A playwright has two or three hours of stage time to tell his story, which must emerge from the actions and conversations of the characters on stage. Dialogue is the conventional technique playwrights use to give the audience information about the setting, the time, the characters and the action in a play. Dialogue is, therefore, an essential storytelling device in drama. Dialogue is also important in creating character. In order to make a character convincing, a playwright must find the character's 'voice' - i.e. his unique style of speech. The audience should be able to draw conclusions about a character's personality and background (social, e c o n o m i c and cultural) by l istening attentively to how he speaks and what he says.

GLOSSARY

CASE STUDY 1 4 Written and directed by Bill Forsyth, Gregory's Girl first appeared in 1981 as a film. The quality of the dialogue and the excellent characterisation encouraged directors to adapt the screenplay for the stage. In this extract Gregory, who has fallen in love for the first time, talks about his feelings to his classmate Steve during a cookery lesson at school.

q Gregory's Girl by Bill Forsyth

Scene 6. The Cookery Class [CAROL, LIZ, SUSAN, ANN and others set up the Home Economics room. They are making pastry1.] CAROL: Did you hear about the trial? Liz: Trial? CAROL: Football trial2. Dorothy joined it. 5

Liz: And about time too3. SUSAN: Why is it boys are such a physical disaster? CAROL: Apparently Phil wouldn't let her play. SUSAN: Too much to lose I expect. CAROL: Well, she stuck it out4 and showed him up something rotten5. ANN: Oh God, not pastry. I hate pastry and it hates me. Give me a goulash6

any day. It doesn't fight back. CAROL: She scored three times with him in goal. SUSAN: Poor Phil. Liz: Have you seen his moustache? CAROL: Anyway he's got to pick her now7. Liz: Men's hair fascinates me. It's so temporary. ANN: Equal parts of Trex8 and lard. Isn't that it?

[The boys are coming in for a lesson. It is a mixed lesson. STEVE is in first. He is a professional. Already he has his bench9 organised.] STEVE: Anyone seen Gregory? He's meant to be working with me ... oh dear

Lizzie, not the hands. Lay off the hands till the last possible minute.

1. pastry: mixture of flour, fat and water

2. Football trial: test to join the team

3. about time too: she could have done it earlier

4. she stuck it out: she persisted

5. showed ... rotten: completely embarassed him

6. goulash: Hungarian dish of meat cooked in a sauce with hot spices

7. he's got to pick her now: he has to choose her Trex: type of cooking fat

9. bench: wooden work station

8

10

15

20

ft r f».

What is Drama? 2 5 C B

[GREGORY is late and makes his way through the girls. He is trying to be both charming and surreptitious10.] GREGORY: Sorry I'm late. 25 STEVE: Where've you been? GREGORY: Football. STEVE: Playing? GREGORY: No ... watching. From afar11. STEVE: Hands! 30

[GREGORY shows him his hands. It is a routine inspection.]

GREGORY: That's just paint there. STEVE: I've got the biscuit mix started, you get on with the sponge and put

the oven on, four hundred and fifty degrees. GREGORY: Yes, boss. 35 [SUSAN approaches STEVE. She is wearing a worried look and a grotty apron.] SUSAN: Steve, can you help me out with this pastry mix thing? GREGORY: Hello, Susan.

[GREGORY is ignored] STEVE: Pastry? What pastry? There's more than one kind you know. Is it 40

rough puff, short crust... flaky ... suet12 ...? [SUSAN'S face is a blank13] Just tell me, what are you making?

SUSAN: A meat pie. Margaret's doing the Strudel Soup, and I'm doing the pie. It's the eggs for the pastry that I'm not sure of ...

STEVE: Strudel Soup, eh? I'd like to try some of that. It's NOODLE14 soup, and 45

what eggs? You don't put eggs in a pastry. It's 8 ounces flour, 4 ounces margarine ...

GREGORY: ... a pinch of salt.. . STEVE: ... some salt, mix it up, into the oven, fifteen minutes.. . and that's it

okay? No eggs, no strudels, nothing. 50 SUSAN: IS that all? That's simple, really easy.

[She wanders o f f s . ] STEVE: TO think there are five guys in fifth year crying themselves to sleep

over that16. GREGORY: Six, if you count the music teacher. , 55

STEVE: Watch your mixing, it goes stiff if you overdo it17, thirty seconds is enough. Give me the sugar.

GREGORY: It's time you were in love. Take your mind off all this for a while ... STEVE: Plenty of time for love. I'm going to be a sex maniac first. Start this

summer. Get rid of my apron and let my hair down, put love potions in 60 my biscuits. Anyway I want to be rich first, so that I can love something really ... expensive.

GREGORY: You're daft18. You should try it. Love's great. STEVE: Who told you? GREGORY: I'm in love. [He means it. He is abstractedly stirring the sponge mix 65

with his finger.] I can't eat, I'm awake half the night, when I think about it I feel dizzy19. I'm restless... it's wonderful.

STEVE: That sounds more like indigestion. GREGORY: I'm serious. STEVE: Or maybe you're pregnant, science is making such progress... [STEVE 70

extracts GREGORY'S finger from the mixing bowl and starts to wipe it clean.] Come on, who is it? Is it a mature woman? Did you do anything dirty? Did you wash your hands?

A still from the

original film of

Gregory's Girl: the

cookery class.

10. surreptitious: done secretly, without anyone seeing or knowing

11. afar: a distance 12.rough puff ... short

crust . . . flaky ... suet: types of pastry

13. blank: expressionless 14. NOODLE: thin

spaghetti-like kind of pasta

15. wanders off: leaves without going in a clear direction

16. over that: because of her

17. stiff if you overdo it: hard if you mix it too long

18. daft: stupid 19.dizzy: light-headed

I W

if;

i f K

Introduction to Literary Appreciation

20. crude: vulgar 21.clue: something that

helps in the solution of a mystery

22. juggles: balances it in the air

23. flourish: dramatic gesture

•

GREGORY: Don't be crude20. STEVE: Come on! Who is it?

\

GREGORY: You'll just laugh and tell people. STEVE: Give us a clue21. GREGORY: [reluctantly] It's somebody in the football team. STEVE: [silent for a moment] Hey, that 's really something . Have you

mentioned this to anyone else? Listen, it's probably just a phase ... is it Andy, no, no ... is it Pete?

GREGORY: Come on! I mean Dorothy, she came into the team last week. She's in 4A ... she's a wonderful player, she's a girl. She goes around with Carol and Susan, she's got long lovely hair, she always looks really clean and fresh and she smells mmm ... lovely. Even if you just pass her in the corridor she smells, mmm ... gorgeous ... She's got teeth, lovely teeth, lovely white, white teeth.

STEVE: Oh, that Dorothy, the hair ... the smell. . . the teeth ... that Dorothy. GREGORY: That's her, that's Dorothy. STEVE: The one that took your place in the team. GREGORY: SO what. She's a good footballer. She might be a bit light but

she's got skill, she's some girl . . . STEVE: Can she cook? Can she do this?

[STEVE throws the rolled-out pastry into the air and juggles22 it with a pizza-maker's flourish23.] GREGORY: [being very serious] When you're in love, things like that just

don't matter. STEVE: Gimme the margarine. GREGORY: D O you think she'll love me back? STEVE: N O chance ... watch the mix! I told you, nice and slowly ... take it

easy...

[STEVE takes GREGORY'S hands in his and guides him through the movements of a nice and easy stir.] GREGORY: What d'you mean no chance? STEVE: N O chance.

8 0

85

90

95

100

105


1 Where does the scene take place? What are the students doing?

2 Who has been picked to play on the football team?

3 Why does Steve inspect Gregory's hands?

4 Who has Gregory fallen in love with?

5 Does Steve think that Gregory has any chance of having his love returned?

A N A L Y S I S - D I A L O G U E

1 Identify the lines in the dialogue which provide information about past events that is essential for the understanding of the story.

2 Gregory and Steve emerge as two very different characters in this scene. Find evidence in the dialogue that suggests that: a. Steve is well-organised, bossy, arrogant, sarcastic,

humorous, self-confident. b. Gregory is shy, romantic, humorous, submissive,

immature, insecure.

What is Drama? 29' dm

Soliloquy

S o l i l o q u y is a theatrical convent ion in which a character speaks aloud to himself . The character may not necessarily be alone on the stage; o ther characters may be present, but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The playwright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, intentions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.

A monologue is similar to a soliloquy. It serves the same purposes. However, it is usually shorter and takes place in the presence of other characters on stage who hear what is being said.

A related stage device is the aside, in which a character expresses his thoughts in a few words or a short passage that the other characters on the stage cannot hear.

Soliloquy

Monologue

Aside

CASE STUDY 1 5 This soliloquy is taken from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Romeo has just met and fallen in love with Juliet. He is now in the garden of Juliet's home. Juliet is on the balcony but she is unaware of Romeo's presence.

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare

But soft! What light through yonder1 window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief That thou her maid2 art3 far more fair than she. Be not her maid, since she is envious, Her vestal livery is but sick and green4, And none but fools do wear it5, cast it off6. It is my lady, O it is my love! O that she knew she were7!

GLOSSARY

1. yonder: that 2. her maid: the servants of

Diana, the virgin goddess of the moon, were unmarried 5 maidens. Juliet is Diana's maid in the sense that she is unmarried

3. thou ... art: you are 4. Her vestal livery ... green: 6.

the dress (livery) worn by 7. Diana's servants (vestals) is sickly green in colour like

Q

(a) moonlight and (b) girls suffering from lack of blood. Envious people

were said to be 'green with envy' And none ... wear it: Jesters usually wore green. Romeo means that anyone who decides never to marry is a fool cast it off: throw it away that she knew she were: I wish she knew she is my love

Ian McKellen

as Romeo in

the 7 976 Royal

Shakespeare

Company

production

of Romeo and Juliet. 'It is my lady, O it is

my love!'

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8. unconcealed disappointment: open frustration

9. grievance: reason for complaint

10. jotted down: took notes on

11.Lisson Grove lingo: language/slang used by people living in the Lisson Grove area

12. saucy: impertinent, disrespectful

HIGGINS: [Brusquely, recognising her with unconcealed disappointment8, and at 10

once babylike, making an intolerable grievance9 of it] Why, this is the girl 1 jotted down1 0 last night. She's no use: Ive got all the records I want of the Lisson Grove lingo11; and I'm not going to waste another cylinder on it. [To the girl] Be off with you: I dont want you.

LIZA: Dont you be so saucy12. You aint heard what I come for yet. [To MRS 15

PEARCE, who is waiting at the door for further instuctions] Did you tell him I

come in a taxi? M R S PEARCE: Nonsense, girl! what do you think a gent leman like Mr

Higgins cares what you came in? LIZA: Oh, we are proud! He aint above giving lessons, not him: I heard him 20

say so. Well, I aint come here to ask for any compliment; and if my money's not good enough I can go elsewhere. (...)

HIGGINS: [Stupent] Well!!! [Recovering his breath with a gasp] What do you expect me to say to you?

LIZA: Well, if you was a gentleman, you might ask me to sit down, I think. 25

Dont I tell you I'm bringing you business? HIGGINS: Pickering: shall we ask this baggage to sit down, or shall we throw

her out of the window?

A scene from the film

My Fair Lady (1964).

What is Drama? 31

LIZA: [Running away in terror to the piano, where she turns at bay13] Ah-ah-oh-ow-ow-ow-oo! [Wounded14 and whimpering1S] I wont be called a baggage when Ive offered to pay like any lady.

[Motionless, the two men stare at her from the other side of the room, amazed16.]

PICKERING: [Gently] But what is you want? LIZA: I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of sellin at the corner of

Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him -not asking any favor - and he treats me zif I was dirt17.

MRS PEARCE: HOW can you be such a foolish ignorant girl as to think you could afford to pay Mr Higgins?

LIZA: Why shouldnt I ? I know what lessons cost as well as you do; and I'm ready to pay.

HIGGINS: HOW much? LIZA: [Coming back to him, triumphant] Now youre talking! I thought youd

come off it18 when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you chucked at me1 9 last night. [Confidentially] Youd had a drop in20, hadnt you?

HIGGINS: [Peremptorily] Sit down. LIZA: Oh, if youre going to make a compliment of it -HIGGINS: [Thundering21 at her] Sit down. MRS PEARCE: [Severely] Sit down, girl. Do as youre told. LIZA: Ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oo! [She stands, half rebellious, half-bewildered22.] PICKERING: [Very courteous] Wont you sit down? [He places the stray chair near

the hearthrug23 between himself and HIGGINS.]

LIZA: [Coyly] Dont mind if I do. [She sits down. PICKERING returns to the hearthrug.]

HIGGINS: Whats your name? LIZA: Liza Doolittle.

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13. at bay: away 14. Wounded: offended 15. whimpering: crying 16. amazed: very

surprised 17. zif I was dirt: as if

I were worthless 18. come off it: stop

pretending 19. chucked at me:

threw at me in a careless way

20. had a drop in: had been drinking alcohol

21. thundering: shouting 22. bewildered: shocked 23. stray chair near the

hearthrug: spare chair near the rug in front of the fireplace

*

C O M P R E H E N S I O N |

1 How is the flower girl dressed? Why has she chosen these clothes for the occasion?

2 Why does Higgins say the girl is 'no use'? (Line 12)

3 Why does the flower girl want Higgins to know that she came in a taxi?

4 What does Higgins threaten to do to the girl?

5 Why does the girl want to learn to speak 'more genteel'?

6 Why does the girl think that Higgins had been drunk the previous night? (Line 45)

A N A L Y S I S - T O N E —

The speaker's attitude towards what he is saying or who he is speaking to will determine the tone he adopts. Work in groups of four. Read the stage directions and dialogue closely and identify the attitude of: - Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce towards Liza - Liza towards Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce Prepare a group reading of the scene. Decide who will read each part. Use tone to convey the attitudes you have identified for each character.


Irony : s

Irony can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else. It is very common in everyday speech (for example, when we say 'that was a clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish'), and it is also widely used in literature. The word 'irony' comes from the Greek word 'eiron', which means 'dissembler'. In fact the ironic speaker dissembles, i.e. hides his real intention. The three types of irony that occur most frequently in drama are: • verbal irony, in which there is a contrast between what a character literally

says and what he means; • situational irony, which occurs when an event or situation turns out to be the

reverse of what is expected or appropriate; • dramatic irony, which occurs when the audience knows something that one

or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to add humour or suspense to a scene.

CASE STUDY 17 This scene is taken from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). Jack Worthing leads a double life. In the countryside, where he is known as lack, he is the respectable guardian of a young girl, Cecily. In order to escape to the pleasures of the city when he pleases, Jack tells the young girl that he has a brother, Ernest, who leads a wicked life in London and needs to be kept under constant surveillance. Under the name of Ernest, Jack enjoys life in London and falls in love with a young woman named Gwendolen Fairfax. Gwendolen has always dreamed of marrying a man named Ernest because the name conjures up a person who is serious and sincere, i.e. 'earnest'. In the following scene Jack is in a flat in London with Gwendolen and her mother, Lady Bracknell.

Q The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde

JACK: Charming day it has been, Miss Fairfax. G W E N D O L E N : Pray don' t talk to me about the weather, Mr Worthing.

Whenever people talk to me about the weather, I always feel quite certain that they mean something else. And that makes me so nervous.

JACK: I do mean something else. 5

GWENDOLEN: I thought so. In fact, I am never wrong. , JACK: And I would like to be allowed to take advantage of Lady Bracknell's

temporary absence ... GWENDOLEN: I would certainly advise you to do so. Mamma has a way of

coming back suddenly into a room that I have often had to speak to her 10 about.

JACK: [Nervously] Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl.. . I have ever met since ... I met you.

GWENDOLEN: Yes, I am quite well aware of the fact. And I often wish that in public, at any rate1, you had been more demonstrative. For me you is have always had an irresistible fascination. Even before I met you I was far from indifferent to you. [JACK looks at her in amazement.] We live, as I

hope you know, Mr Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is constantly

•• GLOSSARY

1. at any rate: at least

What is Drama? 3 3 ' dm

mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines, and has now reached the provincial pulpits2,1 am told; and my ideal has always been to love some one of the name of Ernest. There is something in that name that inspires absolute confidence. The moment Algernon first ment ioned to me that he had a friend called Ernest, I knew I was destined to love you.

JACK: YOU really love me, Gwendolen? GWENDOLEN: Passionately! JACK: Darling! You don't know how happy you've made me. GWENDOLEN: My own Ernest! JACK: But you don't really mean to say that you couldn't love me if my

name wasn't Ernest? GWENDOLEN: But your name is Ernest. JACK: Yes, I know it is. But supposing it was something else? Do you mean

to say you couldn't love me then? GWENDOLEN: [Glibly3] Ah! That is clearly a metaphysical speculation, and

like most metaphysical speculations has very little reference at all to actual facts of real life, as we know them.

JACK: Personally, darling, to speak quite candidly, I don't much care about the name of Ernest... I don't think the name suits me at all.

GWENDOLEN: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its own. It produces vibrations.

JACK: Well, really, Gwendolen, I must say that there are lots of other much nicer names. I think Jack, for instance, a charming name.

GWENDOLEN: Jack? ... No, there is very little music in the name Jack, if any at all, indeed. It does not thrill4. It produces absolutely no vibrations... I have known several Jacks, and they all, without exception, were more than usually plain5. Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity6 for John! And I pity any woman who is married to a man called John. She would probably never be allowed to know the entrancing7 pleasure of a single moment's solitude. The only really safe name is Ernest.

JACK: Gwendolen, I must get christened8 at once - I mean we must get married at once. There is no time to be lost.

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mm

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

8.

provincial pulpits: unsophisticated country towns Glibly: lightly, thoughtlessly thrill: produce excitement plain: ordinary notorious domesticity: well-known nickname entrancing: delightful christened: baptised


1 Why does Gwendolen ask jack not to talk about the weather?

2 Is Gwendolen surprised by Jack's declaration of love?

3 What has always been Gwendolen's ideal?

4 Jack asks Gwendolen if she could love him even if his name were not Ernest. How does Gwendolen dismiss the question?

5 What does Gwendolen think of the name Jack?

A N A L Y S I S - I R O N Y

This scene is an example of dramatic irony. What does the audience know that Gwendolen does not know? How does this contribute to the humour of the extract? Gwendolen probably considers Ernest's declaration that he must get christened soon as a slip of the tongue. Does the audience interpret it in the same way?


Setting as a way of revealing character

Setting as a means of reinforcing theme

The manner in which a character perceives the setting may tell the reader more about the character and his or her state of mind than about the setting itself. When, for example, an urban landscape is described by a character as 'desolate' and 'ominous', the writer may be telling us more about how the character is feeling rather than accurately describing the setting. The writer is using the outer world setting to give us an insight into the character's inner world.

The setting may also reinforce and clarify the theme of a novel or short story. The physical setting in which the action takes place may symbolically represent the central ideas of the work. A solitary house in bleak, hostile surroundings may reinforce the theme of man's struggle against nature. Many modern novels take place in what are termed 'alien sett ings' , where even the familiar seems unfamiliar. The characters are often exiles, tourists or expatriates, and the inhospitable setting reinforces the theme of loss of roots and loss of home which is common to much modern fiction.

Setting in time

Social setting

The historical period, time of year and time of day are all important features of the setting. The fact, for example, that most of a story's action takes place at night may create an atmosphere of mystery, violence or conspiracy. Authors often use the traditional associations with the seasons and the cycle of the day to create appropriate time settings for their work, for example spring-morning-youth.

While the setting refers to the time and place in which the action occurs, the term social setting is used to indicate the social environment in which a story takes place. The social setting of a novel or story may be explicitly indicated by the author or it may be conveyed through the use of social or class markers, i.e. the way the characters talk, where and how they live, the clothes they wear, how they eat, and so on. Like the physical and temporal setting, the social setting may be relatively unimportant or it may play a determining role in a novel or story. In many novels characters are presented as products of their social class, and many authors have explored the themes of conformity to or rebellion against the values and mores of specific social settings.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SETTING

What is the setting of the work in time and space? Is the setting briefly sketched or is it described in detail? Are the descriptions of setting based on visual images? Is the language used in the descriptions connotative or poetic? Through whose eyes is the setting seen? Does the setting reveal the characters' state of mind? Does the setting: a. contribute towards creating mood and atmosphere? b. influence the characters' behaviour? c. reinforce the main themes of the work? At what time of day /year does most of the action take place? Is this relevant?

What is Fiction? 37 QH

CASE STUDY 1 9

Saki, the pen-name of Hector Hugh Munro, was born in Burma in 1870. He is widely acclaimed for his short stories, many of which featured children as the protagonists. Read the story paying particular attention to the description of the lumber room where some of the action takes place.

The Lumber Room1

by Saki

The children were to be driven, as a special treat 2 , to the sands at Jagborough. Nicholas was not to be of the party; he was in disgrace. Only that morning he had refused to eat his wholesome bread-and-milk on the seemingly frivolous ground that there was a frog in it. Older and wiser and better people had told him that there could not possibly be a frog in his 5 bread-and-milk and that he was not to talk nonsense; he continued, nevertheless, to talk what seemed the veriest3 nonsense, and described with much detail the colouration and markings of the alleged4 frog. The dramatic part of the incident was that there really was a frog in Nicholas's basin of bread-and-milk; he had put it there himself, so he felt entitled5 to 10 know something about it. Thg^sin6 of taking a frog from the garden and putting it into a bowl of wholesomeijread-and-milk was enlarged on at great length7, but the fact thaTsTooa out clearest in the whole affair, as it presented itself to the mind of Nicholas, was that the older, wiser, and better people had been proved to be profoundly in error in matters about 15 which they had expressed the utmost assurance8.

'You said there couldn't possibly be a frog in my bread-and-milk; there was a frog in my bread-and-milk,' he repeated, with the insistence of a skilled tactician who does not intend to shift9 from favourable ground. So his boy-cousin and girl-cousin and his quite uninteresting younger 20 brother were to be takeruto Jagborough sands that afternoon and he was to stay home.(His cousins' aiint, who insisted, by an unwarranted, stretch of10 imaginatiorirnrstyling11 herself his aunt also, had hastily12 invented the Jagborough expedition in order to impress on Nicholas the delights that he had justly forfeited13 by his disgracefirf conduct S t 'me breakfast- 25 table. It was her habit, whenever one of the ctiitdreh fell from grace, to improvise something of a festival nature from which the offender would be rigorously debarred; if all the children sinned collectively they were informed of a circus in a neighbouring town, a circus of unrivalled14 merit and uncounted elephants, to which, but for their depravity, they would 30 have been taken that very day.

A few decent tears were looked for on the part of Nicholas1 5 when the moment for the departure of the expedition arrived. As a matter of fact, however, all the crying was done by his girl-cousin, who scraped her knee rather painfully against the step of the carriage as she was scrambling in16. 35 How she did howl 1 7 ! ' said Nicholas cheerfully, as the party drove off

without any of the elation of high spirits18 that should have characterised it. She'll soon get over that,' said the soi-disant19 aunt. 'It will be a glorious

afternoon for racing about over those beautiful sands. How they will enjoy themselves!' 40

GLOSSARY

1. lumber room: storage room treat: exciting event veriest: absolute alleged: supposedly real entitled: having a right sin: deplorable action enlarged on at great length: talked about for a long time people ... assurance: they had been mistaken about questions which they were absolutely certain of shift: move

10. by an unwarranted stretch of: extending the limits of

11.styling: designating 12. hastily: quickly 13. forfeited: lost 14. unrivalled:

unequalled 15. A few decent tears ...

Nicholas: he was expected to cry a bit

16. scrambling in: trying to get in quickly

17. howl: cry 18. elation of high

spirits: excitement 19.soi-disant: self-

nominated

7.

8.

9.


20. grim chuckle: sinister laugh

21. gooseberry: type of fruit that grows on a bush

22. loftily: in a superior tone

23. Nicholas ... reasoning: Nicholas did not accept that the reasoning was perfect

24. slip in: get in unseen 25. artichokes: type of

vegetable 26. raspberry: see note 21 27. canes: sticks

supporting the plants 28. shrubberies: groups

of plants 29. whence: from where 30. sorties: visits to 31. wriggling his way:

twisting his way 32. with obvious stealth

of purpose: furtively 33.in ... sentry-duty:

acting as a guard 34. thoroughly: totally 35. slipped back: went

back unnoticed 36. suchlike: similar 37.trusting... to:

placing his confidence in

38. stiffly: with difficult} 39. stale delight: old and

no longer fresh source of fun

40. sealed from youthful eyes: barred from the view of the children

41. It came up to his expectations: It was as exciting as he had expected.

42. dimly lit: with very little light

43. aunt-by-assertion: so-called aunt

44. spoil: get ruined 45.damp: humidity 46. by way of: in order

to

5 0

'Bobby won't enjoy himself much, and he won't race much either,' said Nicholas with a grim chuckle20. 'His boots are hurting him. They're too tight.' 'Why didn't he tell me they were hurting?' asked the aunt with some asperity. 'He told you twice, but you weren't listening. You often don't listen when 45 we tell you important things.' 'You are not to go into the gooseberry21 garden,' said the aunt, changing the subject. 'Why not?' demanded Nicholas. 'Because you are in disgrace,' said the aunt loftily22. Nicholas did not admit the flawlessness of the reasoning23; he felt perfectly capable of being in disgrace and in the gooseberry garden at the same moment. His face took on an expression of considerable obstinacy. It was clear to his aunt that he was determined to get into the gooseberry garden. 'Only,' as she remarked to herself, 'because 1 have told him he is not to.' 55 Now the gooseberry garden had two doors by which it might be entered, and once a small person like Nicholas could slip in 2 4 there he could effectually disappear from view amid the masking growth of artichokes25, raspberry26 canes27, and fruit bushes. The aunt had many other things to do that afternoon, but she spent an hour or two in trivial gardening 60 operations among flower beds and shrubberies28, whence29 she could keep a watchful eye on the two doors that led to the forbidden paradise. She was a woman of few ideas, with immense powers of concentration. Nicholas made one or two sorties30 into the front garden, wriggling his way31 with obvious stealth of purpose32 towards one or other of the doors, 65 but never able for a moment to evade the aunt's watchful eye. As a matter of fact, he had no intention of trying to get into the gooseberry garden, but it was extremely convenient for him that his aunt should believe that he had; it was a belief that would keep her in self-imposed sentry-duty33

for the greater part of the afternoon. Having thoroughly34 confirmed and 70 fortified her suspicions, Nicholas slipped back 3 5 into the house and rapidly put into execution a plan of action that had long germinated in his brain. By standing on a chair in the library, one could reach a shelf on which reposed a fat, important-looking key. The key was as important as it looked; it was the instrument which kept the mysteries of the lumber- 75 room secure from unauthorised intrusion, which opened a way only for aunts and suchlike3 6 privileged persons. Nicholas had not had much experience of the art of fitting keys into keyholes and turning locks, but for some days past he had practised with the key of the schoolroom door; he did not believe in trusting too much to3 7 luck and accident. The key 80 turned stiffly38 in the lock, but it turned. The door opened, and Nicholas was in an unknown land, compared with which the gooseberry garden was a stale delight39, a mere material pleasure.

Often and often Nicholas had pictured to himself what the lumber-room might be like, that region that was so carefully sealed from youthful eyes40 85 and concerning which no questions were ever answered. It came up to his expectations4 1 . In the first place it was large and dimly lit4 2 , one high window opening on to the forbidden garden being its only source of i l lumination. In the second place it was a storehouse of unimagined treasures. The aunt-by-assertion43 was one of those people who think that 90 things spoil44 by use and consign them to dust and damp45 by way of4 6

preserving them. Such parts of the house as Nicholas knew best were


rather bare and cheerless47, but there were wonderful things for the eye to feast on48 . First and foremost49 there was a piece of framed tapestry50 that was evidently meant to be a f irescreen. To Nicholas it was a living, breathing story; he sat down on a roll of Indian hangings51, glowing52 in wonderful colours beneath a layer53 of dust, and took in all details of the tapestry picture. A man, dressed in the hunting costume of some remote period, had just transfixed a stag54 with an arrow; it could not have been a difficult shot because the stag was only one or two paces55 away from him; in the thickly-growing vegetation that the picture suggested, it would not have been difficult to creep56 up to a feeding stag, and the spotted dogs that were springing57 forward to join in the chase had evidently been trained to keep to heel5 8 till the arrow was discharged. That part of the picture was simple, if interest ing, but did the huntsman see, what Nicholas saw, that four galloping wolves were coming in his direction through the wood? There might be more than four of them hidden behind the trees, and in any case would the man and his dogs be able to cope with5 9 the four wolves if they made an attack? The man had only two arrows left in his quiver60 , and he might miss with one or both of them; all one knew about his skill in shooting was that he could hit a large stag at a ridiculously short range61.

Nicholas sat for many golden minutes revolving the possibilities of the scene; he was inclined to think that there were more than four wolves and that the man and his dogs were in a tight corner62. But there were other objects of delight and interest claiming63 his instant at tent ion: there were quaint^4 twisted6 5 candlesticks in the shape of snakes, and a teapot fashioned like a china duck, out of whose open beak the tea was supposed to come. How dull66 and shapeless the nursery pot seemed in comparison! And there was a carved sandal-wood box67 packed tight with aromatic cotton-wool, and between the layers of cotton-wool •were little brass figures, hump-necked68 bulls and peacocks69 and goblins70

delightful to see and to handle. Less promising in appearance was a large

95

100

105

110

115

120

john Singer Sargent,

j Carnat ion, Lily, Lily, Hose (1885). The

| delights of the

garden were nothing

when compared to

the delights of the

lumber room.

47. bare and cheerless: empty and sad

48. to feast on: to enjoy 49. foremost: most

important 50. framed tapestry:

piece of cloth on which coloured threads form pictures, bordered with wood as a support

5,1. hangings: painted or embroidered cloths

52. glowing: shining 53. layer: covering 54. stag: male deer 55. paces: steps 56. creep: move slowly

close to the ground 57.springing: jumping 58. keep to heel: remain

close behind 59. cope with: be a

match for 60. quiver: arrow-case 61. range: distance 62. tight corner: difficult

situation 63. claiming: calling for 64. quaint: nice in an

intriguing way 65. twisted: having a

spiral form 66. dull: uninteresting 67. carved sandal-wood

box: decorated wooden box

68. hump-necked: having a rounded protuberance on their necks

69. peacocks: large birds with a beautiful tail

70. goblins: gnomes

E) 38 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

71. peeped into: looked furtively and quickly

72. behold: exclamation of surprise

73. magpie or wood pigeon: common birds

74.herons ... pheasants: birds he sees in the book

75.shrill: high sounding 76. without: outside 77.leapt: lumped 78. sheltering: protective 79. screamed: shouted

desperately 80. Presently: after a

time 81. shriek: scream 82. sauntered: walked

slowly 83. slipped: lost my

balance and fallen 84.tank: large container 85. slippery: difficult to

hold 86. Fetch: Get 87. yield: give in,

surrender 88. gleefully: joyfull 89. were not . . . over

indulged in: should not be enjoyed for too long

90. kitchenmaid: female kitchen servant

91. parsley: kind of cooking herb

92. rescued: set free

square book with plain black covers; Nicholas peeped into 7 1 it, and, behold72, it was full of coloured pictures of birds. And such birds! In the garden, and in the lanes when he went for a walk, Nicholas came across a few birds, of which the largest were an occasional magpie or wood-pigeon73; here were herons and bustards, kites, toucans, t iger-bitterns, brush turkeys, ibises, golden pheasants74, a whole portrait gallery of undreamed-of creatures. And as he was admiring the colouring of the mandarin duck and assigning a life-history to it, the voice of his aunt in shrill75 vociferation of his name came from the gooseberry garden without76. She had grown suspicious at his long disappearance, and had leapt77 to the conclusion that he had climbed over the wall behind the sheltering78 screen of the lilac bushes; she was now engaged in an energetic and rather hopeless search for him among the artichokes and raspberry canes. 'Nicholas, Nicholas!' she screamed79, 'you are to come out of this at once. It's no use trying to hide there; I can see you all the time.' It was probably the first time for twenty years that any one had smiled in that lumber-room.

Presently 8 0 the angry repeti t ions of Nicholas's name gave way to a shriek81, a cry for somebody to come quickly. Nicholas shut the book, restored it carefully to its place in a corner, and shook some dust from a neighbouring pile of newspaper over it. Then he crept from the room, locked the door and replaced the key exactly where he had found it. His aunt was still calling his name when he sauntered82 into the front garden. 'Who's calling?' he asked. 'Me,' came the answer from the other side of the wall. 'Didn't you hear me? I've been looking for you in the gooseberry garden, and I've slipped83

into the rain-water tank84. Luckily there's no water in it, but the sides are slippery85 and I can't get out. Fetch86 the little ladder from under the cherry tree - ' 'I was told I wasn't to go into the gooseberry garden, ' said Nicholas promptly. 'I told you not to, and now I tell you that you may,' came the voice from the rain-water tank, rather impatiently. 'Your voice doesn't sound like aunt's,' objected Nicholas. 'You may be the Evil One tempting me to be disobedient. Aunt often tells me that the Evil One tempts me and that I always yield87. This time I'm not going to yield.' 'Don't talk nonsense, ' said the prisoner in the tank. 'Go and fetch the ladder.' 'Will there be strawberry jam for tea?' asked Nicholas innocently. 'Certainly there will be,' said the aunt, privately resolving that Nicholas should have none of it. 'Now I know that you are the Evil One and not my aunt , ' shouted Nicholas gleefully 8 8 . ' W h e n we asked my aunt for strawberry jam yesterday she said there wasn't any. I know there are four jars of it in the store cupboard, because I looked, and of course you know it's there, but she doesn't because she said there wasn't any. Oh, Devil you have sold yourself!' There was an unusual sense of luxury in being able to talk to an aunt as though one was talking to the Evil One, but Nicholas knew, with childish discernment, that such luxuries were not to be over-indulged in8 9 . He walked noisily away, and it was a kitchenmaid9 0 , in search of parsley91, who eventually rescued92 the aunt from the rain-water tank.

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What is Fiction? 41 Q H

180

Tea that evening was partaken of93 in a fearsome silence. The tide94 had been at its highest when the children had arrived at Jagborough Cove, so there had been no sands to play on - a circumstance that the aunt had overlooked95 in the haste of organising96 her punitive expedition. The tightness of Bobby's boots had had a disastrous effect on his temper"7 the whole of the afternoon, and altogether the children could not have been said to have en joyed themselves. The aunt mainta ined the frozen muteness of one who has suffered undignified and unmerited detention :n a rain-water tank for thirty-five minutes. As for Nicholas, he, too, was silent, in the absorption of one who has much to think about; it was just possible, he considered, that the huntsman would escape with his hounds98, while the wolves feasted on9 9 the stricken stag.

(From Beasts and Superbeasts, 1914)

185

93. partaken of: had 94. tide: periodic rise

(and fall) of the sea due to the attraction of the moon and sun

95. overlooked: not noticed

96. in the haste of organising: because she hurriedly organised

9 7. temper: mood 98. hounds: hunting dogs 99. feasted on: ate

•


1 Why was Nicholas not allowed to go to Vagborough with the other children?

2 Did Nicholas cry as the other children set off on their trip?

3 Where did the aunt forbid him to go?

4 Why did Nicholas try to make the aunt believe that he wanted to go into the gooseberry garden? iVhere did he really want to go?

5 What scene was depicted on the tapestry Nicholas "ound in the lumber room?

6 Apart from the tapestry, what other 'objects of delight' did Nicholas find in the lumber room?

7 What happened to the aunt in the gooseberry garden?

8 What did the aunt ask Nicholas to do? Why did he refuse?

9 Why were each of the characters silent during evening tea?

A N A L Y S I S - S E T T I N G

1 What facts are given about the lumber room in the text? (Dimensions, lighting, objects stored)

2 What transforms :he lumber room into 'a storehouse of unimagined treasures'?

3 Does the lumber room have a symbolic significance in the story? What does it represent?

4 What does the fact that Nicholas entered the lumber room against his aunt's wishes mean, in the context of your interpretation?

5 Nicholas derives pleasure from his experience in the lumber room long after he has left it. How do you interpret this in the context of the story?

6 What function does setting serve in this short story?

BDD Writers often show that setting influences the way their characters think and behave. Do you believe that this also happens in real life? Are you influenced by where you live and the people that surround you? Does your personality alter when you change setting? For example, do you feel more relaxed in the countryside or at the seaside, or do you feel more excited when you visit a large bustling city? Of the people who surround you, i.e. your social setting, who influences you most - parents, friends, brothers/sisters, teachers? Does the weather influence your mood?


Character

What do other people think? What emotions do they experience? How are they similar to or different from us? Literature allows us to look into the lives of an endless collection of men and women and find answers to these questions. We can learn about people's hopes and fears, we can see them struggle through adverse circumstances, we can rejoice with them in moments of success and sympathise with them in moments of despair. In real life we have the opportunity of knowing intimately a relatively small number of people - family members, loved ones, close friends. Literature allows us to multiply that number by giving us access to the private thoughts and lives of an endless assortment of fascinating and memorable people.

Defining characters When we analyse characters in fiction we need to ask some key questions about: • their relationship to the plot: do they play a major part in the events of the

story or do they have a minor role? • the degree to which they are developed: are they complex characters or are

they one-dimensional? • their growth in the course of story: do they remain the same throughout the

story or do significant changes in their personalities take place?

In order to discuss these issues we need to know the following terms.

The central character of the plot is called the protagonist. Without this character there would be no story. The character against whom the protagonist struggles is called the antagonist. In many novels, however, the antagonist is not a human being. It may, for example, be the natural environment in which the protagonist lives, or society, or illness, or even death. The terms protagonist and antagonist do not have moral connotat ions and therefore should not be confused with 'hero' and 'villain'. Many protagonists are a mixture of good and evil elements. Other characters in a story may be referred to as m a j o r or m i n o r characters, depending on the importance of their roles in developing the plot.

Protagonist and antagonist

What is Fiction? 41 QH Jiif"

4 3

Round characters, like real people, have complex, multi-dimensional personalities. They show emotional and intellectual depth and are capable of growing and changing. Major characters in fiction are usually round. Flat characters embody or represent a single characteristic. They are the miser, the bully, the jealous lover, the endless optimist. They may also be referred to as types or as caricatures when distorted for humorous purposes. Flat characters are usually minor characters. However, the term 'flat' should not be confused with 'insignificant' or 'badly drawn'. A flat character may in fact be the protagonist of the story, in particular when the writer wishes to focus on the characteristic he or she represents. Some highly memorable characters, particularly in satirical or humorous novels, can be defined as flat, for example the miser Scrooge in Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol.

Dynamic characters change as a result of the experiences they have. The most obvious examples can be found in initiation novels which tell stories of young people who grow into adults, for example Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. However, dynamic characters can be found in many other types of stories. Major characters in novels are usually dynamic. Static characters remain untouched by the events of the story. They do not learn from their experiences and consequent ly they remain unchanged. Static characters are usually minor characters, but sometimes a writer makes a static character the protagonist of his story, because he wishes to analyse a particular type of personality. Static characters also play major roles in stories that show how forces in life, such as the social environment or the family, sometimes make it hard for people to grow and change. An example can be found in the short story Eveline by James Joyce: the unhappy central character Eveline feels suffocated by her family circumstances and lifestyle but cannot find the strength to break free from her situation and start a new life with her fiance in South America.

How the author conveys character Another important aspect of character analysis is determining how the author presents and establishes a character. There are two basic methods for conveying character: telling and showing. Tel l ing involves direct in tervent ion and c o m m e n t a r y by the author. He interrupts the narrative to comment on the character's personality, thoughts or actions. The guiding hand of the author is clearly evident as he helps us to form opinions about the character. An example of the telling technique can be found in this short extract from D.H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers, in which the author describes the protagonist of his novel:

Arthur Morel was growing up. He was a quick, careless, impulsive boy, a good deal like his father. He hated study, made a great moan if he had to work, and escaped as soon as possible to his sport again.

When an author use te technique of showing, he steps aside and allows the characters to reveal t icmselves through what they do and say. His voice is silent. The reader is asked to infer character from the evidence provided in the dialogue and action of the story. When the author chooses the showing method, the revelation of character is generally gradual. The reader must be attentive and receptive, and use his intelligence and memory to draw conclusions about the character's identity. Modern authors tend to favour showing over telling, but most writers use a mixture of both methods.

Round and flat characters

Dynamic and static characters

Telling

Showing

W

W

ü ü


m

Dialogue

Action

Comparison with other characters

Setting

Names

Appearance

In real life what people say reveals a lot about who they are and what they think. Similarly, in f iction, what a character says can help us to understand basic elements of his personality. The character's attitude towards others may also emerge from the dialogue. Important information about his origin, education, occupation or social class may also be revealed by what he says and how he says it. However, characters in stories do not always say what they really think. Just like people in real life, they can be deceptive and create a false image of themselves.

We can learn a lot about a character 's emot ions , att itudes and values by examining what he does in the course of the story. We should try to understand the motives for the character's actions, and discover the underlying forces that make him behave the way he does.

Is the way a character behaves similar to or different from the way other characters act? One of the chief functions of minor characters in fiction is to provide contrast to the main character. What can you learn by comparing the protagonist to some of the other less important characters?

The time and place in which the story unfolds may provide useful information about the characters. If events take place during a particular historical period (the Middle Ages, the French Revolution, the Vietnam War) the characters' ideas and actions may be shaped by important external events. The characters' physical surrounding (where they grew up, where they choose to live) may help us to understand their psychological make-up. References to the social setting may also give us some helpful insight. Do the characters share or reject the values associated with their social background?

Occasionally the character's name may provide clues to his personality. Emily Bronte's choice of Heathcliff as a name for the hero of her novel Wuthering Heights conveys the character's wild, rugged, almost primitive nature. (Heath = wild, uncultivated land; cliff = high rocky land that usually faces the sea)

In real life it is not advisable to judge a person by his appearance, but in fiction how a character looks often provides important informat ion about his personality. References to the clothes a character wears may, for example, indicate his social and e c o n o m i c status. Details of a character 's physical appearance may prove useful in determining his age and the general state of his physical and emotional health.

UESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G C H A R A C T E R

Is he a major or a minor character? Is he the protagonist/antagonist of the story? Is he a round or a flat character? Is he dynamic or static? Does the author reveal the character through showing or telling, or does he use both techniques? What does the way the character speaks reveal about his character? What information does the way the character behaves provide? Is he similar to or different from other characters in the story? How does he relate to the other characters? Has the setting shaped the character's personality? Does the setting reflect his mood or emotional state? Does the character's name have any importance, relevance or associations?

ImSaEt%-.'' i mm-

What is Fiction? 4 5 € 1 H

CASE STUDY 2 0 Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) was born in New Zealand and educated in Britain. She is widely acclaimed as an original and experimental writer whose stories often include sharp character sketches.

Miss Brill by Katherine Mansfield

Although it was so brilliantly fine - the blue sky powdered with gold and great spots of light like white wine splashed over1 the Jardins Publiques -Miss Brill was glad that she had decided on her fur2 . The air was motionless, but when you opened your mouth there was just a faint chill3, like a chill from a glass of iced water before you sip, and now and again a 5 leaf came drifting4 - from nowhere, from the sky. Miss Brill put up her hand and touched her fur. Dear little thing! It was nice to feel it again. She had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth-powder5, given it a good brush, and rubbed the life back into the dim little eyes6". "What has been happening to me?" said the sad little eyes. Oh, how sweet 10 it was to see them snap at her7 again from the red eiderdown8! ... But the nose, which was of some black composition, wasn't at all firm. It must have had a knock9, somehow. Never mind - a little dab10 of black sealing-wax11 when the time came - when it was absolutely necessary ... Little rogue12! Yes, she really felt like that about it. Little rogue biting its tail just 15 by her left ear. She could have taken it off and laid it on her lap13 and stroked14 it. She felt a tingling1 5 in her hands and arms, but that came from walking, she supposed. And when she breathed, something light and sad - no, not sad, exactly - something gentle seemed to move in her bosom16.

There were a number of people out this afternoon, far more than last Sunday. And the band sounded louder and gayer. That was because the Season had begun. For although the band played all the year round on Sundays, out of season it was never the same. It was like someone playing with only the family to listen; it didn't care how it played if there weren't 25 any strangers present. Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too? She was sure it was new. He scraped with his foot17 and flapped18 his arms like a rooster19 about to crow20, and the bandsmen sitting in the green rotunda blew out their cheeks and glared21 at the music. Now there came a little

GLOSSARY

1. splashed over: thrown over randomly 2. fur: animal hair used as clothing 3. faint chill: slight sensation of coldness 4. drifting: floating 5. shaken out the moth-powder:

removed the powder that had preserved the fur from being damaged by insects

6. rubbed the life ... little eyes: polished the animal's lifeless glass eyes

20

7. snap at her: look at her 8. eiderdown: blanket 9. had a knock: been damaged 10. dab: light touch 11. sealing-wax: sticky substance used to

glue things together 12. rogue: someone who behaves badly,

but who you like anyway 13. lap: the legs of a sitting person

14. stroked: caressed 15. tingling: light stinging sensation 16.bosom: breast 17. scraped with his foot: rubbed his foot

on the ground 18. flapped: moved up and down 19. rooster: male chicken 20. crow: emit a loud cry 21. glared: looked fixedly

• ' ' '

dm

m

m m •


u

22.claspe: tightly joined together

23. glanced, sideways: gave a quick look to her side

24. Panama hat: straw hat

25. pads: soft cushioning 26. bridge: section

connecting the two lenses of a pair of glasses

27.To and fro: backwards and forwards

28. railings: barrier made of upright metal bars

29. swooping: running 30. bows: type of tie 31. velvet: very soft

fabric 32. lace: a fine type of

cloth 33. tiny staggerer: very

small child walking unsteadily

34. hen: a female chicken 35. scolding: criticising

him severely 36. odd: strange 37. stared: looked fixedly 38. slender: thin 39. down drooping:

hanging down 40. dropped: let fall 41. ermine: type of white

fur 42. toque: small

woman's hat 43. stiff: rigid 44. shabby: old and

worn out 45. paw: hand

Only two people shared her "special" seat: a fine old man in a velvet coat, his hands clasped 2 2 over a huge carved walking-stick, and a big old woman, sitting upright, with a roll of knitting on her embroidered apron. They did not speak. This was disappointing, for Miss Brill always looked 35 forward to the conversation. She had become really quite expert, she thought , at l istening as though she didn't l isten, at sitt ing in other people's lives just for a minute while they talked round her. She glanced, sideways23, at the old couple. Perhaps they could go soon. Last Sunday, too, hadn't been as interesting as usual. An Englishman and 40 his wife, he wearing a dreadful Panama hat24 and she button boots. And she'd gone on the whole time about how she ought to wear spectacles; she knew she needed them; but that it was no good getting any; they'd be sure to break and they'd never keep on. And he 'd been so pat ient . He'd suggested everything - gold rims, the kind that curved round your ears, 45 little pads25 inside the bridge26. No, nothing would please her. "They'll always be sliding down my nose!" Miss Brill had wanted to shake her.

The old people sat on the bench . Never mind, there was always the crowd to watch. To arm nu , m a u n t of the flower-beds and the band rotunda, the couples and groups paraded, stopped to talk, to 50 greet, to buy a handful of flowers from the old beggar who had his tray fixed to the railings28. Little children ran among them,jwo£>ping29 and laughhig^liitle boys with big white silk bows''0 under their chins, little girls; little French dolls, dressed up/in velvet31 and lace32. And sometimes a tiny staggerer3 3 'came suddenly rocking-tnto the open from under the 55 trees, stopped, stared, as suddenly sat down "flop," until its small high-stepping mother, like a young hen34, rushed scolding35 to its rescue. Other people sat on the benches and green chairs, but they were nearly always the same, Sunday after Sunday, and - Miss Brill had often noticed - there was something funny about nearly all of them. They were odd36, silent, 60 nearly all old, and from the way they stared37 they looked as though they'd just come from dark little rooms or even - even cupboards! Behind the rotunda the slender 3 8 trees with yellow leaves down drooping39, and through them just a line of sea, and beyond the blue sky with gold-veined clouds. 65

Tum-tum-tum tiddle-um! tiddle-um! turn tiddley-um turn ta! blew the band. Two young girls in red came by and two young soldiers in blue met them, and they laughed and paired and went off arm-in-arm. Two peasant women with funny straw hats passed, gravely, leading beautiful smoke-coloured donkeys. A cold, pale nun hurried by. A beautiful woman came 70 along and dropped40 her bunch of violets, a little boy ran after to hand them to her, and she took them and threw them away as if they'd been poisoned. De^r me.L MjssJMll didn't know whether to admire that or not! And now an ermine41 toque42 and a gentleman ijti grey met just in front of her. He was tall, stiff43, dignified, and she was wearing the ermine toque 75 she'd bought when her hair was yellow. Now everything, her hair, her face, even her eyes, was the same colour as the shabby44 ermine, and her hand, in its cleaned glove, lifted to dab her lips, was a t iny yellowish paw45. Oh, she was so pleased to see him - delighted! She rather thought they were going to meet that afternoon. She described where she'd been - 80 everywhere, here, there, along by the sea. The day was so charming -


didn't he agree? And wouldn't he, perhaps? ... But he shook his head, lighted a cigarette, slowly breathed a great deep puff into her face, and, even while she was still talking, flicked46 the match away and walked on. The ermine toque was alone; she smiled more brightly than ever. But even 85 the band seemed to know what she was feeling and played more softly, played tenderly, and the drum beat, "The Brute! The Brute!" over and over. What would she do? What was going to happen now? But as Miss Brill wondered, the ermine toque turned, raised her hand as though she'd seen someone else^ much nicer, just over There, and pattered away47. And the 90 band changed again and played more quickly, more gaily than ever, and the old couple on Miss Brill's seat got up and marched away, and such a funny old man with long whiskers48 hobbled along49 in time to the music and was nearly knocked over by four girls walking abreast50. Oh how fascinating it was! How she enjoyed it! How she loved sitting 95 here, watching it all! It was like a play. It was exactly like a play. Who could believe the sky at the back wasn't painted? But it wasn't till a little brown dog trotted on solemn and then slowly trotted off, like a little " t h e a t r e " dog, a little dog that had been drugged, that Miss Brill discovered what it was that made it so exciting. They were all on the stage. loo They weren't only the audience, not only looking on; they were acting. Even she had a part and came every Sunday. No doubt somebody would have noticed if she hadn't been there; she was part of the performance after all. How strange she'd never thought of it like that before! And yet it

46. flicked: threw 4 7. pattered away:

walked away with quick light steps

48. whiskers: moustache 49. hobbled along:

walked unsteadily 50. abreast: in a line

beside each other

El. Kirchner, Five Women in the Street (T913). 'There was

something funny

about all of them.

They were odd,

silent (...) and from

the way they stared

they looked as

though they'd just

come from dark little

rooms or even -

even cupboards!'


51. queer: strange 52. hollowed: looking

like cavities 53. high pinched: small 54. quivered: trembled 55.smoothed: rubbed to

make its surface more even

56. scarcely rose or fell: did not go up and down very much

57.moving: inspiring emotion

58. mug: face 59. whiting: type of fish 60. whisper: low voice 61. treat: something

done to please oneself 62. dashing: elegant 63. unclasped: opened

•

explained why she made such a point of starting from home at just the same time each week - so as not to be late for the performance - and it also explained why she had quite a queer5 1 , shy feeling at telling her English pupils how she spent her Sunday afternoons. No wonder! Miss Brill nearly laughed out loud. She was on the stage. She thought of the old invalid gentleman to whom she read the newspaper four afternoons a week while he slept in the garden. She had got quite used to the frail head on the cotton pillow, the hollowed52 eyes, the open mouth and the high pinched5 3 nose. If he'd been dead she mightn't have noticed for weeks; she wouldn't have minded. But suddenly he knew he was having the paper read to him by an actress! "An actress!" The old head lifted; two points of light quivered54 in the old eyes. "An actress - are ye?" And Miss Brill smoothed5 5 the newspaper as though it were the manuscript of her part and said gently: "Yes, I have been an actress for a long time." The band had been having a rest. Now they started again. And what they played was warm, sunny, yet there was just a faint chill - a something, what was it?C- not sadneSs -(no, not sadnes^ - a something that made you want to sing. The tune lifted, lifted, the light shone; and it seemed to Miss Brill that in another moment all of them, all the whole company, would begin singing. The young ones, the laughing ones who were moving together, they would begin, and the men's voices, very resolute and brave, would jo in t h e m . And then she too, she too, and the others on the benches - they would come in with a kind of a c c o m p a n i m e n t -something low, that scarcely rose or fell5 6 , something so beautiful -moving57 ... And Miss Brill's eyes filled with tears and she looked smiling at all the other members of the company. Yes, we understand, we understand, she thought - though what they understood she didn't know. Just at that moment a boy and a girl came and sat down where the old couple had been. They were beautifully dressed; they vygre in love. The hero and heroine, of course, just arrived from his father's yacht. And still soundlessly singing, still with that trembling smile, Miss Brill prepared to listen. "No, not now," said the girl. "Not here, I can't."

"But why? Because of that stupid old thing at the end there?" asked the boy. "Why does she come here at all - who wants her? Why doesn't she keep her silly old mug58 at home?" "It's her fu-fur which is so funny," giggled the girl. "It's exactly like a fried whiting5 9 ." "Ah,T)e off with you!" said the boy in an angry whisper6 0 . Then: "Tell me, ma petite cherie - " "No, not here," said the girl. "Not yet." On her way h o m e she usual ly b o u g h t a sl ice of h o n e y - c a k e at the baker's. It was her Sunday treat6 1 . Sometimes there was an almond in her slice, sometimes not . It made a great difference. I f there was an a l m o n d it was like carrying h o m e a t i n y present - a surprise -something that might very well not have been there. She hurried on the a l m o n d Sundays and struck the m a t c h for t h e ket t le in qui te a dashing6 2 way. But to-day she passed the baker's by, climbed the stairs, went into the little dark room - her room like a cupboarth- and sat down on the red eiderdown. She sat there for a long time. The box that the fur came out of was on the bed. She unclasped63 the necklet quickly; quickly without looking, laid it inside. But when she put the lid on she thought she heard something crying.



1 Why was Miss Brill glad she wore her fur?

2 Who was sharing Miss Brill's 'special seat'? Why was she show disappointed with them?

3 What had the previous week's couple talked about?

•4 What did Miss Brill notice about the other people that sat on the benches and green chairs?

5 Why did the drum beat of the band seem to say The Brute! The Brute!'?

6 When a little 'theatre' dog passed by, Miss Brill drew a conclusion about what was happening. What was it?

7 Who sat down next to Miss Brill where the old couple had been sitting?

8 What did the boy call Miss Brill? How did the girl describe her fur?

9 What did Miss Brill not do as she returned home that Sunday?

1 0 What did she hear when she put the fur back into the box?

A N A L Y S I S - C H A R A C T E R

1 Does the author tell us about Miss Brill by describing her and commenting on her actions, or ooes she us her personality through her thoughts and actions?

2 Does Miss Brill speak to anyone in the course of the story7

3 Find evidence in the text which shows that Miss RrtI is a creature of habit (i.e. does the same things o w and over again).

A Miss Brill describes other people in the park (lines 57-62). In what way does this description reflect on Vfes Brill herself?

5 Miss Brill looks forward to overhearing the conversation of strangers. What does this suggest about her own life?

6 Miss Brill is very pleased at the idea that she is an actress in a performance. What makes this idea so appealing to her?

7 The fur wrap of which Miss Brill is so proud at the beginning of the story is ridiculed by the girl who sits near her ('It's exactly like a fried whiting'). Can you see a parallel between the fur and Miss Brill? At what point in the story do the two almost become one?

8 Is Miss Brill a round or a flat character?

9 Is she static or dynamic?

1 0 Did your response to this character change in the course of the story? If so, at what point?

1 1 Consider the character's name: Miss Brill. What does it tell us about her marital status? Is this important in the context of the story? Brill makes us think of the word 'brilliant'. In what way is Miss Brill's 'brilliance' cut short in the story?

D.Tamic characters change as a result of experiences they have. Can you think of any experience you have had that has affected you deeply and made you change as a person? For example: - the influence of a negative person may have restricted your growth and your ability to express yourself; - a book you have read or a film you have seen may have given you a different insight into some important issue. Try to think of an experience that you believe was particularly significant and explain the impact it had on you as a person.


Conflict

Suspense

Subplot

Plot

The term plot refers to an author's arrangement of the events that make up a story. The plot of a work is not necessarily the same as the story. When we tell a story we generally start at the beginning and continue in a chronological order until we come to the end. Plots, however, do not always follow this pattern. Many writers choose to mix events up in order to provoke specific responses in the reader. They may, for example, start in the middle of things (in medias res) and use flashbacks or dialogue to refer to previous events. The author's choices regarding plot do not stop simply at organising the events of his tale. He must also decide when the story begins, which events should be dealt with at length, which aspects of the story can be quickly summarised and when the story should end. Time is entirely subjective. The events of several years can be condensed into a paragraph, while a complete chapter may be dedicated to a particularly significant moment. The author's aim in writing a story will direct the choices he makes, and therefore analysing these aspects of plot gives us invaluable insight into the meaning of his work. Love stories, adventure stories, detective stories, horror stories: writers never seem to run out of ideas for stories. Although each story is unique, many of them share some basic elements.

Conflict is the driving force behind many plots. It may come from: • outside: the main character may be in conflict with external forces such as his

family, society, physical hardship or nature; • within: the character may be forced to make a difficult choice, or he may have

to question his values and beliefs.

Suspense is also an important e lement in many plots. Creating suspense generally involves denying the reader immediate access to information which is essential to the full understanding of the story. The clearest example of this can be found in detective stories, where the author does not reveal the identity of the murderer until the very last moment . Suspense is often created through the careful ordering of events in the story.

In some stories the main plot is accompanied by a subplot - a second story that is complete in its own right. The subplot is usually linked in some way to events in the main plot and generally helps to deepen our understanding of it.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G PLOT

Are the events in the plot chronological? Does the plot begin at the start of the story or in medias res? What effect do these choices have on the story? Is the story based on conflict? Does the conflict come from outside or inside? What are the conflicting forces? Is suspense created in the plot? If so, how? Are there any subplots? What are their functions?

'-utgirirfrrrrwr'- miiBTOfirirfj


CASE STUDY 2 1 Graham Greene (1904-1991) is the author of novels, short stories, plays, travel books, essays and children's books. He travelled widely and used a wide range of geographical locations for his works, which often deal with people on the verge of political, social or spiritual crisis. Several of his novels have been successfidly adapted for the cinema.

The Invisible Japanese Gentlemen by Graham Greene

There were eight Japanese gentlemen having a fish dinner at Bentley's. They spoke to each other rarely in their incomprehensible tongue, but always with a courteous smile and often with a small bow1. All but one of them wore glasses. Sometimes the pretty girl who sat at the window beyond gave them a passing glance2, but her own problem seemed too s serious for her to pay real attention to anyone in the world except herself and her companion. She had thin blonde hair and her face was pretty and petite in a Regency3

way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh4 way of speaking -perhaps the accent of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies' College, 10 which she had not long ago left. She wore a man's signet ring on her engagement finger, and as I sat down at my table, with the Japanese gentlemen between us, she said, 'So you see we could marry next week.' 'Yes?' Her companion appeared a little distraught. He refilled their glasses with is Chablis and said, 'Of course, but Mother . . . ' I missed some of the conversation then, because the eldest Japanese gentleman leant across the table, with a smile and a little bow, and uttered5 a whole paragraph like the mutter6 from an aviary7, while everyone bent towards him and smiled and listened, and I couldn't help attending to him myself8. 20 The girl's f iance resembled her physically. I could see them as two miniatures hanging side by side on wood panels. He should have been a young officer in Nelson's navy in the days when a certain weakness and sensitivity were no bar to9 promotion. She said, 'They are giving me an advance10 of five hundred pounds, and 25 they've sold the paperback rights already.' The hard commercia l declaration came as a shock to me; it was a shock too that she was one of my own profession. She couldn' t have been more than twenty. She deserved better of life. He said, 'But my uncle ...' 30 'You know you don' t get on with h im. This way we shall be quite independent.' 'You will be independent,' he said grudgingly11. 'The wine-trade wouldn't really suit you, would it? I spoke to my publisher about you and there's a very good chance ... if you began with some 35 reading... ' 'But I don't know a thing about books.' 'I would help you at the start.' 'My mother says that writing is a good crutch12 ...' 'Five hundred pounds and half the paperback rights is a pretty solid 40 crutch,' she said.

GLOSSARY • -

1. bow: act of bending forward to show someone respect glance: quick look Regency: in Britain, the period 1811-1820 harsh: unpleasantly strong uttered: said mutter: very low sound of indistinct voices aviary: large bird cage attending to him myself: listening to what he was saying no bar to: not an obstacle to

10. advance: money given before a job is finished

11. grudgingly: in a way that showed resentment

12. crutch: means of support, way of earning money

7.

8.

9.

: Wf

fb* s E) 52 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

15

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

'This Chablis is good, isn't it?' 'I daresay13.' I began to change my opinion of him - he had not the Nelson touch. He was doomed to defeat. She came alongside and raked him fore and aft14 . 'Do you know what Mr. Dwight said?' 'Who's Dwight?' 'Darling, you don't listen, do you? My publisher. He said he hadn't read a first novel in the last ten years which showed such powers of observation.' 'That's wonderful,' he said sadly, 'wonderful.' 'Only he wants me to change the title.' 'Yes?' 'He doesn't like The Ever-Rolling Stream. He wants to call it The Chelsea Set.' 'What did you say?' T agreed. I do think that with a first novel one should try to keep one's publ i sher happy. Especial ly when , really he 's going to pay for our marriage, isn't he?' 'I see what you mean. ' Absent-mindedly he stirred his Chablis with a fork - perhaps before the engagement he had always bought champagne. The Japanese gentlemen had finished their fish and with very little English but with elaborate courtesy they were ordering from the middle-aged waitress a fresh fruit salad. The girl looked at them, and then she looked at me, but I think she saw only the future. I wanted very much to warn her against any future based on a first novel called The Chelsea Set. I was on the side of his mother. It was a humiliat ing thought, but I was probably about her mother's age. I wanted to say to her, Are you certain your publisher is telling you the truth? Publishers are human. They may sometimes exaggerate the virtues of the young and the pretty. Will The Chelsea Set be read in five years? Are you prepared for the years of effort, ' the long defeat of doing noth ing well'? As the years pass writing will not become any easier, the daily effort will grow harder to endure, those 'powers of observation' will become e n f e e b l e d 1 5 ; you will be judged, w h e n you reach your fort ies , by performance and not by promise. 'My next novel is going to be about St. Tropez.' 'I didn't know you'd ever been there.'

'I haven't. A fresh eye's very i m p o r t a n t . 1 t h o u g h t we might settle down there for six months. ' 'There w o u l d n ' t be m u c h left of the advance by that time.' 'The advance is o n l y an advance . I get f i f teen per c e n t after five t h o u s a n d copies and twenty per cent after ten . And of course a n o t h e r advance will be

Edward Hopper,

Nighthawks (1942).

13.1 daresay: Yes it is 14. She came alongside

... and aft: she approached him like an enemy ship, stopping beside him and firing from all sides

15.enfeebled: weakerned


due, darling, when the next book's finished. A bigger one if The Chelsea Set 90 sells well.' 'Suppose it doesn't.' 'Mr. Dwight says it will. He ought to know.' 'My uncle would start me at twelve hundred16.' 'But, darling, how could you come then to St. Tropez?' 95 'Perhaps we'd do better when you come back.' She said harshly, 'I mightn't come back if The Chelsea Set sells enough.' 'Oh.' She looked at me and the party of Japanese gentlemen. She finished her wine. She said, 'Is this a quarrel17?' 100 'No.' 'I've got the title for the next book - The Azure Blue.' 'I thought azure was blue.' She looked at him with disappointment. 'You don't really want to be married to a novelist, do you?' 105 'You aren't one yet.' T was born one - Mr. Dwight says. My powers of observation ...' 'Yes. You told me that, but, dear, couldn't you observe a bit nearer home? Here in London.' 'I've done that in The Chelsea Set. I don't want to repeat myself.' n o The bill had been lying beside them for some time now. He took out his wallet to pay, but she snatched the paper out of his reach. She said, 'This is my celebration.' 'What of?' 'The Chelsea Set, of course. Darling, you're awfully1 8 decorative, but l i s sometimes - well, you simply don't connect. ' 'I'd rather ... if you don't mind ...' 'No, darling, this is on me19 . And Mr. Dwight, of course.' He submitted just as two of the Japanese gent lemen gave tongue 2 0

simultaneously, then stopped abruptly and bowed to each other, as 120 though they were blocked in a doorway. I had thought the two young people matching miniatures, but what a contrast in fact there was. The same type of prettiness could contain weakness and strength. Her Regency counterpart21, I suppose, would have borne a dozen children without the aid of anaesthetics, while he would have fallen an 125 easy victim to the first dark eyes in Naples. Would there one day be a dozen books on her shelf? They have to be born without an anaesthetic too. I found myself hoping that The Chelsea Set would prove to be a disaster and that eventually she would take up photographic modelling while he established himself solidly in the wine-trade in St. James's22.1 didn't like to think of her as 130 the Mrs. Humphrey Ward23 of her generation - not that I would live so long. Old age saves us from the realization of a great many fears. I wondered to which publishing firm Dwight belonged. I could imagine the blurb24 he would have already written about her abrasive powers of observation. There would be a photo, if he was wise, on the back of the jacket25 , for 135 reviewers26, as well as publishers, are human, and she didn't look like Mrs. Humphrey Ward.

I could hear them talking while they found their coats at the back of the restaurant. He said, 'I wonder what all those Japanese are doing here?'

apanese?' she said, 'What Japanese, darling? Sometimes you are so 140 evasive I think you don't want to marry me at all.'

16. twelve hundred: one thousand two hundred (pounds)

17. quarrel: confrontation, argument

18. awfully: really 19. on me: for me to pay 20. gave tongue: spoke 21. Her Regency

counterpart: a woman like her in Regency times

22. St. James's: prestigious London area

23. Mrs. Humphrey Ward: dull but successful writer of popular novels

24. blurb: short description of a book's contents

25. jacket: book cover 26. reviewers: book

critics



1 Where does the story take place?

2 What are the girl and her companion discussing?

3 What is the profession of both the girl and the narrator?

4 What profession is the young man thinking of entering? What would the girl like him to do instead?

5 According to the girl, what aspect of her writing does the publisher most admire?

6 What opinion does the narrator have of writing as a profession?

7 Where does the girl wish to set her next novel? What is the title of her next book?

8 What does the narrator hope for the young woman and her fiance?

9 Had the young woman noticed the party of Japanese gentlemen at the next table?

A N A L Y S I S - P L O T

1 The author chooses as the focal point of his plot the conversation between the young girl and her fiance in Bentley's restaurant. Find references to events which took place before and which may occur after this point. The author does not present the story chronologically. He focuses on one specific moment, the conversation in the restaurant, and uses dialogue to provide important information about the past and to speculate about the future. How does this manipulation of plot influence the impact of the story? • It makes it more difficult to follow. • It heightens the tension. • It allows the writer to focus on the personality of

the characters. • It maintains the reader's interest by presenting the

story as a jigsaw puzzle that must be pieced together. • It keeps the reader guessing.

2 Conflict is an important element in this story. a. What kind of conflict is the young man

experiencing? Is it internal, external or both? b. What kind of conflict is the young girl

experiencing? c. Does the scene he witnesses provoke conflict in the

narrator?

3 Suspense is often created by denying the reader information that is essential to his understanding of a story. At what point does the reader understand the significance of the adjective 'invisible' in the title of the story?

4 In a sense, the story of the Japanese gentlemen forms a subplot to the main story. Consider the last comment made by the young girl and explain how the subplot throws a revealing light on the main story.

Conflict, both internal and external, is often an important element in plot. Consider these general conflictual situations: A. dissatifaction with the status quo fear of change B. opinion of parents -> aspirations of son or daughter C. peer pressure from friends -» personal values and beliefs Briefly outline a simple plot which would illustrate these conflictual situations. Case A has been done as an example: Roger lives in a rural community in Scotland. He comes from a modest farming family and his parents expect him to leave school and work on the farm. Roger, however, wants more from life. He wishes to complete his education and get a degree in Veterinary Science. When he has finished his secondary education he is offered a place at university in Glasgow. His parents accept his decision to leave, so Roger moves to Glasgow. He finds it hard to settle into this new environment. Life in the city overwhelms him and he finds it difficult to form friendships and relate to people. After his first year of study, he decides to return home and work on the farm.


Narrators and point of view

In fiction the author does not address the reader directly. He creates a narrator whose voice we hear as we read the story. It is from the narrator's point of view that we see events unfold. The narrator may be a strong presence in the text commenting on and interpreting the material he presents or, at the other end of the spectrum, he may be almost invisible, simply allowing the story to present itself. Narrators are divided into two broad categories: first-person narrators and third-person narrators. The category of third-person narrators is divided into three subcategories: omniscient, l imited and dramatic objective. S t r e a m of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a relatively recent development in narrative technique, may be an extension of either first or third-person narratives.

First-person narrators First-person narrators, who refer to themselves as T', tell stories in which they are directly involved. In a first-person narrative the reader's vision of the story, or point of view, is limited to what the narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or has learned second-hand from others. First-person narratives are, by definition, subjective. The only thoughts and feelings that first-person narrators experience directly are their own. The reader can never expect to see characters and events as they actually are, but only as they appear to the 'I' narrator. Therefore special attention should be paid to the personality of the first-person narrators. Are they reliable? Do they have biases and prejudices that may influence how they tell the story? In certain first-person narratives the reader can understand more than the narrator himself. This is often the case when the narrator is a child or a not very perceptive adult. By contrasting the narrator's perception of events and the reader's more informed views, the author can create humour or irony. The first-person narrative is commonly associated with non-fictional literary forms such as biographies, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity to the story. It is also perhaps the most.effective form of storytelling for getting the reader intellectually and emotionally involved.

Point of view

Third-person narrators When a story is told by someone outside the action, he is called a third-person narrator (because he refers to everybody in the story in the third person: 'he', 'she', 'they'). In this form of narration the person who is telling the story is like an observer who has witnessed what has happened, but plays no part in the events.

The omnisc ient third-person narrator is a kind of god; he is all-knowing. He knows everything about the fictional world he has created: he can read other characters' innermost thoughts, he is able to be in several places at once, he knows exactly what is going to happen and how each character will behave. He is free to tell us as much or as little as he wishes. An omniscient third-person narrator who interrupts the narrative and speaks directly to the readers is called obtrusive. He may use these intrusions to summarise, philosophise, moralise or to guide the reader's interpretat ion of events. This kind of narrator was particularly popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If the narrator does not address the reader directly he is referred to as non-obtrusive.

Omniscient point of view


Limited omniscient point of view

Dramatic or objective point of view

Stream of consciousness

Interior monologue

When an author uses a limited omniscient narrator, he chooses a character in the story and tells the story from his point of view. This character becomes the centre of revelation and the reader sees the events and other characters from his viewpoint. If the narrator moves back and forth between an omniscient viewpoint and the viewpoint of the focal character, we refer to the narrative technique as 'free indirect style'. Free indirect style is perhaps the most widely-used mode of narration in modern fiction. Limited omniscient narration involves the reader more than pure omniscient narration. By associating the narrating voice with one of the characters in the story, the author gives it an identity and therefore makes it more interesting for the reader. Also, because much of the story is told from the partial viewpoint of one of the characters, the reader gets the idea that anything can happen in the course of the novel, just as it can in real life.

When an author uses a dramatic or objective point of view, the story seems to be told by no one. This narrative technique has often been compared to a videocamera left running. The narrator does not mediate between the story and the reader. He steps aside and allows the story to present itself through setting, action and dialogue. The reader is never taken inside the minds of the characters. He is presented with material which he alone must analyse and interpret. Although the narrator does not actively participate in the storytelling, he does have an important role to play in this type of narrative. It is the narrator who decides when to turn the videocamera on and off and where to point it. He decides what material to present, and his choices will obviously affect the reader's response. The dramatic point of view is widely used by modern writers because of the impersonal and objective way it presents experience.

S t ream of consc iousness is the term applied to any attempt by a writer to represent the conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions in the mind of a character. This technique takes the reader inside the narrating character's mind, where he sees the world of the story through the thoughts and senses of the focal character. At the beginning of the twentieth century some authors, notably James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner, developed a stream of consciousness technique called interior monologue. The term is borrowed from drama, where monologue refers to the part in a play where an actor expresses his inner thoughts aloud to the audience. In fiction, an interior monologue is a record of a characters, thoughts and sense impressions. As people do not think in complete, well-formed logical sentences, Joyce, Woolf and Faulkner abandoned traditional syntax, punctuation and logical connections in order to represent the flow of a character's thoughts. For example, in Joyce's Ulysses (1922) the reader finds himself with a transcript of one of the character's thoughts which contains no commas, full stops or capital letters. The stop, start, disjointed and often illogical nature of interior monologue makes it a challenge for the reader to interpret.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G N A R R A T I V E T E C H N I Q U E Does the author use a first-person or third-person narrator1 Is the third-person narrator omniscient? If the third-person narrator is limited, does he see the story from the point of view of one of the characters in the story? Is the point of view dramatic or objectivel Does the author try to represent the thoughts of a character? What technique does he use to achieve this effect? What effect does the author's choice of narrator have on the impact of the story?

imm-y -- • ~


CASE STUDY 2 2 Irish-bom writer fames Joyce (1882-1941) is widely acclaimed for his experimentations with narrative technique. The following is a story taken from his collection Dubliners, which was published in 1916.

The Boarding House1

by James Joyce

M R S M O O N E Y was a butcher's daughter. She was a woman who was quite able to keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had married her father's foreman2 and opened a butcher's shop near Spring Gardens. But as soon as his father-in-law was dead Mr Mooney began to go to the devil. He drank, plundered the till3, ran headlong4 into debt. It was no use making him take the pledge5: he was sure to break out again a few days after. By fighting his wife in the presence of customers and by buying bad meat he ruined his business. One night he went for his wife with the cleaver6 and she had to sleep in a neighbour's house.

After that they lived apart. She went to the priest and got a separation from him with care of the children. She would give him neither money nor food nor house-room; and so he was obliged to enlist himself as a7 sheriff's man. He was a shabby8 stooped9 little drunkard with a white face and a white moustache and white eyebrows, pencilled10 above his little eyes, which were pink-veined and raw11; and all day long he sat in the bailiff's12 room, waiting to be put on a job. Mrs Mooney, who had taken what remained of her money out of the butcher business and set up a boarding-house in Hardwicke Street, was a big imposing woman. Her house had a floating13 population made up of tourists from Liverpool and the Isle of Man and, occasionally, artistes from the music halls. Its resident population was made up of clerks from the city. She governed her house cunningly14 and firmly, knew when to give credit, when to be stern15 and when to let things pass. All the resident young men spoke of her as The Madam.

Mrs Mooney's young men paid fifteen shillings a week for board and lodgings16 (beer or stout17 at dinner excluded). They shared in common tastes and occupations and for this reason they were very chummy1 8 with one another. They discussed with one another the chances of favourites and outsiders19. Jack Mooney, the Madam's son, who was clerk to a commission agent in Fleet Street, had the reputation of being a hard case20. He was fond of using soldier's obscenities: usually he came home in the small hours. When he met his friends he had always a good one to tell them and he was always sure to be on to21 a good thing - that is to say, a likely horse22 or a likely artiste23. He was also handy with the mits24 and sang comic songs. On Sunday nights there would often be a reunion in Mrs Mooney's front drawing-room. The music-hall artistes would oblige25; and Sheridan played waltzes and polkas and vamped2 6 accompaniments. Polly Mooney, the Madam's daughter, would also sing. She sang:

I'm a ... naughty27girl. You needn't sham28:

You know I am.

Polly was a slim girl of nineteen; she had light soft hair and a small full mouth. Her eyes, which were grey with a shade of green through them, had a

abit of glancing29 upwards when she spoke with anyone, which made her

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

GLOSSARY • -

2.

3.

Boarding House: guest house foreman: worker in charge of other workers plundered the till: took money from the cash register headlong: straight take the pledge: promise to stop alcohol cleaver: large butcher's knife

7. enlist himself as a: apply for the post of

8. shabby: untidy 9. stooped: with bent

and rounded shoulders 10. pencilled: drawn with

a thin line 11. pink-veined and raw:

his eyes were red and irritated

12. bailiff: public official in charge of confiscating debtors' possessions

13. floating: coming and going

14. cunningly: astutely 15. stern: firm 16. board and lodgings:

food and room 17. stout: strong dark beer 18. chummy: friendly 19. favourites and

outsiders: race horses thought most likely to win and race horses with little chance of winning respectively

20. a hard case: a hard man

21. be on to: to know, to have discovered

22. likely horse: horse with good chance of winning a race

23. likely artiste: an easy woman

24. handy with the mits: good at boxing (mits: boxing gloves)

25. would oblige: agree to sing

26. vamped: improvise 27. naughty: bad 28. sham: pretend 29. glancing: giving a

quick look


30. disreputable sheriff's man: Polly's father

31. give her the run of: put her in charge of

32. shrewd: clever 33. meant business: was

serious about Polly 34. kept her own

counsel: refrained from interfering

35.breeze: gentle wind 36. lace: decorative cloth

made of finely interwoven threads

37.ballooned: undulated 38.sashes: window

frames 39.belfry: bell tower 40. peals: loud sounds of

ringing bells 41. worshippers: people

going to church 42. circus: circular area at

the intersection of streets

43. revealing their purpose... little volumes: both their modest behaviour and the small prayer books they were holding showed that they were going to church

44. streaks: leftover slices 45. morsels: bits 46. rind: thick outer skin 47.awkward: uneasy,

embarrassed 48. in too cavalier a

fashion: indifferently 49. connived: tacitly

supported what was happening

50. that in her wise innocence-tolerance: that she was falsely innocent and she had guessed the motives behind her mother's tolerance

51. gilt: covered with gold

52. mantelpiece: shelf above a fireplace

53. through her revery: while she was lost in her thoughts

54. have the matter out: discuss the issue

55.short twelve: shorter mass service at twelve o' clock

56. outraged: shocked and offended

57. pleaded: put forward

look like a little perverse madonna. Mrs Mooney had first sent her daughter to be a typist in a corn-factor's office but, as a disreputable sheriffs man30 used to come every other day to the office, asking to be allowed to say a word to his daughter, she had taken her daughter home again and set her to do housework. As Polly was very lively the intention was to give her the run of31

the young men. Besides, young men like to feel that there is a young woman not very far away. Polly, of course, flirted with the young men but Mrs Mooney, who was a shrewd32 judge, knew that the young men were only passing the time away: none of them meant business33. Things went on so for a long time and Mrs Mooney began to think of sending Polly back to typewriting when she noticed that something was going on between Polly and one of the young men. She watched the pair and kept her own counsel34.

Polly knew that she was being watched, but still her mother's persistent silence could not be misunderstood. There had been no open complicity between mother and daughter, no open understanding but, though people in the house began to talk of the affair, still Mrs Mooney did not intervene. Polly began to grow a little strange in her manner and the young man was evidently perturbed. At last, when she judged it to be the right moment, Mrs Mooney intervened. She dealt with moral problems as a cleaver deals with meat: and in this case she had made up her mind.

It was a bright Sunday morning of early summer, promising heat, but with a fresh breeze35 blowing. All the windows of the boarding house were open and the lace36 curtains ballooned37 gently towards the street beneath the raised sashes38. The belfry39 of George's Church sent out constant peals40 and worshippers41, singly or in groups, traversed the little circus42 before the church, revealing their purpose by their self-contained demeanour no less than by the little volumes43 in their gloved hands. Breakfast was over in the boarding house and the table of the breakfast-room was covered with plates on which lay yellow streaks44 of eggs with morsels45 of bacon-fat and bacon-rind46. Mrs Mooney sat in the straw arm-chair and watched the servant Mary remove the breakfast things. She made Mary collect the crusts and pieces of broken bread to help to make Tuesday's bread-pudding. When the table was cleared, the broken bread collected, the sugar and butter safe under lock and key, she began to reconstruct the interview which she had had the night before with Polly. Things were as she had suspected: she had been frank in her questions and Polly had been frank in her answers. Both had been somewhat awkward47, of course. She had been made awkward by her not wishing to receive the news in too cavalier a fashion48 or to seem to have connived49 and Polly had been made awkward not merely because allusions of that kind always made her awkward but also because she did not wish it to be thought that in her wise innocence she had divined the intention behind her mother's tolerance50.

Mrs Mooney glanced instinctively at the little gilt5 1 clock on the mantelpiece52 as soon as she had become aware through her revery53 that the bells of George's Church had stopped ringing. It was seventeen minutes past eleven: she would have lots of time to have the matter out54 with Mr Doran and then catch short twelve55 at Marlborough Street. She was sure she would win. To begin with she had all the weight of social opinion on her side: she was an outraged56 mother. She had allowed him to live beneath her roof, assuming that he was a man of honour, and he had simply abused her hospitality. He was thirty-four or thirty-five years of age, so that youth could not be pleaded57 as his excuse; nor could ignorance be his excuse since he was a man who had seen something of the world. He had simply taken advantage of Polly's youth and inexperience: that was evident. The question was: What reparation would he make?


There must be reparation made in such cases. It is all very well for the man: he can go his ways as if nothing had happened, having had his moment of pleasure, but the girl has to bear the brunt58. Some mothers would be content 100 to patch up59 such an affair for a sum of money; she had known cases of it. But she would not do so. For her only one reparation could make up for the loss of her daughter's honour: marriage.

She counted all her cards again before sending Mary up to Mr Doran's room to say that she wished to speak with him. She felt sure she would win. 105 He was a serious young man, not rakish60 or loud-voiced like the others. If it had been Mr Sheridan or Mr Meade or Bantam Lyons her task would have been much harder. She did not think he would face publicity. All the lodgers in the house knew something of the affair; details had been invented by some. Besides, he had been employed for thirteen years in a great Catholic 110 wine-merchant's office and publicity would mean for him, perhaps, the loss of his sit61. Whereas if he agreed all might be well. She knew he had a good screw62 for one thing and she suspected he had a bit of stuff put by63.

Nearly the half-hour! She stood up and surveyed herself in the pier-glass64. The decisive expression of her great florid face satisfied her and she thought 115 of some mothers she knew who could not get their daughters off their hands.

Mr Doran was very anxious indeed this Sunday morning. He had made two attempts to shave but his hand had been so unsteady65 that he had been obliged to desist. Three day's reddish beard fringed66 his jaws and every two or three minutes a mist gathered on his glasses so that he had to take them 120 off and polish them with his pocket-handkerchief. The recollection of his confession of the night before was a cause of acute pain to him; the priest had drawn out67 every ridiculous detail of the affair and in the end had so magnified his sin that he was almost thankful at being afforded a loophole of reparation68. The harm69 was done. What could he do now but marry her or 125 run away? He could not brazen it out70. The affair would be sure to be talked of and his employer would be certain to hear of it. Dublin is such a small city: everyone knows everyone else's business. He felt his heart leap71 warmly in his throat as he heard in his excited imagination old Mr Leonard calling out in his rasping voice: Send Mr Doran here, please. 130

All his long years of service gone for nothing! All his industry7 2 and diligence thrown away! As a young man he had sown his wild oats73, of course; he had boasted74 of his free-thinking and denied the existence of God to his companions in public-houses. But that was all passed and done with... nearly. He still bought a copy of Reynolds's Newspaper75 every week but 135 he attended to his religious duties and for nine-tenths of the year lived a regular life. He had money enough to settle down on76; it was not that. But the family would look down on her. First of all there was her disreputable father and then her mother's boarding house was beginning to get a certain fame. He had a notion that he was being had77. He could imagine his friends 140 talking of the affair and laughing. She was a little vulgar; sometimes she said I seen and If I had've known. But what would grammar matter if he really loved her? He could not make up his mind whether to like her or despise78 her for what she had done. Of course, he had done it too. His instinct urged him to remain free, not to marry. Once you are married you are done for79, it said. 145

While he was sitting helplessly on the side of the bed in shirt and trousers she tapped lightly at his door and entered. She told him all, that she had made a clean breast80 of it to her mother and that her mother would speak with him that morning. She cried and threw her arms round his neck, saying: 150

- O, Bob! Bob! What am I to do? What am I to do at all?

58. bear the brunt: pay the consequences

59. patch up: repair the damage of

60. rakish: irresponsible, dissolute

61. sit: job 62. screw: income 63. stuff put by: money

saved away 64. pier-glass: large high

mirror 65. unsteady: shaky,

trembling 66. fringed: had grown

on 67. drawn out: extracted 68.magnified his sin...

reparation: made him feel so guilty that he was almost happy to have this chance to repair the damage

69. harm: damage 70. brazen it out: be

defiant, pretend he had done nothing wrong

71.leap: jump 72. industry: hard work 73. sown his wild oats:

done foolish things 74. boasted: talked

proudly of 75 .Reynolds's

Newspaper: radical newspaper

76. settle down on: to get married and start a family

7 7. he was being had: he had been conned, framed

78. despise: hate 79. done for: finished 80. clean breast: full

confession

A jam 60 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

81. feebly: weakly, unconvincingly

82. bosom: breasts 83. altogether:

completely 84. for: because 85.gust: sudden rush of

air 86. loose: not tight

around her body 87. combing jacket:

bedroom jacket 88. instep: upper part of

a foot 89. furry slippers: flat

open shoes lined with fur

90. glowed: gave out a soft light

91. steadied: adjusted 92. thoughtfulness:

. attention to his needs 93. tumbler: glass 94. tiptoe: the tip of their

toes 95.landing: area

between flights of stairs

96. hold back: resist 97. missus: (Mrs)

Mooney 98. parlour: sitting room 99. waistcoat: sleeveless

garment worn under a jacket

100. moaning: lamenting

101. dimmed with moisture: covered with vapour (from his perspiration)

102. stared upon his discomfiture: observed his uneasiness

103. pantry: small room where food is stored

104. nursing: holding carefully

105. Bass: beer 106. return-room: room

in the guest house 107. on account of:

because of 108. there was no harm

meant: he hadn't meant to insult the girl

109. bloody well: certainly

110. dipped: briefly immersed

111. amiable: enjoyable 112. nape: back 113. bed-rail: bed frame

She would put an end to herself, she said. He comforted her feebly81, telling her not to cry, that it would be all right,

never fear. He felt against his shirt the agitation of her bosom82. It was not altogether83 his fault that it had happened. He remembered well,

with the curious patient memory of the celibate, the first casual caresses her dress, her breath, her fingers had given him. Then late one night as he was undressing for bed she had tapped at his door, timidly. She wanted to relight her candle at his for84 hers had been blown out by a gust85. It was her bath night. She wore a loose86 open combing-jacket8 7 of printed flannel. Her white instep88 shone in the opening of her furry slippers89 and the blood glowed90 warmly behind her perfumed skin. From her hands and wrists too as she lit and steadied91 her candle a faint perfume arose.

On nights when he came in very late it was she who warmed up his dinner. He scarcely knew what he was eating, feeling her beside him alone, at night, in the sleeping house. And her thoughtfulness92! If the night was anyway cold or wet or windy there was sure to be a little tumbler93 of punch ready for him. Perhaps they could be happy together...

They used to go upstairs together on tiptoe94, each with a candle, and on the third landing95 exchange reclutant goodnights. They used to kiss. He remembered well her eyes, the touch of her hand and his delirium...

But delirium passes. He echoed her phrase, applying it to himself: What am I to do? The instinct of the celibate warned him to hold back96. But the sin was there; even his sense of honour told him that reparation must be made for such a sin.

While he was sitting with her on the side of the bed Mary came to the door and said that the missus97 wanted to see him in the parlour98. He stood up to put on his coat and waistcoat99 , more helpless than ever. When he was dressed he went over to her to comfort her. It would be all right, never fear. He left her crying on the bed and moaning100 softly: O my God!

Going down the stairs his glasses became so dimmed with moisture101 that he had to take them off and polish them. He longed to ascend through the roof and fly away to another country where he would never hear again of his trouble, and yet a force pushed him downstairs step by step. The implacable faces of his employer and of the Madam stared upon his discomfiture102. On the last flight of stairs he passed Jack Mooney who was coming up from the pantry1 0 3 nursing104 two bottles of Bass105. They saluted coldly; and the lover's eyes rested for a second or two on a thick bulldog face and a pair of thick short arms. When he reached the foot of the staircase he glanced up and saw Jack regarding him from the door of the return-room106.

Suddenly he remembered the night when one of the music-hall artistes, a little blond Londoner, had made a rather free allusion to Polly. The reunion had been almost broken up on account of107 Jack's violence. Everyone tried to quiet him. The music-hall artiste, a little paler than usual, kept smiling and saying that there was no harm meant108: but Jack kept shouting at him that if any fellow tried that sort of a game on with his sister he'd bloody well109 put his teeth down his throat, so he would.

Polly sat for a little time on the side of the bed, crying. Then she dried her eyes and went over to the looking glass. She dipped110 the end of the towel in the water-jug and refreshed her eyes with the cool water. She looked at I herself in profile and readjusted a hairpin above her ear. Then she went back to the bed again and sat at the foot. She regarded the pillows for a long time and the sight of them awakened in her mind secret amiable111 memories. She rested the nape112 of her neck against the cool iron bed-rail113 and fell into a J revery. There was no longer any perturbation visible on her face.


S h e w a i t e d o n pat ient ly , a l m o s t cheerful ly , w i t h o u t a larm, h e r m e m o r i e s g r a d u a l l y g i v i n g p l a c e t o h o p e s a n d v i s i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e . H e r h o p e s a n d vis ions were so in t r i ca te t h a t she n o l o n g e r saw t h e w h i t e pi l lows o n w h i c h her gaze was f ixed or r e m e m b e r e d t h a t she was wai t ing for a n y t h i n g .

At last s h e h e a r d h e r m o t h e r cal l ing. S h e started t o h e r feet a n d ran t o t h e 210 banis ters 1 1 4 .

- Polly! Polly! - Yes, m a m m a ? - C o m e d o w n , dear. M r D o r a n w a n t s speak w i t h you. T h e n she r e m e m b e r e d w h a t she h a d b e e n wai t ing for. 215

114. banisters: handrail on a staircase


1 Why did Mrs Mooney's marriage fail?

2 What did she do with t h e m o n e y from t h e butcher 's shop?

3 What kind of residents did she have in her boarding house?

4 Did Mrs M o o n e y intervene immediately when her daughter Polly started having an affair with o n e of the residents?

5 What form of reparation did Mrs M o o n e y want for the 'loss of her daughter 's honour '?

6 Line 8 9 says 'She was sure she would win' . What did she think she would win?

7 W hat had Mr Doran revealed to t h e priest in confession? W h a t had been t h e priest's reaction?

8 Why was Mr Doran reluctant to marry Polly?

9 How did Polly show Mr Doran her ' thoughtfulness ' (line 1 6 6 ) ?

1 0 W hat did Mr Doran long to do as he descended the stairs to speak to Mrs M o o n e y ?

1 1 W h o s e faces did he imagine were staring at him?

1 2 Polly s topped crying while Mr Doran went to speak to her mother. W h a t thoughts m a d e her 'almost cheerful ' (line 2 0 6 ) ?

A N A L Y S I S - P O I N T O F V I E W

1 The narrative technique in this short story is an example of free indirect style. The narrator alternates be tween an omniscient point of view and t h e viewpoints of characters in t h e story. Which characters ' points of view are represented?

2 Find at least o n e paragraph in the story where t h e point of view is predominantly - omniscient : - Mrs Mooney's : - Mr Doran's: - Polly's:

3 Why, in your opinion, does James Joyce use this type of narrative technique in his story?

• To give t h e reader greater insight into the minds of his characters .

• To make the tone of the story more de tached and scientific.

• To show h o w reality is perceived in different ways by different people.

• To allow the reader to form his own opinions about the characters and their motives.

• To add an e lement of humour to the story.

In the short story The Boarding House, James Joyce uses t h e multiple point of view of free indirect speech to help us understand t h e motives behind his characters ' decisions. Try this exper iment to develop your own ability to see things from different points of view. Work in pairs.

a. Think of a conflictual situation t h a t involved a n o t h e r person which upset , d isappointed or a n g e r e d you (for example , an a r g u m e n t with a friend, family member , teacher) .

b. Tell your partner what happened from your point of view. c. Try t o put yourself in t h e posit ion of t h e o t h e r person involved in t h e conf l ic t and explain t h e situation as

convincingly as you can from his/her point of view. d. Discuss t h e results of your e x p e r i m e n t with your partner. Have you c o m e t o a b e t t e r unders tanding of t h e

situation?

. S a 62 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Theme versus subject

Formulating theme

Supporting theme

The title of the work

Multiple themes

Theme

Theme is the central idea that directs and shapes the subject matter of a story, play or poem. It is the views of life or the insights into human experiences that the author wishes to communicate to his readers. In certain types of literature (fables, parables and propaganda pieces) the theme emerges forcefully as a moral or a lesson that the author wishes to teach, while in others the theme is embedded in the story. In the past, writers openly stated the theme of their work. They usually put the words into the mouth of a character or used an omniscient narrator to voice their opinions. If the theme of a work is clearly stated in the text, we refer to it as an overt theme. Most modern writers are reluctant to state the themes of their work openly. They prefer to encourage the readers to think and draw their own conclusions. When the theme is hidden in the action, characters, setting and language of a story, we refer to it as an implied theme.

The theme of a literary work should not be confused with the subject or the story. To say that a work is about 'love' is not identifying the theme; it is merely stating the subject matter. Saying what happens in a story is also not a way of identifying the theme; it is simply summarising the plot. The theme is the abstract, generalised comment or statement the author makes about the subject of the story. It is the answer to the question 'What does the story mean?', not 'What is the story about?'.

When formulating the theme of a literary work, hasty generalisations and cliches should be avoided. Sweeping statements about life are rarely enlightening, so writers tend to avoid them. They are more inclined to explore complex issues and propose tentative answers.

The theme of a poem, play or story should emerge from and be confirmed by the analysis of plot, characters, setting, imagery, sound features and style. If the theme that is proposed leaves certain elements unexplained, or if there are aspects of the story that do not support the theme, then it is probably incomplete or incorrect.

The tit le the author gives the work should always be taken into careful consideration when trying to identify the theme. The title often suggests the focus of the work and may provide clues about its meaning.

A single work may contain several themes and readers may identify different, even opposing themes in the same work. Any theme that is supported by the other elements of the work should be considered valid.

IIHi III »II — I

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G T H E M E

• What is the subject of the story, play or poem? What general comment is the writer making about the subject?

• How do other elements in the story support the theme? • How are the theme and the title of the story, poem or play related? • Is there more than one theme in the work?


CASE STUDY 2 3 American writer Ernest Hemingway (1898-1961) is famous for novels such as The Old Man and the Sea and A Farewell to Arms ( • Texts G18 and G19). He was also a prolific and accomplished short story writer.

Old Man at the Bridge by Ernest Hemingway

An old man with steel rimmed spectacles1 and very dusty clothes sat by the side of the road. There was a pontoon bridge2 across the river and carts, trucks, and men, women and children were crossing it. (...) But the old man sat there without moving. He was too tired to go any farther. It was my business to cross the bridge, explore the bridgehead3 beyond 5 and find out to what point the enemy had advanced. I did this and returned over the bridge. There were not so many carts now and very few people on foot, but the old man was still there. 'Where do you come from?' I asked him. 'From San Carlos,' he said, and smiled. 10 That was his native town and so it gave him pleasure to mention it and he smiled. 'I was taking care of animals,' he explained. "Oh,' I said, not quite understanding. Yes,' he said, 'I stayed, you see, taking care of animals. I was the last one 15

to leave the town of San Carlos.' He did not look like a shepherd4 nor a herdsman5 and I looked at his black dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and said, 'What animals were they?' Various animals,' he said, and shook his head. 'I had to leave them.' (...) 20 What animals were they?' I asked. There were three animals altogether,' he explained. 'There were two goats, ind a cat and there were four pairs of pigeons.' And you had to leave them?' I asked. Yes. Because of the artilllery. The captain told me to go because of the 25

artillery.' And you have no family?' I asked, watching the far end of the bridge

where a few last carts were hurrying down the slope of the bank. No,' he said,' only the animals I stated. The cat, of course, will be all right. K cat can look out for itself, but I cannot think what will become of the 30 others.' What politics have you?' I asked. I am without politics,' he said. 'I am seventy-six years old. I have come

twelve kilometres now and I think now I can go no farther.' This is not a good place to stop,' I said. 'If you can make it, there are 35 trucks up the road where it forks6 for Tortosa.' I Hill wait a while,' he said, 'and then I will go.' (...)

He looked at me very blankly and tiredly, then said, having to share his » : rry with someone, 'The cat will be all right, I am sure. There is no need : be unquiet about the cat. But the others. Now what do you think about 40 ~e others?'

they'll probably come through it all right.' /

GLOSSARY • -

1. steel rimmed spectacles: glasses with a steel frame

2. pontoon bridge: bridge built on a floating platform

3. bridgehead: position an army takes from which it can advance or attack

4. shepherd: man who looks after sheep

5. herdsman: man who looks after goats or cattle

6. forks: divides into two or more roads


7. swayed: moved 8. dully: without

emotion •

'You think so?' 'Why not?' I said, watching the far bank where now there were no carts. 'But what will they do under the artillery when I was told to leave because 45 of the artillery?' 'Did you leave the dove cage unlocked?' I asked. 'Yes.' 'Then they'll fly.' 'Yes, certainly they'll fly. But the others. It's better not to think about the 50 others,' he said. 'If you are rested I would go,' I urged. 'Get up and try to walk now.' 'Thank you,' he said and got to his feet, swayed7 from side to side and then sat down backwards in the dust. 'I was only taking care of animals,' he said dully8, but no longer to me. 55 'I was only taking care of animals.' There was nothing to do about him. It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists were advancing toward the Ebro. It was a grey overcast day with a low ceiling so their planes were not up. That and the fact that cats know how to look after themselves was all the good luck that old man would ever 60 have.


1 W h e r e was the old man sitting and why?

2 W h a t task did the narrator have to carry out?

3 W h y was the old man the last person to leave the t o w n ?

4 Why was the old man concerned about t h e animals? Which animal was he least worried a b o u t and why?

5 Did the old man support either side in t h e conflict?

6 Why did the narrator want t h e old man to move o n?

7 W h a t happened when the old man stood up to leave?

8 Is it clearly stated whether the old man survived the war or not? How do you interpret t h e final s e n t e n c e in t h e story?

A N A L Y S I S - T H E M E

1 Which of the following s ta tements best summarises the t h e m e of the short story?

• War is evil. • Even when exposed to t h e atrocities of war s o m e

people do not lose their basic humanity. • War reduces mankind to the level of animals. • Many innocent people b e c o m e victims of war. • War makes our everyday concerns seem ridiculous.

2 Focus on t h e title of the story Old Man at the Bridge. Omitt ing the article 'a/an' is typical of captions to paintings, photographs etc . In what sense is Hemingway's story similar to a painting or a photograph?

Formulate the t h e m e (not the subject ! ) of a story, poem, play or film script you would like to write. For example: elderly people are disregarded by modern society when in fact they have an invaluable contribution to make.

7+K ce r tWy-1485 'A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man, that fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.'

From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES

Beowulf

• S H

' r

Myths and legends People all over the world tell stories. They tell stories of films they have seen, books they have read or simply experiences they have had. Storytelling is as old as man himself. Long before TV or cinema or even books, it was the main form of entertainment. Stories were passed on from generation to generation and some of those ancient stories are still with us today in the form of legends, myths and folk tales.

Listen to the Canadian legend about how the sky was created and then answer the questions.

a. What shape was the earth originally? b. What did Obweji own? c. Why did Pateka go with Obweji? d. What did Obweji do with Pateka's stone necklace? e. What did Obweji do with the earth?

f. Where did Obweji go to sleep? g. Were Obwejii servants on earth sad when he died? h. How were his servants reminded of their master? i. Who did Pateka marry? j. How many children did they have?

I N

INTRODUCTION • Beowulf was writ ten in Anglo-Saxon (Old English), the language which , through the centuries, has developed into the English language we know today. As Anglo-Saxon is like a foreign language even to a nat ive speaker of English, the extracts you are going to read have been translated into modern English. The translation by Francis Gunmere (published in 1910) closely follows the origi-nal text and maintains some of its stylistic features. There is a simplified modern English translation to the right in Text B l .

t i l l

• Beowulf, as illustrated in a cartoon version by R. Crochoske (adaptation by Dr David Breeden).

THE STORY Hrothgar, king of Denmark, suffered while his kingdom was being attacked by a devouring monster, named Grendel. Grendel was protected by a magic spell and could not be hurt by weapons made by man. He lived in the wastelands, and every night he visited Hrothgar's hall carrying off and killing his guests. Beowulf lived in the nearby kingdom of Geatland. From a very early age he showed signs of great strength and extraordinary courage. He killed many sea monsters and defended his country from enemy attacks. When he heard from mariners ofGrendel's murderous attacks, he decided to help Hrothgar. He and some of his bravest followers crossed the sea to Denmark where they were welcomed by the king. A big feast was held in their honour. That night everybody slept except Beowulf. Grendel entered Hrothgar's hall and killed one of Beowulf's sleeping men. Beowulf, unarmed, fought the monster and with his great strength tore out one ofGrendel's arms at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel retreated to his home in the surrounding wastelands ( • Text Bl). Grendel's mother came to avenge her monster son's fatal injury and carried off a Danish nobleman and Grendel's torn off arm. Beowulf and his men followed the blood trail left by the arm and came to the lake where Grendel's mother had taken refuge. Beowulf plunged into the lake and swam into a chamber. He fought Grendel's mother, killing her with an old sword he found in an underwater cavern. Grendel's body was also lying in the cavern so Beowulf cut off his head and brought it back to King Hrothgar ( • Text B2).

There was a great feast in the hall to celebrate Beowulf's victory and an even greater celebra-tion when he returned to his home country, where he was made king.

Beowulf 65

After fifty years of successful reign Beowulf had to face another evil creature, a fire breathing dragon which was trying to destroy the country. Although he was very old, Beowulf slayed the dragon but he was mortally wounded in the process.

10

Beowulf Mortally Wounds (. . .) Now many an earl1

of Beowulf brandished2 blade ancestral3, fain4 the life of their lord to shield5, their praised prince, if power were theirs; never they knew, as they neared the foe6, 5 hardy-hearted heroes of war, aiming their swords on every side the accursed to kill, no keenest7 blade, no fairest of falchions8 fashioned9 on earth, could harm or hurt that hideous10 fiend11! He was safe, by his spells12, from sword of battle, from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting cm that same day of this our life woeful13 should be, and his wandering soul far off flit14 to the fiends' domain1 5 . Soon he found, who in former days, harmful in heart1 6 and hated of God, on many a man such murder wrought, that the frame of his body failed him now. For him the keen-souled kinsman1 7 of Hygelac18

held in hand; hateful alive •»as each to other. The outlaw dire19

took mortal hurt; a mighty wound showed on his shoulder, and sinews20 cracked, and the bone-frame21 burst. To Beowulf now die glory was given, and Grendel thence2 2

ieath-sick his den in the dark moor sought23 , noisome abode24 : he knew too well that here was the last of life, an end erf his days on earth. 30

Grendel Text B 1 I

o

15

20

25

Beowulf's warriors brandished many a sword, inheritances from the ancient days, trying to protect their chief, but that did no good: they could not have known, those brave warriors as they fought, striking from all sides, seeking to take Grendel's soul, that no battle sword could harm him -he had enchantment against the edges of weapons. The end of Grendel's life was miserable, and he would travel far into the hands of fiends. Grendel, the foe of God, who had long troubled the spirits of men with his crimes, found that his body could not stand against the hand grip of that warrior. Each was hateful to the other alive. The horrible monster endured a wound: the bone-locks of his shoulder gave way, and his sinews sprang out. The glory of battle went to Beowulf, and Grendel, mortally wounded, sought his sad home under the fen slope. He knew surely that his life had reached its end, the number of his days gone.

GLOSSARY

L earl: follower 2- brandish: hold and wave 1 blade ancestral: sword 4. fain: willing ; shield: protect - foe: enemy

keen: sharp • falchion: sword

9. fashion: make 10. hideous: horrendous 11. fiend: wicked or cruel

being 12.spell: magic charm 13. woeful: painful 14. flit: fly 15. (fiends') domain: hell 16. harmful in heart: evil 17. kinsman: relative

18. Hygelac: king of the Geats

19. dire: horrible 20. sinew: cord connecting

muscle to bone 21.bone-frame: skeleton 22. thence: from there 23. sought: looked for 24. noisome abode: dirty

and dark home

4 66 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry

COMPREHENS ION 1 What did Beowulf's followers try to do?

2 What did they not know about the monster?

3 What evil deeds had Grendel done in the past?

4 What part of Grendel's body did Beowulf wound?

5 Where did Grendel go after he was injured?

6 Did Grendel know that he was going to die? <N••1

ANALYS IS 1 Find expressions in Text B1 that are used to avoid the repetition of frequently recurring terms.

Beowulf line 4 praised prince line 20

Beowulf's line 1 -2 followers line 6

Grendel line 5 line 8 line 10 line 22

sword line 2 line 8 line 9

2 Rhythm* is an important stylistic element in poetry throughout all ages including the Anglo-Saxon period. The Gunmere translation you are reading tries to maintain some of the original rhythmic elements.

Listen again to the recording as you read the following extract (the stressed syllables are in bold type). Are the lines rhythmic?

Soon he found, who in former days, harmful in heart and hated of God, on many a man such murder wrought, that the frame of his body failed him now.

3 A feature which regulated the rhythm of Anglo-Saxon poety is the pause or caesura*. In original transcripts of the poem this is marked by a space while in the Gunmere translation it is represented by a comma.

Tha come of more under misthleotum then came from the moor, under the mist-hills

Grendel gotigan Codes yrre baer Grendel stalking, he bore God's anger.

Find examples of lines in Text B1 where Gunmere has tried to reproduce the original caesura by dividing the line with a comma, colon, semi-colon or full stop.

A modern day Beowulf prepares to do battle with Grendel (from the film Beowulf starring Christoph Lambert (1999).

Beowulf 5

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Alliteration Now many an earl

of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral

One of the most important stylistic elements of Anglo-Saxon poetry is alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning or in the middle of two or more words. Anglo-Saxon poetry was recited, often accompanied by music, in front of an audience. Alliteration gave the language a musical quality. It also played the same role as rhyme in later poetry; it helped the poet and the audience to memorise the poem. Alliteration is still widely used in modern English. Songs, nursery rhymes, newspaper headlines and advertisements often contain alliteration.

1 Underline other examples of alliteration in Text B1.

2 Examine the headlines below and find examples of alliteration.

Four-legged friend's five mountain Marathon SMALL SCREEN STAR

DVD format gives you souncTvision + m mm » m ^ • . . . ^ _ ^

3 Find more examples of alliteration in headlines in English newspapers or in advertisements.

4 Underline examples of alliteration in this verse from the Elvis Costello song Shipbuilding. The result of this shipbuilding With all the will in the world Diving for dear life When we could be diving for pearls It's just a rumour that was spread around town A telegram or a picture postcard

: •> Are there any examples of alliteration in songs that you know?

il legends have become very popular in today's computer games because of their mix of magic, adventure conquest. The monsters, dragons, magic rings, capes of invisibility, secret potions and the motives of love,

si and vengeance have all been reproduced in these games to entertain today's players. Have you ever played •# these games? What were the features you enjoyed?

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BE M


Text B 2 Beowulf Kills Grendel's Mother

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'Mid1 the battle-gear2 saw he a blade triumphant, old-sword of Eotens3, with edge of proof, warriors' heirloom4, weapon unmatched, - save only 'twas more than other men to bandy5-of-battle could bear at all -as the giants had wrought6 it, ready and keen. Seized then its chain-hilt7 the Scyldings'8 chieftain, bold and battle-grim9, brandished10 the sword, reckless of life11, and so wrathfully12 smote13

that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard, her bone-rings breaking: the blade pierced through that fated-one's flesh: to floor she sank. Bloody the blade: he was blithe14 of his deed15. Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within as when from the sky there shines unclouded heaven's candle. The hall he scanned. By the wall then went he; his weapon raised high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane16, angry and eager. That edge was not useless to the warrior now. He wished with speed Grendel to guerdon17 for grim raids many, for the war he waged on Western-Danes oftener far than an only time, when of Hrothgar's hearth18-companions he slew19 in slumber20, in sleep devoured, fifteen men of the folk of Danes, and as many others outward bore, his horrible prey. Well paid for that the wrathful prince! For now prone21 he saw Grendel stretched there, spent22 with war, spoiled23 of life, so scathed24 had left him Heorot's25 battle. The body sprang far when after death it endured the blow, sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.

GLOSSARY

1. 'Mid (amid): in the middle of

2. battle-gear: weapons 3. Eotens: ancient

Scandinavian tribe 4. heirloom: object that has

been handed down from generation to generation

5. bandy: give and take blows

6. wrought: shaped

7. hilt: handle 8. Scyldings: descendants of

Scyld Shefing, founder of the Geat dynasty

9. grim: serious 10. brandish: hold and wave 11. reckless of life: fearless for

his own safety 12. wrathfully: angrily 13. smote: hit hard 14. blithe: happy 15. deed: action

10

'... the Scyldings' chieftain, bold and battle-grim ...'

16. thane: lord 17. guerdon: pay back,

recompense 18. hearth: fireplace 19. slew: killed 20. slumber: sleep 21. prone: lying flat 22. spent: exhausted 23. spoiled: devoid, without 24. scathed: injured, wounded 25.Heorot: Hrothgar's dining

hall

Beowulf 69


1 Who made the sword that Beowulf found?

2 Why had other men been unable to carry it into battle?

3 Which part of Crendel's mother's body did Beowulf strike?

4 What happened that made it possible for Beowulf to see the body of Grendel in the cave?

ANALYSIS

1 Find examples of alliteration in the text. 2 Weapons were an essential part of life in the historical period in which Beowulf is set. Only men who belonged to the higher classes of society could possess a weapon. Slaves and servants were not

5 Why did Beowulf want to take further revenge on Grendel?

6 How many of Hrothgar's men had Grendel killed?

7 Was Grendel still alive at this point?

8 How did Beowulf mutilate the monster's body?

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allowed to have them. They were often personalised with names and handed down from generation to generation. Find evidence in the text to suggest that weapons were highly valued by Anglo-Saxon society.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P Another feature of Anglo-Saxon poetry is the f o r m u l a e . These were widely used compound nouns or short phrases that were synonyms for often repeated words like 'ship', 'sea', 'king' or names. As the poems were often composed on the spot about a recent event, formulae gave the poet time to think. The word 'king' for example could be replaced by:

beaga brytta = the ring giver sinces brytta = the treasure giver freowine = a gracious friend

1 What expressions are used in Text B2 to avoid the repetition of: Beowulf: line 7: ; line 18: ; line 29: Grendel's mother: line 12: sword: line 1: ; line 3:

Formulae are not simply synonyms, as each of them stressed a different aspect of the thing described.

2 Look at both the texts you have read so far. Make a list of the formulae you have found for Beowulf. What characteristics of the hero do they emphasise?

The most unusual formulae are known as kennings . These are metaphorical phrases that are used instead of a noun. For example, a ship was a 'sea-wood' or a 'wave-floater', a body was 'bone-house' and blood was 'war-sweat'.

3 Find a kenning in the texts you have read for: - body (Text B1, line 25): - sun (Text B2, line 16):

Write your own kennings for the following: winter, summer, school, love, home, money, teacher, car. Example: Christmas = snow-holiday

A status symbol is an object which shows that the person who owns it has a high social status. Beowulf's magnificent sword is a status symbol because it shows that he is the greatest warrior of his day. In our society there are many status symbols such as big cars, yachts or even the things we wear. Try to think of at least four objects that are regarded as status symbols today.

OVER T O Y O U

Medieval Poetr The Bailad

The following ballad is one of the best known traditional English ballads and has been sung in different versions, over hundreds of years, right up to the present day.

Listen to it and answer the questions. a. What sad event does the young man announce in

the opening stanza? b. How does the weather reflect his state of mind? c. What does the young man decide to do?

d. After how long does the ghost start to speak? e. What does the young man want from her? f. What will happen if the young man kisses her? g. Do you think they will meet again and if so, when?

GLOSSARY

unquiet: restless, agitated, anxious slain: killed, dead mourn: grieve crave: desire very strongly clay: material from which bricks and pots are made 'My breath ... strong': my breath smells badly yonder: over there grove: wood Is wither'd to a stalk: all the petals are dead and only the stem is left

Q The Unquiet1 Grave Cold blows the wind to my true love And gently drops the rain I never had but one true love And in Greenwood she lies slain2.

I'll do as much for my sweetheart 5 As any young man may; I'll sit and mourn3 all on her grave For a twelvemonth and a day.

When the twelvemonth and a day is past The ghost began to speak; 10 'Why sit you here upon my grave, And will not let me sleep?'

'There's one thing that I want, sweetheart, There's one thing that I crave4, And that is a kiss from your lily-white lips, 15 Then I'll go from your grave.'

'My breast it is as cold as clay5, My breath smells earthly strong6

And if you kiss my cold clay lips Your days they won't be long.' 20

(...) 'O down in yonder7 grove8, sweetheart, Where you and I did walk, The first flower that I ever saw Is wither'd to a stalk9.

The stalk is wither'd and dry, sweetheart, 25 And the flower will never return And since I lost my own sweetheart, What can I do but mourn?

When shall we meet again, sweetheart? When shall we meet again?' 30 'When the autumn leaves that fall from the trees Are green and spring up again Are green and spring up again.'

The Ballad 9 Q B ^

INTRODUCTION • Ballads are short folk songs that tell a story. The word 'ballad' comes from the late Latin ballare (to dance), so 'ballad' originally meant a song with a dance. They are anonymous works composed in simple language by unlettered authors and handed down orally from generation to gene-ration. Singers who learned the ballads often made changes to both the text and the tune and therefore popular ballads exist in many different versions. Ballads were very popular in England throughout the Middle Ages.

Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford Text B 3

Robin Hood is a legendary English outlaw. He and his men lived in a forest, which may ha\e been Sherwood Forest near Nottingham, from where they attacked and robbed rich travellers. They became folk heroes because they did not injure their victims and never tabbed from the poor. Robin, with the help of one of his best men, Little John, invites the Bishop of Hereford into Barnsdale Wood for a drink. The Bishop is in for a surprise.

Others they may tell you of bold1 Robin Hood, Derry, derry, down! Or else of the barons bold, But I'll tell you how they served2 the Bishop, When they robbed him of his gold. 5 Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Robin Hood, he dressed him in shepherd's attire3, Derry, derry, down! .And six of his men also, And, when the Bishop he did come by, 10 They around the fire did go. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

We are but poor shepherds' quoth4 bold Robin Hood, Derry, derry, down! And keep sheep all the year, 15

But we've resolved to taste to-day of the best of our King's deer.' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Thou'rt5 a merry fellow;' the old Bishop said, Derry, derry, down! 20 'The King of thy deeds6 shall know; Therefore make haste7, come along with me, For before the King shalt go!' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

o GLOSSARY • -

1. bold: brave, courageous served: treated, tricked attire: clothing quoth: said Thou'rt: you are deeds: actions make haste: hurry up

fit The legend of Robin Hood is not based on historical fact, although there is that in 1230 law enforcers in Yorkshire tried to capture an outlaw called Robin Hood. The theme of rebellion against the unjust ruling class, seen in the legends of Robin Hood, was popular in literature throughout Europe at that time. He has been the subjt of several films, including Robin Hood, Prince of thieves (1991), starring Kevin Costnei


8. bugle horn: small trumpet

9. score: twenty 10. trusty: loyal 11.Barnsdale: a wood 12. sup: eat

Robin Hood he set then his back to an oak, Derry, derry, down! His foot against a thorn, And underneath from his shepherd's cloak Pulled out a bugle horn8. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Robin put the small end against his lips, Derry, derry, down! And loudly a blast did blow, Till full six score9 of his trusty10 men Came a-running in a row. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

'What's the matter, master?' says Little John, Derry, derry, down! 'You call us so hastily.' 'Oh! Here's the Bishop of Hereford, For to-day he passes by.' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Robin Hood he took then the old Bishop's hand, Derry, derry, down! And led him to gay Barnsdale11, And made him sup12 at his board that night, Where they drank wine, beer and ale. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

25

30

35

40

45

Daniel Madise, Robin Hood and His Merry Men (1845).

*

The Bal lad 11

'Call me in the reck'ning1 3 ' the Bishop then said, Derry, derry, down! 'I'm sure it's growing high' 'Lend me your purse, Sir' said Little John, 'And I'll tell you by and by:' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Little John he took then the old Bishop's cloak, Derry, derry, down! And spread it on the ground And from the Bishop his portmanteau1 4

He told15 five hundred pound. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Little John he took then the old Bishop's hand, Derry, derry, down! And called for the pipes to play, .And made the Bishop to dance in his boots; He went gladly on his way. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

5 0

5 5

60

65

13. in the reck'ning: when it is time to pay

14. portmanteau: bag 15. told: took

COMPREHENS ION 1 How did Robin disguise himself to trick the Bishop?

2 What did he tell the Bishop he was going to do?

3 Where did Robin and his men take the Bishop and what did they do?

4 What did the Bishop offer to do in return for Robin Hood's hospitality?

5 Did the Bishop realise that Robin Hood and his men had stolen his money?

ANALYSIS 1 Identify the lines where the singer/narrator speaks durectly to the listener/reader. What is the purpose of these lines? • To introduce the story. • To provide biographical details about Robin Hood. • To introduce the singer. • To involve the listener/reader by creating

expectations.

2 The story is told through narrative and dialogue*. find examples of both.

3 What evidence is there in the text that Robin Hood was well-loved and respected by his men? <'.hich of the following does Robin Hood use to trick

Bishop? • Intelligence • Flattery • Violence « Bribery • Blackmail • Cunning

4 The Bishop may be seen as representing the church of the Middle Ages. Is his behaviour in the story fitting for a man of God?

5 The line 'Derry, derry, down!...' is repeated throughout the poem. What effect does it have?

6 Some of the grammatical structures used in the poem would be considered unusual in modern English, for example 'Robin Hood, he dressed him' (line 7) instead of 'Robin Hood dressed himself'. Find other examples.

7 What is the rhyming scheme of the poem (omit lines which are repeated: 'Derry derry down')? Is it regular throughout?

S O Listen again to the recording of the poem. Is the rhythm of the ballad regular?

4 1 2 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry

Stock images

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P W h i l e other forms of poetry are characterised by individual or original figures of speech, the ballad employs 'ready-made' images which are referred to as stock images. Examples of stock images are 'snow-white skin', 'bold knights' , 'merry maidens ' . Stock images were used because:

• they were easier to memor ise and gave the singer more t ime to manipulate the

story of the ballad;

• because they were familiar to the listener and they were easier to understand. As bal lads b e l o n g e d to an oral t radi t ion , l is teners did n o t h a v e t i m e to in terpret original or complex imagery.

Find an example of stock imagery in The Unquiet Crave and Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford.

OVER T O Y O U Link the words in A to the words in B to create stock images.

A B

milk red rose white ruby knight cherry sword blood ladies lily water gallant royal coral

Today in many respects pop songs have taken the place of ballads. Choose one or two pop songs you know and examine the lyrics. Are there any strikingly original images? Can you think of any stock phrases or images that are widely used in pop/rock songs? ('Come on everybody', 'Ooh baby', 'My heart went boom/bang', etc.)

Ballads are social documents. They give us an insight into what life was like in England at the time they were written. In five hundred years' time, when people listen to songs that were composed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, what will they learn about us? Try to think of at least one famous song and what it will tell people in 2500.

The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer 13

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

A pen-picture is a detailed and accurate description of a person in words. Firstly, you describe the person physically, and then you give details about his or her personality, interests and abilities.

Choose someone you know personally, or a famous person you know a lot about, and write a pen-picture as follows:

STEP ONE - Fill in the following notes:

1 Name: 5 Body:

2 Age: 6 Personality:

3 Job: 7 Skills and abilities:

4 Face: hair, eyes, nose, mouth, ears 8 Likes and dislikes:

STEP T W O - Using the information in Step One, write a pen-picture. Paragraph one should cover points 1-5 , while paragraph two should cover points 6 -8 .

knight

INTRODUCTION • G o i n g on pilgrimages in Medieval England was a way of c o m b i n i n g religion with pleasure. People from m a n y different walks of life would form a group, travel b y cart and on foot to a holy shrine, stay there for a while and then go back h o m e together. There was a hol iday a tmosphere i b o u t p i l g r i m a g e s b e c a u s e for most people it was the only t ime pRan of Owe t h e y c o u l d get a w a y f r o m t h e drudgery of their daily routine. In The Canterbury Tales a group of rilgrims is on its way to visit one of England's most famous cathe-drals in t h e s o u t h e r n c i t y of Canterbury. It is a varied group representing a good cross-section : f English society of the day.

Rcve pnoreaee

fRillcr

Sfnpman

Chaucer on the road with some of his characters.

THE PROLOGUE n The Prologue' we are introduced to the pilgrims individually and Chaucer writes a pen-~ssire of each one of them. Several members of religious orders form part of the group. In ~ixts B4 and B5 we are introduced to two female characters who are connected with the *rrld of religion: a Prioress, who is the head nun in a convent (priory), and a wealthy » »nan who is - apparently - very religious.

: The Canterbury Tales were written in an archaic form of English which is difficult to under-Tlie following modem versions of Chaucer's texts were written by Nevill Coghill. TextBS shows - $ original version alongside the modern version.

* 'f -J* l ^ t l

' ^ • D , , 14 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

o Text B 4

• Visual Link B7

- • GLOSSARY

a St Loy: A saint who was rather controversial because he became rich by collecting religious relics.

b Stratford-atte-Bowe: The site of a monastery near London where the monks and nuns spoke a form of Norman French that was very different from classical French.

1. coy (Middle English): quiet

2. oath: swearword 3. she sang a service:

she sang religious songs seemly: proper, correct daintily: delicately After: in the style of meat: table well taught: polite withal: as well

10. morsel: piece of food 11. zest: interest 12. sedately: calmly 13. straining: trying very

hard 14. counterfeit: imitate 15.stately bearing:

aristocratic posture 16. dealings: behaviour 17. solicitous: kind to

others 18. made it smart:

caused it pain 19. fair of spread: wide

The Prioress There also was a Nun, a Prioress, Her way of smiling very simple and coy1. Her greatest oath2 was only 'By St Loy!a, And she was known as Madam Eglantyne. And well she sang a service3, with a fine 5 Intoning through her nose, as was most seemly4, And she spoke daintily5 in French, extremely, After6 the school of Stratford-atte-Boweb; French in the Paris style she did not know. At meat7 her manners were well taught8 withal9; 10 No morsel10 from her lips did she let fall, Nor dipped her fingers in the sauce too deep; But she could carry a morsel up and keep The smallest drop from falling on her breast. For courtliness she had a special zest11, is And she would wipe her upper lip so clean That not a trace of grease was to be seen Upon the cup when she had drunk; to eat, She reached a hand sedately12 to the meat. She certainly was very entertaining, 20 Pleasant and friendly in her ways, and straining13

To counterfeit14 a courtly kind of grace, A stately bearing15 fitting to her place, And to seem dignified in all her dealings16. As for her sympathies and tender feelings, 25 She was so charitably solicitous17

She used to weep if she saw but a mouse Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bleeding. And she had little dogs she would be feeding With roasted flesh, or milk, or fine white bread. 30 And bitterly she wept if one were dead Or someone took a stick and made it smart18; She was all sentiment and gentle heart. Her veil was carried in a seemly way, Her nose was elegant, her eyes glass-grey; Her mouth was very small, but soft and red, Her forehead, certainly, was fair of spread19,

Portrait of the Prioress from the 15th-century Ellesmere manuscript of The Canterbury Tales.

The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer

!H&iilLk '

Almost a span20 across the brows2 1 ,1 own2 2 ; She was indeed by no means undergrown23. Her cloak2 4 ,1 noticed, had a graceful charm. 40 She wore a coral trinket25 on her arm, A set of beads, the gaudies26 tricked27 in green, Whence 2 8 hung a brooch 2 9 of brightest sheen30 , On which there first was graven31a crowned A, And lower, Amor vincit omnia32. 45

20. span: the width of a hand 21. brows: eyebrows

22. own: say 23. undergrown: short

24. cloak: coat without sleeves 25. trinket: kind of rosary bracelet

26. gaudies: the eleventh bead on a string of rosary beads

27. tricked: decorated 28. whence: from which 29. brooch: piece of

jewellery 30. of brightest sheen:

very shiny 31. graven: engraved, cut 32. Amor vincit omnia:

Love conquers all

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What did people call the Prioress?

2 What language did she speak?

3 How did she behave at table?

4 What did she try to imitate?

5 Find information in the text about the following traits of her physical appearance: nose: eyes: mouth: forehead: height:

6 How does the Prioress show that she loved animals?

7 It was against convent rules for nuns to uncover their forehead. Did the Prioress respect the rule? Give a line reference.

8 Describe the rosary beads which the Prioress wore on her arm. What hung in the place of a crucifix?

ANALYS IS 1 The narrator's description of the Prioress's table manners is very detailed. Underline the expressions which suggest that the Prioress is very refined at table.

2 The narrator draws attention to the fact that the Prioress does not drop the tiniest particle of food or sauce and leaves no trace of grease on her glass. In your opinion does this suggest that he admires the Prioress's refinement or is he making fun of her preoccupation with table manners?

3 Focus on the lines which refer to the Prioress's love of small animals. a. How does she react if she sees a mouse caught in a

trap? In your opinion, is her reaction fitting or is the narrator making fun of her?

b. According to monastic rule, nuns could not keep pets. Does the Prioress obey this rule?

c What does the Prioress feed her small dogs? Considering the fact that many people died of hunger in this period, is it fair to say that the Prioress s more concerned about animals than men?

4 The Prioress does not respect the rule which stated that nuns should cover their forehead. What does this suggest about her attitude towards how she looks?

5 The golden brooch which hangs from the Prioress's rosary beads was also against convent rules. Focus on the inscription Amor vincit omnia. Considering what you know about the Prioress do you think Amor refers to sensual or spiritual love?

6 Find evidence in the text to suggest that the Prioress was attracted by the upper social classes and wished to imitate them.

7 'Eglantyne' was a popular name for heroines in medieval romances. Why do you think people called the Prioress by this name? Is it an appropriate name for the head of a priory of nuns?

8 The Prioress's favourite exclamation is 'By St Loy'. Saint Loy was accused of having inappropriate worldly interests. Could the Prioress be accused of having the same weakness? Refer to the text in your answer.

I D

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$ , 16 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poe t r y

mm

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P

Irony I rony can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else. It is very common in every day speech (for example, when we say 'that was a clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish') and it is also widely used in literature. Writers generally use irony to criticise a subject indirectly. They often pretend to sympathise with a character when they are, in fact, exposing their weaknesses. Chaucer, for example, gives the impression that he is charmed by the ladylike manners and sophisticated appearance of the Prioress. However, while he praises her he also includes details which he knows the reader will find unfi t t ing for a woman of her position. The text, therefore, has two levels of meaning: a superficial level at which Chaucer expresses his admirat ion for the Prioress and a deeper level at which he playfully makes fun of her.

Irony allows a writer to criticise in an indirect way. The writer cannot be 'accused' of attacking the subject as there is no clear evidence of this in the text . Chaucer, for example, seems to praise the Prioress - he leaves it entirely up to the reader to find reasons to criticise her.

TASKS 1 Underline words or phrases in the text that suggest that Chaucer admires the Prioress.

2 Make a list of the aspects of the Prioress that you find inappropriate for a nun.

OVER T O Y O U Write a short ironic text about someone who is familiar to your classmates, i.e. a famous person, a teacher, a student.

STEP ONE - Write a list of five things that everybody knows to be true about the person in question. Example: 7. He is almost always late for class

2. ...

STEP TWO - Write the opposite of each of the statements in Step One. Example: 7. He is never late for class

2. ...

STEP THREE - Write a short text that includes the points in Step Two and read them aloud in class.

The Prioress has perfect manners and always behaves in an appropriate way when in the company of others. Does this mean she is a perfect individual? Does the way we act in public automatically reveal what kind of person we really are? Discuss with the rest of the class.

The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer 1 7

The Wife of Bath1 Text B 5 Q A worthy woman from beside Bath city Was with us, somewhat deaf2, which was a pity. In making cloth she showed so great a bent3

She bettered those of Ypres and of Ghent 4 . In all the parish not a dame dared stir5

Towards the altar steps in front of her. And if indeed they did, so wrath6 was she As to be quite put out of charity7. Her kerchiefs8 were of finely woven ground9, 1 dared have sworn10 they weighed a good ten pound The ones she wore on Sunday, on her head. Her hose11 were of the finest scarlet red And gartered12 tight; her shoes were soft and new. Bold13 was her face, handsome and red in hue1 4 . A worthy woman all her life, what's more She's had five husbands, all at the church door, Apart from other company in youth; No need just now to speak of that, forsooth15 . And she had thrice been to Jerusalem, Seen many strange rivers and passed over them; She'd been to Rome and also to Boulogne16 , St James of Compostella17 and Cologne1 8 , And she was skilled in wandering by the way19. She had gap-teeth20, set widely, truth to say. Easily on an ambling21 horse she sat Well wimpled22 up, and on her head a hat As broad as is a buckler23 or a shield; She had a flowing mantle that concealed Large hips, her heels spurred24 sharply under that, In company she liked to laugh and chat And knew the remedies for love's mischances, An art in which she knew the oldest dances.

A good wif was ther of biside bathe, But she was somdel deef, and that was

scathe. Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an

5 haunt, She passed hem of ypres and of gaunt. In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon; And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she, That she was out of alle charitee.

10 Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground; I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound That on a sonday weren upon hir heed. Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed, Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and

newe. 15 Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of

hewe. She was a worthy womman al hir lyve: Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve, Withouten oother compaignye in youthe, -But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe. And thries hadde she been at jerusalem; She hadde passed many a straunge strem; At rome she hadde been, and at boloigne, In galice at seint-jame, and at coloigne. She koude muchel of wandrynge by the weye. Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye. Upon an amblere esily she sat, Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat As brood as is a bokeler or a targe; A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large, And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe.

30 In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe. Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce, For she koude of that art the olde daunce.

I

20

25

• Visual Link B7

GLOSSARY

1. Bath: important centre for the cloth trade in medieval England

2. somewhat deaf: she will later explain that this was due to a blow she received from her fifth husband

3. bent: natural talent -S. Ypres and Ghent:

important Flemish weaving centres

v stir: move wrath: angry

7. charity: In the Middle Ages people went up to the altar in order of social importance with gifts which they made themselves. Chaucer plays on the expression 'out of charity' which means very angry and also that the Wife of Bath would no longer offer her gift to the church

8. kerchiefs: head-coverings 9. ground: material 10.1 dared have sworn: 1 am

almost sure 11. hose: stockings

12. gartered: tied 13. Bold: proud 14. hue: colour 15. forsooth: to tell the truth 16. Boulogne: pilgrims went to

pray to the image of the Virgin Mary

17. St James of Compostella: shrine of St James in Galicia in western Spain

18. Cologne: In Germany. It housed the shrine of the three wise men and St. Ursula

19. wandering by the way: this suggests that she did

not always stay on the 'straight and narrow way' of the church

20. gap-teeth: wide spaces between her front teeth. It was believed to be a sign of low moral standards

21. ambling: walking 22. wimpled: wearing a

covering for the head and neck

23. buckler: a small circular shield

24: spurred: with sharp points

•

18 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Fill in the table with details from the text about the Wife of Bath's physical appearance and way of dressing.

Face:..,

Teeth:.

Hips:...

Headkerchief:

Stockings: ....

Shoes:

Hat:

Mantle:

Spurs:

2 What was the Wife of Bath's profession?

3 How many times had she been married?

4 Underline the names of places she had visited on pilgrimages.

ANALYS IS 1 Certain information in the text seems to suggest that the Wife of Bath was a religiously devout person. In which lines does the narrator say that she: - attended mass and communion: lines - was married in church: lines - went on many pilgrimages: lines The narrator adds details that make the reader question the Wife of Bath's sincerity and devotion. Find information that contradicts the image of the Wife of Bath as a holy and devout christian. Complete the following sentences: - she attended mass and communion b u t . . . - she was married in church. However... - she went on many pilgrimages because ...

2 The medieval church ordered women to cover their hair so that it would not distract men during the services. Did the Wife of Bath choose her headwear out of a sense of modesty? Find other examples of her vanity and desire to be at the centre of attention.

3 In lines 18, 23 and 32 the narrator makes indirect references to the fact that the Wife of Bath led an active sex life. Explain what is implied in each of these sentences.

4 In the Middle Ages gapped-teeth were considered to be a sign of: • boldness • falseness • gluttony • lasciviousness Which of these characteristics does the Wife of Bath have?

5 Which adjective is used twice to describe the Wife of Bath? Is it used straightforwardly or ironically?

6 Although the narrator seems to imply that the Wife of Bath has many defects do you get the impression that he dislikes her? Which of the following may be considered to be her saving graces? Justify your choices by referring to the text. She is: • independent • extrovert • sociable • generous • attractive • sincere • successful H wealthy • sexually active • strong-willed • modest • vivacious


TASK

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same sounds at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions: • it adds a musical quality to the poem; • it shows the poet's ability to manipulate the language; • in poems such as The Canterbury Tales, which was composed for performance before

an audience, it serves the important function of indicating where one line ends and another begins and it makes the poem easier to remember for both the performer and the audience.

Listen to the recording of the original Middle English version of The Wife of Bath and read the text. Work out the rhyming scheme by writing the same letter of the alphabet beside words that rhyme. Is the rhyming scheme regular throughout?

Rhyme in a poem or song is most effective when it is original and striking. Rhymes that are worn or predictable ('love/above', 'my lady/my baby') are tiring and uninteresting. Read the song lyrics and poem below and say whether you think the rhymes are worn or effective:

There was something in the air that night The stars were bright, Fernando They were shining there for you and me For liberty, Fernando

(Fernando, by Abba)

Here lies my wife: here let her lie

Now she's at rest, and so am I

(John Dryden)

Think of songs or poems that you know where the rhyme is worn or effective.

?

• D D When the Wife of Bath goes to church it is as if she is taking part in a fashion parade. Can you think of other occasions when people overdress because they want to impress people? Think of an example and tell your dassmates.


The pilgrims having a meal (engraving by Wynklyn de Wörde, 1478).

On their way to Canterbury the pilgrims stop at an inn. The owner of the inn asks each of the pilgrims to tell two stories on their way to Canterbury and another two stories on their way back. The person who tells the best tale will have a free dinner. There are twenty-four tales in all because the work is incomplete.

The fox addresses Chanticleer.

The Nun's Priest's Tale The Nun's Priest's Tale is an English version of a fable that was well-known all over Europe. The proud, vain cock, the dom-ineering hen and the crafty, shrewd fox were easily recognisable stock characters that English and continental audiences could identify with.

A cock called Chanticleer lives in a farmyard with his seven wives. One night he has a nightmare in which he sees an animal coming to attack him. He is very frightened and wakes up shouting and sweating but one of his wives, Lady Pertelote, accuses him of being a coward (• Text B6). One day a fox enters the farmyard intent on capturing Chanticleer. He tells the cock that he has the most beautiful voice he has ever heard and asks him to sing, fust as he starts singing, the fox grabs him by the throat and carries him off (• Text B7). The farmer's wife, her daughters and all the farm animals run after the fox in an attempt to save Chanticleer and, just when all seems lost, he manages to escape. He tells the fox that he should stop and tell the creatures who are chasing him to give up because they will never be able to catch him. The fox thinks this is a good idea, but the moment he stops, Chanticleer flies up to the safety of a tree. He has learnt his lesson and will never listen to a flatterer again.


Lady Pertelote Speaks her Mind ii Lady Pertelote accuses Chanticleer of being a coward because he is frightened of his dream.

'For shame1 ' she said, 'you timorous poltroon2!

Alas, what cowardice! By God above, You've forfeited3 my heart and lost my love. I cannot love a coward, come what may. For certainly, whatever we may say, 5 .All women long 4 - and O that it might be! -For husbands tough5 , dependable and free, Secret, discreet, no niggard6, not a fool That boasts7 and then will find his courage cool At every trifling8 thing. By God above, 10 How dare you say for shame, and to your love, That anything at all was to be feared? Have you no manly heart to match your beard? tad can a dream reduce you to such terror?'

u s Q

• Visual Link B7

GLOSSARY • -

1. For shame: you should be ashamed of yourself

2. poltroon: coward 3. forfeited: given up,

lost 4. long (for): want 5. tough: strong 6. niggard: mean person 7. boasts: talks proudly 8. trifling: unimportant,

insignificant

COMPREHENSION 1 How does Lady Pertelote react when Chanticleer •pfs her of his terrifying dream?

2 What kind of husbands do all women want according to Lady Pertelote?

3 What kind of 'fool' does Lady Pertelote detest?

4 Why does Lady Pertelote accuse Chanticleer of having no manly heart?

ANALYSIS 1 When Lady Pertelote discovers what has frightened Chanticleer she abuses him verbally. Find line references in the text.

ifre calls him insulting names.

Line(s)

She compares him to a fool.

Line(s)

She tells him she can TO longer love him.

Line(s)

5he accuses him of not laving a brave heart.

Line(s)

2 Lady Pertelote's speech is punctuated by ^«damations. Underline some examples in the text. What do they reveal about her feelings?

3 -tow would you describe Lady Pertelote's attack? Savage Exaggerated • Humiliating -easonable 8 Appropriate • Heartless Other:

•: _ d you agree that the text reverses traditional male " : "emale roles? Does this make the text humourous?

4 The Nun's Priest's Tale is an example of a beast fable*. This narrative form features animals that behave and speak as human beings. Which of the following adjectives that are usually associated with human beings would you use to describe Lady Pertelote? • Nagging • Independent • Strong-willed • Courageous • Confident B Insensitive • Other: Discuss you choices with your classmates.

Listen again to the recording of Text B6. Is it rhythmic? Find examples of end of line words that rhyme.

S f

4 2 2 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry


Iambic pentameter

TASKS

Iambic pentameter is the most common rhythm pattern in English poetry and it was first used in English by Geoffrey Chaucer. The modern version of the poem which you have read, by and large, maintains the original metre.

Listen to the recording of the lines from the poem. Number the syllables and mark the unstressed syllables " and the stressed syllables '. Example:

>r- *

xm

| 'For | shame' | she | said, | 'you | tim | o | rous | pol | troon! | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| A | las | what | cow | ard | ice! | By | God | a | bove, | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

You've forfeited my heart and lost my love.

I cannot love a coward, come what may.

j § Chaucer was also the first English writer to use heroic couplets: two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme. This pattern of rhythm and rhyme became very popular in English literature and was used, among others, by Shakespeare, Dryden and Pope.

OVER T O Y O U

2 Write the same letter of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.) next to the line ending with the same rhyme. Is the rhyme scheme regular throughout?

Chaucer originally intended his work to be recited in front of an audience. How do you think the strong and regular rhythm and rhyme schemes would have helped the performance of the work?

Quarrelling husbands and wives are frequently used to add humour to books, films, etc. Can you think of any other examples of warring couples that have made you laugh?

The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer 2 3

Chanticleer's Narrow Escape The fox, whose name is Sir Russel Fox, has just asked Chanticleer to sing for him.

This Chanticleer stood high upon his toes, He stretched his neck, his eyes began to close, His beak to open; with his eyes shut tight He then began to sing with all his might1 . Sir Russel Fox then leapt2 to the attack, Grabbing his gorge3 he flung4 him oe'r his back And off he bore5 him to the woods, the brute6, And for the moment there was no pursuit7. (.. .) Sure never such a cry of lamentation Was made by ladies of high Trojan station8, When Ilium9 fell and Pyrrhus3 with his sword Grabbed Priam by the beard, their king and lord, And slew10 him there as the Aeneid tells, As what was uttered11 by those hens. Their yells12

Surpassed them all in palpitating13 fear When they beheld1 4 the rape15 of Chanticleer. Dame Pertelote emitted sovereign shrieks16

That echoed up in anguish to the peaks Louder than those extorted17 from the wife Of Hasdrubalb, when he had lost his life And Carthage all in flame and ashes lay. She was so full of torment and dismay18

That in the very flames she chose her part And burnt to ashes with a steadfast19 heart. O woeful20 hens, louder your shrieks and higher Than those of Roman matrons2 1 when the fire Consumed their husbands, senators of Rome, When Neroc burnt their city and their home, Beyond a doubt that Nero was their bale22!

Text B 7

10

15

20

25

GLOSSARY • -

In Virgil's Aeneid, Pyrrhus kills Priam while Troy is being destroyed. Hasdrubal was king of Carthage in 146 BC, when it was destroyed by the Romans. Nero was accused of starting the fire that destroyed Rome in AD 64.

9.

might: strength leapt: jumped gorge: throat flung: threw violently bore: carried brute: a cruel person pursuit: chase high Trojan station: the upper classes in Troy Ilium: Troy

10. slew: killed 11. uttered: shouted 12. yells: shouts 13. palpitating: agitated 14. beheld: saw 15.rape: capture 16. emitted sovereign

shrieks: screamed like a queen

17. extorted: obtained, heard

18. dismay: fear 19. steadfast: loyal 20. woeful: very sad 21. matrons: women 22. bale: destruction

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 How did Chanticleer prepare himself to sing?

2 Why did he prepare himself so elaborately?

3 Why did Sir Russel Fox ask Chanticleer to sing before his attack?

4 How did Sir Russel Fox carry Chanticleer away?

5 Where did he take his victim?

6 What did the hens start to do when they saw Chanticleer being carried away?

7 What was Lady Pertelote's reaction to what had happened?


ANALYS IS 1 The text is based on comparisons. Fill in the table below.

1 The hens l .a

I .b

2 The yells of the hens 2.a 2 The yells of the hens are/is compared to 2.b

3 Lady Pertelote 3

4 The shrieks of Lady Pertelote 4

2 Beast fables are often told to teach people how they should behave. What human weakness does the story of Chanticleer warn against? How would you sum up the moral lesson of the tale?


Mock heroic

OVER T O Y O U

The m o c k heroic form of satire adapts the elevated heroic style of classical epic poems to a trivial subject. In Text B7 Chaucer compares the animals in the farmyard to famous Greek and Latin figures.

Underline words and expressions in the text that refer to people of high social standing. Example: (linelO) ladies of high Trojan station

What effect does comparing the farmyard events to momentous occasions in classical literature have on the text? It makes it more:

P poetic • comic • elevated in tone • ridiculous • serious

Discuss your opinions with classmates.

Chaucer, in a humorous way, compares Chanticleer's abduction to the fate of Priam, Hasdrubal and Nero. The farmyard is in the same state of confusion as Troy, Carthage and Rome when they were destroyed. If Chaucer were writing today he could refer to the destruction of many more cities over the last seven hundred years. From your knowledge of history write the names of four cities and when they were destroyed.

Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

GEOFFREY CHAUCER

(1340-1400)

WRITERS' GALLERY

Family Geoffrey Chaucer was born some time between

1340 and 1345. We do not know the exact date. His family belonged to the emerging middle class and his father was a wealthy wine merchant in London. He received a good education and while still a boy he became a page to Princess Elizabeth, daughter-in-law of the king, Edward III.

The army Chaucer joined the army and fought in France during the Hundred Years' War. He was captured and held prisoner until the king ransomed him. He took part in the peace negotiations with France in 1360 and clearly served the king well, since he was defined as a well-beloved personal attendant and granted a life pension.

Travels In 1366 he married Philippa de Roet, a noblewoman and sister-in-law of a powerful man, John of Gaunt, who became Geoffrey's patron. From 1368 onwards Geoffrey travelled in Europe on diplomatic missions. He visited Genoa and Florence where he became acquainted with Italian .iterature and in particular with the works of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio.

Career In 1374 he was appointed Controller of Customs of Wools, Skins and Hides, a post he held for twelve years. In 1386 he started a political career and represented the county of Kent in Parliament. At that time he was also a Justice of the Peace. He was appointed Clerk for the King's '•Vorks (the person who oversees building work in progress) first at Westminster, then at Windsor and the Tower. For the last ten years of his life Chaucer retired. Throughout his life he had a comfortable standard of living and he collected over sixty books. This was an impressive library before the invention of printing, when books were rare and expensive. He took a lease on a house in the garden : f Westminster Abbey, where he worked on his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales. He died on 25th October 1400 and was buried in a chapel of the Abbey which has since become known as 'Poets' Corner'.

TASK True or false? Correct the false statements, a. Geoffrey Chaucer lived in the fourteenth

century. : He was born into a poor illiterate family, c. [Xiring his life he was a soldier, a diplomat, a

civil servant, a politician, a poet.

d. He died when he was around fifty-five or sixty years old.

e. He is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is called Poets' Corner.

WORKS Chaucer's work is generally divided into three periods: The French period (up to 1370) Chaucer's early works are based

-rly on French models. His chief work during this time was the Book of the Duchess, an allegorical .-nt written in 1369 on the death of Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, his patron.


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The Italian period (up to c.1387) Chaucer's work was then influenced by Italian literature, particularly by the works of Boccaccio and Dante. His major works in this period were: The Parlement ofFoules, a medieval beast fable which tells of the mating of fowls on St Valentine's Day and is believed to celebrate the betrothal of Richard II to Anne of Bohemia. The House of Fame, which recounts the adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy and was influenced by Dante's Divine Comedy. Troylus and Criseyde, which combines an episode from the Iliad and elements of Boccaccio's version of the same episode. It is still considered one of the great love poems in the English language. The Legend of Good Women, which looks at love from a female point of view and recounts stories of women, such as Cleopatra, who died for love. In this work Chaucer uses for the first time the heroic couplet*, iambic pentameter* in rhyming pairs which he later used in The Canterbury Tales.

The English period In Chaucer's final period he wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, and achieved his fullest artistic power.

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THE CANTERBURY TALES This unfinished poem of about 17,000 lines was written mostly after 1387 and is widely considered to be one of the most brilliant

works in all literature. The poem introduces a group of pilgrims who are journeying from London to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, London, where the host, Harry Bailly, proposes that they have a storytelling competition. The best storyteller will be given a free supper on his or her return to London. Chaucer originally planned that the work should contain 120 tales, four for each pilgrim, but at the time of his death he had only written twenty-four and some of them were not complete.

The Prologue The pilgrims are described in the General Prologue; together, they represent a wide cross-section of fourteenth-century English life, although the nobility and the poor are missing as they would not have taken part in this type of group pilgrimage.

- -

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The Tales The tales are structured as a series of interlinked stories. Each tale is preceded by a pro-logue in which the storyteller speaks about himself. The themes of the tales vary from the spiritual to the earthy and humorous. The pilgrims are often ill-mannered and quarrelsome and frequently interrupt and criticise each other. The Miller, for example, tells a story about an ageing car-penter whose young wife is unfaithful to him. The Reeve, who is a trained car-

William Caxton's Canterbury Tales (1478), British Library.

•Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

penter, retaliates with a tale about a miller who is also betrayed by his wife. Many of the tales counterbalance or give another point of view to the ideas presented in the preceding tale. The tales permit open dialogue between people from different levels of society. The pilgrims' tales include a variety of medieval genres that range from humorous beast fables* to the serious homily or sermon.

Why it is a masterpiece The Canterbury Tales is a masterpiece for numerous reasons: • it is written in English in a period when it was a forgone conclusion that all serious writing had to

be done in Latin or French. Chaucer himself was fluent in both these languages as well as in Italian; • it is a valuable social document as it gives us an insight into a cross-section of fourteenth-century

English society; • it includes experimentation with rhyme and rhythm patterns that greatly affected the literature

that followed; • it contains a cast of memorable characters that are brought to life by Chaucer's superb powers of

characterisation.

It is for these outstanding achievements that Chaucer is generally regarded as the father of English poetry. The Canterbury Tales was one of the first works to be printed by William Caxton's revolution-ary printing press in 1478, and it has never been out of print since then.

TASKS 1 Answer these questions. a. What is Chaucer's most important work from

the French period? b. What literary genre does The Parlement of Foules

belong to? c. Who is the protagonist of The House of Fame? 4. Which of Chaucer's poems is considered to be

one of the best love poems in English literature? «. Which famous Egyptian queen is one of the

characters of The Legend of Good Women?

2 Cross out incorrect statements. The Canterbury Tales... a. is a poem written in iambic pentameter. b. was written in the later stages of Chaucer's life. c. is unfinished. d. is about fourteenth-century English aristocrats. e. should have included 120 tales, according to

the original plan. f. was originally written in Latin and translated

into English by Chaucer.

J Use the mind map to prepare a short talk about Chaucer's life and works.

Army

M i d ,d l e c l a s j -< t - •Travels background \ I

Political career

Literary career

/ \ French period u English period: Italian period The Canterbury Tales

»-Patron: john of Gaunt

Buried in Poets' Corner

BBBD DD Look at this list of abstract concepts:

Good Evil Beauty Fear Greed Wealth Kindness Intelligence Power

Find photographs from newspapers or magazines that exemplify one or more of these concepts. For example, a military parade might represent power, while a huge yacht might represent wealth. Explain your choices to the class.

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Everyman

INTRODUCTION • T h e a im of Medieval D r a m a was to e n t e r t a i n a n d ins t ruc t . An e x a m p l e of th is didactic form of theatre was the Morality play which became extremely popular during the fourteenth century . M o r a l i t y plays were i n t e n d e d to t e a c h pr inc ip les a n d values . T h e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e plays personified abstract concepts such as greed, laziness and kindness. They debated moral issues and made suggestions about how people should live. Everyman, written in 1500, is o n e of the finest examples of medieval Morality plays.

THE STORY God is angry because Everyman, who rep-resents mankind, is more concerned with material goods than spirituality. He sum-mons Death and tells him to force Everyman to justify how he has lived. Everyman looks for friends who will stand by him in this hour of need. He asks Kindred (family) and Wealth to keep him company but they immediately abandon him. Strength, Beauty, Intelligence and Knowledge all help Everyman along the way, but it is Good Deeds alone that accompanies him on his final journey towards death.

A sixteenth-century woodcut of Everyman.

Everyman

15

Everyman's Salvation KME! Q This scene is taken from the end of the play. The text is a modern version taken from a recent production.

EVERYMAN: O Jesu, help! All hath1 forsaken2 me. GOOD DEEDS: Nay3, Everyman; I will bide4 with thee5 . EVERYMAN: Gramercy6, Good Deeds7! Now may I True friends see.

Knowledge, will ye8 forsake me also? KNOWLEDGE: Yea9, Everyman, when ye to Death shall Go; But not yet. 5

EVERYMAN: Gramercy. Take example, all ye that this do hear or see, How they that I loved best do forsake me, Except my Good Deeds that bideth truly.

GOOD DEEDS: All earthly things is but vanity; 10

Beauty, Strength, and Discretion do man forsake, Foolish friends, and kinsmen1 0 , that fair spake11 -All fleeth12 save13 Good Deeds, and that am I.

EVERYMAN: Have mercy on me, God most mighty. GOOD DEEDS: Fear not; I will speak for thee. EVERYMAN: Here I cry God mercy. GOOD DEEDS: Let us go and never come again. EVERYMAN: Into thy hands, Lord, my soul I commend;

(In manus tuas, of mights most For ever, commendo spiritum meum) [He sinks into his grave]

KNOWLEDGE: Methinketh1 4 that I hear angels sing. ANGEL: Thy reckoning15 is crystal-clear.

Now shalt thou into the heavenly sphere. Where all ye shall come That liveth16 well before the judgement day.

[Enter DOCTOR]

DOCTOR: Ye hearers, take it of worth, old and young, And forsake Pride, for he deceiveth you in the end; And remember Beauty, Five Wits, Strength, and Discretion. They all at the last do every man forsake, Save his Good Deeds there doth1 7 he take. For after death amends may no man make1 8 .

THUS ENDETH THIS MORAL PLAY OF EVERYMAN

20

25

30

• Visual Link B5

GLOSSARY

1. hath: have 2. forsaken: abandoned 3. Nay: no 4. bide: stay 5. thee: you 6. Gramercy: thank you 7. Deeds: actions 8. ye: you 9. Yea: yes 10. kinsmen: family 11. spake: spoke 12. fleeth: run away 13. save: except 14. Methinketh: I think 15.reckoning: admission

of things you have done

16. liveth: live 17. doth: does 18. amends may no

man make: man cannot atone for his sins

»

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Why does Everyman thank Good Deeds?

2 Does Knowledge abandon Everyman immediately?

3 Which 'earthly things' are of little use to a man when he faces death, according to Good Deeds?

4 Why does Good Deeds tell Everyman not to fear?

5 What makes Knowledge believe that Everyman has gone to heaven?

6 Who, according to the angel, will enter the 'heavenly sphere' on the judgement day?

7 Why is it important that a man has Good Deeds to take with him when he dies, according to the Doctor?

3 0 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval D r a m a

ANALYSIS 1 In his final speech the doctor speaks directly to the public: 'Ye hearers, ... ' . Find three other examples where characters address the audience. Everyman: lines Deeds: lines Angel: lines

How do these direct addresses add to the didactic nature of the text?

2 Would you consider the language used in the to be • simple and straightforward? • elevated and poetic? For what type of audience do you think this kind play was performed?

3 Ci ) Listen to the recording and focus on the sou features. Find examples of end of line rhymes a alliteration.

Allegory

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WRITERS' WORKSHOP An allegory is a story, poem, picture, etc., in which the characters and events not o have meaning in themselves but also convey a second spiritual or philosophical mean' In the case of Everyman, for example, the character Everyman on one level is simply man facing death who has to account for how he has lived his life. On a second, more philosophical level, Everyman stands for all men and the problems he faces are those mankind in general:

level 1 - an individual facing death Everyman

level 2 - mankind struggling with moral issues

Typical characteristics of an allegory are: • the presence of at least two levels of meaning; • the personification of abstract concepts such as virtues, vices, states of mind, etc.; • the representation of historical personages and events; • the presentation of moral or philosophical issues; • the introduction of humorous elements.

Which of the elements of allegory listed above can be found in the excerpt from Everyman

you have read?

There are many different types of allegorical stories. Aesop's fables*, for example, or parables* such as those told by Jesus are allegorical and therefore have more than one level of meaning. Do you know any allegorical stories? If so, can you explain the different levels of meaning?

You do a good deed when you help someone without expecting anything in return. A small one would be to help an old person carry heavy bags home from the supermarket. A big one would be to donate most of your savings to a charitable organisation. Some people say that in our commercialised world there are fewer good deeds than in the past. Do you agree? Give examples of good deeds that you know people do or of good deeds that you would like to see people do.

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The Context Historical and Social Background

f & •

Britain: From earliest times to 1066 for how long the windswept islands off the northwest coast of

aental Europe were uninhabited remains a mystery. When and why t first human beings set foot on British and Irish soil must also remain a matter r speculation. What is known is that those first adventurers were followed by

; identifiable groups of migrants who settled into their new home.

THE EDGE OF EUROPE

ent times Britain was inhabited by Iberians. Little is known of these who left behind them the barrows (large mound graves made of

or stone) that can still be seen in the south of Britain and at Stonehenge, a ous circle of stones.

BRITAIN'S FIRST INHABITANTS

n 2000 and 1200 BC, the Celts began to migrate to Britain from west Germany. They spoke their own Celtic language, and were as Britons.

Celts lived in round, wooden huts in small villages and were mainly farmers, h k e y organised themselves into tribes with a king or queen as leader and matr ibal wars were very common.

|fet 55 BC Julius Caesar landed in Britain having conquered Gaul. After a of military campaigns, small Roman settlements were created in

ith and east. a hundred years later, in AD 43, the emperor Claudius sent a large army to Roman control over a wider area. The Britons, led by Queen Boadicea, bravely but were defeated. Boadicea chose to drink poison rather than be

prisoner. All of England and Wales was subdued. Romans introduced their civilisation and language and built towns, roads,

and temples. Many of the towns were originally army camps and the Latin for camp, castra, has remained

ny modern town names ending h\aster', 'chester' or 'cester', such as

ster, Manchester or Leicester. : of the Roman roads are still in

ace today, t Romans tried for over a century to

er Caledonia, as they called id. but they did not succeed. In

1 aid. Emperor Hadrian ordered the ig of a wall across the north of

Bae m d to act as a great defensive r to stop attacks from the Scottish who were known as Picts.

THE SECOND WAVE

THE ROMANS

Queen Boadicea

94 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

N E W INVADERS

The Anglo-Saxons

Life in Anglo-Saxon Britain

The thane

CHRISTIANITY

St Augustine

• Visual Links B2 and B4

The Venerable Bede

THE VIKINGS

r h • m SbM X* f U t hO r g • N + U * kYHt w h n i j ch p e o s t L MH h X K l ^ f l i b e m I n g o e d a a e y

Runes: characters of an ancient Germanic ] alphabet used throughout Northern Europe, Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland.

At the beginning of the fifth century AD, Rome withdrew its legions Britain to the continent to defend the borders of the empire ag

barbarian attacks. New invaders saw the opportunity for expansion and began to settle on the ' the Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from the regions of continental Europe correspond to the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark and W Germany. They gradually took over the area that is now known as England land of the Angles) while the Celts retreated north and west to Scotland and' The new settlers brought with them an extensive body of tribal culture in the of alliterative verse. Some of them also used a runic alphabet to carve messages, mostly on wooden sticks, but writing was not used extensively until the conversion to Christianity, when manuscript technology was introduced from Rome and Ireland. The Anglo-Saxons lived in small villages; their houses were made of mud, wood and straw and were grouped around the house of their lord. The Anglo-Saxons liked fighting, gambling and drinking. They also liked music and singing. Their sense

of hospitality was renowned, as was the high respect they showed for women. Life expectancy was not very long. The climate of England was and damper at that time and few people lived beyond the age of forty-l Epidemics and famine contributed to the high rate of mortality. The 'thane' was the most important man in the village; he kept order and his people obey the law. There were no prisons, and punishment according to the crime. Criminals were either mutilated, hanged, or comp pay a sum of money called 'wergild'.

Britain had been Christian under the Romans, but the pagan Saxons pushed Christianity westward and northward, where it survi

Wales, parts of Scotland and above all in Ireland. At the end of the sixth cen Pope Gregory I sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to Engl Augustine established a Christian community in Canterbury and became the Archbishop of Canterbury. Churches were built all over the country and monks, whose simple mon lives appealed to the common people, played a major role in the conversion] the Anglo-Saxons. With Christianity came Latin learning and the converted Anglo-Saxons prod" academic and scientific works of remarkable quality for the period. Venerable Bede, a scholar and historian, wrote, in Latin, the first history^ England. However, nearly all the treasures of this golden cultural age wf destroyed along with many monasteries by Britain's next invaders.

The Vikings, who came from Norway and Denmark, raided northern; western Europe between the eighth and the ninth centuries, c a r r y i n g l B

anything of value they could find. During their raids the Vikings built t e m p o « B camps and their word for camp wik can still be found in modern place name* such as Warwick and Norwich.

Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

The Norman invasion was the last in British history, but it was by far the -|"HE M A K I N G

significant, and its effects were to be felt for many centuries after QF THE BRITISH NATION l's historic victory at the Battle of Hastings. |

King Alfred

THE NORMANS

William the Conqueror • Visual Link B3

The most successful Viking invasions established settlements along the north-east coast. The Anglo-Saxons were unable to repel them and in 878 King Alfred the Great signed a treaty leaving the Vikings in control of northern England while he maintained power in the south. The Vikings eventually blended in with the Anglo-Saxons and made important contributions to the English language: for example, nouns like skirt and sky and pronouns like they and them are of Viking origin.

The power of the Anglo-Saxons was broken in AD 1066 by the Normans. The Normans came originally from Denmark but after settling on the French coast they adopted French customs and a dialect of the French language. The Norman king William I (William the Conqueror) defeated the last Anglo-Saxon king Harold II at the Batt le of Hastings in 1 0 6 6 and took cont ro l of southern England. Sporadic resistance in the rest of the country was then crushed with the help of advanced military technology including moats and stone castles (Anglo-Saxon castles were made of wood). After the Norman c o n q u e s t Anglo-Saxon e l e m e n t s of Engl ish culture survived primarily among the lower classes, while French and Latin elements predominated in aristocratic circles. The animals tended by herders, for example, had Anglo-Saxon names «сои', lamb, pig) while the f inished products served up on aristocratic ubles had names derived from French beef, mutton, pork). Important aspects of Anglo-Saxon law were, however, rxorporated into English law.

TASK

I-iDOSe the correct option. The early inhabitants of Britain, the Iberians, left behind

graves and a mysterious circle of stones erected on the Salisbury Plain.

6 J»J no trace of their culture and civilisation. 2 The Celts came from

* ! northern Italy around 400 BC and spoke Latin.

1»J Germany and were called Britons.

1 ~~e Romans

* led by Julius Caesar landed in Britain in 55 BC. : were defeated by Boadicea.

* (tomans conquered 1 southern and central Britain, where they built

towns and roads.

Sntain and defeated the Picts in Scotland.

5 The Anglo-Saxons came when the Romans withdrew from Britain.

|~b] defeated the Romans and took control of Britain.

6 Christianity was introduced by the [a] Romans, then strengthened by St Augustine. [b] Anglo-Saxons, who built churches and monasteries.

7 The Vikings ["a] invaded southern England, but soon left without

trace. |~b~l came from Scandinavia and established

settlements along the coast of northern England.

8 The Normans _aj led by King Harold II defeated the Vikings in 1066. [~b] defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of

Hastings.

J FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

ENEMIES EVERYWHERE

The Hundred Years' War

Scottish resistance

I

Wales

THE SOCIAL ORDER

Britain 1066-1485: The Middle Ages After the Battle of Hastings the Normans took control of the whole of England, but they had to deal with threats from two sources: their fellow

countrymen in France and their rebellious Scots, Irish and Welsh neighbours. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, England and France were almost one country because many aristocrats owned land on both sides of the Channel, while the king divided his time between both. However, following a number of wars, including the Hundred Years' War, which started in 1337 , England separated from France. The war was marked by victories and defeats that brought about the loss or recovery of territories in France. In 1415 the English defeated the French at the battle of Agincourt and won back Normandy, but the French, led by the charismatic French patriot Joan of Arc, counterattacked. Joan was captured and executed by the English in 1431. By 1453 the port of Calais was the only possession England had in France.

Like the Romans, the Anglo-Normans had ambit ions to conquer Scotland, but despite numerous attempts, they were unsuccessful . The Batt le of B a n n o c k b u r n ( 1 3 1 4 ) marked the

The film Braveheart tells the story of Scottish resistance to English invaders and the historic Scottish victory at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.

high point in Scottish resistance to English aggression. Ireland had been left alone for cen-turies, until the Norman king Henry II sent an army there in the eleventh century. Although this expedition was not very successful, it was significant because it was the first time an English government showed direct interest in the neighbouring island. For a long time Wales resisted Norman attempts to bring it under control, but by the end of the thirteenth century most resistance had broken down and the Prince of Wales, the English king's eldest son, ruled the country in the English king's interests.

Like France, English society adopted the feudal system and

there was strict distinction between social classes. The most powerful individual in the country was the king. He owned most of the land, was the leader of the army and could demand that the people pay him taxes. He made the laws with the help of advisers, and lived in a castle with his closest followers, who made up the court. Barons and lords were members of the aristocracy who were given land by the king. They had almost absolute power in their territories. Knights, merchants and yeomen made up the middle classes. The knights were soldiers who fought for the lords and the king and were often rewarded with land. The merchants were Britain's first businessmen and usually lived in towns. The yeomen were farmers who owned small pieces of land. The majority of the population were villeins or serfs, who were given a small piece of land to work by a lord, but they did not own it. In return they had to give most of what they produced to their lord and do any job he asked them to do.

H M

Ifr"-Historical and Social Background 3 5

One tenth of the population were slaves. Unlike villains or serfs they had no land to work and were owned by the lord, who used them as he wished.

Under the feudal system political power lay in the hands of the king. He ruled through a system of patronage, which meant that he gave land or granted privileges to the people who were loyal to him and helped him in times of need. The monarchy, however, could survive only through a constant supply of money in the form of taxes, so the relationship between the king and his subjects was based on how much money the king wanted and how much people were prepared to pay. An important event in the development of this relationship was the carrying out of the first census in English history during the reign of King William I, in 1086. His officials went around the country and wrote down the names of all the landowners and how much land they owned. In this way the king knew how much tax to ask for from each individual. This census became known as the Domesday Book.

THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

~he nobles, who were the main contributors of money to the monarchy, :elt that in return for their generosity they should have some say in the xr'vernment of the country. Under pressure from them, King J o h n agreed to : : n s u l t a representative counci l of the aristocracy in 1215 . This historic izieement was written down in a document known as the Magna Carta. In 1240, for the first time, the council of aristocrats which advised the king was :nJed a 'parliament': England was on the road of becoming the first and only r.idiamentary monarchy in Europe. - owever, tax money from the nobles was not enough to finance the upkeep of the administrat ion and pay for the wars against r rance; the middle classes were then asked to contr ibute as well. They complied, but in 1349 knights, yeomen and merchants united to form the Council of the Commoners and demanded, in turn, to be consulted by the king when important decisions had to be taken. From a situation in which the king enjoyed almost absolute power, by the end of the Middle Ages, two councils, one made up of aristocrats and the other of commoners, had a say in the running of the country. England became the first country in the world where the principle that representatives of the people had a right to participate in government was accepted. In many ways the counci ls of the aristocrats and commoners were the prototype for today's House of Lords and House of Commons. The loss of power was not the only problem the monar-chy had to face. Dynastic conflicts led to instability and civil war in the second half of the fifteenth century, when two noble families fought each other to gain the right to rule England. This conflict was known as the Wars of the Roses because one faction, the House of York, had a white rose as their symbol while their oppo-nents, the House of Lancaster, had a red rose. At the r ittle of Barnet in 1471, the House of York eventually

n a decisive victory and secured the throne.

The Domesday Book

THE LOSS OF ABSOLUTE POWER

The Magna Carta

The first 'parliament'

The Council of the Commoners

3 6 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Read this extract from the Magna Carta (1215) (in modern English).

No aid1 shall be collected in our kingdom without the consent (of the Counci l ) except to ransom person3, and to make our eldest son a knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter, and for this purpi only a reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...) Furthermore we promise that all (...) cities, towns, and shall have all their liberties and privileges, and shall pay aids only with the common counsel of the except in the three cases said above. (...) We will no t for the future grant permiss ion to any m a n to col lect an aid upon his free men save ransoming his body, making his eldest son a knight, and once marrying his eldest daughter, for whid reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...) For a trivial4 offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood5. In the same way, a merchi shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman6 the implements7 of his husbandry8 . (...) None of fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood. (...) No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal ju: KING JOHN

The 15th day of June in the 17th year or our reign (1215)

GLOSSARY 3. our person: the king 6. husbandman: farmer 1. aid: tax 4. trivial: of small importance 7. implements: tools 2. ransom: set free 5. livelihood: means of living 8. husbandry: farming

T A S K S 1 The extract focuses on two main issues. What are they?

2 Why do you think the barons felt compelled to force King John to make these promises?

Apart from the king and the nobles, the greatest power in

England in the Middle Ages was the Church. In the eleventh century the king c o n t r o l l e d the C h u r c h and appointed all the bishops, but in the following centuries the Pope in Rome gradually increased his influence and took over the a p p o i n t m e n t of Church leaders. This led to confl ict b e t w e e n C h u r c h and State . This c o n f l i c t is best exempl i f ied by the re la t ionship between T h o m a s a Becket , the Archbishop of Canter -bury, and King Henry II. The king and the Archbishop c lashed over

j j j A scene from Becket (1964), starring Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole.

THE CHURCH

Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d 3 7

where people should be tried - ecclesiastical or civil courts. Thomas refused to give in and was murdered by Henry's knights in Canterbury Cathedral (1170).

Although the vast majority of the population could neither read nor write, the Middle Ages saw the beginning of an educational system in England. Monasteries were the leading centres of culture, and the Church was the first insti tution to set up schools, beginning in the eleventh century. The first lay schools were opened by merchants in the towns some four centuries later. Oxford and Cambridge universities were established as early as the thirteenth century.

In modern terms, England in the Middle Ages was a developing country when compared to more economically advanced parts of Europe like Italy and Flanders. English merchants fostered trade, especially in wool and textiles, and tended to live in towns. London, owing to its strategic position in the south of the country, became a busy trading centre.

Many of the Anglo-Saxon laws were still applied throughout the Middle Ages. For example, victims of crime were paid damages by offenders. The Normans, however, added their own laws and the new system became known as C o m m o n Law. Under Common Law, a new case was compared to similar cases in the past and the judge then decided what to do in the new case. This system is still in operation in Britain today.

Life was very hard. In the Middle Ages over ninety-f ive percent of the population lived in the country or in small villages. People lived off the produce of the land and, as the population increased, there was sometimes not enough food for everybody. The average diet was very poor and people rarely ate fruit or vegetables because fruit was t h o u g h t to be dangerous to health and vegetables were used o n l y to season meat and soups. The result ing lack of vitamins meant that disease was widespread. One event, above all others, affected daily life. T his was the bubonic plague or Black Death, which first broke out in 1348 and was not completely eradicated for centuries. It is estimated that one third of the population of late medieval England was killed by the plague.

The Middle Ages was a period of slow change and development in Britain. When the first king of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII, came to the throne in 1485, he found himself at the head of a stable country that was about to embark on a social and cultural renaissance.

EDUCATION The role of the monasteries

THE ECONOMY

THE LEGAL SYSTEM

The Common Law

DAILY LIFE

• Visual Link B6

THE

The Black Death

• Visual Link BS

EVE OF THE RENAISSANCE

TASKS 1 Match words and definitions.

1 Hundred Years' War 2 Domesday Book 3 Magna Carta 4 Black Death 5 Council of Commoners 6 Wars of the Roses

a Document giving the barons power and rights, b Bubonic plague that ravaged Europe for centuries, c Group of people from the middle classes who advised the king, d First survey of the population in England. e Series of conflicts between two noble families for the throne of England, f Series of wars between England and France.

2 Write beside each event the century in which it took place. Battle of Hastings Assassination of Thomas a Becket Battle of Bannockburn Oxford and Cambridge universities established . Failed expedition to Ireland Calais only English possession left in France The English crown takes control of Wales Wars of the Roses King John signs the Magna Carta Outbreak of Black Death First census: the Domesday Book

4 0 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Transcriptions by monks

BEOWULF

• Beowulf, Texts B1 and B2

The setting

• Visual Link B1

Historical content

PROSE

poems based on stories from the Old Testament. Cynewulf wrote poems about the lives of the saints and apostles. What remains of early Anglo-Saxon poetry today was written down by monks in monasteries from the end of seventh century onward. The monks often eliminated pagan aspects of the works that contrasted with religion and added elements of Christian morality.

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Only about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon verse survive today. About ten percent of

this corpus is formed by the 3,182 lines of the epic poem Beowulf, the oldest existing work of literature in the English language. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes took the story to Britain during their fifth century invasions, then the story was passed on from generation to generation until it was eventually written down by an anonymous writer, probably in the eighth century. The only surviving manuscript of the poem dates from the tenth century. It is currently housed in the British Library in London. The poem tells the story of the hero Beowulf in his fights against supernatural creatures and includes many references to other stories and historical events. Most of the main action takes place in Geatland (in Sweden) and on the Danish island of Sjaelland (Zealand) during the sixth century. However, the many digressions extend the poem's geography to the rest of Denmark, northern Germany, Poland and the Low Countries.

Although there is no evidence that Beowulf himself ever existed, it seems that I several poems were composed about the character. The poets obviously had a deep I knowledge of Germanic history and even though Beowulf is a legendary figure the ! events of the poem occur in a real place and in a precise historical setting.

The oldest example of Anglo-Saxon prose is represented by laws written at 1 the beginning of the seventh century. However, the most important !

document from that period is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It was original ly! compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately AD 890 andl subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes! until the middle of the twelfth century. It is a detailed timeline of English history, I which includes information on agriculture, science, law, battles, religion and! many other topics. It does not present a complete history of those times and it is not one hundred percent accurate but it does give some idea of what happened] in Britain over one thousand years ago.

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f bet {«^"Й The oldest existing copy of Beowulf is a tenth-century manuscript which miraculously survived a fire that destroyed the library where it was stored in the sixteenth century. Some of the pages still bear the marks of the fire. Today the manuscript is housed in the British Library, London.

TASK

Correct the following statements. a. Nearly all modern English words derive from Old English words. b. The very few examples of Anglo-Saxon poetry that have come down to us were written in manuscript form by

travelling minstrels called 'scops'. c. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is a mixture of fact and fiction. d. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is an accurate historical account of the reign of King Alfred the Great.

The Li terary B a c k g r o u n d 41

M E A N W H I L E , E L S E W H E R E

LINK TO GERMAN LITERATURE: The Nibelungelied

One of the most famous European sagas to be composed in the same period as Beowulf is the Germanic epic poem The Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs). The Nibelungenlied was written down in old German by an anonymous scribe around AD 1200, but it dates from an emiier period. The saga's characters belong to the Nibelung-Burgundian Germanic population, who settled between the Rher Rhine and France in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. The Burgundians were exterminated by the Huns in 437. The saga was told around fires at night and sung to the harp in the banqueting halls of kings and nobles. It was known to all Germanic-speaking peoples in Germany and Scandinavia, as well as to the Angles and Saxons in Britain.

l ike Beowulf, Siegfried, the hero of the saga, kills a dragon. By bathing in its blood, he acquires magic powers i n d becomes almost invincible. However, he also comes into possession of a treasure which carries with it a terrible curse: its owner will meet a violent death. In the course of many adventures, Siegfried promises to marry Brunhild, queen of the Valkyries, but then breaks his promise, and marries Kriemhild. Brunhild is furious and has Siegfried killed, but when he dies she kills herself in despair. Many years later, Kriemhild's second husband, Attila, king of the Huns, claims that Siegfried's treasure should r t his, but Gunther, Kriemhild's brother, has hidden it at a secret location in the river Rhine (where, according x legend, it is still hidden today). In the ensuing battle over the treasure between Attila and the Huns and «anther and the Nibelungs, Gunther and nearly all the Nibelungs are killed. M desperation at the death of her brother and the defeat of her people, Kriemhild kills her two sons and iermes them to her husband at the victory banquet. She then murders him while he is sleeping and is herself KSed by a knight who is horrified at what she has done.

TASK Car you see any similarities between the legend of Beowulf and the legend of the Nibelungenlied? Make a list of the a r m o r elements. For example: - They both belong to an oral storytelling tradition and were passed on from generation to generation until they were

• fcufy written down.

iddle of the nineteenth century Wagner, perhaps the greatest "T of German opera, used The enlied legend as the basis for his cycle

operas known collectively as Der Ring tiungen.

C ^ Listen to one of the most famous pas-• i y from the opera The Valkyries. What ; land of emotions does the music evoke? Do Lfou think it recreates the atmosphere of an

•anic scene? Bfou .vere asked to set the legend of Beowulf T: -mjsic, what kind of music would you

- rose - heavy metal, acoustic folk music, — crron c music, slow melodic music?

{ to the world of music

Music from The Valkyries was used as the soundtrack in scenes from the film about the Vietnam war Apocalypse Now.


Literature in the Middle Ages

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE MIDDLE ENGLISH

From Old English to Middle English

Major changes

Printing

After the Norman invasion three languages were spoken in England. The ruling Norman class spoke French, while English was the language of the conquered Anglo-Saxons and Latin was the language of the Church

and scholars. The English of this period was an unstable mixture of dialects. There were four major dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland and Southern. It was the East Midland dialect that eventually became the basis of the modern language. This was because it was the dialect spoken in London, which was becoming a major commercial centre, and it was also the dialect of Cambridge and Oxford, the two great centres of learning. In what is referred to as the Middle English period (1150-1500) English underwent momentous changes from both a grammatical and a lexical point of view. During the Middle English centuries noun and adjective endings gradually disappeared. Grammatical gender also disappeared and gender in nouns related only to the masculinity or femininity of living beings. As the Anglo-Norman aristocracy eventually lost their ties with France, they started to speak English but enriched the language by adding thousands of French words to it. By 1476, when William Caxton introduced printing to England, the language had been greatly simplified grammatically and enriched lexically. Old English had been transformed into a language which would form the basis for modern English.

THE EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH N o r m a n Conquest did not have an immediate effect on English PERIOD (1066-1350) literature. Old English sagas like Beowulf continued to be copied during

the second half of the eleventh century and Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse Didactic poems was composed until well after 1066. Long didactic poems written in English were

also popular in this period. They presented stories from the Bible, saints' lives and moral lessons, and were intended as instruction for people who did not know Latin or French.

Writing in Latin As English increasingly became the language of the uneducated common people fewer works of literature were written in it. Latin was generally considered to be

A sixteenth-century printing press.

• P S

The Literary Background 43

the language of serious writing. One example of a Latin work from this period is Historia Regum Britanniae (1137) written by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It is a collection of historical events and legends and it includes the first tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It was not until more than one century after the Battle of Hastings that French models began to influence English literature. The chivalric romance, a form of narrative poetry which developed in twelfth-century France, spread to Britain in the thirteenth century. The plot of these poems usually centred around a single knight who fought at tournaments, slayed dragons and underwent a series of adventures in order to win the heart of his heroine. Romances introduced the idea of courtly love, according to which the lover idealised and idolised his beloved. The lover suffered agonies for his heroine but remained devoted to her, and showed his love by adhering to a rigorous code of behaviour both in battle and in his courtly conduct. The romances written in Britain at this time are divided into three main categories: • the matter of Britain': stories that centre on the pseudo-historical King Arthur

who defended Celtic Britain against the Anglo-Saxons; • the matter of Troy': tales of the classical world such as the Seege ofTroye and

Kytig Alisaunder; • English Breton lays: short poems or songs that tell stories of otherworldly

magic and are modelled on those of professional Breton storytellers.

These unsophisticated works were written primarily for the emerging middle dasses, and the manuscripts that preserve them are early examples of commer-cial book production. Further evidence of influence from French literature comes in the form of humorous beast epics, which first appeared in the thirteenth century. One of the first examples of this genre is The Fox and the Wolf, an English version of the French epic Le Roman de Renart. The lyric, which was virtually unknown in Old English poetry, started to circulate in the thirteenth century. Lyrics were short songs that did not tell a storv but expressed the thoughts or feelings of a speaker. The most frequent topics in the Middle English secular lyrics are springtime and romantic love, ieligious lyrics also made an appearance at this time. The poets generally expressed their sorrow for Christ on the cross and for Mary. The religious devotion M the poets is often expressed in language that is also used in love poetry. Throughout the Middle Ages ballads*, short folk songs that tell stories, were very rcpular. The Celts and Anglo-Saxons undoubtedly composed ballads, but we ruive no record of these early works. The oldest recorded ballad in the English language, called Judas, was written down in a late thirteenth century manuscript. Many of the ballads, however, first appeared in written form with the Production of the printing press (1476). ballads told different types of stories. There were ballads about the supernatural: varies of ghosts and demons or people who returned from the dead to haunt the firing. There were romantic tragedies usually dealing with the separation of

wers through misunderstanding or the opposition of family. Many ballads were about crime and its punishment, and often told the stories of amvicted criminals who were about to be executed and repented for their sins JO the execution scaffold. Over forty ballads were about the folk hero Robin rtood who was praised for his adventurous spirit, his sense of humour and his _: acern for the poor. Finally, there were ballads recounting historical events, _ :h as battles between the English and the Scots (The Border Ballads) or natural

asters such as shipwrecks and plagues.

• Pieces of the Past, p. B44

Chivalric romances

• The Canterbury Tales, Texts B6 and B7

The lyric

• pp. A19-20

• The Unquiet Grave, p. B8

• Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford, Text B3


GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH'S HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE

Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain) is not a reliable historical source, as many of the events described in it are historically unfounded. From a literary point of view it is, however,highly regarded, and has been a source of inspiration for many writers throughout the centuries. The heroic deeds of King Arthur which are described in the book have been the subject of many subsequent literary works.

CHAP. IV (...) At these words, all of them, encouraged with the benedic t ion of the holy prelate, instantly armed themselves, and prepared to obey his orders. Also Arthur himself, having put on a coat of mail1 suitable to grandeur of so powerful a king, placed a golden helmet upon his head, on which was engraven the figure of a dragon; and on his shoulders his shield called Priwen; upon which the picture of the blessed Mary, mother of God, was painted, in order to put him frequently in mind of her. Then girding on 2 his Caliburn, which was an excellent sword made in the isle of Avallon, he graced his right hand with his lance, named Ron, which was hard, broad, and fit for slaughter3. After this, having placed his men in order, he boldly attacked the Saxons, who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge4, as their manner was. (...) he drew out his Caliburn, and, calling upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward with great fury into the thickest of the enemy's ranks; of whom (such was the merit of his prayers) not one escaped alive that felt the fury of his sword; nei ther did he give over the fury of his assault unti l he had, with his Caliburn alone, killed four hundred and seventy m e n . The Britons, seeing this, followed their leader in great mul t i tudes , and made slaughter on all sides (...)

A scene from the film Excalibur (1981): Arthur accepting the magic sword from the Lady of the Lake.

GLOSSARY 1. coat of mail: piece of armour

of metal rings or plate used to

protect the upper part of the body

2. girding on: fastening, attaching

3. slaughter: killing 4. drawn out . . . wedge: positioned in a

V-shaped formation

TASKS 1 Make a list of the armour King Arthur wore and the weapons he carried into battle.

2 Underline the Christian references in the text.

3 Who was King Arthur fighting against? 4 How many men did King Arthur kill according to the text? 5 What was the outcome of the battle?

I

The Li terary B a c k g r o u n d 4 5

The Norman Conquest did not initially affect prose writing. Old English prose tex ts were copied for m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y after the Batt le of Hastings. However, in the early th i r teenth century it was necessary to add a glossary to help readers understand the texts, because the English language had changed so much. French and Latin were the principal languages of prose. Those works which were written in English were intended primarily for women who could not read French or Latin, and included several texts on the lives of women saints and the 'Ancrene Wisse ' or 'Rule of Anchoresses ' , a m a n u a l for the guidance of women recluses outside regular religious orders.

PROSE

TASK — Vrswer these questions. a. Why was French literature such a strong influence on English literature in the medieval period? b- Which poetic forms came from France? Which one(s) already existed in the Anglo-Saxon tradition?

from 1 3 5 0 to 1 5 5 0 England witnessed a peculiar l inguist ic s i tuat ion, gualism and trilingualism had become very common among the small ority of the populat ion that could read. Latin and French were idered more suitable for serious writing and there was such dialectal diversity in

h that works could only be understood in the area where they were written. The ins tab i l i ty of t h e language of l i terature in the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is

plified by J o h n Gower (1330-1408) , who wrote three major works: in French (Speculum Meditantis - The Mirror of the Thoughtful Man); in Latin (Vox Clamantis - The Voice of one Crying in the Wilderness); in English (Confess io Amantis - The Lover's Confession). Norman aristocracy lost all ties with France, English replaced French as the

age of the court. The aristocracy began to patronise English vernacular The stage was set for the tr iumphal entrance of the father of English

Geoffrey Chaucer.

nportance of Geoffrey Chaucer's contribution to the development of literature is unquestionable. His introduction of a ten-syllable line

ubic pentameter* revolutionised rhythm in English poetry. His reflects the views and values of the society in which he lived, but his

were not limited to local events and contemporary issues. His themes :of universal interest and he had a great talent for narrative writing. His

iece is The Canterbury Tales, an unfinished series of stories told by a group ims journeying from London to the shrine of St Thomas a Becket and

This o u t s t a n d i n g work is an overview of h u m a n nature and an ledia of medieval literary styles.

poetry had become popular in the English language after it had reduced by the Normans, but in the fourteenth century there was

J of alliterative verse which recalled the early Anglo-Saxon epics. An pie of a l l i terat ive verse from this period is W i l l i a m L a n g l a n d ' s Piers

s. It takes the form of a series of dream visions dealing with the spiritual !ocial issues of fourteenth-century England. In his dream the poet sees,

I before him in a field, representatives from every class of English society, c a n attacks the abuses of the Church and the vices of the monastic orders, : resents a picture of the hardships c o m m o n people had to endure that

with the picture of a prosperous society presented by Chaucer.

THE LATER MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD ( 1 3 5 0 - 1 5 5 0 )

John Gower

POETRY: GEOFFREY CHAUCER

• The Canterbury Tales, Texts B4-B7

OTHER POETS

William Langland

J j 4 8 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context


LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Boccaccio

Travelling in Europe in the Middle Ages was not easy. Horse and carriage were the only means of transport and travellers were often attacked by outlaws. It is therefore surprising to see how much and how far people travelled around; scholars and diplomats criss-crossed the continent and saw, read, wrote and swapped ideas. Geoffrey Chaucer , for one , was greatly i n f l u e n c e d by the works of Giovanni Boccaccio, whom he probably met during his travels in Italy. Boccaccio's verse romance Filostrato was the source for Chaucer's Troylus and Criseyde, and the framework idea in Boccaccio's Decameron, that a group of people leave Florence to escape the plague and tell stories to entertain themselves, is the basis for the structure of The Canterbury Tales. Boccaccio's last tale in particular, the story of Griselda, became immensely popular in the late Middle Ages. Petrarch translated it into Latin, it was then translated into French and German, and Chaucer retold it in English in The Clerk's Tale.

m 11

Giovanni Boccaccio.

TASK Do some research on the similarities and the differences between The Decameron and The Canterbury Tales and prepare a short talk.

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK -[ to Latin/Greek T h e h e r o 1 What are the characteristics of a hero? Work in groups of four. Each of you should make a list of five words

that you would associate with the word 'hero'. When you have finished, pool your ideas and make a list of the words you have come up with. What were the most common words? Read your list out to your classroom and listen to their lists. Based on the work of all the groups, make a list of the most common words associated with the idea of a hero.

2 Beowulf is the hero of northern European sagas. He lived in a world of powerful and mysterious forces where nobility, fatalism, pride, loyalty, the search for glory and death all played important parts. He lived in violent times in a violent environment where nature was often hostile and man was constantly under the threat of death from marauding monsters. A different type of hero was created in Mediterranean literature: Homer's Achilles and Ulysses, and Virgil's Aeneas belonged to different times, cultures and societies, which they reflect in their heroic deeds.

Make a list of words that you would associate with each of these heroes.

What characteristics does Beowulf share with these classical heroes? Are there any important differences?

Who would you consider to be a modern hero? Think of three names. On the basis of your choices try to define a modern hero. How do the heroes you have chosen reflect the times we live in?

THE RENAISSANCE

1 4 8 5 - 1 6 2 5

All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players.'

From As You Like It by Wil l iam Shakespeare

Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

DBBD DD In the play you are about to read the main character - Faustus - is terrified of going to hell. He cannot picture what it is really like but he knows that he will have to endure terrible suffering for all eternity.

Try to build up a picture of what hell would be for you. For each of the five senses, describe a situation which you would find unbearable. An example has been given to help you.

Sight I have to watch a video of the mutilated bodies of all the victims of all the wars in human history.

Taste All the food I eat is rotten and everything I drink tastes like acid.

Smell There is an all-pervasive smell of decomposing bodies.

Touch Everything I touch feels like the slimy skin of a snake.

INTRODUCTION • Although Christopher Marlowe's fame was somewhat obscured by his contemporary, W i l l i a m Shakespeare , he is regarded as o n e of t h e great d r a m a t i s t s o f t h e E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e . In Doctor Faustus he has created o n e of the most com-pelling characters in English literature.

THE STORY Faustus, having studied and been disappointed by all the sci-ences, decides to explore the world of magic. Through magic, he calls up Mephistopheles, a devil, and makes an agreement with him: he will give his soul to Lucifer in return for twenty-four years of life. During this time, Mephistopheles will be his servant and do anything he asks him to do. For the rest of his life, Faustus indulges in every imaginable earthly pleasure and, thanks to the magical intervention of Mephistopheles, meets famous people from the past like Helen of Troy.

lustus makes a devilish it with Mephistopheles.

Sound A constant squeaky noise like the one a new piece of chalk makes on a blackboard.

Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marlowe 3

As the end of the twenty-four years draws near, Faustus begins to realise the enormity of the agreement he has made. He is terrified of death and begs to be saved, bid, at the end of the play, he is taken to hell by the devils.

Faustus's Last Hour Text C I

This is the last scene in the play. It is eleven o'clock and, at midnight, Faustus must give his soul to the devil and face eternal damnation.

Act 5, Scene 2 BAD ANGEL: N O W Faustus, let thine eyes with horror stare1

Into that vast perpetual torture-house. There are the Furies2 tossing3 damned souls On burning forks; their bodies boil in lead. There are live quarters4 burning on the coals That ne'er can die. This ever-burning chair Is for o'er tortured souls to rest them in. These that are fed with sops5 of flaming fire Were gluttons6 and loved only delicates And laughed to see the poor starve7 at their gates. But yet all these are nothing; thou shalt see Ten thousand tortures that more horrid be.

FAUSTUS: O, I have seen enough to torture me. BAD ANGEL: Nay8, thou must feel them, taste the smart9 of all.

He that loves pleasure must for pleasure fall. And so I leave thee, Faustus, till anon10; Then wilt thou tumble11 in confusion.

10

15

[Exit BAD ANGEL. The clock strikes eleven] FAUSTUS: Ah, Faustus,

Now hast thou but one bare12 hour to live, And then thou must be damned perpetually. Stand still, you ever-moving spheres of heaven13, That time may cease14 and midnight never come! Fair nature's eye15, rise, rise again, and make Perpetual day; or let this hour be but A year, a month, a week, a natural day, That Faustus may repent16 and save his soul! O lente, lente currite noctis equi171

20

25

GLOSSARY

Note: Elizabethan English is different from modern English. Here is a list of the most frequently recurring archaic words and their modern equivalents.

thou: you thee: you thyself: yourself thine: yours art: are hath: has, have doth: does

wilt: will shalt: shall

1. stare: look fixedly 2. Furies: goddesses who

punished criminals in Roman and Greek mythology

Q

CHARACTERS • Doctor Faustus,

a scholar • Bad Angel, a devil < Mephistopheles,

a devil

7.

9.

tossing: throwing quarters: bodies sops: small pieces gluttons: people who eat too much starve: die from hunger Nay: no

smart: sharp pain 10. anon: soon 11. tumble: collapse 12. bare: only 13.spheres of heaven:

planets 14. cease: stop 15.Fair nature's eye: the

sun 16. repent: say you are

sorry for your sins 17.0 lente, lente currite

noctis equi: O slowly, slowly run, you horses of the night

4 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

18. leap: jump 19. streams: flows 20. rend: tear 21. Yet will I call on him:

but I will call him 22. spare me: do not take

me 23.Stretcheth: stretches 24. bends ... brows:

looks angrily down at Faustus

25. wrath: anger 26. Then: so 27. headlong: head first 28. gape: open wide 29. harbour: protect 30. You stars ... nativity:

Marlowe is referring to astrology and the belief that the position of the stars when you are born can influence what happens in your life

31. allotted: given me 32. draw up: pull up 33. entrails: the inside

part of an animal's or person's body

34. yon: over there 35. labouring: pregnant

and slow-moving, as if the cloud was about to give birth

36. forth: out of you 37. limbs: parts of the

body 38. issue: come out of 39. watch: clock 40. 'Twill . . . anon: it will

be over soon 4 1 . 0 God ... ransomed

me: O, God if you do not want to (wilt not) save me, do it for your son, Jesus Christ, who has freed (hath ransomed) me through his sacrifice on the cross

4 2 . 0 , no end ... souls: A damned soul must suffer forever

43. Why wert . . . soul?: why were (wert) you not born without a soul? (Faustus is talking to himself as if he were another person)

44. this: this soul 45. Pythagoras'

metempsychosis: a theory, attributed to Pythagoras, which

The stars move still; time runs; the clock will strike; The devil will come, and Faustus must be damned. O, I'll leap18 up to my God! Who pulls me down? 30 See, see where Christ's blood streams19 in the firmament! One drop would save my soul, half a drop. Ah, my Christ! Ah, rend20 not my heart for naming of my Christ! Yet will 1 call on him21. O, spare me22 Lucifer! Where is it now? 'Tis gone; and see where God 35 Stretcheth23 out his arm and bends his ireful brows24! Mountains and hills, come, come and fall on me And hide me from the heavy wrath25 of God! No, no! Then26 will I headlong27 run into the earth. 40 Earth, gape28! O, no, it will not harbour29 me. You stars that reigned at my nativity30, Whose influence hath allotted31 death and hell, Now draw up32 Faustus like a foggy mist Into the entrails33 of yon34 labouring35 cloud, 45 That when you vomit forth36 into the air, My limbs37 may issue38 from your smoky mouths, So that my soul may but ascend to heaven. [The watch39 strikes] Ah, half the hour is past! 'Twill all be past anon40. 50 O God, If thou wilt not have mercy on my soul, Yet for Christ's sake, whose blood hath ransomed me41, Impose some end to my incessant pain. Let Faustus live in hell a thousand years, 55 A hundred thousand, and at last be saved. O, no end is limited to damned souls42. Why wert thou not a creature wanting soul?43

Or why is this44 immortal that thou hast? Ah, Pythagoras' metempsychosis4S, were that true46, 60 This soul should fly from me and I be changed Unto47 some brutish48 beast. All beasts are happy, for, when they die, Their souls are soon dissolved in elements49; But mine must live still to be plagued50 in hell. 65 Curst51 be the parents that engendered52 me!

says that, when a person or animal dies, their soul migrates to the body of another person or animal

46. were that true: if that were true

47.Unto: into 48. brutish: showing no

human intelligence or feeling

49. dissolved in elements: disappear

50. plagued: punished 51. Curst: cursed (to curse

someone is to ask God or another supernatural power to harm someone)

52. engendered: gave birth to


No, Faustus, curse thyself. Curse Lucifer, That hath deprived thee of the joys of heaven.

[The clock striketh twelve] O, it strikes, it strikes! Now, body, turn to air, Or Lucifer will bear53 thee quick to hell.

[Thunder and lightning] O soul, be changed into little water drops, And fall into the ocean ne'er to be found! My God, my God, look not so fierce on me!

[Enter LUCIFER, MEPHISTOPHELES and other DEVILS]

Adders54 and serpents, let me breathe a while! Ugly hell, gape not5 5 . Come not, Lucifer! I'll burn my books. Ah, Mephistopheles!

[The DEVILS exeunt56 with him]

70

75

53. bear: carry 54. Adders: poisonous

snakes 55.gape not: do not

open up 56. exeunt-, leave

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What, according to the Bad Angel, is happening to the following in hell? Fill in the table referring to the text.

2 In lines 21 -25 Faustus asks the planets to stand still. What does he wish would happen?

3 What does Faustus believe might save him? (Line 32)

4 Why does he want to be hidden by mountains and hills?

5 In line 40 where does he try to hide?

6 What does he ask the stars to do? (Lines 4 2 - 4 8 )

7 Underline the sentences where Faustus refers to or addresses God and Christ. What image of God does he portray? • A loving and merciful God. • A God of justice and punishment. Is the image of Christ similar?

8 What compromise is he prepared to make with God? (Lines 54 -56 )

9 Why does he wish that Pythagoras's theory of metempsychosis were true?

1 0 Into what does he want his body and soul transformed? (Lines 69 -71 ) What purpose would the transformation serve?

damned souls (line 3) the Furies are tossing them on burning forks while their bodies boil in lead

live quarters (line 5)

o'er tortured souls (line 7)

gluttons (line 9)

ü \ . f 5 - '^kjjgp:

6 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

ANALYS IS 1 Focus on the Bad Angel's description of hell (lines 3-10) . Which of the senses do the details appeal to most? Does the description reinforce the traditional association of hell and heat?

2 Faustus uses short sentences, exclamations and questions throughout his speech: 'O, I'll leap up to my Cod!' (line 30) 'Who pulls me down?' (line 30) 'Ah, my Christ!' (line 32). Find other examples in the text. What purpose do they serve? • To show that Faustus is in a state of confusion and

desperation. • To show that he is calm and meditative. • To add drama to his speech. • To make his speech more natural. • Other:

3 Find examples in the text where Faustus: - addresses himself; - refers to himself in the third person. What does this suggest about his state of mind?

4 The striking of the clock is mentioned three times. What effect do you think the reference to the passing of time would have on an audience? There are fifty lines in Faustus's speech before the clock strikes midnight. How many are there before

and after the half past eleven chime? What does this suggest about how time seems to be passing for Faustus?

5 Elizabethan audiences came from a wide range of social backgrounds ( • p. C59). Which aspects of the extract you have just read would have appealed to the more popular sections of the audience and which elements would have interested the more learned spectators?

6 According to Christian doctrine, a sinner can save his soul if he confesses his sin and makes an act of sincere contrition. Why do you think Faustus's pleas for mercy are unanswered? • He does not truly believe in a loving and merciful

God. • He never clearly admits to having committed a

grave sin. • He asks for mercy because he is afraid of eternal

damnation and not because he is sorry for what he has done.

• He continues to blame Lucifer for what has happened (line 67) and does not take full responsibility for his actions.

rm

m Blank verse

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Blank verse consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters - ten-syllable lines in which unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.

| There | are | the | Fu | ries | toss | ing | damn | ed | souls | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| On | burn | ing | forks; | their | bod | ies | boil | in | lead | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Blank verse is the verse form that most closely resembles the natural r h y t h m s of English speech and it is the most frequently used verse form in English literature. It was first used in drama by Christopher Marlowe and became the standard metre for plays in the Elizabethan period. Doctor Faustus is written primarily in blank verse. However, Marlowe did not always strictly adhere to its rules.

In lines 40 to 48 find: a) examples of blank verse; b) examples of lines that do not conform to the rules of blank verse.

ft Listen to the recording of lines 4 0 - 4 8 . Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.


STAC I N 6 THE PLAY

Performance A printed play that you read is an incomplete blueprint of a playwright's work, which only elements becomes complete when performed. Performance elements such as casting, the choice of

actors, costumes, the clothes the actors wear, lighting, how the stage area is illuminated and stage scenery or props (properties), the stage furniture, are all part of a meaningful system of signs that , when added to the text, give the play its full meaning. Some indications about the performance elements may be included in the playwright's stage directions but it is generally the director of the play and his staff who make these decisions. Through his choices a director tries to remain faithful to the playwright's intentions but also to add his own personal vision of the play.

OVER T O Y O U Work in groups of four. Discuss: a. Which famous actor would you cast in the role of Doctor Faustus? Consider elements

such as age, tone of voice, physical characteristics, etc. Justify your choice. Which of your classmates might best interpret the part and why?

b. If you were directing the scene you have just read, what kind of lighting, costumes and stage scenery would you use? Faustus looks upward towards salvation and downwards towards damnation. How would you represent this through the stage lighting?

c. The text refers to 'devils' and 'adders and serpents'. Would you use actors to represent the devils and serpents? What kind of costumes would they wear? Where would you position them? How would they move?

d. What kind of stage scenery and props would you use to create a suitable setting for the scene? Would you choose an elaborate stage set or would you prefer simplicity, allowing the audience to use their imagination? What would the advantage of your choice be?

Faustus wanted to know more and do more than any other mortal man. In the end he paid a very high price for his superhuman powers. Today, as science pushes the frontiers of human knowledge ever forwards, some people are arguing that scientific research should be tightly controlled and, if necessary, Smited, to avoid abuse by unscrupulous individuals or groups. In which of the following fields do you think research should or STould not be limited? Give details.

• Medicine • Military technology I Communications and information technology • Space exploration • Genetic modification of animals and plants.

A modern production of Doctor Faustus in which just few, simple props are used.


S i S WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years Christopher Marlowe was born in Canterbury in 1564 ,

the son of a prosperous shoemaker.

Education He was an except iona l student and when he was f i f teen he was awarded a scholarship to King's School in Canterbury, one of the oldest schools in Britain. He continued his studies at Cambridge University, where he took his Bachelor of Arts in 1583. Three years later he received his Master of Arts degree in spite of opposition by the University authorities, who suspected him of converting to Roman Catholicism during a secret journey to Rheims, France, the centre of Catholic sentiment. Marlowe at this time was probably working for the government in Her Majesty's Secret Service, spying on Catholic conspirators, so the government authorities intervened on his behalf and the degree was granted.

University wits He moved to London, where he met other graduates who were involved in the literary life of London. Together they formed a circle of young writers known as the 'University Wits'.

Plays From 1587 to 1593 he wrote and produced his four great plays: Tamburlaine Parts I and II, The Jew of Malta, Edward the Second and Doctor Faustus. He was the first English playwright to use blank verse* and to write genuine tragedy*. His works were highly successful and had a major influence on other playwrights of the period including Shakespeare.

Tragic death Marlowe's death was mysterious; he was stabbed to death on May 30, 1593 in a tavern brawl. It is widely believed that he was deliberately assassinated for political reasons.

CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE

(1564-1593)

TASK True or false? Correct the false ones.

a. Marlowe was born into a well-to-do family. b. He was a very bright student and attended a

first-rate school and university. c. He was never interested in either religious or

political matters.

d. In London he worked for a company called 'University Wits'.

e. He became a playwright and his works were very famous in his own time.

f. He died a violent death at age twenty-nine.

B f f P H M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B The fact that his life was so short makes Marlowe's contribution ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ • • • • • B M B i i l l ^ B to drama even more remarkable. In many ways he gave to English theatre the foundation on which Shakespeare was to build. Each of his plays revolves around a protagonist who is obsessed by a ruling passion: • Tamburlaine wishes to conquer the world; • Edward is blinded by his homosexual love; • Doctor Faustus aspires to unlimited knowledge; • the Jew of Malta is obsessed by his love for gold. However, his works are far more sophisticated than the medieval morality plays which told simple tales of wickedness and well-deserved punishment. Marlowe created tragedies in which men, aware of the potentially catastrophic consequences, make difficult decisions.

•i'iäMfr"

Writers' Gallery - Christopher Marlowe

• U r S i k S S I P WMM H i f

TTie title page for the 1620 -edition of Doctor Faustus.

Doctor Faustus, Marlowe's best-loved work, is based on a collection of German stories called the Faustbuch, which he probably read in English translation. The tales in the Faustbuch narrate in prose the real-life story of the German scholar and travelling magic ian Georgius Faustus. Marlowe transforms these simple stories of good and evil in to a c o m p l e x drama which explores themes such as man's aspiration to surpass all human limitation, and the consequences of ambition when it is not restricted by a sense of morality. Marlowe established blank verse* as the pr inc ipal verse form of E l izabethan drama. He avoided monotony by varying stresses and breaking up the lines with pauses, e x c l a m a t i o n s and s h o r t e n e d sentences, and using the syntax to reflect the state of mind of the character. In his short life Christopher Marlowe left a lasting mark on English drama. His early death undoubtedly deprived literature of even greater and more developed works.

The Tragical! Hiftoy of the Life and Death

o/Dodor Fauftus.

With new Addiuons.

W r i t t e n by (I:/. zWL'ar

Printed for loh« Wright, and arc to be ibid si his f!'.op witboui Newgate, at the iignc of clicBiUSc. 16*0.

TASKS 1 Complete the sentences.

a. Marlowe's characters are people who ... b. Compared to earlier theatrical works,

Marlowe's dramas... c. His most famous play, Doctor Faustus, is based

on ... d. His use of blank verse influenced ...

2 Marlowe's life was short and intense, and ended tragically. Imagine the news of his sudden death is announced in a TV news bulletin. Prepare the brief news report and act it out for the rest of the class.

1 0 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare

All over the world, the names Romeo and Juliet are synonymous with romantic love. Here are two definitions of love taken directly from the play: Love is ... 'a smoke made with the fume of sighs.' 'a madness most discreet, a choking gall and a preserving sweet.' Now try to write your own definition of love. Love is ...

INTRODUCTION • Romeo and Juliet has always been one of Shakespeare's best-loved plays. It is an impassion-ed cry in favour of love over hate, peace over war. It is simply one of the most gripping love stories ever told ( • Visual Link C3).

C H A R A C T E R S

The house of Capulet: • Juliet • Capulet, her father • Lady Capulet, her

mother • Tybalt, her cousin

The house of Montague: • Romeo • Montague, his

father • Lady Montague,

his mother

• Paris, suitor to Juliet

• Friar Lawrence

a

THE STORY

The Montagues and the Capidets are the two chief families of Verona, and for years they have been enemies in a bitter feud. Romeo, a Montague, and Juliet, a Capulet, fall madly in love ( • Text C2) but they realise that their families will try to stand in their way. Everything starts to go wrong for the two lovers. In a fight, Romeo kills Tybalt and as a punish-ment, he is banished from Verona to Mantua. Juliet finds out that Romeo has to leave Verona and so the two lovers decide to get married in secret. They are married by Friar Lawrence. Juliet is very sad and depressed when Romeo goes away. Her father insists that the best way to cheer her up is to have her marry Paris, an old friend, but Juliet refuses. In desperation she asks Friar Lawrence to help her get out of the marriage with Paris and reunite her with Romeo. Friar Lawrence devises an ingenious plan to help Juliet. He tells her to drink a magic potion which will make her lose consciousness and everyone will think she is dead. However, she will wake up after forty-two hours, and when she does, Romeo will be there to take her to Mantua. Juliet does as Friar Lawrence has instructed and everybody thinks she is dead. Friar Lawrence sends Romeo a letter telling him about the plan but Romeo does not receive it. He only hears that Juliet is dead. He rushes back to Verona and, when he gets to the graveyard, he finds her seemingly lifeless body. Overcome by grief, he kills himself. When the effect of the potion wears o f f , Juliet wakes up. She sees Romeo's dead body and commits suicide ( • Text C3). The two families realise that their feud has led to the deaths of the two lovers and promise never to fight again.

Text C 2

- • GLOSSARY

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3)

1. wherefore: why 2. be ... my love: swear

you love me

What's in a Name? It is night time and Juliet is on her bedroom balcony. She is talking out loud to herself but does not realise that Romeo has climbed over the wall into her garden and is listening to her.

Act 2, Scene 1: Capulets' orchard JULIET: O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore1 art thou Romeo?

Deny thy father and refuse thy name;

Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love2,

And I'll no longer be a Capulet.

Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare 11

ROMEO [Aside]: Shall I hear more or shall I speak at this? 5

JULIET: 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy; Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? It is nor hand nor foot, Nor arm nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O be some other name! 10 What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called, Retain3 that dear perfection which he owes4

Without that title5. Romeo, doff6 thy name, is And for thy name which is no part of thee, Take all myself.

ROMEO: I take thee at thy word: Call me but love and I'll be new baptised; Henceforth71 never will be Romeo. 20

JULIET: What man art thou that thus bescreened8 in night So stumblest on my counsel9?

ROMEO: By a name10

I know not how to tell thee who I am. My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself, 25 Because it is an enemy to thee; Had I it written, I would tear the word.

JULIET: My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words Of thy tongue's uttering11, yet I know the sound. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? 30

ROMEO: Neither, fair maid, if either thee dislike12. JULIET: H O W cam'st thou hither13, tell me and wherefore?

The orchard walls are high and hard to climb, And the place death, considering who thou art, If any of my kinsmen14 find thee here. 35

ROMEO: With love's light wings did I o'er perch15 these walls, For stony limits cannot hold love out, And what love can do, that dares love attempt16: Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.

3. Retain: keep 9. stumblest on my counsel: 4. owes: owns overhears my thoughts

5. title: name 10. By a name: with a name

6. doff: get rid of 11. Of thy tongue's uttering:

of what you are saying 7. Henceforth: from now on 12. if either thee dislike: if you 8. bescreened: hidden do not like one or the other

13.cams't thou hither: did you come here

14. kinsmen: family relations 15. o'er perch: climb over 16. And what love ... attempt:

a person who is in love has the courage to do anything

1 2 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

C O M P R E H E N S I O N — — 1 In the opening lines (1-4) Juliet suggests how she and Romeo can solve their problem. Explain her proposals in your own words.

2 In line 18 Romeo speaks to Juliet. What gives him the confidence to reveal himself?

3 What does Romeo want Juliet to call him? (Line 19)

4 How does Juliet recognise Romeo?

5 Why does Juliet describe the orchard as 'death' for Romeo? (Line 34)

6 What helped Romeo climb the walls of the orchard and overcome his fear of death? (Lines 36-39)

ANALYS IS — 1 Romeo's love for Juliet is almost religious in its intensity. Find two religious terms which Romeo uses when speaking to Juliet.

2 Focus on the language that Romeo uses. What adjective would you choose to describe it? • Bold • Passionate • Confident • Cautious • Other:

Underline sentences in which Romeo says that his love for Juliet has made him brave in the face of death. How would you describe Romeo's personality?

3 Which of the two characters seems more aware and fearful of the dangers they are running? Quote from the text.

4 It has been suggested that Romeo and Juliet suffer a tragic fate because they are too impulsive. Find evidence of Romeo's impulsiveness in the text.


Dramatic tension

Dramatic irony

TASKS

O V E R T O Y O U

One of the greatest tasks facing a playwright is capturing and maintaining the audi-ence's attention. This is often done through dramat ic tension or suspense. Suspense or tension is created when the audience is uncertain about what is going to happen. In the case of the scene you have read there are two sources of suspense: • At the beginning of the scene Juliet does not know that Romeo is in the orchard listen-

ing to what she is saying. The audience is, however, aware of Romeo's presence. This is an example of dramatic irony. The audience knows something that one or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to add humour or sus-pense to a scene. In this case, as Juliet speaks there is a danger that she may say some-thing which Romeo will misinterpret. Overheard conversations are often the source of misunderstandings in drama. The audience is kept in suspense until Romeo reveals him-self in line 18.

• The fact that Romeo may be discovered by Juliet's family also creates suspense. The tender atmosphere which the lovers create may at any m o m e n t be violated by the hatred and violence of Juliet's family. The presence of danger heightens the tension and makes the scene even more romantic.

1 Explain how Romeo's aside in line 5 heightens the tension in the opening part of the scene.

2 Underline the sentences that remind the audience that Romeo is braving death in order to declare his love for Juliet. How do these sentences contribute to creating suspense?

In what kind of books and films is suspense the main feature? Think of a book you have read or a film that you have seen that included elements of suspense. How did you feel as you read the book or watched the film? Do you enjoy the anxiety created by suspense? Have you ever felt that the feelings are too intense (in the case, for example, of horror stories or films)?

Romeo and Juliet - Will iam Shakespeare 119

S T A C I N 6 T H E P L A Y

Stage directions

Deciding where the actors should stand and how they should move is extremely important in the staging of a play. Sometimes the playwright will make suggestions about the actors' movements in his stage directions. These are usually included in the script in italics. It is often, however, the director of the play who makes these decisions.

OVER T O Y O U Imagine you are staging a production of the scene you have just read. Focus on the moment when Romeo reveals himself to Juliet. Try to imagine how you would deal with this moment. Does Juliet hear Romeo before she sees him? Where has Romeo been hiding? Does he emerge from the shadows, is he standing below balcony, does he step out from behind a tree? Does he appear very suddenly and startle Juliet or does he reveal himself slowly? Try to write stage directions for this key moment in the scene.

Romeo and Juliet belong to opposing factions in Verona during the Renaissance. In today's world there are many groups that regard each other as enemies. Make a list of opposing groups that you know. What would happen if a boy and girl from opposing groups fell in love?

Ah, What an Unkind Hour Text C 3

Romeo is at the graveyard. He has just killed Paris, who had tried to stop him seeing Juliet, and is now sitting beside Juliet's seemingly lifeless body.

Act 5 Scene 3: A churchyard, outside the tomb of the Capulets ROMEO: O my love, my wife,

Death, that hath sucked the honey of thy breath, Hath had nop'ower yet upon thy beauty. Thou art not conquered, beauty's ensign1 yet Is crimson2 in thy lips and in thy cheeks, 5 And Death's pale flag is not advanced there. (...) Ah, dear Juliet, Why art thou yet so fair? Shall I believe That unsubstantial3 Death is,amorous, , . , , , A . , i OMMM* And that the lean abhorred monster keeps Thee here in dark to be his paramour5? For fear of that, I still will stay with thee, And never from this palace of dim6 night Depart7 again. Here, here will I remain With worms that are thy chambermaids8 ; O here Will I set up my everlasting rest9,

j Lvi [ut'L'

And shake the yoke of inauspicious stars From this world-wearied flesh10. Eyes, look your last11! Arms, take your last embrace12! and, lips, O you The doors of breath, seal13 with a righteous14 kiss A dateless bargain to engrossing Death1 5 ! ^ / j N ? /

10

15

20

GLOSSARY • -

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. ensign: flag 2. crimson: deep red 3. unsubstantial: not a

part of this world 4. lean: thin, hungry 5. paramour: lover 6. dim: dark

Depart: leave chambermaids: female servants Will I set up my everlasting rest: Will 1 join you in death

10.And shake ... flesh: and throw this heavy weight of bad luck off my tired body

11. look your last: take a last look

12. embrace: hug 13. seal: authenticate 14. righteous: virtuous 15.dateless ... Death:

timeless contract with all absorbing death

V o J i.'S ' £S

tM 14 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

16.conduct: poison 17. unsavoury:

unpleasant 18. dashing: throwing

violently (Romeo is like a ship that is thrown against the rocks)

19. weary bark: tired boat 20. apothecary: chemist

(It refers to the chemist who had given Romeo some poison)

21. Thus: in this way 22. stoops: bends over 23. Alack: expression of

regret or surprise (arch.)

24. stains: leaves a mark 25.masterless: belonging

to no one 26. gory: covered with

blood 27. pale: dead 28. steeped: soaked,

bathed 29.Ah, what ... chance:

How unkind was the moment when these horrible deeds were done!

30. stirs: moves 31. comfortable:

supportive, consoling 32. thwarted our intents:

frustrated our plans 33. Thy husband in thy

bosom (heart): Romeo

34. dispose of: send 35. Among a sisterhood:

in an order 36. Watch: guards 37. Come go: hurry up

and go 38. Go get thee hence: go

away 39. timeless: untimely, at

the wrong time 40. churl: brute 41. Haply: perhaps, maybe 42. restorative: medicine

(the kiss will 'cure' her of life and restore her to Romeo)

43. dagger: short knife 44. sheath: cover for the

blade of a knife 45. rust: to become

covered with rust (the reddish-brown substance that forms on wet metal)

•

30

•J ^ i

35

Come, bitter conduct16, come, unsavoury17 guide! Thou desperate pilot, now at once run on The dashing18 rocks thy seasick weary bark19! q Here's to my love [Drinks] O true apothecary20! , 25 Thy drugs are quick. Thus21 with a kiss I die. [Dies] (...)

[Enter FRIAR LAWRENCE]

FRIAR LAWRENCE: Romeo! [FRIAR stoops22 and looks on the blood and weapons]

Alack23! Alack! What blood is that which stains24

The stony entrance of the sepulchre? What mean these masterless25 and gory26 swords To lie discoloured by this place of peace?

[Enters the tomb] Romeo! O, pale27! Who else? What, Paris too? And steeped28 in blood? Ah, what an unkind hour Is guilty of this lamentable chance29!

[JULIET rises] The lady stirs30. t J / \ l r J

JULIET: O comfortable31 Friar, where is my lord? I do remember well where I should be; And there I am. Where is my Romeo?

[Noise within]

FRIAR LAWRENCE: I hear some noise, lady. Come from that nest Of death, contagion, and unnatural sleep. 40 A greater power than we can contradict Hath thwarted our intents32, Come, come away. Thy husband in thy bosom33 there lies dead; And Paris too. Come, I'll dispose of34 thee Among a sisterhood35 of holy nuns. Stay not to question, for the Watch36 is coming. Come go37, good Juliet, I dare no longer stay.

JULIET: Go get thee hence38, for I will not away. [FRIAR leaves] What's here? A cup closed in my lover's hand? Poison I see hath been his timeless39 end. O churl40, drunk all, and left po friendly drop To help me after? I will kiss thy lips, Haply41 some poison yet doth hang on them, To make me die with a restorative42.

[Kisses him] Thy lips are warm. 55 CAPTAIN OF THE W A T C H : [Within] Lead, boy, which way? JULIET: Yea, noise? Then I'll be brief. [Takes ROMEO'S dagger43] O happy dagger,

This is thy sheath44; [Stabs herself] there rust45 and let me die.

[Falls on ROMEO'S body and dies]

45

50

Romeo and Juliet - Will iam Shakespeare 121

COMPREHENS ION — 1 Why does Juliet not appear to be dead? (Lines 1 -6)

2 What does Romeo call 'death' in line 9?

3 Why does he think death is keeping Juliet in this dark place?

4 What reason does Romeo give for committing suicide?

5 What does Friar Lawrence see as he enters the tomb?

6 What is the first question Juliet asks when she awakens?

7 What, according to Friar Lawrence, has caused his plan to fail?

8 Where does Friar Lawrence want to send Juliet?

9 Why is Juliet upset when she sees that the cup of poison is empty?

1 0 Why does Juliet hurry her final act?

ANALYSIS | 1 In lines 1 - 6 Romeo says that Juliet does not appear to be dead. Explain the dramatic irony* in what he says. What effect does the irony of the situation have?

It increases tension and suspense. It adds an element of humour. It makes the audience more involved. It makes the scene more tragic.

2 Find two examples of personification* in Romeo's speech.

3 Throughout the play Romeo says that he is a victim of fate. In which line does Romeo repeat that destiny has been cruel to him?

4 By committing suicide Romeo believes that he will be reunited with Juliet spiritually, so in his final speech he focuses on the physical aspects of their love. Underline the parts of the body he mentions.

5 Several times during the play life is compared to a sea journey. How does the metaphor* in line 24 extend this image?

6 When Friar Lawrence enters the tomb he speaks in exclamations and questions. What does the way he speaks reveal about his state of mind?

7 Juliet notices that Romeo's lips are still warm and therefore that he is not dead long. How does this add to the tragedy of the scene?

8 Find references to the setting in the scene you have read. How do you imagine the stage should be set for this scene? What kind of atmosphere do you think the setting* should create?


Tragedy

M

TASK

OVER T O Y O U

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy. This is a form of drama in which the chief character, the tragic hero, undergoes a series of misfortunes which eventually lead to his downfall. The hero passes from a state of happiness to a state of despair because of some weakness - tragic flaw - in himself. The tragic hero is an important man of high social standing. He is not evil - he is a mixture of good and bad. The audience understands his weakness but feels pity for him because his misfortunes are greater than he deserves. He is usually doomed from the beginning and there are often premonitions of his downfall in what he says. It is often fate or supernatural elements that control his destiny, and death is generally the only escape he can find from pain and suffering. Romeo is a good example of a tragic hero. He belongs to an important family. A series of unfortunate events lead to his downfall: he falls in love with Juliet - daughter of his enemies the Capulets - , he kills Tybalt in a street fight, he does not receive Friar Lawrence's message . . . . Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness and his passionate nature. He becomes totally engrossed in his love for Juliet and he does not consider the consequences of what he is doing.

Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness. Have you found any evidence of this trait in the extracts you have read? What are the qualities that make the audience feel pity for Romeo?

Can you name any other famous tragic heroes/heroines? Choose one of them, do some research and briefly tell his/her story.


S T A C I N C T H E P L A Y

Delivery

OVER T O Y O U

Delivery in acting refers to the way an actor says his lines. The actor, with the help of the director, must decide what tone of voice he is going to use, which words or expressions he is going to emphasise, the pace at which he is going to deliver the lines, where he will make pauses and what facial expressions or gestures he will make.

Work in groups of six. Divide Romeo's final speech in the following way: Lines 1 -6 0 my love ... not advanced there. Lines 7-11 Ah, dear Juliet... to be his paramour? Lines 12-18 For fear... world-wearied flesh. Lines 18-21 Eyes, ... engrossing Death! Lines 2 2 - 2 4 Come, bitter conduct... seasick weary bark! Lines 2 5 - 2 6 Here's to my love ...I die.

Each of you should take one section of the speech and learn it. Decide how you are going to deliver your lines. The following notes may help you. Tone of voice: loud voice or whisper? Facial expressions? Quickly or slowly? Pauses? Gestures while performing? Words to emphasise?

Use your imagination and think of interesting ways to create the greatest dramatic effect.

In Romeo and Juliet one of the main themes is the generation gap. The term 'generation gap' was invented in the 1960s to define the different outlooks on life that younger and older people have. Throughout the play older people warn the two young lovers that they should be less impetubus.(ln fact Romeo and Juliet meet, fall in love, are parted and die in the space of just five days. The two young lovers do not listen to the advice of their elders. They believe that nothing is as important as the love they feel for each other.

Do you feel that there is a gap in how younger people and older people see things in today's society? Over which of the following issues is the difference in opinion most pronounced? Work Money School and study Relationships Marriage Dress Drugs Technology Race Nationalism Choose one of the issues and explain how younger and older people's opinions differ with regard to it.

L [ to the world of music The scene you have read in Text C2 has often been described as a 'love-duet' in which two lovers take turns in declaring their love for each other. The reference to music is not surprising as the entire play has been a source of inspiration for musicians through the centuries. Berlioz's dramatic symphony Romeo et Juliette, Tchaikovsky's symphonic poem, Prokofiev's ballet music and, more recently, Dire Straits's song Romeo and Juliet have all been inspired by the play.

Read the lyrics of the Dire Straits' song. The following elements from the play can also be found in the song. Can you identify them?

-Juliet is above Romeo recalling the balcony scene. - Juliet is startled by Romeo's presence. - Romeo and Juliet come from the same social background. - Romeo is prepared to run risks to show his love for Juliet. - Romeo and Juliet use celestial imagery (stars/moon, etc.) to describe their love for each other.

Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare 17

Romeo and Juliet

A lovestruck1 Romeo sings a streetsuss2 serenade Laying everybody low3 with a lovesong that he made Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade Says something like you and me babe how about it?4

Juliet says hey it's Romeo you nearly gimme5 me a heart attack He's underneath the window she's singing hey la my boyfriend's back You shouldn't come around here singing up at people like that Anyway what you gonna do about it?

Juliet the dice were loaded from the start6

And I bet and you exploded in my heart And I forget 1 forget the movie song7

When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet?

Come up on different streets they both were streets of shame Both dirty both mean yes and the dream was just the same And I dreamed your dream for you and now your dream is real How can you look at me as if I was just another one of your deals?

When you can fall for chains of silver you can fall for chains of gold You can fall for pretty strangers and the promises they hold You promised me everything you promised me thick and thin8

Now you just say oh Romeo yeah you know I used to have a scene with him

Juliet when we made love you used to cry You said I love you like the stars above I'll love you till I die There's a place for us you know the movie song When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet?

I can't do the talk like they talk on TV And I can't do a love song like the way it's meant9 to be I can't do everything but I'd do anything for you I can't do anything except be in love with you

And all I do is miss you and the way we used to be All I do is keep the beat10 and bad company All I do is kiss you through the bars of a rhyme11

Julie I'd do the stars with you any time

Juliet when we made love you used to cry You said 1 love you like the stars above I'll love you till 1 die There's a place for us you know the movie song When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet?

A lovestruck Romeo sings a streetsuss serenade Laying everybody low with a lovesong that he made Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade Says something like you and me babe how about it?

GLOSSARY

1. lovestruck: in love 2. streetsuss: clever 3. Laying everybody

low: impressing everybody

4. how about it?: what do you think?

5. gimme: give me 6. the dice ... start: it

was obvious from the beginning what the result would be

7. movie song: reference to the song 'There's a Place for Us' from the soundtrack of West Side Story, a film based on the story of Romeo and Juliet

8. thick and thin: through good and bad times

9. meant (mean): supposed

10. keep the beat: play music

11. the bars of a rhyme: my music

'Thou are not conquered, beauty's ensign yet is crimson in thy lips ...' A scene from Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet (1968).

M 1 8 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare

Choose one of the situations below and write a letter to a problem page asking for help with your dilemma. Add as many details as you like.

Situation A Your father does not approve of the person you love and you know he will never give you his consent to get married. He has someone else in mind that he believes would make a better match but you do not love the other person.

Situation B You are going to get married. You like your fiance/e and you know that the marriage will be good but you are really in love with someone else.

Each of the situations refers to one of the four main characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream: Hermia, Helena, Lysander and Demetrius. When you have finished working on the play try to match each character to a situation.

INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare had great powers of imaginat ion and his plays deal with a vast range of topics and situations. In A Midsummer Night's Dream the world of fairies comes into c o n t a c t with the h u m a n world and some very strange things happen.

THE STORY The play takes place on the day and night before the wedding between Theseus and Hippolyta. Egeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. She, however, is in love with Lysander and so she refuses to do as her father says. Egeus asks Theseus to help him. Theseus tells Hermia that under Athenian law a daughter must obey her father, and orders her to marry Demetrius within four days or face death. Hermia decides to escape from Athens with Lysander to a wood outside the city. Helena, Hernia's close friend, is in love with Demetrius. The two had been lovers but had broken up. Helena, however, wishes to restore their love and tries to win Demetrius's favour by telling him of Hermia and Lysander's plan to elope. Demetrius, followed by Helena, enters the wood to search for Hermia and Lysander.

The wood is inhabited by fairies. When Oberon hears Demetrius arguing with Helena, he tells Puck to pour some magic love-juice on his eyes so that the couple will be reconciled. But Puck makes a mistake and pours the juice on Lysander's eyes, with the result that he falls in love with Helena. Demetrius and Helena have since been reconciled so now both Demetrius and Lysander are in love with Helena while Hermia is ignored ( • Text C4). The lovers' lives have been thrown upside down by the fairies but Oberon decides to make amends. He tells Puck to put a juice on their eyes while they are sleeping that will restore them to their former state, so, when Lysander wakes up, he is again in love with Hermia. The two former friends quarrel ( • Text C5).

Situation C You are in love with a man who is already engaged to be married. Another man has declared his love but you cannot forget your true love.

Situation D You have been in love with a woman and planning to marry her but suddenly you fall in love with another woman and now you have no feelings for your fiancee.

C H A R A C T E R S

Humans: • Theseus, Duke of

Athens • Hippolyta, Queen

of the Amazons, engaged to Theseus

• Egeus, Hernia's father

• Hermia, in love with Lysander

• Helena, in love with Demetrius

• Lysander, in love with Hermia

• Demetrius, in love with Helena

Fairies: • Oberon, King of

the Fairies • Puck, a mischievous

goblin

A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 19

Theseus and Egeus forgive the lovers for running away and agree to Lysander marrying Hermia. The play ends with three weddings: Theseus marries Hippolyta, Demetrius marries Helena, and Lysander marries Hermia.

A Double Cherry Parted ESBSB3 Q Puck has mistakenly put some love-juice on Lysander's eyes, so now both he and Demetrius are in love with Helena, while nobody loves Hermia. Helena cannot believe that the two men are in love with her and accuses her best friend, Hermia, of plotting with Lysander and Demetrius to make fun of her.

Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood HERMIA: What love could press Lysander from my side? LYSANDER: Lysander's love, that would not let him bide1,

Fair Helena, who more engilds2 the night Than all yon fiery oes3 and eyes of light.

[To HERMIA] Why seek'st thou me? Could not this make thee know 5

The hate I bare thee4 made me leave thee so? HERMIA: YOU speak not as you think; it cannot be. HELENA: Lo, she is one of this confederacy5.

Now I perceive6 they have conjoined7 all three To fashion8 this false sport in spite of me9. 10 Injurious10 Hermia, most ungrateful maid11

Have you conspired, have you with these contrived12

To bait13 me with this foul derision? Is all the counsel14 that we two have shared -The sisters' vows15, the hours that we have spent 15 When we have chid the hasty-footed time For parting us16 - O, is all forgot? All schooldays' friendship, childhood innocence? We, Hermia, like two artificial17 gods Have with our needles created both one flower18, 20 Both on one sampler19, sitting on one cushion, Both warbling20 of one song, both in one key,

A scene from the film A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935).

GLOSSARY

>«e note on Elizabethan Jgi ish on p. C3)

bide: wait 1 engilds: brightens up,

embellishes oes: round, shiny pieces of material used to ornament dresses

- bare thee: have for you

5. confederacy: conspiracy 6. perceive: see 7. conjoined: joined together 8. fashion: create 9. in spite of me: to spite me,

to get at me 10. Injurious: hurtful, causing

injury 11. maid: girl 12. contrived: planned in a

secret way

13.bait: torment 14. counsel: talking as friends 15. vows: promises 16.When we have ... parting

us: when we have criticised (chid) time because it went by too quickly (hasty-footed), forcing us to part, even though we would have liked to spend more time together

17. artificial: highly skilled in art

18. Have with our needles ... flower: We embroidered a flower together

19. sampler: piece of embroidery

20. warbling: singing like a bird

THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

21. incorporate: of one body

22. moulded: shaped

23.Two of the first ... Due but to one: like two bodies in one as on a heraldic shield

24. crest: decoration at the top of a heraldic shield

25. rent asunder: tear apart

26. scorning: rejecting

27.Our sex ... for it: all women will condemn you as I do

•

As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds Had been incorporate21. So we grew together Like to a double cherry, seeming parted But yet an union in partition, Two lovely berries moulded22 on one stem, So with two seeming bodies but one heart, Two of the first, like coats in heraldry, Due but to one23, and crowned with one crest24. And will you rent our ancient love asunder25, To join with men in scorning26 your poor friend? It is not friendly, 'tis not maidenly. Our sex as well as I may chide you for it27, Though I alone do feel the injury.

25

30

35


1 Why does Lysander no longer love Hermia?

2 Does Hermia believe what Lysander says?

3 What does Helena think that Hermia, Lysander and Demetrius have joined together to do?

4 Why is she particularly angry with Hermia?

5 How long have Helena and Hermia been friends?

6 What activity does Helena recall them doing together? (Lines 19-24)

7 In lines 24-30 Helena makes two comparisons. What does she compare her friendship with Hermia to?

8 Does she believe that she will be the only one to criticise Hermia's behaviour?

A N A L Y S I S

1 In line 1 Hermia asks Lysander why he no longer loves her. How would you describe Lysander's reply? • Truthful • Straightforward • Hurtful • Insensitive • Reasonable What justification can be given for Lysander's harsh reply?

2 Helena asks three questions in her attack on Hermia. Underline them in the text. What effect do you think Helena hopes to achieve through her questioning? She hopes: • to embarrass Hermia into an admission of guilt. • to win Hermia over to her side. • to discredit Hermia in front of Lysander and

Demetrius. • to get answers and understand why Hermia has

betrayed her.

3 In lines 19-24 Helena describes how she and Hermia embroidered a flower together as an example of how close they were as friends. Which adjectives would you choose to describe the example she chooses? • Intimate • Feminine • Trivial • Striking • Calming

4 Helena says that she and Hermia were a 'double cherry' (line 25). Do you think that this image is effective? Justify your answer.

5 In lines 1-10 there is end-of-line rhyming. Write the same letter of the alphabet beside the words rhyme. Read the lines aloud emphasising the rhyme pattern.

A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 21

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Blank verse Shakespeare's plays have been described as poetic drama. Part of what gives his work its

Heroic COUplet poetic quality is the rhythm and musicality of the language. In the extract that you have read Shakespeare uses two verse forms: blank verse and rhyming (or heroic) couplets. Blank verse consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters - ten syllable lines in which unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.

| Is | all | the | coun | sel | that | we | two | have | shared - | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

| The | sis | ters' | vows, | the | hours | that | we | have | spent | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A rhyming couplet consists of two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs: AA, BB, and so on.

HERMIA: | What | love | could | press | Lys | an | der | from | my | side? | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

LYSANDER: | Lys | an | der's | love, | that | would | not | let | him | bide, | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

T A S K

O V E R T O Y O U

The first part of the extract that you have read is written in rhyming couplets, the second part is blank verse. At what point does the change take place? Say why you think the verse form changes. Consider the following points: - as Helena gets angrier her language becomes freer; - blank verse is better suited to the tone of what Helena is saying.

Listen to the recording of lines 26-35. Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.

STAC I NC T H E PLAY

Setting

O V E R T O Y O U

A Midsummer Night's Dream takes place in the daytime world of Athens, a state of disciplined order and down-to-earth reality, and the night-time world of the enchanted wood, a realm of disorder and fantasy. These two distinct settings must be created by stage scenery, prop-erties (props) and lighting. Settings for a play may vary from extravagant expensive sets to essential or abstract staging, depending on the budget that is available and the personal preferences of the director. Whatever the case may be, the stage setting should not be a dis-traction but should enhance the audience's understanding of the play.

The speech in Text C4 takes place in the enchanted night-time wood where fairies and disorder rule. Work in groups and decide what stage scenery, props and lighting you would use for a performance of the speech in your classroom. Take into consideration the amount of time you have to prepare scenery and props, the space that is available and the possible sources of light. Be realistic in your suggestions. Discuss your proposals with other groups. Choose the best ideas and plan a performance.

ODD Hermia and Helena have been friends since childhood but have fallen out because of a misunderstanding caused oy Puck's mistake. From your own experience and knowledge make a list of reasons why long, close friendships sometimes break up.

FA* SMS.

i 2 2

TIG w THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

Text C 5

G L O S S A R Y

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. juggler: (artist who

keeps objects in the air by throwing them up quickly and catching them again), trickster, deceiver

2. canker-blossom: a worm that eats into and destroys a flower

3. maiden: young woman, virgin

4. bashfulness: modesty 5. What, will. . . gentle

tongue: are you trying to force me into answering you?

6. Fie: expression of disgust (arch.)

7. puppet: a small human being or animal

8. Ay, that way goes the game: so, that is the way she did it

9. perceive:see

You Juggler! You Puppet! Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood Hernia realises that Lysander really is in love with Helena and does not love her anymore. She accuses Helena of stealing him from her.

HERMIA: O me, you juggler1, you canker-blossom2, You thief of love! What, have you come by night And stolen my love's heart from him?

HELENA: Have you no modesty, no maiden3 shame, No touch of bashfulness4? What, will you tear 5 Impatient answers from my gentle tongue5? Fie6, fie, you counterfeit, you puppet7, you!

HERMIA: Puppet? Why so? - Ay, that way goes the game8. Now I perceive9 that she hath made compare10

Between our statures11. She hath urged her height, 10 And with her personage, her tall personage, Her height, forsooth12, she hath prevailed with him13. And are you grown so high in his esteem14

Because I am so dwarfish15 and so low? How low am I, thou painted maypole16? Speak! is How low am I? - 1 am not yet so low But that my nails can reach unto your eyes17.

10. hath made compare: compared

11. statures: heights 12. forsooth: truly 13. she hath prevailed with

him: she has won him over

14. esteem: favourable opinion 15. dwarfish: like a dwarf, short 16. maypole: tall pole around

which people danced on May Day

17.1 am not yet . . . your eyes: I am tall enough to scratch your eyes out


1 What does Hermia accuse Helena of doing?

2 Why does Hermia think Helena has called her a puppet?

3 What, according to Hermia, has Helena used to win Demetrius's love?

4 How does Hermia threaten to hurt Helena?

A N A L Y S I S

1 Hermia calls Helena a 'juggler', a 'canker-blossom' and a 'thief of love' (lines 1-2). Try to explain why she uses each of these offensive terms. Example: She calls Helena a juggler because she plays with other people's emotions.

2 Helena accuses Hermia of being a 'counterfeit' and a 'puppet'. Which of the two insults offends Hermia more deeply? Do you think that Hermia is envious of Helena's height?

3 There is a pun* in line 1 3: 'And are you grown so high in his esteem ...'. Can you explain it?

mm :. -if A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 23

O V E R T O Y O U

Comedy Humour

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Comedy is a major form of drama. In it the characters amuse and entertain us rather than engage our profound concern. We are confident that great disasters will not occur and we know that the action will usually turn out happily for the chief characters. Humour is the main ingredient of a comedy. It can be divided into three broad categories: • verbal humour, when what the characters say is funny; • behavioural humour, when what the characters do is funny; • situational humour, when the situation the characters find themselves in is funny. In the case of most comedy the humour is a mixture of all three categories.

Say whether the following are examples of verbal, behavioural or situational humour. - Hermia and Helena, two very refined, ladylike characters, insult each other and threaten

each other with physical violence. - Hermia, who previously was loved by both Lysander and Demetrius, is now despised by

both of them. -There is a double meaning in the expression 'high in his esteem' which means 'respected'

but also may be a reference to the fact that Helena is very tall.

Make a list of three comic actors that you admire. Discuss whether their comedy is primarily based on verbal, behavioural or situational humour or if it is a mixture of all three.

STAC INC T H E PLAY

Movement Movement can be used to reveal character and mood to the audience. A character may change the way he walks, for example, according to the mood he is in. Movement can also be used to indicate the relationships between characters. One character may, for example, walk away from another in disgust or slowly approach another in a confrontation that produces rising tension. Where characters should stand and how they should move must be carefully planned in the rehearsal stages of a play.

O V E R T O Y O U The characters in Text C5 feel a range of strong emotions including anger, hatred, shock, insecurity, disgust and vengeance. Discuss how each character is feeling as she delivers her lines. Work on how you are going to convey these emotions through the character's movements. Experiment with space. Have two actors perform the piece standing as far apart as possible and then as close to each other as possible. Which of the two options worked best? Are some of the lines better shouted from a distance? Are other lines more effective whispered fiercely at close physical contact? Have the two actors act out the scene using numbers instead of the script. This will allow them to focus on movement and body language. On the basis of your experimentation decide how the characters should move in this scene and then prepare a performance.

Wouldn't it be nice sometimes to live under the protection of a magic spell like the sleeping couples in A Midsummer Night's Dream? If you were living under a magic spell, how would you like your life to change? Here are two examples to help you: I would be able to read people's minds. I would be protected from all forms of physical danger.

i 2 4 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Read the following story which is loosely based on the plot of Hamlet. Winston Hamlet and his brother Roger are partners in a successful business. Roger is having an affair with Winston's wife, Geraldine. Together they plan to kill Winston so that Roger will become the sole owner of the company. While away on a fishing trip together, Roger pushes his brother overboard, and manages to convince the police that the drowning was an accident. Just two months later he marries Geraldine. Gertrude and Winston's son, Freddie, is horrified at his father's death and his mother's remarriage. When he receives an anonymous letter saying that his uncle killed his father, he decides to take the law into his own hands. As Winston is sitting in a restaurant with Geraldine, Freddie walks in and shoots him dead. He then asks the restaurant owner to call the police and waits calmly until he is arrested. In court, he is found guilty of murder. The judge is about to pass sentence. You are the judge. Choose one of the following sentences and explain why you chose it. • Life-in-prison • A fine (specify how much) • Any other sentence? • A prison sentence (specify for • House arrest (specify for how

how long) long)

INTRODUCTION • Hamlet is probably the best-known character from Shakespeare's plays. He is a young man who has to deal with the terrible trauma caused by his father's murder. What intrigues many theatre-goers and literary critics is Hamlet's psychological make-up. Is he strong or weak? Is he really mad or is he only pretending? These and many more questions continue to be asked about this fascinating character ( • Visual Link C4).

THE STORY

CHARACTERS • Hamlet, Prince of

Denmark

• Ghost of Old Hamlet, Hamlet's father and former king

• Claudius, current King of Denmark and fortner king's brother

• Gertrude, Queen of Denmark and Hamlet's mother

• Polonius, close adviser to Claudius and father to Ophelia and Laertes

• Ophelia, Polonius's daughter, in love with Hamlet

• Laertes, Polonius's son

Claudius kills his brother Old Hamlet, marries his widow Gertrude and becomes King of Denmark. One evening Hamlet sees his father's ghost who asks him to avenge his death. From that day on he starts to act strangely and seems, to many people, to be going mad. He dearly wants to get revenge by killing Claudius but finds it hard to actually do it (• Text C6). He rejects Ophelia, and continues to behave very oddly. Claudius begins to suspect that he might know something about the murder and asks Polonius to spy on him. While Hamlet is talking to his mother, Polonius hides behind a curtain to overhear what is being said. Hamlet realises someone is there and stabs Polonius to death through the curtain (• Text C7). Claudius then decides to send Hamlet away to England with two of courtiers (Rosencrantz and Guildenstern), who are under orders to kill him. Hamlet outsmarts them and returns home to learn that Ophelia has died in a state of madness and desperation. In a final attempt to get rid of Hamlet, Claudius organises a sword fight between him and Laertes. His plan goes terribly wrong, however, and although Hamlet does die, Claudius, Gertrude and Laertes are also killed.

U L

I J I I

'To be, or not to be - that is the question.' scene from the film Hamlet (1990),

starring Mel Gibson.

Ham let - William Shakespeare 25

To Be or Not to Be Text C 6

10

In this very famous speech Hamlet asks why man does not lose his will to live despite the obstacles he has to overcome.

Act III Scene I: A room in the castle HAMLET: T O be, or not to be - that is the question.

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows1 of outrageous2 fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die - to sleep -No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache3, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to4; 'tis a consummation5

Devoutly to be wish'd. To die - to sleep -To sleep! perchance5 to dream. Ay, there's the rub7; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When we have shuffled off8 this mortal coil9, Must give us pause. There's the respect10

That makes calamity of so long life11. For who would bear the whips and scorns12 of time, The oppressor's wrong13, the proud man's contumely14, The pangs15 of despised16 love, the law's delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns17

That patient merit of the unworthy takes18, When he himself might his quietus make19

With a bare bodkin20? Who would these fardels bear, To grunt21 and sweat22 under a weary23 life, But that the dread24 of something after death -The undiscovered country from whose bourn25

No traveller returns - puzzles26 the will, And makes us rather bear those ills27 we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, And thus the native hue28 of resolution Is sicklied o'er29 with the pale cast30 of thought; And enterprises of great pitch and moment31, With this regard32 their currents turn awry33, And lose the name of action.

15

20

25

3 0

GLOSSARY

i See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3)

1. slings and arrows: (slings: pieces of cords with leather in the middle used to throw stones; arrows: thin pointed

sticks that you shoot with a bow)

2. outrageous: adverse 3. heart-ache: pain 4. flesh is heir to: part of a

human life 5. consummation:

conclusion

6. perchance: perhaps 7. rub: impediment, obstacle

8. shuffled off: removed 9. coil: spiral loop (here: body)

10. respect: thought, consideration

11. of so long life: last so long

«

12. whips and scorns: (fig.) blows

13. wrong: unjust actions

14. contumely: offensive behaviour

15. pangs: sudden and sharp feelings of pain

16. despised: rejected 17. spurns: rejections 18. of the unworthy

takes: receives from people of little value

19. his quietus make: write his own quittance (document stating that he is free from debt)

20. bare bodkin: naked dagger

21. grunt: emit the sound that pigs make

22. sweat: perspire 23. weary: tiresome 24. dread: fear 25. bourn: boundary,

limit 26. puzzles: confounds 27.ills: adversities 28. native hue: natural

colour 29. sicklied o'er: turned

pale as if sick 30. cast: colour 31. pitch and moment:

importance 32. With this regard:

because of this 33. their currents turn

awry: change direction

i 132 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

C O M P R E H E N S I O N -

1 Focus on lines 1-5. Consider the two metaphors: '...to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune' 'to take arms against a sea of troubles'

Which metaphor* represents passive submission to the injustice and suffering of life and which one suggests active rebellion? 2 What does Hamlet compare death to in lines 5-10?

3 Which expression in line 10 interrupts Hamlet's flow of thoughts and introduces a different line of reasoning?

4 In line 12 Hamlet says that when we die we are freed from 'this mortal coil'. Consider the meaning of 'coil' given in the glossary and explain what Hamlet means in your own words.

5 In lines 15-21 Hamlet describes the suffering and injustices of life. Find expressions which refer to the following: - unrequited love - inefficiency in legal procedures - political oppression

A N A L Y S I S

1 Which semantic field do the expressions 'slings and arrows' (line 3) and 'to take arms' (line 4) belong to? What image of life do they suggest?

2 By comparing death to sleep (lines 5-10) does Hamlet depict it positively or negatively?

3 In the opening ten lines of Hamlet's speech each infinitive is balanced by another of similar or opposite meaning. Link each of the infinitives in column A of the table below with an infinitive in column B.

A to be to suffer to die to sleep

B to take arms to dream not to be to sleep

4 Focus on lines 9-10: 'To die - to sleep -/To sleep! perchance to dream'. What effect does the repeated use of infinitives create? • A soft, lulling effect • A harsh, rhythmic effect

5 In his list of the injustices man suffers (lines 15-21) Hamlet uses personification*. In line 15 time is personified and described as having 'whips' and 'scorns'. Can you find other examples of personification in lines 15-21? 6 Which expression in line 30 parallels and contrasts with the expression 'natural hue of resolution' in line 29? Which words in line 30 link thought and disease?

- ageing - mistreatment by authority - contempt - unjust criticism

6 What escape from life's misery does Hamlet suggest in lines 20-21?

7 In line 22 Hamlet uses the expression 'to grunt and sweat'. Which negative aspect of life is he drawing our attention to? • Social discrimination • Political injustices • Emotional turmoil • Physical hardship Which expressions suggest that man is nothing more than a beast of burden?

8 What is the 'undiscovered country' from which no traveller returns, which Hamlet refers to in lines 24-25?

9 What, according to Hamlet, stops man from taking action? (Lines 28-33)

7 Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe the tone of Hamlet's speech? Justify your choice by referring to the text. • Angry • Optimistic • Proud • Philosophical • Ironic • Melancholic • Passionate • Dejected

8 In this speech Hamlet does not use the pronouns or 'me'. Which personal pronouns does he use and who do they refer to? Would you consider the speech to be: • Hamlet's personal reflections on his immediate

situation? • a general analysis of the human condition? On the basis of the answers you have given can you explain the universal appeal of the speech?

9 What aspects of Hamlet's character emerge from the speech? • His confusion • His lack of courage • His melancholy nature • His strong religious convictions • His weariness • His desire for revenge • His hatred of his uncle • His indecision • Other:

'•»iäSf Hamlet - William Shakespeare 27

WRITERS WORKSHOP Soliloquy is a theatrical convention in which a character speaks aloud to himself. The character may not necessarily be alone on the stage; other characters may be present but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The play-wright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, inten-tions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.

Which of the following purposes does the soliloquy you have just read serve? • To fill in parts of the story • To explain Hamlet's motives • To outline Hamlet's intentions • To convey Hamlet's feelings about his immediate situation • To express Hamlet's thoughts on fundamental human problems

Soliloquy is used to develop the story or to help the audience to understand the inner feelings of a character. Can you think of a similar convention that is often used in cinema for the same purposes?

Hamlet is talking to his mother while Polonius is listening tc curtain (arras).

Act III Scene 4: The Queen's closet HAMLET: Now, mother, what's the matter? QUEEN: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. HAMLET: Mother, you have my father much offended. QUEEN: Come, come, you answer with an idle1 tongue. HAMLET: GO, go, you question with a wicked2 tongue. QUEEN: Why, how now, Hamlet! HAMLET: What's the matter now? QUEEN: Have you forgot me? HAMLET: No, by the rood3, not so.

You are the queen, your husband's brother's wife; And - would it were not so4! - you are my mother.

QUEEN: Nay5, then, I'll set6 those to you that can speak. HAMLET: Come, come, and sit you down; you shall not 1

You go not till I set you up a glass Where you may see the inmost part of you.

o their conversation behind a

10

budge7;

15

GLOSSARY • -


1. idle:lazy 2. wicked: bad, cruel 3. rood: crucifix 4. would it were not

so: I wish it was not true

5. Nay: no 6. set: send (Polonius

and Claudius) 7. budge: move


8. draws (his sword): takes his sword out

9. slain: killed 10. rash: foolish, stupid 11. wretched: worthless 12. Leave wringing: stop

twisting (from discomfort or anxiety)

13.1 shall, If . . . stuff: this I will do if I can penetrate it

14. wag: shake, move 15.blurs ... modesty:

makes your grace and pale colour of modesty disappear

16.blister: thin watery swelling under the skin

17. vows: solemn promises

18.dicers' oaths: promises made by gamblers

19. roars: makes a loud noise (like a lion's)

20. thunders: makes a loud noise (like that of thunder)

21. index: list (of crimes) 22. counterfeit

presentment: portrait (not real presentation)

23. brow: upper part of a face, above the nose

24. Hyperion: in Greek mythology, a giant-sized god with superhuman powers

25. threaten: say menacing words

26. station: posture 27. New lighted on the

heaven-kissing hill: newly, freshly arrived on the high hill

28. A combination and a form: a combination of qualities and physical presence

29. seal: official mark in a document

30.mildew'd ear: diseased ear of com

31. wholesome: healthy 32.Could you ... moor:

you abandoned Old Hamlet (fair mountain) and chose Claudius (moor: desolate land; batten: become fat)

Q U E E N : What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me? Help, help, ho!

POLONIUS: [Behind] What, ho! Help, help, help! HAMLET: [Draws8] How now! A rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!

[Makes a pass through the arras.] POLONIUS: [Behind] O ! I am slain9. [Falls and dies] 20 Q U E E N : O me! What hast thou done? HAMLET: Nay, I know not. Is it the king? Q U E E N : O ! what a rash10 and bloody deed is this! HAMLET: A bloody deed! Almost as bad, good mother,

As kill a king, and marry with his brother. 25 Q U E E N : AS kill a king! HAMLET: Ay, lady, 'twas my word.

[Lifts up the arras and discovers POLONIUS]

Thou wretched11, rash, intruding fool, farewell! I took thee for thy better; (...) Leave wringing12 of your hands. Peace; sit you down, 30 And let me wring your heart; for so I shall, If it be made of penetrable stuff13 (...)

Q U E E N : What have I done that thou dar'st wag14 thy tongue In noise so rude against me?

HAMLET: Such an act 3 5

That blurs the grace and blush of modesty15; Calls virtue hypocrite; takes off the rose From the fair forehead of an innocent love, And sets a blister16 there; makes marriage vows17

As false as dicers' oaths18. 40 (...)

Q U E E N : Ay me, what act That roars19 so loud, and thunders20 in the index21?

HAMLET: Look here, upon this picture, and on this, The counterfeit presentment22 of two brothers. See, what a grace was seated on this brow23 - 45 Hyperion24's curls, the front of Jove himself; An eye like Mars, to threaten25 and command; A station26 like the herald Mercury New lighted on the heaven-kissing hill27; A combination and a form28 indeed 50 Where every god did seem to set his seal29, To give the world assurance of a man. This was your husband. Look you now, what follows: Here is your husband, like a mildew'd ear30

Blasting his wholesome31 brother. Have you eyes? 55 Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, And batten on this moor32? Ha! Have you eyes? You cannot call it love, for at your age

Macbeth - William Shakespeare 2 9

The hey-day in the blood is tame33, it's humble34, And waits upon the judgement35; and what judgement Would step from this to this? (...)

QLTEN: O Hamlet, speak no more! Thou turn'st my eyes into my very soul; And there I see such black and grained spots36

As will not leave their tinct37. HAMLET: Nay, but to live

In the rank sweat38 of an enseamed39 bed, Stew'd40 in corruption, honeying41 and making love Ch er the nasty sty42 -

QBEEN: O, speak to me no more; These words, like daggers43, enter in my ears; No more, sweet Hamlet!

LET: A murderer and a villain! A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe44

Of your precedent lord; a vice45 of kings; A cutpurse46 of the empire and the rule That from a shelf the precious diadem stole, And put it in his pocket!

No more! 'Enter the G H O S T in his nightgown.]

i: A king of shreds and patches47 -Save me, and hover48 o'er me with your wings, You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure49?

: Alas, he's mad! ": Do you not come your tardy50 son to chide51,

that, laps'd in time and passion52, lets go by53

The important acting of your dread54 command? Oh say!

n Do not forget: this visitation s but to whet thy almost blunted purpose55. But. look, amazement56 on thy mother sits. Oh. step between her and her fighting soul -Conceit57 in weakest bodies strongest works -Speak to her, Hamlet.

: How is it with you, lady? :: Alas, how is ' t with you,

That you do bend your eye on vacancy58, Xnd with the incorporal air do hold discourse59? C—) "«Vhereon do you look?

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

» - d a y ... tame: your •dual drive should have iminished

- -amble: unimportant

35. waits upon the judgement: puts rational thought first

36. grained spots: ingrained marks

37. leave their tinct: lose their colour, fade

38. rank sweat: smelly perspiration

39. enseamed: lurid 40. Stew'd: immersed 41. honeying: sweet

talking 42. nasty sty: disgusting

pig's den 43. daggers: knives 44. tithe: tax often

percent given to support the local church

45. vice: clown (in Morality plays 'vice' impersonated human vices and wore the multicoloured clothes that would later become typical of clowns)

46. cutpurse: thief 47. shreds and patches:

badly dressed 48. hover: stay in the air 49. would your gracious

figure: what is your wish?

50. tardy: hesitating 51. chide: reprimand 52. laps'd in time and

passion: guilty of letting time pass and the passion of revenge cool

53. go by: pass 54. dread: terrifying 55.but to whet.. .

purpose: only to spur you into action

56. amazement: great surprise

57. Conceit: imagination 58.bend ... vacancy:

look into an empty space

59. hold discourse: talk

' J K 4 30 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

HAMLET: O n h i m , o n h i m ! ( . . . )

QUEEN: TO whom do you speak this? HAMLET: DO you see nothing there? QUEEN: Nothing at all; yet all that is I see. HAMLET: Nor did you nothing hear? QUEEN: No, nothing but ourselves. HAMLET: Why, look you there! Look, how it steals away60!

My father, in his habit61 as he liv'd!

60. steals away: disappears 61. habit: clothes

4 rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead! i scene from Hamlet (1948), tarring Laurence Olivier. m


1 When the queen speaks of 'thy father' (line 2) and Hamlet speaks of 'my father' (line 3), are they referring to the same person?

2 When Hamlet says that the queen will see 'the inmost part of you' (line 15), is he speaking literally or figuratively? Does the queen understand what her son wishes to do?

3 Who does Hamlet think is hiding behind the curtains?

4 What does Hamlet mean when he says that he wants to 'wring' the queen's heart? (Line 31)

5 When the queen asks Hamlet what she has done to anger him (lines 33-34), does he answer her question directly?

A N A L Y S I S

1 In the opening lines of the text Hamlet uses the queen's own words to point the finger of accusation away from himself and towards her. Find two examples. How would you describe Hamlet's attitude towards his mother in these opening lines? • Provocative • Mocking • Sympathetic • Respectful • Loving • Other:

6 From line 43 to line 57 Hamlet compares his father and his uncle Claudius. In which lines does he describe his father? In which lines does he describe his uncle?

7 At what point in the text does the queen seem to admit that she has done something evil?

8 What overcomes the queen's judgement according to Hamlet in lines 59-61?

9 Hamlet thinks that the ghost has come to reprimand him. For what?

1 0 Does the ghost want Hamlet to take revenge on his mother? Refer to the text in your answer.

1 1 Underline the sentences in the text that suggest that the queen cannot see or hear the ghost.

1 2 Focus on lines 20-29. Hamlet thinks that he has killed Claudius when in fact he has mistakenly murdered Polonius. Underline sentences that convey Hamlet's dispassionate indifference to his crime. How would you explain his lack of emotion? • He feels his actions are justified because he is

avenging his father's death. • He is close to madness and no longer able to feel

emotions. • He has little interest in killing and revenge; he is

more passionate about saving his mother's soul.

Macbeth - William Shakespeare 137

3 Find an example of personification* in lines 37-42. Referring to the text, complete the following metaphors*: The crime committed by the queen: - makes modesty lose - makes virtue become - replaces a rose with - transforms marriage vows into What do the metaphors have in common with each other and with the queen's actions?

4 Make a list of the gods Hamlet mentions in describing his father (lines 46-55). What do these allusions* to Greek and Latin mythology suggest about Hamlet's view of his father? In the image that follows (lines 54-55), Hamlet's father and his brother Claudius are compared to 'two ears of corn'. Why is Hamlet's father 'wholesome' while Claudius is 'mildew'd'?

5 Complete the following table which analyses the metaphor in lines 56-57.

6 Examine lines 66-69. What in Hamlet's opinion is n e relationship between Claudius and the queen rased on? Which words in particular convey Hamlet's degust?

7 What aspects of Claudius's character does Hamlet jnderline in the metaphors in lines 73-78?

8 Focus on the apparition of the ghost (lines 88-93). Toes his attitude towards the queen confirm or contrast with Hamlet's? "he ghost is often considered to be a figment of -amlet's imagination, an extension of his mind and conscience. If this is the case, what does the ghost's Ktrtude towards the queen suggest about the ^»ationship between Hamlet and his mother? II That Hamlet despises his mother and cannot

forgive her. • That Hamlet is caught between wishing to avenge

his father's death but not wishing to punish his mother, whom he loves.

9 What purpose does the appearance of the ghost serve? • It heightens tension by introducing a potentially

frightening supernatural element. • It helps the audience to follow the plot of the play. M It makes the audience more sympathetic towards

the queen. H If the ghost is interpreted as an extension of

Hamlet's thoughts, it shows the more forgiving side of his nature.

1 0 Focus on the character of the queen. What is her attitude towards Hamlet? Find evidence in the text that suggests that: - in the past her relationship with Hamlet was

positive: line - she is afraid of what Hamlet might do in his current

state: line - she loves Hamlet and knows the gentle side of his

nature: line - she thinks that Hamlet is suffering from some form

of mental disorder: line - she is concerned about Hamlet's well-being:

line

1 1 The queen speaks primarily in questions and exclamations. Find some examples in the text. What does her form of speech convey about her state of mind? Do you feel sympathetic or angry towards the queen in this scene?

1 2 Consider the aspects of Hamlet's character that emerge from this text. Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe him on the basis of this scene? • Passionate • Rational • Forgiving • Hysterical • Confused • Heartless • Mad • Righteous Are they the same adjectives that you would use to describe Hamlet in text C6?

tenor ground vehicle

Hamlet's father

love j lust

wholesome, beautiful lowly, ugly, barren healthy, dignified

moor

batten

Hamlet's father

love j lust

moor

batten


Figure of speech

O V E R T O Y O U

WRITERS' WORKSHOP A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in every-day conversation when we say, for example, 'money talks' (personification) or 'it's rain-ing cats and dogs' (metaphor) or 'they are like two peas in a pod' (simile). In literature, figures of speech are used to create a stronger intellectual or emotional impact on the reader or spectator and to add a range of depth of association. For exam-ple, when Hamlet describes his father and Claudius he uses striking figures of speech which make the descriptions stronger and more memorable. When a writer's work is rich in figures of speech we describe his style as figurative. The text from Shakespeare's Hamlet that you have just read is an excellent example of highly figurative writing.

Choose two figures of speech form Text C7 that you find striking and explain why you think they are particularly effective.

Re-write lines 41-53 in non-figurative style. Try to reduce what the characters say to its essentials and avoid the use of figures of speech. When you have finished, read the original figurative version and your new literal version aloud. Comment with your classmates on how the impact of the text changes.

STAC I NC T H E PLAY

Suspense

O V E R T O Y O U

One way of incorporating suspense into a play is by giving the audience more information than the characters themselves have, and allowing them to see dangers that the characters are unaware of. The anxiety created in this situation is similar to what we feel when, in real life, we can see that an accident is about to occur but we are unable to warn the person who will be the victim.

Examine the scene you have just read from three different perspectives: Hamlet's, the queen's, and the audience's. Use the table below to determine what each of them knows (/) or does not know (X).

Hamlet The queen The audience knows that...

Polonius is hiding behind the curtain. Hamlet wishes to avenge his father's death. The queen has been Claudius's accomplice. Hamlet is talking to a ghost.





Do the characters and the audience share the same information? Who has most information - Hamlet, the queen or the audience?

When a character and the audience do not share the same information it is important that the playwright and the director draw attention to it. In the scene you have just read the queen shares little of the information that the audience has. Go through the text and underline the statements in which the queen's partial understanding of the situation emerges. Choose some of the lines and discuss what facial expressions and movements should accompany what the queen is saying, and in what tone of voice the lines should be delivered.

Hamlet criticises his mother for marrying her brother-in-law Claudius. He is like other sons and daughters who find fault with their parents and are not afraid to say it. What annoys young people about their parents? Examples: they never listen to what we have to say. They think they know everything. Add others.


Macbeth by William Shakespeare

When we say that The end justifies the means', we mean that anything we do is justifiable if it helps us reach an objective. This line of thinking, however, can bring a person face-to-face with a moral dilemma in situations where he must use slightly or totally illegitimate or immoral means to reach a legitimate objective. 1 Look at the following situations and indicate whether you think the end justifies (Yes) the means or not (No). 2 In small groups compare your answers. 3 One member of each group reports the results to the rest of the class.

Means End

Copy. Pass an exam. Yes No

Tell your boy/girlfriend a lie. Meet another boy/girl. Yes No

Spread false rumours about an opposing candidate.

Win an election. Yes No

Shoot and injure an unarmed burglar who is robbing your house.

Protect your property. Yes No

Evade taxes. Have enough money to provide a good education for your handicapped child.

Yes No

Take drugs that improve performance but do not damage health.

Win a sports competition. Yes No

INTRODUCTION • The Macbeths are no ordinary couple. They are going to get to the top and no one is going to stop them. Here is Shakespeare at his thrilling best.

THE STORY —

On their return from a victorious campaign, Macbeth and Banquo meet three witches. The witches prophesy that Macbeth will be made Thane of Cawdor, while Banquo's sons will become kings. The first prediction comes true immediately. Lady Macbeth is not content, however, because she wants her husband to be king and convinces him to kill Duncan (• Text C8). The king's sons are wrongly suspected of the murder and flee abroad. Macbeth is crowned king. Macbeth feels that Banquo and his son could be a threat to his throne, so he orders their assassination. The murderers manage to kill Banquo but Fleance escapes. Soon after the killing, Banquo's ghost appears to Macbeth and he becomes increasingly worried about his e\il actions, which he sees no way of stopping. His wife has also been shaken by events and skirts showing the first signs of madness. He goes back to the witches to find out what will happen in the future. They tell him to be •ary of Macduff, who has joined Malcolm in England, where they are raising an army to

snack Macbeth and dethrone him. When Macbeth hears of their plan he sends his soldiers to 'acduff's castle where they kill Macduff's wife and children.

CHARACTERS

• Duncan, King of Scotland

• Malcolm, Duncan's son

• Donalbain, Duncan's son

• Macbeth, General of the king's army

• Banquo, General of the king's army

• Fleance, Banquo's son

• Macduff, Thane of Fife

• Lady Macbeth, Macbeth's wife

• Three witches • Banquo's ghost • Seyton, an officer

in Macbeth's army

Note: A thane was a Scottish nobleman who was given land by the king.


Macduff and Malcolm gather their forces and march on Scotland. Macbeth sets up his defences in Dunsinane Castle and waits for the enemy to arrive. Just before the battle, to his great surprise, he hears that Lady Macbeth has committed suicide (• Text C9). He fights bravely but is killed in a fight by Macduff, while Malcolm is crowned king of Scotland.

[Text C 8

Lady Macbeth has just read the letter from her husband telling her that he has been made Thane of Cawdor, and that Duncan is to stay in their castle that evening.

Act 1, Scene 5: A room in Macbeth's castle at Inverness LADY MACBETH: (...) The raven1

Himself is hoarse2

That croaks3 the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements4. Come, you spirits That tend5 on mortal thoughts, unsex me here6, 5 And fill me, from the crown to the toe7, top-full Of direst8 cruelty! Make thick my blood, Stop up th' access and passage to remorse; That no compunctious visitings of nature9

Shake my fell purpose10, nor keep peace between 10 Th' effect and it11. Come to my woman's breasts, And take my milk for gall12, you murdering ministers13, Wherever in your sightless substances14

You wait on nature's mischief15! Come, thick night, And pall16 thee in the dünnest17 smoke of hell, is That my keen knife see not the wound it makes, Nor heaven peep18 through the blanket19 of the dark To cry, "Hold20, hold!" [Enter MACBETH]

Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!21

Greater than both, by the all-hail22, hereafter23! 20 Thy letters have transported me beyond This ignorant24 present, and I feel now The future in an instant25.

MACBETH: My dearest love, Duncan comes here tonight. 25

Q

G L O S S A R Y


1. raven: large black bird, thought to bring bad luck

2. is hoarse: cries out roughly

3. croaks: makes a harsh, low sound

4. battlements: top part of a castle

5. tend: take care of 6. unsex me here:

remove my femininity

7. crown to the toe: head to foot

8. direst: worst 9. compunctious ...

Unsex me Here

nature: natural feelings of conscience

10.Shake ... purpose: change my ruthless plan

11.nor keep ... it: come between my plan and the action itself

12.And take ... gall: replace my milk with bitter poison

13. ministers: here Lady

Macbeth is referring to the spirits

14. sightless substances: invisible forms

15.wait ... mischief: help the evil forces in nature

16. pall: cover 17.dunnest: darkest 18. peep: give a quick

secretive look 19.blanket: cover

20. Hold: stop 21.Great Glamis! Worthy

Cawdor!: Macbeth was both thane of Glamis and thane of Cawdor

22. all-hail: greeted by everyone

23. hereafter: in future 24. ignorant: lacking

knowledge of the future 25. in an instant: very soon


LADY MACBETH: And when goes hence26? MACBETH: Tomorrow, as he purposes27. LADY MACBETH: O! never

Shall sun that morrow see28! Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men 30 May read strange matters. To beguile the time, Look like the time29, bear welcome30 in your eye, Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower But be the serpent under't. He that's coming Must be provided for31; and you shall put 35 This night's great business into my despatch32; Which shall to all our nights and days to come Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom33.

MACBETH: We will speak further34. LADY MACBETH: Only look up clear35; 40

To alter favour ever is to fear36. Leave all the rest to me.

26. goes hence: goes away 27.as he purposes: so he

intends 28.Shall ... see: tomorrow

will not come for Duncan 29.To beguile ... the time: to

deceive the people around, wear an expression that suits the occasion

30. bear welcome: appear welcoming, friendly

31. provided for: looked after

32. into my despatch: under my control

33. sovereign sway and masterdom: kingship

34. speak further: talk about it again

35. look up clear: look at me directly

36.To alter favour ... fear: to change the expression on your face means to live forever in fear


1 Lady Macbeth calls on the spirits of evil to suppress her natural sentiments as a woman. She uses three very forceful images. Link each image with the aspect of her nature she wishes to suppress.

Lines 5-7: unsex me here ... direst cruelty Maternal instinct Lines 7-11: Make thick my blood ... Th' effect and it. Femininity Lines 11-14: Come to my woman's breasts... nature's mischief Remorse

2 Why does she want the night to be very dark? (Lines 14-15)

3 What advice does Lady Macbeth give her husband? (Lines 30-38)

4 What will they gain by committing the murder, according to Lady Macbeth?

A N A L Y S I S

1 A raven is a black crow which is often associated with death. Why is it appropriate that this bird sounds the fanfare' for Duncan's entrance into

Macbeth's castle?

2 Find an example of personification* in line 17. Which s presented as the stronger force: heaven and the Dowers of good or nighttime and the powers of evil?

3 Lady Macbeth greets her husbands by saying 'Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!'. Why does she use his titles instead of a more personal form of salutation?

4 Lady Macbeth encourages her husband to deceive Duncan through his body language. Which body parts does she tell him to be particularly careful about and why?


5 According to Lady Macbeth, her husband should pretend to be a flower while actually being the serpent beneath it. What associations do you make with the image of the serpent? 6 Lines 35-36 contain a number of double meanings. provided for = fed or killed business = feasting or murder despatch = carrying out the welcome or killing

Does Lady Macbeth use these veiled words because she is: • testing how Macbeth will react to the possibility of

murder? • still unsure herself about the awfulness of murder? • afraid that direct language will make Macbeth

refuse to act? • other:

Onomatopoeia

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T A S K Ssmm O V E R T O Y O U

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WRITERS' WORKSHOP Onomatopoeia is the literary term that is used when the sound of a word resembles the sound it denotes. Examples of onomatopoeia can be found in verbs such as: buzz: the sound a bee makes slam: the sound of a violently closed door bang: the noise made by an explosion.

Find an example of onomatopoeia in the opening lines of Lady Macbeth's speech.

Link the onomatopoeiaic words to the sounds they denote. hiss rattle screech sizzle whimper fizz

sound made by frying food sound made by a drink that contains a lot of gas sound made by a snake little, low, crying sound short knocking sound made when something is shaken unpleasant high-pitched cry

Tone

O V E R T O Y O U

STAC I N 6 THE PLAY In everyday speech the tone of voice we use can change the meaning of what we say. A simple expression such as 'sit down' can become an order, an invitation or a question depending on the tone that is used. Actors also use tone of voice to convey meaning. In the extract you have just read, for example, line 26 'And when goes hence?' can be read as a simple question or in a way that suggests that Duncan may never leave the castle, depending on the tone the actor uses. Occasionally the playwright will make suggestions about the tone that should be used. Words such as 'angrily', 'playfully' or 'remorsefully' may appear in the stage directions. However, it is usually the actor and the director who decide what tone would be most appropriate.

Work in three groups. Each group should focus on a section of Lady Macbeth's soliloquy. Group 1 Lines 4-7 Come, you spirits ... Of direst cruelty! Group 2 Lines 7-11 Make thick my blood ... Th'effect and it. Group 3 Lines 11-14 Come to my woman's breasts ... on nature's mischief! Experiment with different tones of voice when you say the lines: whisper them, hiss them fiercely, speak them as if in a trance, chant them like a spell.

When Lady Macbeth says 'unsex me here', she implies that she should turn into a man in order to be able to organise and carry out Duncan's murder. From our twenty-first century perspective, does this idea that only men are capable of being clinically cruel and cold-hearted still seem valid? Can you think of any female characters in books, films or on TV that are cold-hearted and cruel? Discuss with your classmates.


The Sound and the Fury Text C 9

Macduff's and Malcolm's army, made up of English and Scottish soldiers, is about to attack Macbeth's army, which is defending the castle ofDunsinane.

[Enter with drum and colours, MACBETH, SEYTON and soldiers.]

\LACBETH: Hang out our banners1 on the outward walls; The cry is still, "They come!" Our castle's strength

Will laugh a siege to scorn2; here let them lie, Till famine and the ague3 eat them up4. Were they not forced5 with those that should be ours6, We might have met them dareful, beard to beard7, And bear them backward home8. [.4 cry within, of women] What is that noise?

SEYTON: It is the cry of women, my good lord. IExit]

?ETH: I have almost forgot the taste of fears. The time has been, my senses would have cooled To hear a night-shriek9; and my fell of hair Would, at a dismal treatise, rouse and stir, As life were in ' t 1 0 . 1 have supped full with horrors: Direness11, familiar to my slaughterous12 thoughts, Cannot once start me13. SRe-enter SEYTON]

Wherefore14 was that cry? \: The queen, my lord, is dead. ETH: She should have died hereafter15:

There would have been a time for such a word16.

ARY

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tanners: flags Nir castle's strength ...

i : they will never be b to capture our castle ne: fever t them up: weaken them

I they can no longer fight taced: reinforced •±Oie that should be ours: zae Scottish soldiers Wanting against Macbeth » e might ... beard: we mzht have fought them in lie open, man-to-man

... home: and forced " a m back to where they • n e from

9. The time ... night-shriek: in the past I would have been afraid if I heard a cry in the night

10. fell of hair ... As life were i n ' t : when 1 heard a frightening story (dismal treatise) my hair (fell of hair) would stand up (rouse and stir) as if it were alive

11. Direness: horror 12. slaughterous: murderous 13. Cannot once start me:

cannot frighten me now 14. Wherefore: what was the

reason for? 15. hereafter: later 16. a time for such a word: a

better time to hear this

10

15

THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

17.Creeps ... day: one day follows (creeps) another in the same insignificant way; creep: move in a slow, quiet, careful way

18.T0 ... time: until the end of the world

19. And all ... dusty death: every day we have lived (all our yesterdays), somebody has been shown the way (lighted) to death

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day17, To the last syllable of recorded time18; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death19. Out, out, brief20 candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player21

That struts and frets22 his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.

25

3 0

20. brief: short 21. player: actor

22. struts and frets: tries unsuccessfully to

show dignity and passion


1 Does Macbeth believe that his castle can withstand a siege? 2 Why does he not fight the enemy army in man-to-man combat? 3 Why is Macbeth no longer fearful?

4 Does the future hold any promise for Macbeth?

5 Does he take any pleasure from thinking of the past?

6 Can he see any meaning in life?

A N A L Y S I S

1 Find an example of personification* in Macbeth's opening lines (1-5).

2 In line 10 fear is presented as if it were a type of food. Underline the expression that establishes this association. The food imagery is continued in line 14 'I have supped full with horrors'. Try to explain this image in your own words.

3 Focus on line 19 'She should have died hereafter'. The word 'should' can mean 'would' or 'ought to' and the line can be interpreted in a sympathetic or unsympathetic way. If the meaning 'would' is taken, it suggests that Macbeth no longer cares about his wife. If 'should' is interpreted as 'ought to', it implies that Macbeth feels his wife's death is premature, and that perhaps he could have intervened to save her, or at least had time to mourn her. Read the line in different ways to suggest the two meanings. If you were the director of the play which of the two interpretations would you choose?

4 What is the effect of the repetition* of the word tomorrow in line 21 ? How do you think this line should be delivered? • Slowly in a weary tone • Quickly in a frantic tone • Other:

5 Macbeth describes life in a series of striking images (lines 25-30). Link each image to the aspect of life he wishes to underline.

Life is a ... Life is ...

brief candle insubstantial walking shadow meaningless poor player undignified tale told by an idiot short

6 Macbeth's mood changes dramatically in the course of this extract. Which of the adjectives below best describe his mood in the following lines? Lines 1-8 Lines 10-1 7 Lines 19-30 defiant philosophical sombre hesitant reflective confident nostalgic morbid


WRITERS' WORKSHOP Metaphor

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O V E R T O Y O U

The language of Shakespeare's plays is highly poetic. One of the elements that gives his work a poetic quality is the use of metaphors. A metaphor is an implied comparison which creates a total identification between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. A metaphor is made up of three elements: the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion (for example, 'life'); the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to (for example, a 'candle'); the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common (for example, 'brevity'). Metaphors have several important functions. They arouse emotions and feelings and help us to create mental pictures that are memorable. They often appeal to our senses. They compress meaning into a few lines and help us to understand difficult abstract ideas by making reference to familiar concrete items.

1 Consider the metaphors in lines 26-30. In each case 'life' is the tenor. What are the vehicles and the grounds? 2 Which of the metaphors for life in Macbeth's soliloquy do you find most striking and why? 3 Do any of the metaphors help you to create mental pictures? Could you draw a picture which would illustrate any of the metaphors?

Write your own metaphor for life and explain the ground. Example: Life is a maths lesson. Ground: the more time passes the less you understand!

Timing

O V E R T O Y O U

STAC INC T H E PLAY Timing refers to the pace at which an actor delivers his lines. Through timing an actor can direct the audience's attention to what is most important for the understanding of a play. If an actor delivers all his lines at the same pace it is difficult for the audience to identify and absorb essential information. This is particularly the case when the language of the play is highly figurative as is the case in Shakepearean drama. Choosing the correct places to pause and the correct speed of delivery is an essential part of an actor's preparation.

Actors have many techniques which they use to improve their timing. One such technique is the addition of 'silent lines' to the text. These are lines that are not spoken aloud. The unspoken words help the actor to achieve the appropriate timing. Consider Macbeth's soliloquy at the end of the extract you have read. Read the soliloquy, saying the added words (in italics) silently to yourself and the original text aloud.

Life's but a-walking shadow, [nothing more] a poor player [of no consequence] That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, [of pain and disillusion] And then is heard no more [gone forever]: it is a tale [a sad tale] Told by an idiot, [who does not understand what he says] full of sound and fury, [empty noises] Signifying nothing.

Choose a short extract (4-6 lines) from the material you have studied. Add some 'silent lines'. Learn the passage by heart and prepare to perform the piece.

Macbeth, having been the most powerful man in Scotland, is now totally disillusioned with life. If you were to meet him, what questions would you ask him? 3repare some questions. Split up into pairs. Student A is the interviewer. Student B is Macbeth. When Student A -as finished asking his questions, invert roles.

by William Shakespeare

INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare is known as 'the Bard', which means 'poet'. This is because much of the language in his plays is poetic and because he also wrote poems. You are going to read two of the 154 son-nets that have come down to us. These two, like many others, give unusual perspectives on the theme of love.

rDBDD DD Have you ever felt that nothing is going right in your life? Have you ever wished that you were better-looking or richer or more intelligent? Have you ever wished that you had more friends? If you have, then you will find it easy to understand Shakespeare, who, in this poem, thinks about those times when he can see nothing good in his life. Read the poem and find how he lifts himself out of depression.

Sonnets

M Sonnet 29 When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep1 my outcast state2, And trouble3 deaf Heaven with my bootless4 cries, And look upon myself, and curse5 my fate,

Wishing me like to6 one more rich in hope, 5 Featured' like him, like him with friends possess'd8, Desiring this man's art9 and that man's scope10, With what I most enjoy contented least11;

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising12, Haply13 I think on thee, - and then my state 10 (Like to a lark14 at break of day arising From sullen15 earth) sings hymns at heaven's gate16;

For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings17, That then I scorn18 to change my fate with kings.

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• Visual Link C6

GLOSSARY

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. beweep: cry over 2. outcast state: condition of

being exiled, separated 3. trouble: disturb 4. bootless: useless 5. curse: complain angrily

about

6. Wishing me like to: desiring to be

7. Featured: looking 8. with friends possess'd:

having friends 9. art: skill 10. scope: knowledge 11. With ... least: not even

enjoying the things I most like doing

12. despising: hating 13. Haply: perhaps 14. lark: very small song bird 15.sullen: dark, sad 16. heaven's gate: doors of

paradise 17.thy sweet love ... brings:

the remembrance of your love brings such richness

18. scorn: refuse



1 Why does the poet weep? (Line 2) 3 What changes the poet's mood? 2 What does he envy in other men? 4 Who does the poet feel superior to, according to a. (line 5) line 14? b. (line 6) c. (line 6) d. (line 7) e. (line 7)

A N A L Y S I S

1 Focus on line 2. How does the poet suggest that he feels lonely and unloved? Can you find any other evidence in the poem that the poet feels lonely?

2 What is heaven commonly believed to listen to? Why does the poet feel that heaven is deaf? (Line 3)

3 Focus on lines 5-8. Does the poet envy other men their material possessions? What do these lines suggest about how the poet feels about himself?

4 Consider line 8. Does this line suggest that the poet is happy or sad? In this line there is the juxtaposition of two opposites. What are they?

5 The only image that the poem contains occurs in line 11, where the poet compares himself to a lark ascending in the sky. Would you agree that the image is more striking because it is alone? What graphic feature attracts our attention to the image?

6 Explain how line 12 contrasts with line 3.

7 The table below illustrates the poet's view of his 'state' at the beginning and at the end of the poem.

Beginning of the poem End of the poem

Heaven Heaven Kings The poet Other men Kings The poet Other men

In what sense does the poet, like the lark, 'ascend' in the course of the poem?

8 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet*. Where does the rhyming scheme change? Would you agree that the last two lines of the sonnet summarise its content? The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.

WRITERS WORKSHOP Simile

O V E R T O Y O U

A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different things is indicated by the word Tike' or 'as'. Like a metaphor, a simile is made up of three elements: the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion; the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to;

the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.

Consider the simile in lines 11-12. What is the subject under discussion? The tenor is What is the subject compared to? The vehicle is What do the two have in common? The ground is Try writing a simile for an emotional state such as happiness, sadness, fear. Examples: I was as happy as a lottery winner who had just been handed his cheque for a million pounds. My heart was like a stone that sank to the bottom of a well.

-low do you pull yourself out of a state of depression or unhappiness? Make a list of the things you do that help to cheer you up.

R m ' .

k i 4 2 T H E RENAISSANCE - Poetry

Can someone love us if we are not very good looking or even quite ugly? Are we condemned to a life of misery if we do not look like a film star? Read what Shakespeare thinks in the following poem. "

Q Text C l l Sonnet 130 GLOSSARY

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. dun: dark 2. wires: long, thin

pieces of metal. In Elizabethan poetry the word 'wire' was used to refer to golden, shiny hair

3. damask'd: light red or pink

4. delight: pleasure 5. reeks: has an

unpleasant smell 6. grant: admit 7. go: walk 8. treads: walks with a

heavy step 9. As any ... compare:

as any woman who was mistakenly praised for being more beautiful than her

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red: If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun1 : If hairs be wires2, black wires grow on her head.

I have seen roses damask'd3, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight4

Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks5.

I love to hear her speak, - yet well I know That music hath a far more pleasing sound: I grant6 I never saw a goddess go7, -My mistress, when she walks, treads8 on the ground.

And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare9 .

10

C O M P R E H E N S I O N —

1 The poet describes his love through a series of comparisons. Complete the table below with the terms of comparison.

the poet's mistress terms of comparison

eyes her lips her breasts her hairs her cheeks her breath the way she walks








Are the comparisons negative or positive?

2 In describing his mistress the poet appeals to the reader's sense of sight, smell and hearing. Say which comparisons appeal to which sense. Sight lines Smell lines Hearing lines

3 The sonnet can be divided into two parts, one in which the poet views his mistress objectively and the other where he views her subjectively. Which lines give an objective view? Which lines give a subjective view? Can you explain the last two lines of the sonnet in your own words?

4 Is the poet's mistress the same as other women described in poems? Is the poet disappointed by this or is it her uniqueness that makes his love 'rare'? (Line 1 3)

I

Sonnets - William Shakespeare 43

A N A L Y S I S —

1 The terms of comparison Shakespeare used (eyes/sun, lips/coral, breasts/snow, etc.) are typical of Elizabethan courtly love poetry. Do you find these comparisons original or banal? Does Shakespeare use them seriously or is he ridiculing this type of poetry?

2 Imagine you had to read the poem aloud. What tone of voice would you use? • Ironic • Comic • Serious • Romantic • Mocking • Apologetic • Other:

3 Although it was written as a witty attack on courtly love sonnets, the message of the poem is serious. Which of the following statements best summarises the theme of the poem? • Women should not be glorified in poetry. • There are many different types of beauty. • True love does not demand physical perfection. • Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.

4 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. At which line does the rhyming scheme change? Would you agree that the last two lines are different from the rest of the poem? In what way?

5 The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.

WRITERS' WORKSHOP A parody imitates the work of another author, usually with the intention of ridiculing it. Shakespeare's Sonnet 130 is a parody of a form of poetry which was popular in Elizabethan England. The Petrarchan love sonnet, in which a poet compared his lover to natural beauties, was named after the fourteenth-century Italian poet who wrote a series of love sonnets for his beloved Laura. This form of poetry was first imitated in England by Sir Thomas Wyatt ( • p. C55) at the beginning of the sixteenth century and met with great success. Shakespeare himself often wrote this form of love sonnet. However, in Sonnet 130 he chooses to make fun of it.

Sonnet 1 30 is almost a mocking reply to a Petrarchan sonnet. Using the Shakespearean 'reply' as a basis try to to reconstruct the type of sonnet that is being parodied.

Petrachan Sonnet Sonnet 130 My mistress' eyes are like the sun My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun

(...) (•••)

Do you know of any other forms of parody, for example, films that parody other films or comic actors that imitate and parody famous people? Think of an example and try to explain how it works.

•DB Shakespeare says in this poem that you can love someone even if they are not good-looking. Which of the following, do you think, are factors in attracting one person to another? • Sense of humour • Sensitivity • Wealth • Intelligence • Physical strength • Vulnerability • Social class Add some more factors of your own.

Parody


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W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R Y

The beginnings Little is known about the events of

William Shakespeare's life. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, probably on April 23rd. His father, a glover by trade, was a prominent local figure who held important positions in the government of the town. His mother came from a prosperous local family. William Shakespeare probably attended Stratford grammar school, but he did not go on to study at university. When he was eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his

senior , and six months later his first child Susanna was born, followed three years later by twins Hamnet and Judith. It is commonly believed that Shakespeare left Stratford to avoid being arrested for poaching.

Career He went to London where he did a series of jobs, including holding theatre-goers' horses outside playhouses. He eventually became an actor, and by 1592 he was sufficiently well-known as a dramatist to be the subject of an attack by the playwright Robert Greene (1558-1592). Greene wrote a pamphlet in which he complained that uneducated dramatists were becoming more popular than university men like himself. In it he called Shakespeare 'an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers'.

Success and prosperity In 1595 Shakespeare joined an important company of actors called The Lord Chamberlain's Men (later changed to The King's Men) and performed at court. His success as a dramatist grew. He mixed in high social circles and the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his sonnets, became his patron and friend. His improved financial standing allowed him to invest in the building of the Globe Theatre and in 1597 he bought New Place, the finest house in Stratford.

Retirement and death He retired to his hometown in 1611, where he died on April 23rd 1616.

WILL IAM SHAKESPEARE

(1564-L616)

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TASK Answer these questions. a. When and where was Shakespeare born? b. Who did he marry and at what age? c. Why did Robert Greene call him 'an upstart crow'? d. What was The Lord Chamberlain's Men? e. What was The Globe? f. How did he spend the last years of his life?

WORKS His sources Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays in a period of about twenty years, from 1591 to 1611. He used many sources for

his plays including the classical Greek and Latin writings of Plutarch and Plautus, the Italian works of Matteo Bandello, Giraldo Cinzio and Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, and the English historian Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577), a source of material for many Elizabethan playwrights.

Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare

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Shakespeare did not publish his plays. Some of his works were put together from notes taken in the theatres or reconstructed from memory by actors. They are referred to as Bad Quartos. Quartos are large-sized books made of sheets of folded paper. They are called 'Bad' because they are full of gaps and mistakes. In 1623, seven years after Shakespeare's death, two former actors and friends of Shakespeare's, Heminge and Condell, decided to publish the first collection of his plays. The so-called First Folio included thirty-five plays that were divided into 'Comedies, Histories and Tragedies'.

The Four Periods The plays were not dated. However, approximate dates have subsequently been given to them based on: • references to contemporary events in the play; • references to the works of other writers which are dated;

• style, plot, characterisation and metre used in the play.

Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into four periods:

First Period The first period covers the years from 1590 to 1595 and was a period of learning and experimentation. In these years Shakespeare wrote very different types of plays: • chronicle plays dealing with the history of England, such as Henry VI and Richard III; • comedies which include A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Taming of the Shrew; • the tragedies Titus Andronicus and Romeo and Juliet.

'In the Globe Theatre, Southwark' from Vischers View of London (1616).

THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

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Second Period During the second period, from 1596 to the turn of the century, Shakespeare focused on chronicle plays and comedies and it is generally agreed that it was during these years that he wrote his best comedies, including The Merchant of Venice, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night, which base their comedy on a wide range of themes such as the pain and pleasure of love, mistaken identity and the degrading of materialistic and humourless people.

Third Period During the third period, from 1600 to 1608, Shakespeare wrote his great tragedies. These plays have given world theatre unforgettable characters such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello and Macbeth. The comedies that were written in this period no longer have the bright, optimistic appeal of earlier works. The darker elements that are found in works such as Measure for Measure seem to suggest that Shakespeare was experiencing difficulties in his personal life which made his outlook rather pessimistic.

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T A S K

Take notes under the following headings and prepare a short talk on Shakespeare's plays. Sources: Bad quartos: First folio: Main characteristics and major plays of: - First period: - Second period: - Third period: - Fourth period: Shakespeare's reputation is based on:

Fourth Period A return to a happier state of mind is reflected in the plays of the final period from 1609 to 1612. The Tempest, for example, is set in the ideal world of an enchanted island where an atmosphere of magic, music, romance and harmony prevails.

Shakespeare is widely regarded as one of the greatest dramatists in world literature. The universal appeal of his work is based on its timeless themes, unforgettable characters and powerful language. His ability to engage the audience's attention has remained unsurpassed to the present day.

cene from Prospero's Dks, a Peter Greenaway film >97) based on The Tempest William Shakespeare.

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Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare 4 7

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SHAKESPEARE'S THEATRICAL GENIUS

Plays for audiences The relationship between audiences and performers was very intimate in Elizabethan theatres. Spectators sat on the stage or stood close to the performer and openly

expressed their opinions about what was taking place on stage. Shakespeare had an unparalleled ability to entertain all sections of his audiences; the more intellectual elements enjoyed the poetic language and subtle characterisation of his work while the less educated spectators delighted in the compelling storylines, gory battlescenes and humorous intrigues.

Variety of themes The variety of timeless themes in Shakespeare's works is unsurpassed: • the appeal of an unsophisticated life in harmony with nature (As You Like It)-, • ambition and jealousy, deception and crime (Macbeth, Othello); • greed, corruption and ingratitude (King Lear); • love and politics (Antony and Cleopatra); • crime, guilt and punishment (Macbeth, Richard III); • the all-conquering power of love (Much Ado About Nothing); • the impatience of youth (Romeo and Juliet); • the pains and pleasures of love (The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It).

Unforgettable characters Shakespeare portrayed an unforgettable gallery of characters: • Hamlet, a complex and sensitive idealist who is paralysed by indecision; • King Lear, a proud misguided father who loses his mind when he understands his daughters' true

nature; • Othello, a naive victim of his enemy's envy and treachery; • Macbeth, a soldier who is transformed into

J ^ i s s s m

murderer by ambition; • Lady Macbeth, a scheming, ambitious wife

who realises, too late, the horror of what she has done;

• Richard III, a liar, manipulator and murderer.

Mastery of language The highly poetic quality of the language is a feature of all Shakespeare's plays. In Elizabethan theatres scenery and props were almost non-existent so Shakespeare had to conjure up settings, moods, and atmospheres with his words. His richly dense language, with its striking imagery and musicality, is perhaps his greatest legacy. Many of the lines from his plays are so memorable that they have become everday sayings in the English language, for example All's Well That Ends Well (title of a play), 'Neither a borrower nor a lender be' (Hamlet).

T A S K —

King Lear mourning the death of his daughter, Cordelia.

Prepare a brief talk in which you outline the reasons for Shakespeare's greatness.

THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

THE SONNETS Shakespeare's sonnets - 154 in all - were first published in 1609 without the knowledge or consent of their author. Though there

is very little direct evidence which might point to a specific date of composition, on stylistic grounds it is believed that they were written at an earlier date. The sonnets have been conventionally divided into two groupings: Sonnets 1-126 are addressed to or concern an unnamed 'fair youth', probably Shakespeare's friend and patron the Earl of Southampton. Sonnets 127-154 are about a woman who is conventionally referred to as the 'dark lady', presumably Shakespeare's mistress. The poet speaks about his troubled love for the woman (who is married) and describes a painful relationship in which they are both unfaithful to each other.

Themes The range of emotions explored in the sonnets is extraordinary: confident declarations of unselfish love, sad parting words, expressions of joy at reunion or bitter disappointment at mutual infidelity.

Styles The range of styles is greatly varied. In many sonnets the style is complex and rich while in others the vocabulary, syntax and form are disarmingly simple. The best of the sonnets are widely considered to be the finest love poems in English literature.

T A S K

Answer these questions. a. How many sonnets did Shakespeare write? b. Who are sonnets 1-126 addressed to? c. Who is the 'dark lady'? d. Are all the sonnets written in the same style?

THE REAL SHAKESPEARE The few existing documents about Shakespeare only certify that he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 , got married at

eighteen, had three children, left Stratford and went to London, became an actor and owned a share of the Globe Theatre. Evidence also exists that he returned to Stratford in his forties, bought a big house, looked after his properties and died in 1616. In his will there is no mention of returns from plays or poems. Only six examples of his handwriting exist: six signatures, all with a different spelling of his name. His death went totally unnoticed. Scholars have wondered how someone with Shakespeare's social and educational background could know so much about history, Italy, Latin, Greek and all the other subjects that filled his plays. For over a century now many have voiced their doubts about the real identity of the author of 'Shakespeare's plays'.

Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare

The works of Shakespeare: TIMELINE

Period I

Plays of Experimentation

Period II Artistic maturity: Lyrical masterpieces and Chronicle Plays

Period III

The Great Tragedies

Period I V

Last Plays

Approx. date 1590-1591

1592-1593

1593-1594

1594-1595

1593-1595

1596-1597

1598-1599

1 6 0 0 - 1 6 0 1

1602-1603

1604-1605

1606-1607

1608

1609

1609-1610

1 6 1 1

Plays

Henry VI (parts I, II, III) (History plays) Titus Andronicus (Tragedy) Richard III (History play)

The Comedy of Errors (Comedy) The Taming of the Shrew (Comedy)

The Two Gentlemen of Verona (Comedy) Love's Labour's Lost (Comedy) Romeo and Juliet (Tragedy) Richard II (History play) A Midsummer Night's Dream (Comedy) King john (History play)

Sonnets

The Merchant of Venice (Comedy) The Merry Wives of Windsor (Comedy) Henry IV (I, II) (History plays) Much Ado About Nothing (Comedy) Henry V (History play)

As You Like It (Comedy) Twelfth Night (Comedy) Julius Caesar (History play)

Hamlet (Tragedy) Troilus and Cressida (Tragedy)

All's Well That Ends Well (Comedy/Romance) Measure for Measure (Comedy/Romance) Othello (Tragedy)

King Lear (Tragedy) Macbeth (Tragedy)

Antony and Cleopatra (Tragedy) Coriolanus (Tragedy)

Timon of Athens (Tragedy)

Pericles (Tragedy)

Cymbeline (Romance) The Winter's Tale (Romance)

The Tempest (Romance) Henry VIII (probably incomplete, History play)

Historical and Social Background

THE TUDOR YEARS

Three great leaders

• Visual Link CI

• Visual Link C5

GOVERNMENT

Henry VIII

The nobles

RELIGION

The Reformation

Britain 1485-1625 The kings and queens of England in the sixteenth century all descended from a Welsh squire, Owen Tudor. This dynasty produced three great

leaders who left an indelible mark on the country:

• Henry VII (1485-1509) restored people's faith in the monarchy; • Henry VIII (1509-1547) established the Church of England; • E l izabeth I ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 0 3 ) encouraged exploration of and trade with other

continents which would lead later to the creation of the British Empire.

Over the previous century the institution of the monarchy had been greatly weakened by bitter feuds which meant that one king followed

another in quick succession. Henry VII's main achievement was to stay in power for over twenty years and prove that the monarchy could play a stabilising role in the country. A weak monarchy had meant a strong parliament, but a stronger monarchy meant a weaker parliament with major decisions being taken in consultation with a very small group of loyal advisers. In the case of Henry VIII, this often meant only one adviser, the most influential of whom was the Archbishop of York, Sir Thomas Wolsey. At local level, the nobles, who had held a lot of power in the Middle Ages, saw their influence watered down. The private armies that each local lord organised to help maintain feudal control over his own area were banned, and central government increasingly took over total responsibility for law and order.

The sixteenth century was the century of the revolt against the Roman Catholic Church in Europe, which became known as the Reformat ion

and saw the foundation of the Protestant Churches. The English Reformation was

In this Protestant propaganda picture, a dying Henry VIII is telling his son, Edward VI, to uphold the true Protestant religion. The pope has collapsed at Edward's feet.

Historical and Social Background 51

instigated by Henry VIII and initially revolved around his private life. When he realised that his wife could not give him the male successor he so desperately wanted, he asked the Pope to grant him a divorce so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused, he decided that the English Church would break away from Rome, and with the Act of Supremacy in 1534, he became the head of the Church of England. The irony of this story, which was to have a lasting effect on English history, is that his new wife bore him a girl, Elizabeth I. The break with the Roman Catholic Church was greeted favourably by most English people, who were glad to see the end of interference by the Pope in national affairs. Henry consolidated the new Church by closing all the monasteries between 1536 and 1539, and gradually the Anglican Church took on its role as the official state Church. The publication of the first Bible in the English language (1539) and the Book of Common Prayer (1584) helped a great deal to bring the new religion closer to the people. Not everybody agreed with the Reformation and religious disputes were to breed intolerance and violence for many years to come. Under the reign of Mary, Henry VIIPs daughter by his first wife and a Catholic, Protestant leaders were executed, while Elizabeth I, although by no means a religious fanatic, prohibited the celebration of the Catholic mass. It was not until the following century, however, that the divisions brought about by the English Reformation would lead to open conflict.

The Act of Supremacy

The Anglican Church takes shape

• Visual Link C2

Religious disputes

The burning in Antwerp in 1536 of the heretic William Tyndale, who wrote the first English translation of the New Testament (1562).

Tudor England was basically self-sufficient. Food was in adequate supply and the population grew steadily. Many people were involved in the wool and cloth industry and, up until about 1550, Holland continued to be England's most important trading partner. The need to produce more and more wool meant that life in the countryside began to change. It was more profitable to keep sheep than grow crops, so there was a move away from arable farming and crop-growing to pasture. This meant that fewer people were needed to work the land, and a process began that in the following centuries would see millions of people move from the country to towns and cities. Most towns were not much bigger than villages with the exception of London, which continued to grow rapidly as eighty percent of the nation's trade was carried out there. The towns were populated by merchants and craftsmen, but living conditions were very poor and the lack of public sanitation was a constant cause of disease. However, Tudor England still remained basically a rural country with only ten percent of people living in towns while ninety percent lived in villages, as they had done in the Middle Ages. The local lord still held considerable power in his area but the system of feudal slavery disappeared. There were no more serfs and a farmer was secure on his land as long as he paid the rent. Life was not easy for anyone in Tudor England, whether in the country or town, but the Poor Law that was passed in 1601 would improve conditions for later

THE ECONOMY AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Urbanisation

Rural England

The Poor Law

5 2 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

generations. The law stipulated that parishes had to provide schools, hospitals and childcare for orphans, and houses of correction for drunkards and tramps in their local community. Although it would take over 400 years to complete, this was the first small step in the setting up of what we now know as the 'welfare state'.

ENGLAND AND THE REST OF THE WORLD

England and France

Expanding markets

England and Spain

• Visual .Link C5

Colonial expansion: a. The New World

b. Asia

For centuries, England's main rival in Europe had been France, and this continued to be the case throughout the reign of Henry VIII, when a number of wars were fought which brought no great gain to either side.

The balance of power in Europe was changing, however, and the old rivalry between the two neighbours was to be of secondary importance in the second half of the sixteenth century. With the collapse of the Dutch wool market in 1550, England found itself in a position where it had to find new markets and new forms of trade to sustain economic and social development. With this aim in mind, Elizabeth I looked beyond Europe towards America and Asia. The first step towards colonial expansion was the building of a fleet that could transport goods and protect the nation's interests at sea. With the fleet in place, the one great obstacle that remained in England's way was Spain. Spanish explorers were already opening up the American continent for exploitation and had no intention of letting the English share in their gains. From 1584 almost to the end of Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain fought a war for the control of the seas. One of the main protagonists in the war was Sir Francis Drake, who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world between 1577 and 1580. He also took part in the battles that resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Military success meant that the road was clear for English entrepreneurs to establish colonies and open up new horizons for trade. Sir Walter Raleigh was one of those intrepid pioneers. He helped establish a colony in Virginia in North America and brought back potatoes and tobacco to Europe. On the other side of the world the East India Company, which was set up in 1601, started to do business with countries in Asia and laid the foundations for the colonisation of India.

During Elizabeth I's reign, England became a powerful, prosperous nation in which trade and arts flourished.

Historical and Social Background 159

A direct consequence of the war between England and Spain was the colonisation of Ireland. Elizabeth and her advisers were afraid that the Spaniards would use Ireland, which had remained Catholic during the Reformation, as a base to attack England. The Irish were defeated by the forces of Lord Mountjoy in 1601 and their leaders had to flee. Elizabeth also encouraged Protestant farmers to take land in Ireland in the hope that a sizeable Protestant colony would help pacify the island. This colonisation continued throughout the seventeenth century and was particularly successful in the north of the country.

When the last of the Tudor monarchs, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, she left behind a realm that had changed greatly since her grandfather Henry VII had become king in 1485. It was a prosperous and progressive country whose monarch commanded the respect of the people both as head of the Anglican Church and head of state. Prosperity brought a renewed interest in culture and learning. The arts, particularly in the form of theatre and poetry, flourished. It was a country that had fought to gain respect on the world stage and would expand its power and influence in a way that must have been difficult to imagine at the time. However, on the domestic front, storm clouds were gathering. As James I's reign drew to a close in 1625, the rivalries between Parliament and monarchy and between the different religious denominations were about to explode into open conflict.

c. In Ireland

THE TUDOR LEGACY Prosperity and progress

Trouble ahead

TASKS 1 Link each sentence to a person. a. 'The king follows my advice. I could manipulate him if I wanted to.' b. 'Why do I have to disband my army? Will the king be able to defend me then?' c. 'Marry me. I'll give you a boy.' d. 'With this Act of Supremacy I declare myself the Head of the Church of England.' e. 'We have to stop the Protestants. Arrest their leaders. Put them to death.' f. 'Next week I'm travelling to Amsterdam on business.' g. 'Your Majesty, the Spanish Armada is destroyed. Our great country is safe.' h. 'I have created a kingdom where the arts flourish and people appreciate the

importance of culture and learning.' 2 Choose one of the topics and prepare a brief talk (max. 5 minutes). Use websites to find further information. Elizabethan England Henry VIII Elizabeth I The Reformation Overseas explorations and the wars with Spain

Sir Thomas Wolsey A nobleman Elizabeth I Sir Francis Drake Mary I Henry VIII A cloth merchant Anne Boleyn

MAIN EVENTS: The Renaissance 1485--1509 Reign of Henry VII 1509 -1547 Reign of Henry VIII 1534 Act of Supremacy 1536 -1539 Monasteries closed 1539 First Bible in English 1547--1553 Reign of Edward VI 1553--1558 Reign of Mary 1 1558--1603 Reign of Elizabeth 1 1577--1580 Sir Francis Drake sails around the world 1584 The Book of Common Prayer 1588 The Spanish Armada destroyed 1601 The Poor Law

The East India Company is set up

56 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

The Faerie Queene

An illustration for the Shepherdes Calender (1579) by Edmund Spenser.

or more levels. Originally intended to be twelve books, only half of the work was completed. Each book recounts the adventures of a knight, who represents one of the twelve virtues that make a perfect gentleman. The main theme of the work is the glorification of Queen Elizabeth and her court. In fact, at the end of the story, Prince Arthur, the most important knight, is to marry the Faerie Queene Gloriana, who represented Queen Elizabeth. The Faerie Queene shows Spenser's great gift for creating refined and vivid word pictures, and his ear for the musicality of the language. He introduced a new metre into English poetry called the Spenserian stanza, which consisted of eight lines of ten syllables plus a twelve-syllable line containing six iambic feet, with the rhyming scheme ABABBCBCC. Spenser's belief that poetry should deal with subjects far removed from everyday life and should be written in refined language - unlike that which was used by common people - became the basic principle for poetry throughout much of the Elizabethan period. Although it introduced new elements inspired by classical and continental Renaissance models, Elizabethan love poetry maintained many of the features of the courtly love poems of the Middle Ages. The lady to whom the poem was addressed was distant and idealised and the poetic language was highly ornate and musical. Poems were often set to music and sung to the accompaniment of an instrument.

T A S K

Choose the correct option. 1 During Elizabeth's reign the arts flourished

because [a | the economy was strong and people had more

time and money for the arts, b ! Greek refugees introduced classical Greek

culture to England.

2 Italy was regarded a] with both contempt and admiration. b | with suspicion and scorn.

3 Sir Philip Sidney wrote ~a~l tales in the style of Boccaccio's tales. [~b] sonnets based on Petrarch's themes and style.

4 Edmund Spenser wrote 7a] religious poems each of which glorifies one of

the twelve virtues. b] allegorical poems which, on one level, are

meant to glorify the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5 In The Fairie Queene, Spenser

[a] uses a new poetic metre and highly refined language.

I b] glorifies the everyday life of common people.


While much Renaissance poetry is of a very high quality, the greatest literary works of the period are plays. The medieval tradition of Mystery and Miracle plays continued under the reign of Henry VII. However, after the schism from Rome and the Reformation, Henry VIII put an end to medieval religious drama. Humanism revived interest in classical drama and the plays of Plautus, Terence and Seneca, among others, were translated into English, published and widely read. Seneca's tragedies were particularly popular and created a taste for horror and bloodshed. An example of Seneca's influence on English drama can be seen in the works of Thomas Kyd. His highly popular play about bloody revenge called The Spanish Tragedy ( 1587) has many Senecan elements including horror, villains, corruption, intrigue and the supernatural. Early English Renaissance playwrights accepted some of the conventions of clas-sical theatre, but they adapted the form to suit their needs and did not content themselves with simply producing poor imitations of classical models. For several reasons English drama flourished under Elizabeth I and James I: • theatre appealed to all social classes, from the sovereign to the lowest class; • plays could be understood by the illiterate, who formed the largest section of

the population; • there had been a strong theatre-going tradition in Britain since the Middle

Ages; • • the theatre was patronised by the Court and the aristocracy; • the language of drama was less artificial than that of poetry; • there was a great number of talented playwrights who produced works of extra-

ordinary quality; • the prosperity of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods meant that people had

both the time and money to go to the theatre. Drama was strictly linked to the Elizabethan world view which emphasised above all else the principle of order. Early Elizabethans believed that a hierarchy existed in the natural world which ascended from inanimate objects to animals, men, angels and eventually God. Man was the central link in this chain: his body linked him to the animal world below him while his soul linked him to the spiri-tual world above him. Man was at the centre of the universe because the moon, the sun, the planets and the stars all revolved in orbit around the earth. A number of factors, however, weakened Elizabethan beliefs in the principle of universal order. The development of modern experimental science, for example, established that the earth and other planets revolved around the sun, thus displacing man from the centre of creation. In The Prince (1513) Machiavelli rejected the notion of a divinely ordained political hierarchy and explained how political power could be won and held with no reference to the will of God. Much Elizabethan drama is concerned with the hierarchical order of the universe and what may occur if it is broken. In Macbeth when the king is killed the natural order of society is broken, and the result is chaos and tragedy. The loss of order is also reflected in the natural world (darkness in daytime, owls killing falcons, horses eating each other) and in the inner world of the characters (Lady Macbeth's insanity). Only at the end of the play, when the rightful king sits on the throne, is order restored. The breaking of the laws of order may also result in comedy. In A Midsummer Night's Dream the disciplined ordered world of Athens is contrasted with the night-time wood, which is a dark realm of disorder, chaos and confusion. Elizabethan heroes are no longer the allegorical paragons of virtue of Medieval drama. They are full of passion and doubts and constantly question the world that surrounds them.

DRAMA

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594)

Why drama flourished

The principle of order

Questioning the principle of order

• Texts C8 and C9

• Texts C4 and C5


The actors

The companies and their patrons

The theatres

A play performed on a platform raised in the yard.

The actors were direct descendants of Medieval street performers. In spite of the popularity of their performances, a law passed in 1572 still classified actors as vagabonds, thus putting them at risk of being imprisoned depending on the will of the various authorities. In order to overcome the problem they worked in companies patronised by a nobleman, whose name the company took (The Earl of Leicester's Men, The Lord Chamberlain's Men). The nobleman gave them a letter of permission which allowed them to travel around the country and perform without fear of punishment. Companies generally played in London in the winter and spring and travelled around the country in summer, when the city was often ravaged by plague. At the time when Shakespeare was acting there were approximately twenty companies of actors in London and more than one hundred provincial troupes. As acting was considered immoral, there were no women in the companies female parts were played by boys whose voices had not yet changed. An average play had a cast of about twenty. The main parts were played by company actors Three or four boys were hired for the women's roles, and six or more hired men played the minor roles or worked as musicians, stage managers, wardrobe keepers, prompters and stage hands. Some actors doubled for two or more minor parts. Actors had to have good memories, strong voices and the ability to sing, dance and fence. The costumes they wore were very elaborate sixteenth-century creations which did not respect historical accuracy.

Until the building of permanent playhouses, plays were performed in inns, on a platform raised in the yard. Guests at the inn watched the performances from the second-storey galleries, while the common people took their places in front o ' the stage. Playhouses were at first built outside the city walls because they were consider to be centres of corruption. The first playhouse built in London was The Theatre in 1576, followed by The Rose, The Swan and The Globe (1599). The comp to which Shakespeare belonged, The Lord Chamberlain's Men, was one of

The Literary Background 5 9

Structure of an Elizabethan theatre

Outer and inner stage

few companies that owned its own playhouse. By the end of Shakespeare's career they had two theatres: The Globe and The Blackfriars. Elizabethan theatres were built with the inn yard model in mind. They were polygonal or circular three-tiered structures, open to the sun and rain. In the case of The Globe, the open courtyard and three semi-circular galleries that surrounded it could hold more than 1,500 people. The stage projected out into the courtyard about five feet above the ground and had two main parts: • the outer stage was a rectangular platform where the main action of the play

took place. It was covered by a thatched roof but had no front or side curtains; • the inner stage stood behind the outer stage and was concealed by a curtain. This stage was used when a scene took place in a more confined space (for example the tomb scene in Romeo and Juliet) or when a character was supposed to overhear the action on the main stage. On either side of the inner stage there was a door through which actors entered and disappeared. Below the floors of the outer and inner stages was a large cellar called hell. Actors in 'hell', who played the parts of ghosts, demons or fairies, would make dramatic appearances through trap doors onto the main outer stage. Over the main stage there was a third space which could be used by musicians, represent a balcony scene or stand for the walls of a city. Above the third level

there was a series of pulleys which >~> " could be used to suspend fairies,

angels, ghosts and thunderbolts. Many special effects were used in the theatre. Death scenes were very

I gory and realistic and animal organs and blood were often used to make battle scenes more realistic. The audiences became very involved in the play, particularly the spectators in the yard, who were very close to the action. Their tickets were cheaper than the tickets of the spectators sitting in the galleries and they participated by cheering, hissing and even throwing rotten vegetables.

8 PAL'LSS CHV*«M

A view of London in the early sixteenth century showing St Paul's cathedral and The Theatres on The South Bank.

Special effects

Audiences

TASK Cross out incorrect statements. Elizabethan drama: - had strong links with classical Greek and Latin drama. - often featured the themes of corruption, intrigue

and revenge. - flourished because it was popular with all social classes.

- only appealed to the higher, educated classes. - often included the themes of order and hierarchy. - emphasised the centrality of Nature as a guide to

human actions. - often dealt with the consequences of the disruption

of hierarchical order.


WBHßp'4 S O F T H E P A S T

THE ELIZABETHAN THEATRE

This is what The Globe theatre looked like.

T A S K S

1 Match letters and words. galleries upper stage open courtyard actors'entrances onto the stage entrance 'special effects'level outer stage hell inner stage A = F = B = G = C= H = D = I = E = 2 Draw your own simplified plan of an Elizabethan theatre and prepare an oral description.


The two outstanding playwrights of the era were Christopher Marlowe ( • pp. C2-C9) and William Shakespeare ( • pp. C10-49). One of their contemporaries, Ben Jonson, also made a significant contribution to the drama of the period. He is best remembered for his play Volpone (1606), a satire on greed and corruption. The main character Volpone is a rich avaricious Venetian. He is surrounded by people who pretend to be his friends because they want to inherit his fortune. Volpone pretends to be ill and tricks his so-called friends into giving him expensive gifts, thus punishing them for their insincerity. Jonson also wrote a series of successful masques. A masque was an elaborate form of court entertainment originally developed in Italy that involved poetic drama, music, song, dance and splendid costuming. The plot was slight and often introduced mythological and allegorical elements. The characters, who wore masks, were played by ladies and gentlemen of the court. The play ended with a dance when the players removed their masks and took members of the audience as partners.

Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

Masques

One of the most important figures in the development of English prose style was Francis Bacon. He wrote in Latin and in English, and is best remembered for his Essays (1625) , inspired by the French writer Montaigne. Bacon rejected the long-winded overly ornate Elizabethan style and replaced it with a plainer, more straightforward style, thus helping to pave the way for modern English.

T A S K Answer these questions. a. What work is Ben Jonson best remembered for? b. What vices are ridiculed in his most important play? c. Where were masques performed?

d. What kind of prose works were mainly developed in Elizabethan England?

e. How did Bacon influence the development of English prose style?

Prose writing in the Renaissance period did not reach the same standards of excellence as poetry or drama. The geographical expeditions of the era gave rise to travel literature in which writers gave accounts of the voyages of explorers such as Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake. The great interest in classical and continental literature led to the translation of many books into English: Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives (1579), Chapman's translation of Homer (1610) and Paterick's Machiavelli were all very influential works. The Authorised Version of the Bible, produced in 1611 by a team of forty-seven scholars, is unquestionably one of the works which greatly influenced the development of English prose style. Every Protestant home had a copy of the Bible and many families listened to daily readings.

PROSE

Accounts of explorations and translations

The Bible

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Essays

Francis Bacon, philosopher and statesman.



LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Petrarch

Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374) was one of the leading figures in the Italian Renaissance, and during the English Renaissance his work inspired early sonnet writers like Wyatt and Surrey (• p. C55). Here is one of the many sonnets that Petrarch wrote in praise of Laura, the woman he loved.

Feeling ashamed that I still seem to pass Over your beauty, Lady, in my rhyme, I remember when I for the first time Saw you, made for my love as no one was.

But the burden11 find crushes my frame2, The burden cannot be polished3 by my file4, And my talent which knows its strength and style In this attempt becomes frozen and lame5.

Several times I moved my lips to cry; But my voice was constrained within my lungs. Which is the sound that can soar6 up so high?

Vergognando talor ch'ancor si taccia, Donna, per me vostra bellezza in rima, Ricorro al tempo ch'i' vi vidiprima, Tal che nuli'altra fia mai che mi piaccia.

Ma trovo peso non da le mie braccia, Ne ovra da polir colla mia lima; Pero I'ingegno, che sua forza estima, Ne I'operazion tutto s'agghiaccia.

Piu volte gia per dir le labbra apersi; Poi rimase la voce in mezzo 7 petto. Ma qual son pona mai salir tant'altro?

Several times I began writing songs; But pen and hand and intellect were bound7

To be conquered and caught in the first sound.

Piü volte incominciai di scriver versi; Ma la penna e la mano e I'intelletto Rimaser vinti nel primier assalto.

• G L O S S A R Y

1. burden: heavy weight, the hard task of describing your beauty and my love for you

2. frame: body

3. polished: made lighter

4. file: pen, writing skills 5. lame: disabled,

handicapped 6. soar: fly 7. bound: tied

T A S K S

1 Work out the rhyme scheme of the sonnet. The original Italian version is ABBA ABBA CDE CDE. Is it the same as the original?

2 What problem is introduced in the first eight lines (octave) of the sonnet?

3 In the last six lines (sextet) does the poet resolve the problem? (See page C55)

Petrarch.


CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK -{to Tragedy Tragedy A tragedy is a play in which events have disastrous or fatal consequences for all or some of the characters, and tragedy has been a popular form of theatre from Greek times up until the present day. The Roman writer Seneca, whose nine tragedies were translated into English during the sixteenth century, influenced many dramatists of the day, including William Shakespeare. Seneca's tragedies and Renaissance tragedies often had some of the following features in common: 1 crime 5 revenge 2 bloodthirsty scenes 6 long reflective soliloquies 3 witchcraft and the supernatural 7 powerful rhetoric 4 very ambitious characters 8 characters who go through emotional crises

P R O J E C T

a. Choose two (or more) of the following plays. b. Write the plots in your own words. c. Explain, with reference to the story and/or the actual text, which of the features listed above

the plays have or do not have in common.

Seneca (Lucius Annaeus c. 4 BC-AD 65) - Troades, Phaedra, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Hercules Furens

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) - The Spanish Tragedy (1587) - one of the most popular tragedies in the Elizabethan period. • p. C57.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616): Romeo and Juliet (c.1595) • pp.C10-17, Hamlet (c.1601) • pp. C24-32, Macbeth (c.1605) • pp. C33-39.

P R O J E C T

Choose one of the plays you have analysed and one of the following modern tragedies:

Tom Stoppard (1937-): Rosencratz and Guilderstern are Dead (1966) Arthur Miller (1915-) : Death of a Salesman (1940)

Compare them by answering the following questions: a. What is the tragedy in the play? b. What emotional crises do the characters go through? c. Are any of the characters heroic? d. Is there a lot of violence and crime? e. In which play are the stage directions more complete? f. Are any of the characters very ambitious? g. Which play do you feel is more realistic? h. Are there many long speeches?

THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND

AUGUSTAN AGES 1625-1776

The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.

From Paradise Lost (Book I) by J o h n Milton

INTRODUCTION • J o h n D o n n e was an intensely passionate m a n . In t h e fol lowing two poems he speaks directly to his mistress and to God. He uses complex and sometimes contorted images, but when the reader goes to the trouble of understanding what they mean, he fully understands what love and religious faith meant to this hot-blooded poet.

John Donne

If God really loves us why does he allow us to fall into the temptation of sin? Should He do more to help us to stay on the right path? Read what John Donne suggests God should do to keep him from sinning.

Q m m Batter My Heart Batter1 my heart, three-person'd God2; for, you As yet but3 knocke, breathe, shine4 and seeke to mend; That I may rise, and stand, o'erthrow mee, and bend5

Your force, to breake, blowe, burn and make me new.

I, like an usurpt towne, to another due6, Labour7 to'admit you, but Oh to no end8, Reason your viceroy in mee, mee should defend9, But is captiv'd and proves weak or untrue.

Yet dearely I love you, and would be lov'd fain10, But am betroth'd unto1 1 your enemie: Divorce mee, untie, or breake that knot againe, Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I Except12 you enthrall mee13, never shall be free, Nor ever chaste, except you ravish mee14 .

G L O S S A R Y

Note: here is a list of the most frequently recurring archaic words and their modern equivalents. thou: you thee: you thyself: yourself thy: your thine: yours art: are hath: has, have doth: does wilt: will shalt: shall

1. 2.

Batter: strike violently three-person'd God: the Holy Trinity (God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit) but: only shine: polish bend: direct, apply to another due: owing duty and obedience to another

7. Labour: work hard

8. to no end: with no result 9. Reason ... defend:

reason, who represents God in the poet, should defend him

10. fain: willingly 11.betroth'd unto: engaged

to be married to 12. Except: unless 13. enthrall mee: make a

slave of me 14. ravish mee: possess me

sexually, rape me

HÜJliJi .. gBBXfcti

John üonne 3


1 What does the poet ask God to do in line 1 ?

2 What, according to the poet, has God done up until this point?

3 What must God do in order to make the poet rise and stand? (Line 3)

4 What does the poet compare himself to in line 5? He says that he owes obedience to another; who do you think he is referring to?

5 What is God's viceroy in line 7? Why is it unable to defend the poet?

6 What desire does the poet express in line 9?

7 In line 10 the poet says that he is betrothed to God's 'enemy'. Who is he referring to in your opinion? What does the poet ask God to do with this union?

8 In which lines does the poet suggest that he is unworthy of God's love?

9 How, according to the poet, can God make him free?

1 0 How can God make him chaste?

A N A L Y S I S — —

1 Although this is a religious poem the language the poet uses is violent. Underline all the verbs in the poem which suggest violent action.

2 In line 1 the poet speaks of the 'three-person'd God' which has the obvious meaning of the Trinity. The idea of trinity is developed throughout the poem as God is described as three different persons. In which lines is God described as: - a king? Line - a conqueror? Line - a lover? Line

3 There are also three different images of the poet. In which lines does he compare himself to: - a door/gate? Line - a town? Line - a woman? Line

4 The poem is based on a series of oppositions. Fill in the table below with the elements that oppose the words and expressions in the left-hand column.

5 The poem is made up of three sentences. Find where each sentence begins and ends. Which sentences are made of quatrains (4 lines) and sestets (6 lines)?

6 Find an example of alliteration* in the poem.

7 Look at this example of enjambement*. Batter my heart, three person'd God; for, you As yet but knocke, breathe, shine and seek to mend;

Find another one in the first four lines of the poem and an example from the last four lines of the poem.

8 Look at this example of internal pause* or caesura*.

Batter my heart, (pause) three person'd God; (pause) for, (pause) you

Find other examples in the poem.

9 Would you consider the rhythm* of the poem to be regular or broken? How does the rhythm of the poem reflect the disorder and emotional disturbance of the poet's mind?

1 0 Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem. (Consider that 'enemie' in line 10 may be pronounced to rhyme with T in line 12.)

Batter knocke that 1 may rise and stand breake, blowe, burn bethroth'd Except you enthrall me chast

How do you think these violent oppositions affect the tone of the poem? Do they make it more: • passionate? • calm? • religious? • dramatic? • striking? • other:

\ i 4 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Conceit A conceit is a figure of speech which draws a comparison between two strikingly diff

ent things. In Batter My Heart, for example, the poet uses a conceit when he compa himself to a usurped town. Much Elizabethan poetry used very conventional image but John Donne and other metaphysical poets ( • p. D94) tried to use a wide range sources including science, theology, alchemy and travel to make their imagery mo innovative and effective.

S N E f K ^ l l i i P j j ^ p In Batter My Heart the poet compares himself to a door or gate which has been closed to Cod, a town which has been occupied by God's enemy and a woman who is engaged to God's rival. Which of these conceits do you find most striking and effective and why?

O V E R T O Y O U Striking comparisons similar to the conceits of the metaphysical poets are often used in so

You're the cream in my coffee (Cole Porter) You are in my blood, you're my holy wine (Joni Mitchell) And after all, you're my wonderwall (Noel Gallagher)

Work in groups. Make a list of language areas that are not usually considered 'poetic', for example the language of computers, sport, food, household objects, etc. Try to make con-ceits for friends or loved ones or people you hate using these language areas. For example-

You are my screensaver. You are cigarette ash on my favourite ice-cream.

Read your best conceits aloud to the rest of the class.

John Donne wants God to force him to be good. He says that God must imprison him because he does not have enough self-discipline to resist sin and temptation. Are there any areas of your life in which you feel you should have more self-discipline? Are you disciplined in your approach to school and study? Are you disciplined in what you eat, or do you find it difficult to resist the temptation of junk food? Would people who know you describe you as 'dependable', 'punctual', etc.?

John üonne 5

Is it true that when two people are head over heels in love it is as if they become one person? Read the following poem and find out what John Donne thinks.

[Text 1)2

And now good morrow to our waking soules, Which watch not one another out of feare; For love, all love of other sights controules9, 10 And makes one little roome an every where. Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone, Let Maps to others, worlds on worlds have showne10, Let us possesse our world, each hath one, and is one.

An allegorical representation of a lover who is burning in the flames of passion.

My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares, 15 And true plaine hearts doe in the faces rest, Where can we finde two better hemispheares Without sharpe North, without declining West? What ever dyes, was not mixt11 equally12; If our two loves be one, or, thou and I 20 Love so alike, that none do slacken13, none can die.

The Good-Morrow1

I wonder, by my troth2, what thou, and I Did, till we lov'd? Were we not wean'd3 till then? But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly4? Or snorted5 we in the seven sleepers den6? 'Twas so; But this, all pleasures fancies bee7. 5 If ever any beauty8 I did see, Which I desir'd, and got, 'twas but a dreame of thee.

G L O S S A R Y

(See note on p. D2)

1. Good Morrow: good morning

2. by my troth: truly 3. wean'd: grown up

(to wean: to gradually stop feeding a baby milk and start giving it ordinary food)

4. But suck'd ... childishly: did we only enjoy

ourselves like carefree children?

5. snorted: snored 6. seven sleepers den:

according to legend, seven young Christians from Ephesus were walled up alive as they attempted to escape persecution by the emperor Decius. They were found alive over two centuries later

7. But this ... fancies bee: all other pleasures are only

imaginary and not real when compared to our love

8. beauty: beautiful woman 9. For love ... controules:

true love removes (controules) the desire to see other people and places

10.Let Maps ... showne: other worlds can be discovered with maps

11. mixt: mixed

12. What ever dyes ... equally: the poet is saying that because their love is perfectly balanced, it will never die. At that time it was believed that the lack of perfect balance and proportion in the elements of which all bodies are constituted caused decay and death

13. slacken: to become weaker

•



1 The poem opens with a question. Formulate the question in your own words. What possible answers does the poet suggest in lines 2-4?

2 Is the poet's present lover the first woman he has had a relationship with?

3 What setting is suggested in the second stanza? Where are the lovers and what time of day is it? Refer to the text to support your answer.

4 Why are the lovers uninterested in new sights, discoveries and worlds?

5 What does the poet see reflected in his lover's eyes?

6 What does the poet compare himself and his lov to in line 1 7?

7 Why does he believe that their love will never die?

A N A L Y S I S

1 The poet refers to the lovers' past, present and future. Identify the lines that refer to each period. Past: lines Present: lines Future: lines

2 The poet suggests that the lovers were childish and immature before they fell in love. Underline the words in lines 2 -4 that create the idea of childishness.

3 Focus on the opening lines. Find examples of: - rapid questions: - an exclamation: - 'non-poetic' vocabulary: - a run-on line*: Would you agree that the language of the opening stanza is similar to that of everyday speech? How do you find the opening lines of the poem? • Dramatic • Striking • Original • Banal • Other:

4 Now that the poet has found true love he feels that the past is no longer relevant. What expression does he u s e in line 5 to dismiss that past as unimportant?

5 In the second stanza the poet says that he and his lover have created one world through their love. How many times are the words 'one' and 'world' repeated in the stanza?

6 In line 9 the poet suggests that lovers sometimes watch each other out of fear. What may be the causes of these fears in your opinion? Are the poet and his lover subject to these fears?

7 Lines 11-13 introduce the concept that love conquers space. In a complex conceit* a parallel is drawn between geographers and lovers. Complete the parallel as illustrated in the table below.

Sea-discoverers through their overseas have reduced the new which they share with expeditions world to maps others

The poet and his lover through the true love that have reduced the world which they feel for each other to

8 In the second stanza the universe is reduced to a room. In the third stanza it is reduced to an even smaller space. What is it?

9 Focus on line 18. Why do you think the north is described as 'sharpe' and the west is considered 'declining'? In the new world the lovers create there is no north or west. By excluding them what does the poet hope not to have in his world? • Coldness • Light • Old age • Romance • Mystery • Illness

1 0 Explain how, in the last lines of the poem, the poet suggests that love also conquers time.

John üonne 7

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Diction The term diction refers to the choice of words in a literary work. A writer's diction may

be described, for example, as abstract or concrete, colloquial or formal, technical or common, literal or figurative. It may also be drawn from a particular lexical source. John Donne's poetic diction is often colloquial and rough. This is in sharp contrast to other poets of the period who used extremely refined diction. It is one of the features of John Donne's poetry that makes it so innovative and striking.

Underline any words in the poem that you consider to be colloquial or 'non-poetic' in a traditional sense.

O V E R T O Y O U

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There are numerous adjectives to describe a writer's diction. Among them the most common are: ornate artificial plain simple colloquial literary up-to-date archaic concrete abstract literal figurative

Read the brief extracts below and choose: a) one or more adjectives from the list above which you think accurately describe the diction; b) one or more adjectives that you think would be inappropriate in describing the diction. Discuss your choices with your classmates.

/ ^ •it: • »S g№

Fixer of Midnight He went to fix the awning Fix the roping In the middle of the night On the porch ... Reuel Denney

You Fit Into Me You fit into me Like a hook into an eye A fish hook An open eye. Margaret Atwood

La Belle Dame Sans Merci Ah, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms Alone and palely loitering; The sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing. John Keats

From Paradise Lost 'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,' Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat That we must change for Heaven?, this mournful gloom For that celestial light? John Milton

Come Home from the Movies Come home from the movies Black girls and boys The picture be over and the screen Be cold as our neighbourhood Come home from the show, Don't be the show. Lucille Clifton

•DB |ohn Donne says to his lover that she is the only woman for him and that he hopes their love will never die. These are common themes in songs. Try to think of titles of songs or words from songs where these themes are expressed.



B r a i l

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JOHN DONNE

(1572-1631)

Early years John Do born in London in 1572

Roman Catholic family at a time when members of that faith under increasing pressure to conform to the teaching of the established Church of England. Donne was educated at Oxford possibly Cambridge but was not allowed to take a degree beca his religion. He travelled abroad, visiting Italy and Spain returning to London with a view to starting a career as a diplo London in the 1590s was the centre of intellectual and lite life in England and Donne took full advantage of all it had offer. He led a wild life and was described by one of contemporaries as 'a great visiter of ladies, a great frequenter plays and a great writer of conceited verses'.

Religion Throughout this period Donne was tormented by the question of his religion. If remained loyal to the Roman Catholic faith, he would have to give up any hope of a success career. On the other hand, three generations of his family had suffered exile and even death defend their right to be Catholic. His own brother Henry had died in prison for sheltering a prie Donne spent years studying all the points of dispute between the Church of England and th Catholic Church, and finally in 1593 he decided to convert to the Protestant faith.

Career He started his diplomatic career when he entered the service of Sir Thomas Egerton, Lord Keeper of England, as his chief secretary. In 1601 he was elected Member of Parliament and at the age of twenty-nine seemed set for an illustrious political career. A single act destroyed his bright prospects. He secretly married Lord Egerton's niece and was imprisoned for marrying a minor without her guardian's consent. He was soon released, but he was dismissed from his position as Egerton's secretary. He and his wife moved a short distance from London and managed as well as they could under difficult financial circumstances. In his personal life this was a happy time for Donne, and he wrote many of the Songs and Sonnets which deal with the theme of love in this period. Professionally, however, things were going from bad to worse. He made applications to several possible patrons but was unable to get a new state appointment. He became seriously ill in 1608-1609 and wrote a treatise in favour of suicide. Many of the Divine Poems, in which Donne explores the concepts of sin and judgement, date from this period. Having unsuccessfully tried to regain a career in politics and diplomacy, Donne turned his attention to the Church. He wrote essays and pamphlets condemning the Church of Rome. In 1615 he was ordained into the Church of England and was later made an honorary Doctor of Divinity at Cambridge. When he was elected Dean of St Paul's Cathedral he made a series of memorable sermons which earned him the reputation of being the greatest preacher of his generation. John Donne died in 1631 aged fifty-nine.

An illustration from one of John Donne's works depicting man and the universe.

Writers' Gallery - John Donne

' " n M M H H H While his sermons won him public acclaim, John Donne wrote poetry exclusively for personal pleasure. During his lifetime his

poems were read only by his circle of friends in manuscript form. It was not until two years after his death that they were published. His literary production includes: • Satires written in the 1590s based on the Latin models of Juvenal and Horace. The targets of these

works were the social evils of the day; • Songs and Sonnets, a collection of love poems; • Divine Poems, a collection of religious poetry; • Sermons and meditations, which include Donne's weekly sermons and his opinions on a wide range

of religious topics.

Metaphysical poetry Donne was a great literary innovator and is widely considered to be the founder of the metaphysical school of poetry (• p. D94). His work was characterised by the use of paradoxes*, epigrams*, puns* and conceits*, i.e. striking images that associate dissimilar ideas. Much of the poetry written in the period in which he lived was musical, ornate and respectful: he rejected these standards and wrote poems which were original, striking and irreverent. His use, for example, of religious imagery in love poems and images of physical love in religious poetry shocked his contemporaries, and his work was not widely appreciated in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. His reputation grew at the beginning of the twentieth century, when his passionate, dramatic poetry became popular again, and it is only since then that he has been widely recognised as one of the great poets of the English language.

T A S K S /

1 Choose the correct option. 1 John Donne was born

_a] a Catholic. _bj a Protestant.

2 In his youth he devoted himself to 0 studying Greek and Latin classics. _bj women, theatrical performances and

writing poems. 3 Converting to the Church of England was

an easy step which Donne took lightheartedly.

~b~l a very difficult decision which Donne thought about for years.

4 Donne's brilliant political career was _aj destroyed by his secret marriage to his

patron's niece.

b long and successful, thanks to Sir Thomas Egerton's protection.

5 Unable to find new employment, he [a] contemplated and wrote about suicide. 1 b 1 decided to write poems in honour of Sir

Thomas Egerton. 6 When he was ordained into the Church of

England he [~a~1 became a famous preacher, bJ started travelling on delicate diplomatic

missions.

2 Tick the expressions that can be applied to Donne's poetry. • Poems written for personal pleasure. • Poems expressing love for nature. • Religious or love poetry. • Paradoxes, epigrams, puns and conceits. • Musical, ornate and respectful poetry. • Original, striking and irreverent. • Epic poetry about heroic deeds. • Passionate, dramatic poetry.


Andrew Marvell

INTRODUCTION • There is something very modern about the poetry of Andrew Marvell. He may have written over three hundred years ago, but his sophisticated imagery and direct style are perfectly suited to the tastes of the twenty-first century reader.

The poet is trying to convince a girl to be his girlfriend. Read the poem and decide for yourself if the girl will be convinced by his argument.

Q

• GLOSSARY

(See note on p. D2)

1. Coy: reluctant 2. Mistress: a woman to

whom a man pledges his love. In modern times it refers to a woman who has a sexual relationship with a married man

3. Had we: if we had 4. coyness: shyness 5. were no: would not

be 6. Should'st rubies find:

would find rubies (precious red stones)

7. Humber: river that flows through Hull, Marvell's home town

8. the Flood: the Flood which God sent to cover Earth. Only Noah and his Ark survived it. The poet means 'very ancient times'

9. Till ... Jews: until the end of time. It was believed that the Jews would convert to Christianity on Judgement day

10.Times ... hurrying near: the flying chariot of time approaching fast

11. yonder: over there, in the distance

To his Coy1 Mistress2

Had we3 but World enough and Time, This coyness4 Lady were no5 crime. We would sit down, and think which way To walk, and pass our long Loves Day. Thou by the Indian Ganges side Should'st rubies find6:1 by the Tide Of Humber7 would complain. I would Love you ten years before the Flood8: And you should if you please refuse Till the conversion of the Jews9. (...) But at my back I always hear Times winged Charriot hurrying near10: And yonder11 all before us lye Desarts12 of vast Eternity. (...) Now therefore, while thy youthful hew13

Sits on thy skin like morning dew14, And while thy willing15 Soul transpires At every pore with instant Fires, Now let us sport us16 while we may; And now, like am'rous birds of prey17, Rather at once our Time devour, Than languish in his slow-chapt pow'r18.

is

12. Desarts: deserts 13. hew: colour ('hue') 14. dew: drops of water that

form on outdoor surfaces at night

15. willing: full of desire 16. sport us: enjoy ourselves 17. birds of prey: birds which

kill and feed on other animals 18. Rather ... pow'r: it is better

Marvell's Coy Mistress may have I like this girl, who was painted by Van Dyck between 7 622 and 1627.

that we devour our time now, rather than lan its jaws that slowly everything (slow-chapt with slowly moving jaiwfc

Andrew Marvell 11

Let us roll all our Strength, and all Our sweetness, up into one Ball: And tear our Pleasures with rough strife19, Through the Iron gates of Life. Thus20, though we cannot make our Sun Stand still, yet we will make him run21.

25

19. And tear ... strife: and enjoy our pleasures with great determination (rough strife: violent battle)

20. Thus: in this way 21. though ... run: even

if we cannot stop time (our Sun) we can beat it by living life with great intensity •


1 In the world the poet describes in lines 1-10 there are no limits to time and space and therefore he and his lover do not need to hurry their love. Say whether the following lines refer to time or space. Lines 3^1: Lines 5-7: Lines 8-10:

2 In lines 11-14 the poet explains why he feels the need to act immediately. Try to explain his argument in your own words.

3 In the final section the poet suggests that he and his mistress should seize the day and become lovers. In doing this what will they conquer?

A N A L Y S I S

1 Focus on the imagery* of lines 11-12. The poet says that 'Times winged Charriot' is directly behind him. What does this striking image suggest about his perception of time? How does it contrast with the view of time presented in the first verse?

2 How would you define the tone of the opening verse? • Humorous • Playful • Facetious • Angry • Persuasive • Other: What is the tone of lines 11-14? • Humorous • Ironic • Solemn • Pessimistic • Sombre • Other: Do you agree that there is a sharp change of tone from the first verse to the second?

3 In lines 13-14 the poet looks to the future and to life after death. What image does he use to convey his vision? Do you consider the image to be optimistic or pessimistic? Justify your choice.

4 Consider lines 15-18 in which the poet focuses on the woman's youth. He compares her complexion to morning dew. Is the choice of the part of the day significant? In lines 1 7-18 he describes her soul as 'willing' and associates it with fire. What does this suggest about the lady's feelings for the poet?

5 Underline the verbs in lines 19-28. Are they predominantly static or dynamic? Do they suggest that the poet and his lover will take action or remain motionless victims of time?

6 In the final verse the poet suggests that although they cannot stop time, they can master it by living each moment of their lives intensely. The concept of the victim becoming master is conveyed through a series of contrasts. Link each of the words in column A with a contrasting word or expression in column B.

A B amorous sweetness devour run strength birds of prey pleasures slow-chapt stand still strife

7 Does the tone of the final part of the poem differ from the rest? How would you describe it? • Triumphant • Optimistic • Sarcastic • Playful • Other:

8 Identify the rhyme scheme of the poem. Is it regular throughout? Count the syllables in each line. What kind of line does Marvell use? • tetrameter* • pentameter* • hexameter* Find examples of in-line pauses* (marked by commas) and run-on lines*. What effect do they have on the poem? Choose from the following or add your own. • They make the rhythm less regular and therefore less

lightweight. • They make the poet's language more similar to

natural speech. • They interrupt the flow of the poem. • They add to the musicality of the poem.


Hyperbole

aife

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooting') is an overstatement or a deliberate exaggeration, used either for serious or comic effect. It is frequently used in everyday speech in expressions such as:

'I've told you a million times not to put your feet on the sofa!' 'There are thousands of reasons why studying Greek and Latin is useful.'

In literature, hyperbole is used to catch the reader's attention. Its two fundamental uses are diametrically opposed: to underline the gravity of the point the writer is making or to add an element of humour.

O V E R T O Y O U

Find examples of hyperbole referring to space and time in the first verse of the poem To his Coy Mistress.

Is the hyperbole used to underline the seriousness of the point the poet is making or to add a touch of playful humour?

Experiment with hyperbole. Write three sentences in which you use hyperbole for comic effect. The English lesson was so boring the birds in the trees outside fell asleep. Mr Wakefield's nose is so large that it enters a room a full minute before the rest of his body. While I was waiting for the bus I grew a three-inch beard.

Marvell is urging a woman to become his lover. He believes that because life is so short, each day should be fully enjoyed. This concept was first developed by the Latin poet Horace: 'Carpe Diem, quam minimum credula postero' ('Seize the day, and believe in the future as little as you can'). This timeless theme inspired the Italian prince and poet Lorenzo De Medici in the fifteenth century:

Quant'e bella giovinezza Youth is so gay che si fugge tuttavia! How quickly it slips away! Chi vuol esser lieto sia: Be happy while you may di doman non c'e certezza! For tomorrow might be your last day!

and the sixteenth-century French poet Pierre de Ronsard: Cueillez, cueillez votre jeunesse: Pick, pick your youth Comme a cette fleur, la veillesse Like this flower's, old age Fera ternir votre beaute. Will spoil your beauty.

Now it is your turn. Add two or three more examples of 'Carpe diem' situations to the following: I have an important test on Monday and I should be preparing for it. My friends are going to a football match I think: Carpe diem! And I go with them.

Writers' Gallery - Andrew Marvell

ANDREW MARVELL

(1621-1678)


Andrew Marvell was born on 31st March 1621. He started

writing poetry, primarily in Greek and Latin, during his life as a student at Cambridge University, from which he graduated in 1638. From 1642 to 1646 he travelled abroad to France, Holland, Switzerland, Spain and Italy. When he returned to England he became the tutor of twelve-year-old Mary Fairfax at her Yorkshire home. It was at this time that he wrote some of his greatest poems, including To his Coy Mistress. His friend John Milton rec-ommended him for the position of Assistant Latin Secretary to the Council of State, a post he secured in 1657. In 1659 Marvell was elected M.P. for his home town of Hull. He remained in poli-tics for over twenty years, taking part in diplomatic missions to Holland and Russia. He died in 1678.

WORKS Poetry Today Andrew Marvell is best remembered for the lyrical poems he wrote during the two-year period he spent as a tutor in

Yorkshire. At the time of writing, these poems were only known to a few of Marvell's close friends including Milton ( • pp. D14-22), and it was not until three years after his death that they were printed for a wider audience. Marvell drew inspiration from a wide range of sources including the Cavalier poets (• p. D94) and John Donne (• pp. D2-9) but, like Milton, it was his classical training that exercised the greatest influence on his work. His poetry shows his passion for life and his great love of nature. Marvell was in some respects a forerunner of the Romantic movement ( • pp. E115-116) in his sheer enjoyment of the open air and country life.

Satirical poems From 1667 to the end of his life Marvell wrote a series of satirical poems about public figures and the events of the day. His biting satirical attacks were directed towards political leaders, members of the aristocracy, the Court and the king himself. To protect Marvell, the satirical poems were only circulated among friends in manuscript form. It was not until 1688, ten years after his death, that they were published.

Prose Marvell's prose work consists of political pamphlets and a long series of newsletters he wrote to his constituents on the work of Parliament. The letters are important historical documents because they give us information about proceedings in Parliament at a time when no other records were kept. In the eighteenth century Marvell was chiefly remembered as an outstanding patriot and politician. Marvell the poet had always had his admirers, but it was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century, during the Romantic period, that he was given the recognition he deserved.

T A S K

True or false? Correct the false statements. a. Marvell's best works include lyrical poems which

were published anonymously during his lifetime. b. Marvell was greatly influenced by his studies of

ancient Greek and Latin authors. c. Unlike poets before him, his love of nature is

authentic and sincere: nature is not just a source of inspiration for similes and metaphors.

d. Marvell's poems are full of sadness and a sense of incumbent tragedy.

e. Marvell's satirical poems against prominent members of the society of his time (including the king) were published posthumously.

f. The letters Marvell wrote to the people who had elected him to Parliament are of considerable historical importance.


Paradise Lost by John Milton

D B 13 D In the Bible, the figure of Satan stands for Evil while God stands for Good. Since then, in literature and art, Satan has been depicted in many different ways. In groups, think of a book, a painting, or a film in which Satan is one of the characters and answer the following questions. 1 What does he look like? 2 What kind of place does he live in? 3 Does he have any followers and/or enemies and if

so, who are they?

4 Does he have any special powers and if so, what are they?

5 Is the impression that is given of Satan positive, negative or neutral?

INTRODUCTION • When he sat down to write Paradise Lost, John Milton was inspired by religious fer-vour and helped by a masterful command of the language. It took him five years to complete what has since been recognised as the greatest epic poem in English literature. His picture-in-words of Hell is so vivid that the reader feels he can almost walk into the page and find himself surrounded by the fires of damnation ( • Visual Link D4).

THE STORY

Paradise Lost is a retelling of the Bible story of Man's expulsion from Paradise in twelve books. In Books I and II, Satan has just been defeated in battle by God and banished to Hell, from where he plans with the other fallen angels to get revenge. In Books III and IV he flies to Earth, sees Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and resolves to tempt them to dis-obey God. In Books V-VIII the archangel Raphael tells Adam and Eve about Satan's rebel-lion and their own creation, and warns them not to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge. In Book IX Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit and are expelled from Paradise in Books X and XI, while Satan celebrates his victory. The last book (Book XII) is an account by the archangel Michael of what will happen after the fall of Man up to the coming of the Messiah.

Q H a H Better to Reign in Hell (Book I) Satan is addressing his followers soon after their arrival in Hell, but instead of crying over what has been lost he gives an inspiring and defiant speech.

( . . . )

'Is this the region, this the soil1, the clime2,' Said then the lost Archangel3, 'this the seat4

That we must change5 for Heaven, this mournful gloom6

For that celestial light? Be it so7, since he

3. lost Archangel: Satan 5. change: exchange depressing darkness 4. seat: place 6. mournful gloom: sad and 7. Be it so: let us accept this

G L O S S A R Y

(See note on D2) 1. soil: land 2. clime: country

Paradise Lost - John Milton 15

Who now is sovran8 can dispose and bid9 5 What shall be right: farthest from him is best, Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme Above his equals10. Farewell, happy fields11, Where joy for ever dwells12! Hail13, horrors! hail, Infernal World! and thou, profoundest Hell, 10 Receive thy new possessor - one who brings A mind not to be changed by place or time. The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. What matter where, if I be still the same, 15 And what I should be, all but less than he Whom thunder hath made greater14? Here at least We shall be free; the Almighty hath not built Here for his envy, will not drive us hence15; Here we may reign secure, and in my choice16, 20 To reign is worth ambition, though in Hell17: Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.

8. he ... sovran: he who rules (God)

9. dispose and bid: do and command

lO.farthest... equals: it is better to be as far away as possible from God. 1 am as intelligent as

he is and he only won power because his armies were stronger than mine

11. happy fields: heaven (allusion to the Elysian fields of Greek mythology)

12. dwells: lives 13. Hail: welcome 14. What matter. . .

greater: It does not matter where I am because I am still the same as I was before. I am almost as good as God who beat me in battle

15.the Almighty ... hence: God, who built this place for us and not for himself (not . . . for his envy), has no intention of attacking it and sending us away (hence)

16.choice: opinion 17.To reign ... Hell: the

important thing is to rule, even if it is in Hell

»


1 Where is Satan? 2 Is he happy to be far from God? Why? 3 According to Satan, how did Cod defeat him - by power or reason? Did this represent a true victory for God, in his opinion?

4 Does Satan accept that God is his superior? 5 Will his new surroundings change the way Satan thinks? 6 List the reasons why Satan feels that Hell is preferable to Heaven.

A N A L Y S I S

1 The extract contains contrasting descriptions of Heaven and Hell. Underline them in the text. What images of the two places are conveyed?

2 God is never mentioned explicitly in the text. Underline words and expressions that refer to him. How is God described by Satan? Choose from the adjectives below. • Ambitious • Just • Loving • Competitive • Evil • Devious

3 Choose three adjectives from the list below to describe Satan. Justify your choices by referring to the text.

Courageous • Evil • Ambitious • Proud Fearless • Selfish • Humble

4 Although Milton wrote Paradise Lost to praise God, some critics feel that Satan is the true hero of the poem. Does Satan have any heroic qualities in your opinion?

5 Consider lines 2-4 . They are examples of run-on line* (enjambement*). Find other examples of run-on lines in the text. What is the effect of this device? It makes Satan's speech • more poetic but more artificial. • flow more naturally.


6 4 |J Paradise Lost is written in blank verse*.

| 'Is | this | the | re| gion, | this | the | soil, | the | clime,' | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| Said | then | the | lost | Arch | an | gel, | 'this | the | seat | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The metre is not regular throughout. Sometimes Milton varies the number of syllables or the unstressed-stressed syllable pattern. Listen again to the recording of the following four lines and analyse them as above.

Receive thy new possessor - one who brings A mind not to be changed by place or time. The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.

Blank verse is generally regarded as the poetic metre that most closely resembles the rhythm of natural speech in English. Would you agree that Satan speech sounds natural? Do you think that it could successfully be performed as a theatrical monologue?

7 Milton was heavily influenced by his classical studies. In his poetry he often used words of Latin origin. Link the words in column A below to the Latinate equivalent that Milton uses (in column B).

A B

place celestial deepest possessor heavenly region hellish infernal owner profoundest

Style

T A S K

O V E R T O Y O U

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Style refers to the way a writer says what he wants to say. It is usually analysed in terms of the diction (i.e. the choice of words), the sentence structure or syntax, the density and types of imagery, the rhythm and sounds. Many adjectives are used to classify types of style including formal, oratorical, ornate, sober, simple, elaborate, conversational. Styles are also classified according to literary periods or traditions, for example, meta-physical style and Restoration prose style, or according to an important work, for exam-ple Biblical style. Style may also be described by making reference to its greatest expo-nent, for example, Shakespearean style, Miltonic style and Byronic style.

Milton's style is very distinctive and is often referred to as grand style. The features are: - the choice of words of Latin origin; - allusions to the classical world; - long sentence structures. Find examples of each feature in the extract you have read.

Experiment with style. Rewrite the first ten lines of Satan's speech in a more informal style. STEP ONE - Substitute the underlined words with other words or expressions (see list below).

STEP TWO - Make sentences shorter and use any device that you think might make the speech more informal.

sad darkness the bright lights of heaven No problem king say and do whatever he likes bye-bye heaven where everyone is always happy Hi there, you deepest

'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,' Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat That we must change for Heaven, this mournful gloom For that celestial light? Be it so. since he Who now is sovran can dispose and bid What shall be right: farthest from him is best, Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme Above his equals. Farewell, happy fields. Where joy for ever dwells! Hail, horrors! hail, Infernal World! and thou profoundest Hell (...)

Start like this: Is this the place that we must exchange for Heaven? I guess we're going to have to get used to ...

Learn your version of the speech by heart and perform it for your classmates.

• An engraving Gustave Dore Paradise Lost

Sonnet XVIII - John Milton 17

Satan says that, even though he has been defeated, he will build a new empire in Hell and never accept God's supremacy. It almost seems that Milton has unintentionally made Satan into a hero who fights bravely against adversity. Try to think of examples of people, or groups of people, who fight or have fought against adverse circumstances when it might have been easier to give up. The following areas where people can become heroes in the face of adversity should help you get some ideas: sport family life politics social work study career development natural disasters war illness


Q Text D 5 Sonnet XVIII: On the Late Massacre in Piemont The Waldensians, or Valdesi, are a Protestant community that has lived for cen a number of valleys that connect Italy to France. Milton, who was a devout Prot and virulently anti-Catholic, wrote this poem when he heard about a massa Waldensians by Catholic troops in 1655.

Avenge1, O Lord, thy slaughter'd2 saints, whose bones Lie scatter'd3 on the Alpine mountains cold, Ev'n them who kept thy truth so pure of old4, When all our fathers worshipp'd stocks and stones5;

Forget not: in thy book6 record their groans7

Who were thy sheep8 and in their ancient fold9

Slain10 by the bloody Piemontese that roll'd Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans

The vales redoubl'd to the hills, and they To Heav'n11. Their martyr'd blood and ashes sow O'er all th' Italian fields where still doth sway

The triple tyrant12; that from these may grow A hundred-fold, who having learnt thy way Early may fly the Babylonian woe13.

Christian writer Tertullian's famous phrase 'The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church' and the parable of the sower (Matthew 13:3-9)

13.that from ... woe: that from these seeds the Protestant community may multiply. The new converts from Catholicism will avoid the fate of all Catholics which is to be punished by God (Babylonian woe). The ancient city of Babylon was considered a city of perdition and was identified by Protestants with Rome.

GLOSSARY 8. sheep: followers

(See note on D2) 9. ancient fold: old church (fold: the group of people

1. Avenge: get justice for you belong to and share 2. slaughter'd: murdered the same beliefs as) 3. scatter'd: thrown over a 10. Slain: killed

wide area 11.Their moans ... Heav'n: 4. Ev'n ... old: those who their cries of pain (moans)

preserved the true, pure intensified (redoubl'd) as religion in earlier times they rose from the valleys

5. stocks and stones: to the hills and then up to inanimate things Heaven

6. thy book: the book that 12.Their martyr'd blood ... God will consult on tyrant: the blood of these Judgement day, when he martyrs is like seeds sown decides who will go to Hell all over Italy where the or Heaven (Revelations Pope (the triple tyrant) 20:12) still rules (doth sway). A

7. groans: cries of pain reference to the Latin


1 Who are the 'slaughter'd saints' mentioned in line 1 ?

2 Where did the massacre take place?

3 What does the poet admire about the Waldensian's faith?

4 Did the Piemontese spare the women and children?

5 Who still rules Italy, according to the poet?

6 What does he hope will happen in the future?

Sonnet XVIII - John Milton 19

A N A L Y S I S — —

1 Underline any words or expressions in the text that refer to the Waldensians. Which of the following characteristics do you think are emphasised? • Their saintliness • Their courage • Their skill in fighting • Their hatred of Catholics • Their purity • Their long-standing religious traditions Justify your answer by referring to the text. 2 The images of the massacre are quite striking. Find an image that has a strong visual appeal and one that appeals to your sense of hearing. 5 Find examples of run-on-lines* (enjambement*) in the poem. Do you feel that this device makes the sentences long and complicated or gives a more natural flow to the language?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Poetry, plays, novels and stories whose primary purpose is to guide, instruct or teach come under the heading of didactic literature. They are distinguished from purely imaginative works (sometimes called 'mimetic' works) whose goal is purely to interest and appeal to the reader. Didactic literature was particularly popular in seventeenth-century England. Much of the poetry of the period was written to educate the readers on subjects as diverse as morality, religion, philosophy, gardening and beer-making. Propagandist literature is a particular type of didactic literature which tries to convince the reader to take a position or direct action on a contemporary moral or political issue. Milton's Paradise Lost may be considered to be didactic literature, while his sonnet On the Late Massacre in Piemont falls into the category of propagandist literature.

Work in groups. Discuss how effective Milton's On the Late Massacre in Piemont is as propagandist literature. In the course of your discussion answer these questions. a. What was your reaction to the poem when you first read it? Were you surprised by the

vehemence of Milton's attack? b. Do you think that Milton is objective in how he depicts the historical facts? c. Do you think that the poetic form allows Milton to be more subjective? If he had written

an essay or a newspaper article, would the reader have demanded greater historical authenticity and more analysis?

d. Do you think that poetry is an appropriate vehicle for political messages or do you think they are better conveyed through journalism? What, if any, are the advantages of expressing your political message in a poem?

Think of a poem, novel, film or song that you would consider didactic or propagandist. Explain to your classmates the message contained in the work. Think about examples such as Animal Farm by George Orwell, songs like Sunday, Bloody Sunday by U2 and films like Schindler's List.

•DO 1 Do you know any other songs that have political themes? If you do, find the lyrics of the song, make copies for your classmates and listen to the song together. Do some research on the theme of the song and give a short talk on what the song is about.

4 How would you describe the style* of the poem? • Elevated • Colloquial • Relaxed • Formal • Sombre • Other: One of the elements that contributes to creating the style is allusions* to other great works of literature. Use the notes in the glossary to identify allusions to the Bible and other works of literature. 5 The poem is written in the form of a sonnet*. Identify the rhyme scheme and then say whether the poem is divided into an octave and a sestet (Petrarchan sonnet) or three quatrains and a couplet (Shakespearean sonnet).

Didactic literature

P Ü


WRITERS' GALLERY

JOHN MILTON

(1608-1674)

Background and education J o h n Milton was born in

London in 1608 into a wealthy, well-educated family. His father, who had been disinherited by his family for becoming Protestant, instilled in his son from an early age a love of learn-ing and strong religious beliefs. By the age of sixteen he could write in Latin and Greek and had a good knowledge of Philosophy. He attended Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his Master of Arts degree and distinguished himself as an outstanding student. For a period of time he considered taking religious orders, but finally decided to move back home, where he continued his studies and wrote. In 1638 he visited France and Italy. However, when news of the Civil War in England reached him he returned home.

Political views He was an adamant supporter of Cromwell and Parliament, and when King Charles I was executed he wrote a pamphlet in which he voiced his approval, saying it was the people's right to call to account a Tyrant or Wicked King, and after due conviction to depose him and put him to death. He was rewarded for his pamphlet when Parliament offered him the position of Latin Secretary to the Commonwealth, a post comparable to a Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs today. Milton, who had always had weak eyesight, was going blind, and doctors warned him not to take the job as it involved translating into Latin all the government's foreign correspondence. Milton replied that he had to do his duty for the Commonwealth and accepted the position. He eventually went totally blind.

Final years After the Restoration Milton spent a brief period in prison for the part he had played in the Commonwealth, but he was well-respected and had powerful friends and so was soon released. He spent the last years of his life in retirement dedicating himself to the writing of his masterpieces: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. He died in 1674.

TASK Underline the answers to these questions in the text. a. What religion was Milton born into? b. In which subjects did he excel? c. What countries did he travel to in 1638?

d. What event persuaded him to return home? e. What job was he offered as a reward for his anti-

Royalist stance? f. Why was he arrested after the Restoration?

H f f M M H John Milton's work can be divided into three phases. ii^HI^HMailliiHillii^lilH Phase I: Early poems and a masque The first phase covers his years as a student. When only fifteen years old he wrote his first poems, which were paraphrases of Psalms. While studying at Cambridge he wrote poetry in Latin, as was the custom at the time, but it was his burning ambition to produce great poetry in his native language, and in 1629 he wrote his first masterpiece, the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a celebration of the coming of Christ and the abandonment of pagan Gods. Milton was fascinated by Italian culture. He studied writers like Petrarch, Dante and Tasso, and their works influenced his early poems L'Allegro and II Penseroso (1632).

Writers' Gallery - John Milton

In 1634 his masque Comus, which combined music, verse and dancing, was first performed. In 1637 he published his greatest minor poem, Lycidas, a pastoral elegy written in remembrance of the death of a fellow student.

Phase II: Prose writings In his second phase of creativity Milton focused on prose writing. In 1643 he published The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, claiming the right of a husband or wife to dissolve a marriage on the grounds of incompatibility. In his personal life Milton had married a seventeen-year old girl, the daughter of a Royalist family, in 1642. She left him after just a few weeks, largely, it is said, because of his austere attitude to life and their religious differences. The two were, however, reconciled, but Milton never fully forgave his wife and became a strong supporter of divorce. One of his greatest prose works, Areopagitica ('Things to be declared before the Areopagus', a hill in Athens where a respected council met to take important decisions), published in 1644, is Milton's impassioned plea for freedom of speech and the press. In this pamphlet he compares the Greek council and the English Parliament, which had just passed a law controlling the press. In the same year he wrote the pamphlet Of Education which promoted encyclopaedic educational schooling for the formation of humanistic leaders. However, while publicly Milton explained the importance of a broad education, in private he did nothing to educate his daughters. His eldest daughter was totally illiterate. Because his eyesight was failing he taught his other daughters to read mechanical ly to him in foreign languages, without understanding the words they read. They took revenge by selling books from their father's library. In 1649 he wrote The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in which he justified the execution of Charles I. England was criticised by several European countries for the execution of the monarch* In reply, Milton wrote Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (Defence of the People of England) and Pro Populo Anglicano Secunda Defensio (Second Defence of the People of England) in 1651 and 1654 respectively. Both documents were written in Latin so that they could be read throughout Europe.

Phase III: Poetic masterpieces After the Restoration in 1660 Milton retired from public life and dedicated himself to the writing of his great poetic masterpieces. He had always wanted to write an epic poem in English in the classical style of Virgil's Aeneid, and initially he had considered the legend of King Arthur as a suitable subject matter. However, he eventually chose the Fall of Man as his theme and set to work on Paradise Lost. Published in 1667, Paradise Lost tells the story in twelve books of Satan's banishment from Heaven and his attempt to take revenge on God through the temptation of Adam and Eve. The poem is written in blank verse and observes the classical epic conventions: • the hero is a figure of great importance. Adam represents the entire human race; • the setting of the poem is ample in scale: the action takes place on Earth, in Heaven and in Hell;

JOANNIS MILTONl Angli

P R O P O P U L O A N G L I C A N O

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Dcfcnfioncm R.EQIAM.

i f t N D / N / , Typi« VH GmLmu. Anno Domini iSji .

The title page for Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (1651).

, ; 2 2 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

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• the action involves superhuman deeds in battle and a long and arduous journey: Paradise Lost includes the war in Heaven and then Satan's journey to the newly-created world to corrupt mankind;

• there are catalogues of some of the principal characters, introduced in formal detail: in Book I Milton describes the procession of fallen angels;

• an epic poem is narrated in an elevated style that is deliberately distanced from ordinary speech: Milton's grand style* is created by the use of Latinate diction and syntax, wide-ranging allusions (there are references to Homer, Virgil, Dante, Tasso, Ariosto, Spenser and the Bible) and long listings of names; .

• the narrator begins by stating his theme and invoking a muse: in the opening lines Milton calls on God to be his guiding spirit in writing his 'adventurous song';

• the narrative starts when the action is at a critical point: Paradise Lost opens with Satan and the fallen angels in Hell, gathering their forces and plotting revenge. It is not until Books V-VII that we learn from the angel Raphael about the events in Heaven that led to this situation.

Milton wanted to write a poem in praise of God. As he said in one of his sonnets, he wanted to use his literary gifts 'to serve therewith my maker'. Some critics have claimed that the true hero of Paradise Lost is, however, Satan. It has also been suggested that Milton may have identified a parallel between Satan's struggle against the absolute power of God and his own fight against the absolute authority of the monarchy. In 1671 Milton published Paradise Regained in four books. Written in the same epic style as Paradise Lost, it tells the story of Christ's temptation by Satan in the desert. In the same year he also published Samson Agonistes, a play depicting the events leading up to the killing of Samson by the Philistines. It observes the conventions of Greek tragedy and includes choruses, messengers and reports instead of direct speech.

Reputation For over two hundred years Milton was regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language. At the beginning of the twentieth century some influential literary figures such as Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot ( • Module G) criticised his 'grand style', claiming that it was artificial and rhetorical and too far removed from the speech of common people. Other critics have since argued that his style is appropriate to the subject matter and epic form, and have rehabilitated him to a pre-eminent role in English literature.

mm TASK

M ... • s

Prepare to speak for thirty seconds about John Milton's works. Concentrate on selecting the most important information. You may use the spidergram as a guideline.

ofPf-gf®

e The Rape of the Lock

fry Alexander Pope

Briefly describe your morning routine. How much time do you spend showering, getting dressed, etc.? What is the most annoying part of your routine? Is there any part that you enjoy?

INTRODUCTION • Alexander Pope's massive literary output included much-admired translations of both the Iliad and the Odyssey but his most famous poem is about a bizarre domestic incident. When one of his friends, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, Belinda in the poem, their two families, started a feud. To defuse the tension he wrote The Rape of the Lock, which made fun of the incident (• Visual Link D5).

Beauty Puts on all its Arms This text is taken from the first of the five Cantos that make up the complete poem.

And now, unveil'd1, the Toilet stands display'd2, Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid. First, rob'd3 in White, the Nymph4 intent adores, With Head uncover'd, the Cosmetic Pow'rs. A heav'nly Image in the Glass appears, 5 To that she bends, to that her Eyes she rears5; Th' inferior Priestess6, at her Altar's side, Trembling7, begins the sacred Rites of Pride. Unnumber'd8 Treasures ope9 at once, and here The various Off'rings of the World appear; 10 From each she nicely culls with curious Toil10, And decks11 the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil12. This casket India's glowing Gems unlocks13, And all Arabia breathes14 from yonder15 Box. The Tortoise here and Elephant unite, 15 Transform'd to Combs, the speckled16 and the white. Here Files of Pins17 extend their shining Rows, Puffs18, Powders, Patches19, Bibles, Billet-doux20.

Text D 6

'... Th' inferior Priestess ... Trembling,

begins the sacred Rites of Pride.'

Aubrey Beardsley illustrated the 1896-

edition of The Rape of the Lock.

GLOSSARY 7. Trembling: shivering with 13.casket . . . unlocks: 17. Pins: pieces of metal

1. unveil'd: uncovered excitement box (casket) reveals used to keep hair in

2. Toilet. . . display'd: dressing 8. Unnumber'd: countless (unlocks) the treasures of place

table stands in all its glory 9. ope: open India 18. Puffs: pads to put 3. rob'd: dressed 10.culls ... Toil: carefully 14. breathes: emanates face powder on

4. Nymph: Belinda chooses perfume 19. Patches: artificial 5. rears: raises 11. decks: decorates IS. yonder: over there beauty spots

6. inferior Priestess: the 12. glitt'ring Spoil: shining 16. speckled: with spots (made 20. Billet-doux: love servant products from tortoise shell) letters


Now awful Beauty puts on all its Arms; The Fair each moment rises in her Charms21, 20 Repairs her Smiles, awakens22 ev'ry Grace, And calls forth all the Wonders of her Face; Sees by Degrees 23a purer Blush24 arise, And keener Lightnings quicken25 in her Eyes. The busy Sylphs26 surround their darling Care; 25 These set the Head, and those divide the Hair, Some fold the Sleeve, whilst others plait the Gown27; And Betty's28 prais'd for labours not her own.

21.The Fair ... Charms: the Lady becomes more beautiful

22. awakens: wakes up 23. by Degrees: gradually 24. purer Blush: a better-

looking red colour 25. keener Lightnings

quicken: more acute sparks of light appear

26. Sylphs: guardian angels

27. plait the Gown: fold the dress

28. Betty: the servant

•

C O M P R E H E N S I O N The extract you have read can be divided into four parts. - Belinda takes her place before the dressing table: line ... - the work begins: line to line ; - description of the objects on the dressing table: line - the work is completed: line in line Part 1 a. How is Belinda dressed? b. What does she 'adore'? (Line 3) c. Whose image appears in the glass? (Line 5)

How does Belinda react to it? d. Why is Betty referred to as 'inferior'? Part 2 e. What do the expressions 'Unnumber'd Treasures'

(line 9) and 'various Off'rings of the World' (line 10) refer to?

f. Who is the 'Goddess' in line 12?

ANALYS IS 1 There are several examples of religious imagery* in the text, for example: 'Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid'. (Line 2) Find other words and expressions that are usually associated with this semantic field. 2 Belinda's dressing is also compared to military procedures, for example: 'And decks the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil'. (Line 12) Explain why lines 1 7 and 19 reinforce this association. 3 Does comparing Belinda's dressing to a religious ceremony and military matters make it seem more solemn or trivial? 4 Products from distant, exotic lands are cited in the description of Belinda's dressing table. What are they and where are they from? Does Pope make reference to them to highlight Belinda's: • sophistication and refinement? • vanity and frivolity?

Say at which line each section begins and ends. .... to line ;

. to line ;

Part 3 g. What can be found in the boxes from India and

Arabia? h. What are the combs made of? i. What other objects can be found on Belinda's

dressing table? Part 4 j. Betty starts to apply Belinda's make-up. What

changes take place in Belinda's face? k. Who helps Betty in preparing Belinda? What

specific tasks do they carry out?

5 In line 18 Pope lists the things on Belinda's dressing table. Which one stands out from the others? Why do you think Pope includes this incongruous element? To show: • that dressing had almost a religious significance for

Belinda. • that religion was of little importance to her. • that she was fervently religious.

6 Belinda is never referred to by name in the text. Underline the words and expressions Pope uses to refer to her and her behaviour. What impression do you get of her? Do you think of her as: • humble • modest • vain • sophisticated • elegant • frivolous • other:

The Rape of the Lock - Alexander Pope 2 5

7 Examine the verse form used in the poem.

a. Focus on the first two lines: | And | now, | un | veil'd, | the | Toi | let | stands | dis | play'd, |

| Each | Sil | ver | Vase | in | my | stic | Or | der | laid. | How many syllables are there in each line?

b. Mark the stressed syllables ' and the unstressed syllables Which of the following stress patterns is used? • Anapestic* • Trochaic* • Iambic*

c. Which of the following is the correct definition of the verse form used by Pope? • Heroic couplet* • Alexandrine* • Blank verse*

d. Is the metre and structure of the poem regular or irregular on the whole?

8 Identify the sound device that is used in line 18.

9 Find an example of personification* in line 19.

1 0 Find an example of an oxymoron* in line 19.

1 1 Explain the ironic use of the word 'purer' in line 23. Can you identify an example of internal rhyme in the same line?

1 2 Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe Pope's diction*? • Colloquial • Vague •Scientific • Rich »Plain m Ornate • Precise • Concise

1 3 How would you describe the tone of the poem? • Solemn • Ironic • Elevated • Mocking • Playful • Religious • Other:

Mock-heroic

M r - J M . &

• t - r J a K : . -mm

OVER T O Y O U mm HI

WRITERS' WORKSHOP A m o c k - h e r o i c (or mock-epic ) poem imitates the elevated style and conventions (invocations of the Gods, descriptions of armour, battles, extended similes, etc.) of the epic genre in dealing with a frivolous or minor subject. The mock-heroic has been widely used to satirise social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, superficiality, etc. The inappropriateness of the grandiose epic style highlights the trivial and senseless nature of the writer's target. The Rape of the Lock is an example of the mock-epic form. In it Pope uses the lofty, serious style of classical epics not to describe battles or supernatural events, but to satirise the seriousness with which friends in his circle treated a breach of manners at a social gathering: the stealing of a lock of hair.

The Rape of the Lock contains all the standard features of the epic genre: A dream message from the gods Epic feast Arming the heroes journey to the underworld Sacrifice to the gods General combat Exhortation to the troops Intervention of the gods Single combat Apotheosis Which of the epic features is parodied in the extract you have just read?

Experiment with the mock-heroic style. Write sentences in which you compare people or everyday occurrences to characters or events in epic poetry. Example: The journey was endless. When I got home I felt like Odysseus returning to Ithaca!

In the extract from The Rape of the Lock you have read, Alexander Pope makes fun of the elaborate extent Belinda goes to in order to make herself beautiful. How do you feel about the issue of vanity and the beauty industry?

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

{ to the world of music In 1972 American singer/songwriter Carly Simon released the song You're So Vain, which became a worldwide hit. There was much speculation at the time about who the subject of the song was. Many people believed the song was about Mick jagger, the lead singer of the rock band The Rolling Stones (who actually sings backing vocals on the chorus), others claimed it was about the actor Warren Beatty.

Read the lyrics of the song and compare it to Alexander Pope's attack on vanity. Which of the two is more direct? Which is more effective?

You're So Vain

You walked into the party like you were walking onto a yacht Your hat strategically dipped1 below one eye Your scarf it was apricot You had one eye on the mirror as you watched yourself gavotte2

And all the girls dreamed that they'd be your partner They'd be your partner, and ...

You're so vain, you probably think this song is about you You're so vain, I'll bet you think this song is about you Don't you? Don't you?

You had me several years ago when I was still quite naive3

Well you said that we made such a pretty pair And that you would never leave But you gave away the things you loved and one of them was me I had some dreams, they were clouds in my coffee Clouds in my coffee, and ...

I had some dreams they were clouds in my coffee Clouds in my coffee, and ... Well I hear you went up to Saratoga and your horse naturally won Then you flew your Lear jet4 up to Nova Scotia To see the total eclipse of the sun Well you're where you should be all the time And when you're not you're with Some underworld spy or the wife of a close friend Wife of a close friend, and ...

L I N K

GLOSSARY

1. dipped: pulled down 2. gavotte: dance (a gavotte is a fast, happy French dance) 3. naive: inexperienced, innocent 4. Lear jet: a luxurious private plane

Carly Simon.

Writers' Gallery - Alexander Pope 27

WRITERS' GALLERY

LIFE AND WORKS

ALEXANDER POPE

(1688-1744)

Early years Alexander Pope was born in London in 1688,

the only son of a cloth merchant . At the age of twelve he suffered from tubercolosis of the bone, which stunted his growth and left him deformed and sickly for the rest of his life. Because his family was Catholic he could not attend public schools or go to university, so he was largely self-educated. He based his studies on the Classics and French and Italian authors.

Writing career From a very early age he showed a gift for writing. When he was just sixteen years old he wrote his Pastorals (1709) , which were based on classical models and showed his skill in using poetic metre. In his twenties he wrote Essay on Criticism (1711), based on Horace's Ars Poetica, where he

' ' sets out his principles for writing poetry. Written while he was still in his mid-twenties, The Rape of the Lock (1712-1714) is a masterpiece of the mock-heroic*. It concerns the quarrel between two families caused by Lord Petre's cutting a love-lock from the head of Arabella Fermor, Belinda in the poem. It is a playful poem full of paradoxes*, witty observations and humorous epic allusions. It makes fun of the fatuous upper-class society it depicts and shows Pope's unrivalled mastery of the heroic couplet*. The Rape of the Lock established Pope's reputation in literary circles. He became friends with Jonathan Swift and, together with some other leading literary figures, they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and to ridicule all false tastes in learning. In 1720 he completed a translation of Homer's Illiad, and his translation of The Odyssey, which appeared in 1726, gave him financial independence. He was one of the first poets to become economically self-sufficient through his poetry, and he was widely recognised as the leading man of letters of his day. The Dunciad (1728) is Pope's most celebrated satire. It is written in the mock-heroic style and is an attack on the author's literary rivals, critics and enemies, who are grouped together and called 'Dulness'. In it Pope describes the triumph of banality (Dulness), which takes over all the arts, sciences, the theatre and the court and leads the world to cultural chaos and artistic bankruptcy. Pope spent the last years of his life in Twickenham outside London, where he led a largely reclusive life. In later years his health declined and he became physically dependent on others. He died in 1744.

Reputation Alexander Pope was the most celebrated poet of the early part of the eighteenth century. In the second half of the century he fell out of favour, as tastes began to change and his sophisticated poetry was considered to lack feeling. He did not appeal to readers again until the beginning of the twentieth century, when once more his wit and technical ability found an appreciative public.

TASK Prepare a short report on Pope following the outline: education health precocious artistic talent different poetic forms reputation


Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray

INTRODUCTION • Although Thomas Gray wrote many other poems, his Elegy Written in a Con Churchyard is the one that has caught the imagination of generations of readers. Certain lines like Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave', are among the best-known in the language. The poem also has a cial place in English literature because it marks the transition from the Augustan to the early Romantic

Graveyards are often sad and somet imes mysterious. They are nearly always quiet places where people can think about their dead loved ones undisturbed by the noise and bustle of everyday life. The narrator in this p o e m has wandered into a graveyard and thinks about the m a n y poor people w h o are buried there. He asks himself if their lives are of less value than t h e lives of those w h o have been rich and successful. Read on and find t h e answer.

Q Text D7

• GLOSSARY

1.

4.

5.

blazing: burning with strong, bright flames Hearth: where a fire is burning ply her Evening Care: do her household jobs, like preparing dinner, in the evening to lisp ... Return: to greet their father when he comes home from work envied Kiss: the children are jealous of one another because they all want to kiss their father

Oft... yield: they often gathered the crops (Harvest) (a sickle is a tool for cutting grass, corn, etc.) Their Furrow ... broke: They often ploughed (furrow: plough) the land to prepare it for planting How jocund ... afield: how happy they were (jocund) when they drove

The Paths of Glory Lead but to the Grave ( . . . )

For them no more the blazing1 Hearth2 shall burn, Or busy Housewife ply her Evening Care3: No Children run to lisp their Sire's Return4, Or climb his Knees the envied Kiss5 to share.

Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield6, 5 Their Furrow oft the stubborn Glebe has broke7; How jocund did they drive their Team afield8! How bow'd the Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke9!

Let not Ambition mock10 their useful Toil11, Their homely Joys and Destiny obscure; 10 Nor Grandeur12 hear with a disdainful13 Smile, The short and simple Annals14 of the Poor.

The Boast of Heraldry15, the Pomp16 of Pow'r, And all that Beauty, all that Wealth e'er17 gave, Awaits alike18 th' inevitable Hour. is The Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave.

their horses (Team) through 12. Grandeur: the nobility, rich the fields (afield)

9. How bow'd ... Stroke: how the woods bent down beneath their strong blows

10. mock: make fun of 11.Toil: hard work

people 13. disdainful: showing

disrespect 14. Annals: history 15. Boast of Heraldry: the

pride of the aristocracy

(Heraldry is the study of the history and insignia of families)

16. Pomp: ostentation 17. e'er: ever 18. Awaits alike: they all wait

for

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 2 9

Nor you, ye Proud19, impute to these the Fault20, If Mem'ry o'er21 their Tomb no Trophies raise, Where thro' the long-drawn Isle and fretted Vault22

The pealing Anthem swells the Note of Praise23.

Can storied24 Urn25 or animated26 Bust Back to its Mansion27 call the fleeting28 Breath? Can Honour's Voice provoke the silent Dust, Or Flatt'ry29 sooth30 the dull cold Ear of Death?

Perhaps in this neglected Spot31 is laid Some Heart once pregnant with32 celestial Fire, Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd, Or wak'd to Exstacy the living Lyre33.

But Knowledge to their Eyes her ample Page Rich with the Spoils of Time did ne'er unroll34; Chill Penury35 repress'd their noble Rage36, And froze the genial Current of the Soul37.

Full many a Gem38 of purest Ray serene39, The dark unfathom'd40 Caves of Ocean bear41: Full many a Flower is born to blush42 unseen, And waste its Sweetness on the desart43 Air. (...)

3 0

35

'Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield... How bow'd the

Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke!' An illustration for

Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.

19. ye Proud: you proud people

20.impute ... Fault: think it is a fault or defect

21. o'er: over 22. the long-drawn Isle ...

Vault: the centre of the church and the decorated ceiling

23.The pealing ... Praise: resounding (pealing) reli-gious songs are played and

sung in honour of the dead person

24. storied: old and valuable 25. Urn: container that can be

used to hold the ashes of a dead person

26. animated: lifelike 27. Mansion: big house 28. fleeting: lasting for a short

time 29. Flatt'ry: (flattery) insincere

praise

30. sooth: make calm 31. Spot: place 32. pregnant with: full of 33.Hands ... Lyre: this person

might have been an empe-ror who held (sway'd) a sceptre (Rod of Empire) in his hand or played the lyre beautifully

3 4 . B u t . . . unroll: they never had the chance to open (unroll) and study the

books that contained all the knowledge gathered throughout history (ample Page Rich with the Spoils of Time)

35. Chill Penury: cold poverty

36. Rage: burning ambition, energy

37. genial Current of the Soul: talent, artistic sensibilities and abilities

38. Full many a Gem: many precious stones like diamonds

39. of purest Ray serene: transparent (serene: clear), of the highest quality

40. unfathom'd: mysterious, so far down in the sea that they have never been seen

41. bear: hold 42. blush: blossom,

bloom 43. desart: desert

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Who does 'them' refer to in line 1 ?

2 Which adjectives would you use to describe the lives of the people buried in the graveyard? (Second stanza) • Simple • Outdoor • Rural • Sophisticated • Wealthy • Happy II Physical • Intellectual

3 According to the poet in the third stanza, what should Ambition and Grandeur not do?

4 Which of the following statements corresponds to the view expressed by the poet in the fourth stanza?

• Death, the great leveller, does not respect ancestry, power, beauty or wealth.

• Power, beauty, ancestry and wealth can make life better and death more comfortable.

• Death can take people away but it cannot remove the memory left by their beauty, power, ancestry or wealth.

5 Who are the 'Proud' referred to by the poet in the fifth stanza? Are they buried inside the church or outside in the graveyard? How do their tombs differ from those of the humble villagers?


6 In the sixth stanza the poet gives two examples of the trophies mentioned in the previous stanza. What are they?

7 What is the 'Mansion' of 'fleeting Breath' in line 22?

8 In lines 2 3 - 2 4 the poet asks if the honours and flattery that important people have received during their lifetime can help them after they have died. Does the poet know the answer to this question?

9 In the seventh stanza the poet says that the people buried in the graveyard may have had talents or qualities that they never exploited. He uses three metaphors* to indicate them.

Link each metaphor to the talent or quality it refers to.

Metaphor Talent/quality

Heart once pregnant with celestial Fire Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd

(Hands that) wak'd to Exstacy the living Lyre

great statesmanship

musical genius

poetic inspiration

l O Two factors, according to the poet in the eighth stanza, stopped the people buried in the graveyard from realising their full potential. What are they?

ANALYSIS

1 In the first stanza the poet presents images of simple rural life. Say which senses they appeal to (S = Sight, H = Hearing, T = Touch).

I I blazing Hearth shall burn

] Housewife ply her Evening Care

[ | Children run to lisp

1 | the envied Kiss to share

2 In the third, fourth and fifth stanzas the poet reflects on the humble lives of rural workers and the more sophisticated lives of prominent men of society. a. Which social group do these expressions refer to?

useful Toil Ambition homely Joys Destiny obscure Grandeur Boast of Heraldry Beauty Wealth

b. The poet seems to be defending the humble life of rural workers. From whom and what?

3 Personification* is widely used throughout the poem. Give a line reference for the personification for each of items in the table below:

abstract ideas

inanimate objects

natural elements

ambition: grandeur: memory: honour: flattery: knowledge: death:

storied urn: bust: dust:

the woods:

4 Find two examples of rhetorical questions* in the extract from the poem. If the ideas had been formulated in statements rather than questions would they have been as effective?

5 Focus on the two metaphors in the final stanza. How would you interpret them? • People have many different types of talent. • Talent often goes unnoticed. • Great talent is of no use to the dead. • The world of nature is more beautiful that anything

man can produce. Do you find them both equally effective?

6 The poet often changes the normal word order of a sentence. For example, the normal word order of:

Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield would be: The harvest often yielded to their sickle Find other examples of unusual word order in the poem.

7 Alliteration* is one of the elements that adds musicality to the poem. Find some examples.

8 Define the rhyming scheme. Is it regular throughout?

9 How would you define the rhythm* of the poem? • Regular • jerky • Slow-moving • Fast-moving • Measured

"lO Would you consider the structure of the poem to be carefully planned or spontaneous? justify your answer.

11 As a person of culture and 'knowledge', the poet is clearly not like the people who are buried in the graveyard. Do you think that he identifies himself with the other people he refers to in the poem (Ambition, Grandeur, Proud)? How would you describe the poet? •t Melancholy • Solitary • Gregarious • Light-hearted • Reflective • Satirical • Isolated • Optimistic

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 31

WRITERS' WORKSHOP In synecdoche (Greek for 'faking together') a part of something is used to signify the whole or vice versa, although this latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'. An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'Put some Deep Purple on the CD player', where the name of the band is used to signify one of their CDs. Synecdoche can be effective in drawing someone's attention to one particularly interesting aspect of what you are talking about.

In the fifth stanza of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray uses synecdoche to represent a church. Can you identify the parts that represent the whole?

Use synecdoche to represent the following: school a doctor an animal (dog, cat, elephant, etc.) a car a policeman each of the seasons

One of the themes in Gray's poem is that many ambitious and talented people never succeed in fulfilling their dreams because they are too poor ('Chill Penury repress'd their noble Rage'). Does the amount of money a person has limit what he can achieve in today's world? Does money play an important part in becoming one of the following? A leading politician A top sports person A top actor, actress or singer A leading scientist A top lawyer A university professor Are there any other fields where you think money can make the difference between being successful or not?

Synecdoche

P \ i 3 2 THE P U R I T A N AGE - Poetry

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THOMAS GRAY

(1716-1771)

WRITERS' GALLERY

T h o m a s Gray was born i L o n d o n to a prosperou

middle-c lass family. Educated first at Eton, he went on t o Cambridge, where he became friends with Horace Walpole, th son of the Prime Minis ter . From 1 7 3 9 to 1 7 4 1 he travel le around Europe with Walpole , but whi le in Italy t h e two quarrelled and Gray returned home alone. That same year h ' father and his close friend Richard West died, and Gray return to live for a time with his mother in the small village of Stoke Poges in Buckinghamshire. While there he wrote the Sonnet o~ the Death of Richard West, his Ode on Adversity and the unfinished Hymn to Ignorance. After this period of reclusion he returned to Cambridge , where he graduated in Law in 1 7 4 3 and was reconciled with Walpole. He was then appointed Professor of Modern History at Cambridge, where he died in 1771.

WORKS In 1750 Gray sent Walpole a manuscript of his most celebrated poem Elegy Written in a Conntry Churchyard. It was published in

1751 to great acclaim, making Gray one of the most celebrated poets of the time. In his poem Gray describes the small village graveyard of Stoke Poges, where the poet muses about the lives of the villagers who lie buried there and contemplates mortality and human potential. At the end of the poem he considers his own death and wonders if in some way his art will grant h im a form of immortality. Little material was to follow his great poetic masterpiece: a small collection of six poems in 1753 and his two Pindaric odes, The Bard and Progress of Poesy in 1757. He then started doing research for a history of English poetry which he intended to write. He also travelled around Scotland and England recording his impressions in letters, which reveal his great interest in ancient Celtic and Norse poetry and his love of nature. In 1768 he published Poems, which included his imitations of Celtic and Norse verse, such as The Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin (1761), which reawakened interest in ancient northern European mythology.

Reputation Gray's beautifully-written verses, which reveal a shift from neoclassical rationality to introspection and sentimentality, greatly influenced a new generation of poets that emerged at the end of the century. As a matter of fact, the gloomy melancholy and meditative quality of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard were new in the neoclassical period. It struck a chord with other writers, who began to write in a similar style and became known as the 'Graveyard poets'.

TASK Correct the following sentences. a. Thomas Gray was largely self-educated as he

was born into a poor family. b. He never left the little village of Stoke Poges

where he was born. c. His most celebrated poem is a sonnet written to

mourn the death of his dear friend Richard West.

d. He never achieved great popularity in his own lifetime.

e. He was fascinated by Greek mythology. f. The themes of his masterpiece, Elegy Written in

a Country Churchyard, are love and pain of separation.

ama in The Way of the World

by William Congreve

Living with o ther people is not always easy b e c a u s e every individual has habits and ways of doing things that other people may not like. Imagine that you have decided to g o and live with another person for a long period. Draw up a list of rules that you insist your partner must respect if your life toge ther is to work out . For example :

Wash the dishes straight after eating. Wear earphones when listening to music.

INTRODUCTION • W h e n people went to the theatre in the second hal f o f the seventeenth century they wanted to have a laugh and be amused. Those w h o went to see The Way of the World were certainly not disappointed. Brilliant dialogue and an ingenious if complicated plot kept the audience on the edge of their seats. Yet Congreve did not write only to entertain, and m a n y of those w h o were amused by his plays were really laughing at themselves and the faults of their society that he satirised so accurately ( • Visual Link D5).

THE STORY Mirabell wants to marry Millamant but her aunt, Lady Wishfort, will not give her consent. While Mirabell tries to convince Lady Wishfort to change her mind, a number of people do all they can to prevent the marriage. In the end, all objections are overruled and the lovers marry.

Any More Conditions? Millamant and Mirabell are talking about what their lives will be like if they get married, and Millamant sets out some conditions that she would like Mirabell to respect.

Act 4, Scene 1 (...) MILLAMANT: (.. .) I'll lie a-bed1 in a morning as long as I please. MIRABELL: Then I'll get up in a morning as early as I please. MILLAMANT: Ah, idle creature2, get up when you will3 - and d'ye4 hear. I won't

be called names after I'm married; positively5 I won't be called names. MIRABELL: Names! 5

MILLAMANT: Ay, as6 wife, spouse, my dear, joy, jewel, love, sweetheart and the rest of that nauseous cant 7 in which men and their wives are so fulsomely8 familiar; I shall never bear9 that - Good Mirabell, don't let us be familiar or fond1 0 , nor kiss before folks, like my Lady Fadler and Sir Francis; nor go to Hyde Park together the first Sunday in a new chariot11, 10 to provoke eyes and whispers 1 2 , and t h e n never to be seen there together again, as if we were proud of one another the first week, and

Text D 8

GLOSSARY

1. I'll lie a-bed: I will stay in bed

2. idle creature: lazy person 3. will: want

4. d'ye: do you 5. positively: absolutely

Q

CHARACTERS

• Mirabell, a man • Millamant, a

woman • Lady Wishfort,

Millamant's aunt

6. Ay, as: Yes, like 7. nauseous cant:

insincere talk 8. fulsomely:

excessively 9. bear: accept, stand 10. don't let... or fond:

let us not behave in an affectionate way

11. chariot: carriage 12. whispers: words

spoken quietly

, , 3 4 THE RESTORATION AGE - Drama

Mariage ä la Mode (1743) by William

Hogarth.

ashamed of one another for ever after. Let us never visit together, nor go to a play together, but let us be very strange13 and well-bred14; but 15 let us be strange as if we had been married a great while, and as well-bred as if we were not married at all.

MIRABELL: Have you any more conditions to offer? Hitherto15 your demands are pretty reasonable. 20

M I L L A M A N T : Trifles16. - As17 liberty to pay and receive visits to and from whom I please; to write and receive letters without interrogatories or wry faces18 on your part. To wear what I please, and choose conversation with regard 25 only to my own taste19; to have no obligation upon me to converse with wits20 that I don't like, because they are your acquaintance21, or to be intimate with fools22, because they may be your relations23. Come to dinner when I please; 30 dine in my dressing room when I'm out of humour24, without giving a reason. To have my closet25 inviolate; to be sole empress of my tea-table2 6 , which you must never presume to approach without first asking leave27. And lastly, 35 wherever I am, you shall always knock at the door before you come in. These articles subscribed28, if I continue to endure29 you a little longer, I may by degrees30 dwindle into31 a wife.

13. strange: detached 14. well-bred: polite 15.Hitherto: up to now 16. Trifles: things of little

importance 17. As: Like 18. wry faces: expressions

•

showing displeasure 19. to my own taste: that I like 20. wits: intelligent people 21.acquaintance: person you

know 22. intimate with fools: friendly

with stupid people

23. relations: family members 24. out of humour: in a bad

mood 25.closet: private room 26.be sole ... tea-table: be left

alone when I am having tea

27. asking leave: asking for permission

28. subscribed: accepted 29. endure: tolerate 30. by degrees: gradually 31. dwindle into: become

(diminishing myself)

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What are Mirabell and Millamant discussing?

2 In her speech Millamant makes a list of conditions. Find examples in the text of the following: Things ... - she and her husband should not do together; - she should be free to do; - she should not be obliged to do; - her husband should not do; - her husband should do.

3 How does Mirabell react to Millamant's requests?

The Way of the World - William Congreve

ANALYSIS -

1 Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe Millamant? Justify your choices. • Determined • Dependent • Sweet • Nonconformist • Outspoken • Domineering • Humorous • Honest • Other:

2 In her speech Millamant paints a picture of a typical upper-class marriage (the type of marriage she rejects) in the second half of the seventeenth century. Was the institution of marriage at that time based on true emotions or social conventions? Support your answer by referring to the text.

3 How were women treated in the type of marriage Millamant rejects? Were they considered equal or inferior to their husbands? Refer to the text.

4 Mirabell and Millamant have strong feelings for each other and decide to marry at the end of the play. In her speech do you think that Millamant is showing the selfish, domineering side of her nature, or is she simply being brutally honest with the man she loves?

5 Which adjectives would you choose to describe the language used by the two characters? • Colloquial • Conversational • Formal • Intimate • Educated • Refined • Sophisticated • Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The term 'wit' was originally used to refer to intelligence or inventiveness. In the six-teenth and seventeenth century it came to be used to indicate ingenuity in literary invention and it was frequently used to describe the brilliant and surprising imagery of the metaphysical poets ( • p. C94). In the second half of the seventeenth century the term 'wit' became associated with humour. It was used to refer to the humorous lin-guistic invention and wordplay which characterised the comic style of Restoration dramatists. It has maintained this meaning to the present day. An example of wordplay can be seen in Congreve's choice of names for his characters. Each character is called after a particular personality trait. This form of character nam-ing already existed in Morality plays ( • p. B47), but Congreve uses it not for didactic purposes, but for comic effect.

The following is a list of names of the characters in The Way of the World. Match each name to a corresponding definition.

Mirabell a person who has a thousand lovers Millamant a very wilful person Witwould a man who looks at all the beautiful women he sees Wilfull a person who would like to be intelligent but is not Fainall a person who wants something desperately Wishfort a person who is false

Use the same technique to make up names for famous people or people that you and your classmates know. Miss Everlate somebody who always arrives late Mr Enormouth somebody who never stops talking Mrs Lookame somebody who likes attention

OVER T O Y O U

„ J? 36 THE RESTORATION AGE - Drama

Dialogue-driven plays

OVER T O Y O U

S T A C I N C T H E P L A Y

In a play such as The Way of the World the action, i.e. what the characters do, is of limited importance. Most of the events of the play take place in genteel drawing rooms and consist of characters speaking to each other. When producing dialogue-driven plays where there is little physical action, a director must find alternative ways of holding the audience's attention. He must highlight the play's strengths which, in the case of Congreve's work, is the sparkling dialogue, but also add elements which the audience will find visually appealing. He must, however, make sure that any additions do not detract from the original spirit of the play.

Read the review of a modern staging of The Way of the World. Make a list of the innovations the director used to make the play more visually appealing to his audience.

Giles Havergal's production of Congreve's great comedy is reduced to a playing time of two and three-quarter hours. This deprives us of a number of pleasant lines, but also sharpens up the plot mechanism, which in the first half of the evening can sometimes be slowed down by the wit. The best of the wit is amplified by Sue Blane's black-and-white set, scribbled over1 in seventeenth-century handwriting wherever there's room. When the lights go up, there is a table, centre, covered with legal documents and sunounded by three young men dressed

in formal present-day clothes and black lawyer's gowns. Principally they are employed as scene-shifters2, but sometimes take an active part in the business; for example, when Mirabell and Millamant have agreed to exchange a marriage contract, one of them produces the document and hands it over. Millamant's acceptance of Mirabell's marriage proposal is beautifully done by Paola Dionisotti, her final promise to 'dwindle into a wife' spoken with a proper understanding of the consciously artificial words. This feeling of collaboration with the audience is one

of the prettier characteristics of a pretty mise-en-scene3, with dialogues some-times spoken to the spectators rather than the characters on the stage, and offstage people kept visible by placing them into niches4 on either side of the stage, where they can show us what they think of what is going on. Rupert Frazer's Mirabell is inclined to freeze into the attitudes of a tailor's dummy , but they are graceful attitudes and reinforce the grace of his dialogue.

Review by B. A Young, FINANCIAL TIMES, 16 March, 1984

(adapted and abridged)

1. scribbled over: written hastily and carelessly

2. scene-shifters: people who

move scenery and props 3. mise-en-scene: staging 4. niches: secluded spaces

5. tailor's dummy: an object made to look like a real person for fitting clothes

Work in groups. Imagine you have to stage the scene from The Way of the World you have read. What would you do to make it visually appealing? Make notes under the following headings:

Setting (for example: seventeenth century or some other historical period?) Costumes Lighting Stage scenery/props

In a humorous way, Mirabell and Millamant are saying that a successful marriage needs careful planning. On a scale from 0 (not important) to 10 (very important), say how important the following factors are in helping to make a marriage a success.

- Come from the same town: _ Have the same hobbies and interests: - Come from the same social background: - Like the same kinds of food: - Come from the same religious background: - Have the same level of education: - Have the same skin colour:

Writers' Gallery - William Congreve

WRITERS' GALLERY

Although he was born in England, William Congreve

was educated in Ireland, where his father had been posted by the army. He attended a prestigious grammar school and then he received his Master of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin. Congreve started writing at a very young age. While still in his teens he wrote a novel which won him the respect of many influential literary figures and allowed him to have his first play, The Old Bachelor (1693), performed at the Drury Lane Theatre in London. It was an immediate success, running for the then unprecedented length of two weeks. His next play, The Double Dealer, although now considered an improvement on his first work, was not so well received by the critics or audiences of the day. Although for Love (1695) and the tragedy The Mourning Bride

(1697) were successes. The Way of the World (1700), later considered to be Congreve's masterpiece, was coolly received by the public and critics. Disappointed by the negative response, Congreve gave up playwriting at the early age of thirty. He spent the rest of his life holding some minor government positions and writing occasional poetry and librettos for several operas. He also translated the French playwright Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac. He was a very popular man and throughout his life was highly respected by other eminent literary figures. This allowed him to live mostly on his reputation and royalties from his plays. He died in 1729 in a carriage accident and was buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.

WILL IAM CONGREVE

(1670-1729)

WORKS William Congreve was a true master of comedy. He drew inspiration from a world he knew well: the fashionable, licentious

and often amoral court of Charles II. Unlike other writers of the time, he did not create characters that were gross or farcical. His characters were refined men and women who talked wittily and displayed quick brains and a sharp sense of humour. Millamant in The Way of the World is a perfect example of Congreve's art: she is an exquisitely well-drawn character, a lady of fashion who displays her intelligence, humour and heart through her brilliant speeches. Congreve's work is witty and amusing but it also has a serious side. In The Double Dealer, Love For Love and particularly in The Way of the World, he criticises the class to which the play is addressed, accusing it of having lost the true value of love and replaced it with sexual excess. One of the reasons for the lack of success of The Way of the World may indeed have been that the theatre audience had gradually become aware that they were laughing at themselves.

TASK Answer these questions. a. How old was Congreve when he started his

literary career? b . Which one of his plays is considered to be his

masterpiece? c. Why were Congreve's characters different from

those commonly found in contemporary plays?

d . What are the main themes in Congreve's plays?

e. Which of the following describe Congreve's dialogues? • Witty • Moralistic • Clever • Entertaining • Everyday • Intelligent • Brilliant • Philosophical

She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith

Misunderstandings can sometimes be tragic but are often comic. The humour in many funny scenes in novels, plays and films is based on one or more of the characters misunderstanding a situation. Complete the following task.

Richard meets Elaine at a disco and invites her out. They arrange to meet in a pub the following evening. When he walks into the pub he sits down beside a woman he thinks is Elaine. She looks and is dressed very like her but she is a completely different person. Complete the following dialogue.

RICHARD: Hi, have you been waiting long? Ms X: Sorry? RICHARD: Ah! Come on! Where would you like to go for dinner?

INTRODUCTION • Goldsmith believed that theatregoers wanted to be amused. Many of the plays that were written by his contemporaries were sentimental comedies, which he thought were over-sentimental. In She Stoops to Conquer, his most successful play, there is very little sentiment but a lot of comedy.

SHE A COMEDY

THE STORY Sir Charles Marlow and his friend Hardcastle arrange a marriage between their children, Marlow and Miss Hardcastle. On his way to visit the girl, the young man asks some local peo-ple if they can recommend an inn where he can spend the night. Tom Lumpkin decides to have some fun and tells him that the Hardcastle house is the best inn in the area. So, when he gets there, he thinks that Hardcastle is the landlord of the inn ( • Text D9) and that Miss Hardcastle is a maid who is working there. This misunderstanding gives rise to many amusing

situations until Marlow eventually STOOPS TO CONQUER;

IN FIVE ACTS.—BY OLIVER GOLDSMITH. realises his mistake. Miss Hardcastle, who has met Marlow both as herself and as a maid, is sure that he loves her, and so the couple marry.

The title page from an edition of She Stoops to Conquer.

Note: The title of the play refers to the fact that Miss Hardcastle pretends to be from a lower social class to see if she loves Marlow and if he loves her. She 'Stoops', i.e. goes down the social scale, to 'Conquer', i.e. win his love.

CHARACTERS • Hardcastle • Miss Hardcastle, his

daughter • Sir Charles Marlow • Marlow, his son • Tom Lumpkin, Miss

Hardcastle's cousin

She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 206

You cannot be serious Text D 9

Marlow thinks that Hardcastle's house is an inn, so he has ordered his servants to drink as much as they want, believing that the landlord will be happy at making a lot of money on beer. Hardcastle, however, believes that Marlow, who he correctly thinks is the son of his friend Sir Charles Marlow and a welcome guest in his home, is abusing his hospitality.

(Act IV) [Enter HARDCASTLE.]

( . . . )

HARDCASTLE: (...) But, though I say nothing to1 your own conduct, that of your servants is insufferable. Their manner of drinking is setting a very bad example in the house, I assure you.

MARLOW: I protest, my very good sir, that's no fault of mine. If they don't drink as they ought they are to blame. I ordered them not to spare the 5 cellar2.1 did, I assure you. (To the side scene.) Here let one of my servants come up. (To him.) My positive directions were, that as I did not drink myself, they should make up for my deficiencies3 below4.

HARDCASTLE: Then they had your orders for what they do! I'm satisfied5! MARLOW: They had, I assure you. You shall hear from one of themselves. 10

[Enter SERVANT drunk.] You, Jeremy! Come forward, sirrah6! What were my orders? Were you not told to drink freely, and call for what you thought fit7, for the good of the house?

HARDCASTLE: [Aside) I begin to lose my patience. 15

JEREMY: Please your honour, liberty and Fleet Street8 for ever! Though I 'm

but a servant, I'm as good as another man. I'll drink for no man before supper, sir, dammy9! Good liquor will sit upon a good supper, but a good supper will not sit upon - hiccup10 - my conscience, sir.

MARLOW: You see, my old friend, the fellow is as drunk as he can possibly 20

be. I don't know what you'd have more, unless you'd have the poor devil soused in a beer-barrel11.

HARDCASTLE: Zounds!12 He'll drive me distracted13 if I contain14 myself any longer. Mr. Marlow, sir; I have submitted to your insolence for more than four hours, and I see no likelihood15 of its coming to an end. I'm 25 now resolved to be master here, sir, and I desire that you and your drunken pack16 may leave my house directly.

MARLOW: Leave your house! - Sure, you jest17, my good friend! What, when I'm doing what I can to please you!

HARDCASTLE: I tell you, sir, you don't please me; so I desire you'll leave my 30 house.

MARLOW: Sure, you cannot be serious! At this time of night, and such a night! You only mean to banter me18!

HARDCASTL'E: I tell you sir, I ' m serious; and, now that my passions are roused19 , I say this house is mine, and I command you to leave it 35 directly.

Q

GLOSSARY

1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

9.

to: about not to spare the cellar: drink as much as they wanted to make up for my deficiencies: compensate for the fact that I do not drink

below: downstairs, where the servants live I'm satisfied: Now I have proof of what I suspected sirrah!: Sir! (said in an arrogant way) fit: appropriate Fleet Street: street in London where there were over thirty taverns dammy: (damn me): an exclamation which expresses anger or annoyance

10. hiccup: involuntary sound that shows that he has drunk too much

11. soused in a beer-barrel: put into a container full of beer so that he is completely wet

12. Zounds!: exclamation expressing indignation

13. distracted: mad 14. contain: control 15. likelihood:

probability 16. pack: group of wild

animals 17. you jest: you are

joking 18. banter me: make fun

of me 19. my passions are

roused: I am angry

4 0 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

20. A puddle in a storm: a puddle is a small pool of water. During a storm a puddle is insignificant. Marlow is saying that he is not afraid of Hardcastle

21.stir: move 22. bid: order 23.confound me ... did:

I certainly never did (in an angry tone)

24 .bantering: in a joking tone

25. brazen-nosed bellows: bellows are used to blow air into a fire. The top of this bellows is made of brass

26. take a fancy to: like, want to have

27. Rake's Progress: set of engravings by the English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764)

28. slumbers: sleep 29. hearty: big 30. well-bred: well

brought up 31.coxcomb: stupid

man who spends too much time and money on his clothes and appearance

32. bully: someone who uses strength or power to frighten and intimidate weaker people

33. presently: soon •

M A R L O W : Ha! ha! ha! A puddle in a storm2 0 .1 shan't stir21 a step, I assure you. (In a serious tone.) This your house, fellow! It's my house. This is my house. Mine, while I choose to stay. What right have you to bid22 me leave this house, sir? I never met with such impudence, curse me, never 40 in my whole life before!

HARDCASTLE: Nor I , confound me if I ever did23! To come to my house, to call for what he likes, to turn me out of my own chair, to insult the family, to order his servants to get drunk, and then to tell me This house is mine, sir. By all that's impudent, it makes me laugh. Ha! ha! ha! Pray, 45 sir, (bantering24) as you take the house, what think you of taking the rest of the furniture? There's a pair of silver candlesticks, and there's a fire-screen, and here's a pair of brazen-nosed bellows25, perhaps you may take a fancy to26 them?

M A R L O W : Bring me your bill, sir, bring me your bill, and let's make no more so words about it.

HARDCASTLE: There are a set of prints, too. What think you of the Rake's Progress27 for your own apartment?

M A R L O W : Bring me your bill, I say; and I'll leave you and your infernal house directly. 55

HARDCASTLE: Then there's a mahogany table, that you may see your face in. M A R L O W : My bill, I say. HARDCASTLE: I had forgot the great chair, for your own particular slumbers28,

after a hearty29 meal. M A R L O W : Zounds! Bring me my bill, I say, and let's hear no more on it. 6 0

HARDCASTLE: Young man, young man, from your father's letter to me, I was taught to expect a well-bred30 modest man, as a visitor here, but now I find no better than a coxcomb31 and a bully32; but he will be down here presently33, and shall hear more of it.

[Exit.]

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What does Hardcastle complain to Marlow about in the opening lines of the scene?

2 Does Marlow think that Hardcastle is angry because: • the servants are drinking too much? • the servants are drinking too little?

3 Marlow's servant, Jeremy, starts a saying but does not finish it (lines 18-19). Can you guess how the saying should finish? Is what Jeremy says coherent?

4 What course of action does Hardcastle choose to take?

5 What is Marlow's initial reaction to Hardcastle's suggestion that he should leave the house?

6 Why does Marlow claim that the house is his? (Lines 38-39)

7 What sarcastic suggestion does Hardcastle make when Marlow says that the house is his?

8 Does Hardcastle listen to what Marlow is saying in the final lines of the scene?

9 In his last statement Hardcastle indirectly reveals his true identity to Marlow. How?

She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 41

ANALYSIS 1 What information does the audience have that: - Hardcastle does not? - Marlow does not? How does having more information affect the audience's response to the play? • It makes it easier to understand. • It creates tension among the audience. • It allows them to see the humour in the situation. • It gives them a deeper insight into the psychology

of the characters.

2 In the sentences below, Hardcastle expresses his feelings of annoyance with the behaviour of Marlow's servants. a. Put them in order from the expression of least to

the expression of most annoyance. I ] Now that my passions are roused (...)

I command you to leave it directly.

• I say nothing to your own conduct, that of your servants is insufferable.

I He'll drive me distracted if I contain myself any longer.

I I I desire that you and your drunken pack may leave my house directly.

I I I begin to lose my patience.

b . Find the line reference for each statement in the text. As the scene develops, does Hardcastle's anger increase or diminish?

3 In lines 45^18 Hardcastle seems to have reached the climax* of his anger. As the scene proceeds how does he channel his emotions? • By taking physical action against Marlow. • By verbally abusing Marlow. • By making Marlow the target of his sarcasm.

4 Focus on the character of Marlow. a. How would you describe his attitude towards

Hardcastle, whom he believes to be an inn-keeper, and Jeremy, his servant? • Respectful • Condescending • Patronising • Apologetic • Detached • Rude

b . Marlow's attitude towards those he considers to be of lower social rank (Jeremy, Hardcastle as the inn-keeper and Kate as a barmaid) would have been perfectly acceptable to an eighteenth-century audience. Would a modern audience view his behaviour in the same way?

5 One of the comic elements of the scene is created by the lack of communication between Hardcastle and Marlow. At what point in the scene does it become clear that the two characters are not really listening to each other?

6 Underline expressions that are repeated in the passage. What purpose does repetition serve? • It makes the language more poetic. • It intensifies the humour by adding a crescendo

effect. • It helps the audience to follow the plot. • It underlines key concepts that are essential to the

understanding of the themes of the play.

STAC INC THE PLAY

Farce Farce is a type of comedy designed simply to make an audience laugh. Typical ingredients of farce include ludicrous plots, deception, mistaken identity, discovery, coincidence, misunderstanding, caricature, type characters, verbal humour and physical horseplay. Farce is one of the oldest and most popular forms of theatre. Farcical elements can be found in the ritual celebrations and theatre of ancient Greece, the plays of the Roman writers Plautus and Terence, medieval Morality plays, the Commedia deU'arte, Moliere, Charlie Chaplin and today in the films of Jim Carrey and Woody Allen. It is also a major ingredient in many television sitcoms. Farce is often referred to as 'low comedy' because it does not require intellectualism or literary sensitivity of the audience. Paradoxically, however, this 'low' form of comedy can be extremely demanding and challenging for the actors and the director.

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Drama

O V E R T O Y O U 1 The scene from She Stoops to Conquer that you have just read contains the following farcical elements: • the type character: Jeremy, the drunken servant; • misunderstanding: between Hardcastle and Marlow. How would you deal with these farcical elements of the play? Answer these questions. a. How should the actor playing Jeremy deliver his lines? Practise saying the lines in a

'drunken state'. b . When Marlow calls him to the front of the stage how should he walk? c. How should he look (clothes, stage make-up)? When you have discussed these issues prepare a short performance of lines 12-19.

2 Focus on the section from line 42 to the end of the scene. An outraged and sarcastic Hardcastle is no longer listening to an increasingly irritated Marlow, who is asking for the bill.

a. Should the actor playing Hardcastle move or stand still as he makes Marlow the butt of his sarcastic jokes? If you think he should move, describe his movements. In what tone should he deliver his lines?

b . Should each of Marlow's requests for the bill be delivered in the same tone? How should the actor show Marlow's growing impatience?

c. Consider the timing of the section. Should there be long gaps between Hardcastle's lines or should they be delivered as a single speech? Should Hardcastle's lines drown out Marlow's request for the bill?

When you have discussed these points, apply your ideas to a performance of this part of the text.

The scene you have read is funny because Hardcastle and Marlow are victims of a misunderstanding. Think of a situation, from your own experience or from a book or film, in which the humour was based on a misunderstanding. Complete the details below. People involved:

Where:

Misunderstanding:

What happened:

Writers' Gallery - Oliver Goldsmith 4 3

WRITERS' GALLERY Oliver Goldsmith was born in the west of Ireland, the son of

a poor clergyman. He entered Trinity College in Dublin as a scholarship student and had to do a series of menial jobs, including selling street ballads and waiting tables, to finance his studies. In 1750 he tried to enter the Church, but his request for ordination was refused. He went to Edinburgh to study medicine, and then spent a few months at the Dutch university of Leyden before setting off on a journey which took him to France, Switzerland and Italy. He made a meagre living playing Irish tunes on the flute, and often depended on food distributed at convent gates to survive. In 1756 he arrived destitute in London, where he unsuccessfully attempted a career in medicine. He found work as a hack writer,

reviewer and translator and worked for several periodicals. He wrote his Chinese Letters - later re-published as The Citizen of the World, (1762) - a series of satirical essays describing English life through the eyes of a Chinese visitor. He became friends with the influential critic and writer Samuel Johnson ( • p. D104) and began to mix in literary circles. He was, however, notorious for spending money in gambling and drinking, and his financial state was constantly precarious. In 1768 he wrote his first play - The Good Natur'd Man - which, after initial rejection, was performed at Covent Garden to moderate success. His theatrical masterpiece, She Stoops to Conquer, which followed, was well-received by the critics and immensely popular with the public. Between these two plays he published his best-known poem, The Deserted Village, which draws in part on his childhood memories of Ireland. Despite his success as a writer, his inability to handle his finances often led him to the brink of bankruptcy, and in fact he died in poverty in 1774.

OLIVER GOLDSMITH

(1730-1774)

WORKS Oliver Goldsmith was often in desperate need of money, so much of his writing was done in haste and is of inferior quality. He did,

however, write three remarkable works: • A novel, The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), which is still widely read. It tells the story of the kindly

reverend Dr Primrose, whose strong faith in God and belief in the essential goodness of mankind help him and his family to overcome adversity. The novel is often criticised as overly sentimental and pedantic. However, it holds an important place in the history of English literature as it is considered a forerunner of the didactic novels of the nineteenth century.

• A poem, The Deserted Village (1770), which inspired the poets of the Romantic period. In the poem Goldsmith looks back nostalgically to the idyllic pastoral life of the small country village of Auburn (probably inspired by Goldsmith's childhood village in the west of Ireland).

• A play, She Stoops to Conquer (1773), his greatest literary achievement, which continues to be staged today. Criticising contemporary drama as unimaginative and melodramatic Goldsmith, for his masterpiece, looked for inspiration to an earlier form of drama, the Comedy of Manners of the Restoration period ( • pp. D96-97) . The play's well-structured comic plot, based on mistaken identities and likeable characters, made it an instant success with theatre audiences and helped breathe new life into an art form that was experiencing a particularly colourless period.

TASK Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Oliver Goldsmith.


C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Why did Robinson decide to keep a written record of his experience?

2 Which is now a stronger force in Robinson: his reason or his sense of hopelessness?

3 Match A and B to reconstruct Robinson's pros and cons.

A B

He is alone on a desert island with little hope of being found He is far from the rest of the world He does not have the company of other men He has no clothes He has no means of defence He has nobody to talk to

but

however

he has been saved from death and may also be saved from this terrible situation, the weather is warm so he will not suffer from cold. there are no wild beasts that will harm him. God has helped him to have everything he needs for his survival, he is alive. he will not die of starvation because the island is fertile.

4 When Robinson has finished making his list, he draws a conclusion about life in general. Explain it in your own words.

ANALYS IS 1 Focus on the character of Robinson. a. Find evidence in the text that:

- he is literate: lines - he has strong religious beliefs: lines - he believes in the power of reason: lines - he is familiar with the world of trade and commerce: lines - he has a practical approach to solving problems: lines

b. Which of the following social categories do you think Robinson most likely belongs to? • Unskilled lower class labourer • Middle class merchant/professional • Aristocratic gentleman Give reasons for your choice.

2 In his 'Evil' column, Robinson cites both psychological and material needs, a. Tick the table below according to which kind of need is expressed.

Evil Psychological Material

I am divided from Mankind, a Solitaire, one banish'd from humane Society.

I have no Clothes to cover me.

I am without any Defence or Means to resist any Violence of Man or Beast

I have no Soul to speak to, or relieve me.

b. Do the same for the 'Good' column of Robinson's list.

Good Psychological Material

But 1 am not starv'd and perishing on a barren Place, affording no Sustenance.

But I am in a hot Climate, where if I had Clothes I would hardly wear them.

But I am cast on an Island, where I see no wild Beasts to hurt me, as I saw on the Coast of Africa: And what if I had been Shipwreck'd there?

But God wonderfully sent the Ship in near enough to the Shore, that I have gotten out so many necessary things as will either supply my Wants, or enable me to supply my self even as long as I live.

Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 47

c. Does Robinson answer each 'psychological need' with a 'psychological solution'? Which is more dominant: the practical or the emotional side of Robinson's nature?

3 Robinson's language is characterised by a series of 'balanced couples' which may be repetitions of the same idea ('Condition, and the Circumstance I was reduc'd to'), or opposites ('good/evil'). a. Find the missing elements in the following couples.

Reason/ Debtor/ Comforts/ something Negative/

b. Which adjective would you choose to describe the language Robinson uses to express himself? • Balanced • Emotional • Confused • Precise • Rational • Journalistic • Poetic

c. What does Robinson's language reveal about his personality?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Narrative technique refers to the way a story is told - how the author presents the reader with the setting, characters, actions and events that make up a work of fiction. In a first-person narrative the reader sees the event unfold through the eyes of a single character: the narrator speaks as 'I' and is himself a character in the story. The reader's vision of the story or point of view is limited to what the first-person narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters. The first-person narrative is commonly associated with non-fictional literary forms such as biography, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity, creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced. As the reader 'sees the world through the narrator's eyes', he is often encouraged to identify and sympathise with the narrator's views.

1 Who is the T of the passage from Robinson Crusoe you have just read? Explain why this is an example of first-person narrative.

2 When Daniel Defoe first wrote Robinson Crusoe he presented it to the public as a true story, not as a work of fiction. How did the narrative technique he chose help him to deceive his readers?

Using the first-person narrative technique write the opening five to ten lines of a fictional work that you think would capture the attention of readers.

The English saying 'Every cloud has a silver lining' means that there is something positive about any negative situation. For example, in the terrible event of someone close to us dying, we often realise how important friends and relatives are and appreciate them more than we normally would. Think of a situation where a cloud has a silver lining and tell your classmates about it.


Text D l l

GLOSSARY

Note: the verbal suffix -ed was often spelt -'d for example 'sav'd' instead of 'saved'.

1. kept: stayed 2. beckon'd to: gestured 3. Cloaths: clothes 4. stark: completely 5. shew'd: showed 6. Abhorrence: disgust 7. Glass: telescope 8. plainly: clearly 9. takes: took 10.dextrously: skilfully 11.get. . . Intelligence:

know more 12. chill: cold 13. dreadful: horrible 14. humane: human 15.dy'd: coloured 16.mangl'd and

scorch'd: twisted and burnt

17. Tokens: signs 18. next King:

neighbouring King 19. Wretches: evil people 20. hither: here 21. Heap: one on top of

the other 22. hankering: hungry

Civilising Friday Robinson and Friday return to the place where, the previous day, Robinson had res Friday from his fellow cannibals.

( . . . )

I kept1 there with him all that Night; but as soon as it was Day, I beckon'd to2 him to come with me, and let him know, I would give him some Cloaths3, at which he seem'd very glad, for he was stark4 naked: As we went by the Place where he had bury'd the two Men, he pointed exactly to the Place, and shew'd5 me the Marks that he had made to find them again, making Signs to me, that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at this I appear'd very angry, express'd my Abhorrence6 of it, made as if I would vomit at the Thoughts of it, and beckon'd with my Hand to him to come away, which he did immediately, with great Submission. I then led him up to the Top of the Hill, to see if his Enemies were gone; and pulling out my Glass7, I look'd, and saw plainly8 the Place where they had been, but no appearance of them, or of their Canoes; so that it was plain they were gone, and had left their two Comrades behind them, without any search after them. But I was not content with this Discovery; but having now more Courage, and consequently more Curiosity, I takes9 my Man Friday with me, giving him the Sword in his Hand, with the Bow and Arrows at his Back, which I found he could use very dextrously10, making him carry one Gun for me, and I two for my self, and away we march'd to the Place, where these Creatures had been; for I had a Mind now to get some fuller Intelligence11

of them: When I came to the Place, my very Blood ran chill12 in my Veins, and my Heart sunk within me, at the Horror of the Spectacle: Indeed it was a dreadful1 3 Sight, at least it was so to me; though Friday made nothing of it: The Place was cover'd with humane1 4 Bones, the Ground dy'd15 with their Blood, great Pieces of Flesh left here and there, half eaten, mangl 'd and scorch'd1 6 ; and in short, all the Tokens1 7 of the triumphant Feast they had been making there, after a Victory over their Enemies; I saw three Skulls, five Hands, and the Bones of three or four Legs and Feet, and abundance of other Parts of the Bodies; and Friday, by his Signs, made me understand, that they brought over four Prisoners to feast upon; that three of them were eaten up, and that he, pointing to himself, was the fourth: That there had been a great Battle between them, and their next King18, whose Subjects it seems he had been one of; and that they had taken a great Number of Prisoners, all which were carry'd to several Places by those that had taken them in the Fight, in order to feast upon them, as was done here by these Wretches19 upon those they brought hither20. I caus'd Friday to gather all the Skulls, Bones, Flesh, and whatever remain'd, and lay them together on a Heap21, and make a great Fire upon it, and burn them all to Ashes: I found Friday had still a hankering2 2

Stomach after some of the Flesh, and was still a Cannibal in his Nature;

Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 4 9

but I discover'd2 3 so much Abhorrence at the very Thoughts of it, and at the least Appearance of it, that he durst not discover it24; for I had by some Means let him know, that I would kill him if he offer'd25 it. 45 When we had done this, we came back to our Castle, and there I fell to work for my Man Friday; and first of all, I gave him a pair of Linnen Drawers26, which I had out of the poor Gunner's Chest 2 7 I ment ion 'd, and which I found in the Wreck28; and which with a little 50 Alteration fitted him very well; then I made him a Jerkin29 of Goat's-skin, as well as my Skill would allow; and I was now grown a tollerable good Taylor30; and I gave him a Cap, which I had made of a Hare31-skin, very convenient, and fashionable enough; and thus he was 55 c loath 'd 3 2 for the present, tollerably well; and was mighty well3 3 pleas'd to see himself almost as well cloath'd as his Master: It is true, he went awkwardly34 in these Things at first; wearing the Drawers was very awkward to him, and the Sleeves of the Wastcoat 3 5 60 gall'd36 his Shoulders, and the inside of his Arms; but a little easing them where he complain'd they hurt him, and using himself37

to them, at length he took to them very well38. The next Day after I came home to my Hutch3 9 with him, I began to consider where I should lodge him40, and that I might do well for him, and yet be perfectly easy41 my self; (...) But I needed none of all this Precaution; for never Man had a more faithful, loving, sincere Servant, than Friday was to me; without Passions, Sullenness4 2 or Designs4 3 , perfectly oblig'd and engag'd4 4 ; his very Affections were ty'd45 to me, like those of a Child to a Father; and I dare say, he would have sacrific'd his Life for the saving mine, upon any occasion whatsoever; the many Testimonies46 he gave me of this, put it out of doubt, and soon convinc'd me, that I needed to use no Precautions, as to my Safety on his Account47.

hnaay snowing nis

submission to Robinson.

23. discover'd: showed 24. he durst not discover it:

he was afraid to say or show it

25.offer'd: tried 26. Linnen Drawers: linen

underpants 27.Gunner's Chest: on the

ship, Robinson had found some clothes in a box (chest) that belonged to

one of his shipmates (the Gunner)

28. Wreck: the ship 29.Jerkin: sleeveless jacket 30. Taylor: (tailor) a man who

makes clothes 31. Hare: rabbit-like animal 32.cloath'd: dressed 33. mighty well: very 34. awkwardly: uncomfortably

35. Wastcoat: (waistcoat) jacket 36. gall'd: rubbed against and

hurt 37. using himself: getting used 38.at length ... well:

eventually he liked them 39. Hutch: shelter 40. lodge him: find a place for

him to live

41 .be perfectly easy: feel safe

42. Sullenness: silent displeasure or anger

43. Designs: secret plans 44. oblig'd and engag'd:

grateful and interested in what he was doing

45.ty'd: linked 46. Testimonies: examples 47. on his Account:

because of him


C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What did Friday think they should do with the two bodies? How did Robinson react to the idea?

2 What did Robinson find when he returned to the place where Friday's enemies had been?

3 What had happened, according to Friday?

4 Friday clearly wished to eat some of the hu remains. What stopped him from doing so?

5 What did Robinson do when he returned to his shelter?

6 Why did Robinson feel that it was not necessary protect himself from Friday?

ANALYS IS 1 Focus on the relationship between Robinson and Friday. a. Find two incidents in the text where Robinson's

wishes prevail over Friday's. b. Examine the two episodes involving heavy physical

labour; the carrying of arms and the gathering and burning of the human remains (lines 38^t0). Do the two characters share the work equally?

c. Which word in line 9 suggests that the two characters are not on an equal footing?

d. How does Robinson refer: • to Friday in

-l ine (16): - line (68): - line (70):

• to the other natives in - line (20): - line (36):

• to himself in - line (58): - line (70):

e. What does Robinson's use of names reveal about his attitude towards people that are not of his own race and culture?

f. How would you define the relationship between Robinson and Friday? • They show each other mutual respect. • Robinson feels superior to Friday and feels the

need to 'civilise' him. • Robinson is curious about the differences in

culture that emerge. • Friday feels that he owes Robinson a debt of

gratitude for saving his life. • Robinson treats Friday like a slave and has no

consideration for his feelings. • Robinson exploits Friday. • Robinson wishes to protect and educate Friday. • Other:

2 Focus on the descriptive passages in the extract, from line 24 to line 29 and from line 46 to 63. How would you define Robinson's descriptions? • Vague • Precise • Detailed • Scientific • Poetic • Verbose • Concise • Other:

3 The two episodes which Robinson describes are very different. The aftermath of the cannibals' feast is shocking and extraordinary, while the providing of clothes for Friday is relatively trivial and mundane. a. Does Defoe mark the difference between the two

episodes by a change in style or is the same style used throughout the passage?

b. How would you describe the style used by Defoe? • Emotional • Lyrical • Journalistic • Pseudo-scientific E Over-elaborate

c. What effect does this style create? • It makes the material seem more convincing. • It involves the reader on an emotional level. • It helps the reader to understand how Robinson

felt. • It allows the reader to form his own response to

the material. m Other:

Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 51

Realism WRITERS' WORKSHOP

OVER T O Y O U

The term realism is used to denote the attempt by writers to present an accurate imitation of life as it is. The realist sets out to write fiction which reflects a world that is convincing and recognisable to the common reader. He does this by: • writing about ordinary characters, usually of the middle class, who have no special

gifts. Under normal circumstances these characters would live unexceptional lives, but in special conditions they may display a kind of heroism;

• placing the characters in a setting that is familiar to the reader; • using a special literary style that gives the reader the illusion of actual experience. The

style may be defined as reportorial or journalistic, and it seems to render the events in a matter-of-fact way;

• being unselective in his choice of subject matter; • dealing, in the same way, with both the trivial and the extraordinary; • paying great, almost scientific attention to descriptive detail.

Use the checklist below to determine which of the features of a realistic novel Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe displays. Tick the features you have found in the extracts you have read. Main character • He belongs to the middle class. • He has no exceptional talents. • Under special circumstances he shows heroic qualities. Setting • He lives in surroundings that are familiar to the common reader. Style • The events of the story are rendered with little emotion or sentiment, in what may be

described as a journalistic style. • Both trivial and extraordinary events are described in the same way. • Descriptions are detailed.

The following extract is an example of non-realistic writing. It is taken from Mary Shelley's Frankenstein ( • pp. E88-95) and describes the moment in which Frankenstein is woken from his sleep by the monster he has just created. The emotionally-charged atmosphere is created by the use of words like started, horror, chattered and convulsed. The vague description of the monster heightens the tension by leaving much to the reader's imagination. Use the features of realism - lack of emotion, attention to detail, etc. - to re-write the passage in a more matter-of-fact, journalistic style.

Original Version I started from my sleep with horror; a cold dew covered my forehead, my teeth chattered, and every limb became convulsed; when, by the dim and yellow light of the moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I beheld the wretch - the miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some inarticulate sounds while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and rushed downstairs.

Realistic Re-write It was 4.08 a.m. when I awoke from my sleep and saw the monster standing by my bedside. My initial fear was caused by the monster's appearance and my uncertainty about his intentions. He was...


Crusoe thinks that Friday's eagerness to eat his dead comrades is barbaric and totally uncivilised. What does the term 'uncivilised' mean to you? What would you regard as uncivilised behaviour in our society? Discuss with your classmates.

L I N K -[ to the world of television When it was published in 1 719, Robinson Crusoe was a runaway success. Part of its appeal was based on the fact that readers believed that it was the true-life account of a shipwrecked sailor. People have always been fascinated by true stories and today's public is no exception. The phenomenal success of Reality TV programmes (television programmes based on real-life incidents) shows the public's continuing interest in the lives of others. Reality TV programmes come in varying formats but they all share one basic characteristic: they are about real people in real situations. Read the descriptions of popular Reality TV programmes in Britain and the USA, and say if you have ever watched them or similar programmes. What do you think the appeal of these programmes is? The advancement of printing technology in the seventeenth century made a best-seller like Robinson Crusoe possible. How has the advancement of technology (home video cameras, web cams, Internet access) contributed to the evolution of Reality TV? Many people enjoyed Robinson Crusoe because they identified with the values and morals of the story's hero. Do participants in Reality TV reflect the values and lifestyles of the people who watch them?

COPS Cops takes you to the streets to witness real police in action as they confront the crime gripping a nation's cities and comfort the victims of violence. Mobile cameras follow these real-life cops around the clock, with no restrictions on taping. During off-duty hours, the camera goes behind the scenes to capture the effects of the job on their personal lives.

Do you want to be stranded on an island for 39 days for your chance to win $1 ,000 ,000? Eating anything you can hnd, like rats, bugs, fish and wild animals? Sixteen contestants on CBS' Survivor have decided that's what they want to do! This game show is unlike any other. Sixteen contestants (survivors) are on an island and separated into two tribes. In each episode the tribes challenge each other in endurance tests and the losing tribe has to vote one of ^ members °H the island. The first contestant eliminated gets $2,5UU. tach contestant after that wins more money up until the final contestant who wins 1 Million Dollars!

BIG BROTHER A new show, with a new look at television. This concept was first developed in burope, but has been brought to North America by CBS. It's called Bis Brother. Ten contestants have to live with each other for 100 davs for a chance to win $500,000. The contestants have never met before and no one knows what's going to happen. It takes place in a special house somewhere in America. The Big Brother house isn't too large and is equipped with 28 cameras and 60 microphones watching the ten contestants constantly There is no privacy in this house. There are cameras everywhere! The contestants have to make their own food and grow their own vegetables Every other week one contestant will be voted out of the house through telephone polls 1 he last one to remain will win a jackpot of $500,000!

Writers' Gallery - Daniel Defoe

mNsmsfmm W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R Y

Family background and education Little is known

about the personal life of Daniel Defoe. Even his date of birth is not certain because his father, a Protestant Dissenter, did not accept the authority of the State Church and refused to register his son's birth. We do know, however, that Daniel Foe - he later changed his name to the more fashionable Defoe - was born in London, probably in September 1660. In his early years Defoe attended a school for Dissenters, where he got a solid education. When he finished his studies he went into trade and travelled extensively in Europe.

DANIEL DEFOE

(16607-1731)

Career On his return to England he got married and established himself as a hosiery merchant. After the failure of his business he turned to writing to earn money. He was deeply

interested in politics and wrote pamphlets and essays on the political issues of the day. His writings were often critical of political institutions and the established Church; as a result of some of the opinions he expressed he was arrested and spent time in prison. Throughout his life Defoe was fascinated by trade and got involved in a number of mercantile projects. However, most of his business ventures failed and he found himself in financial difficulty. A helping hand came from Robert Harley, the leader of the Tory party, who offered him a job as a secret agent for the government. Harley also helped him to set up his own journal, The Review, on the condition that in his writings he would not attack the government.

Later years When he was sixty years old Defoe turned to novel-writing, and in 1719 he produced his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe. The next five years saw the appearance of four more novels and a pseudo-factual account of London during the plague, A Journal of the Plague Year. In 1724 he published a guide book in three volumes based on his travels around Britain, in which he gave a detailed description of Britain in the early part of the eighteenth century. He died in 1731.

WORKS Early writings Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer. His earliest writings were political and largely consisted of pamphlets, essays

and articles for journals. He was well respected as a satirist and his satirical pamphlet The Shortest Way with the Dissenters won him great popularity. In it Defoe, a Dissenter himself, demanded the extermination of Dissenters, exaggerating and ridiculing views held by the State Church. He was fined, imprisoned and pilloried for the work. While in prison he wrote the poem Hymn to the Pillory, a mock-Pindaric ode* which was sold in the streets to his many supporters.

Fiction It was not until late in his literary career that Defoe turned to writing prose fiction. He had read of the adventures of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who had been put ashore on the desert island of Juan Fernandez in the Pacific Ocean, where he survived for five years before being rescued. Defoe used Selkirk's story as the basis for his fictional work Robinson Crusoe. At the time when Defoe was writing, the public demand was for fact-based writings such as diaries, travel journals, biographies and letters. Fiction was viewed with suspicion by the Puritan middle-class readers, as it was considered to be a form of lying. Defoe found a way around this prejudice: he presented his work as a true story based on real events. He also made a direct appeal to Puritan readers by including moral


• m m t • Ü K r w - w w • ssm mm

TASK Cross out the false statements. a. Defoe's literary career started out with political

pamphlets, essays and press articles. b. Defoe gained a reputation as a satirist. c. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters is a

pamphlet suggesting a quick way of getting rid of Protestant Dissenters.

d. Hymn to the Piilory is a satirical mock-Pindaric ode. e. Defoe used the diary of a sailor, Alexander

Selkirk, as a basis for an epic poem.

f. Defoe wrote a novel that met the demand for fact-based writings.

g. The Puritans did not receive the work well because of its immoral content.

h. After Robison Crusoe Defoe wrote four more novels which have completely different features.

i. Defoe's characters fight against difficulties by placing great faith in Cod and in their own resources.

The poster for the film

Moll Flanders (1996).

ROBIN WRIGHT MORGAN

FREEMAN STOCKARD

CHANNING

SansÄI;:; lessons in his work and showing that an ordinary man such as Robinson, who believed in God and in the principles of self-reliance and hard work, could overcome any obstacle. In this way, Robinson Crusoe became the model of the middle class, a self-made man convinced that Britain had a right and duty to bring civilisation to other parts of the world. Following the success of Robinson Crusoe Defoe wrote four more novels between 1720 and 1724: Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack and Roxana.

Features All of Defoe's novels share the same characteristics: • they are presented as memoirs or

autobiographies and are narrated in the first person;

• the setting is contemporary and realistic; • there is no real plot: the protagonist is presented in a chronological series of episodes; • the main character overcomes misfortune through self-reliance, hard work and belief in God; • each of the characters repents his evil actions and prays to God for salvation; • the prose style is plain yet powerfully effective.

A Modest Proposal - Jonathan Swift 5 5

A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift

Briefly describe t h e photo . What is your reaction to it? D o y o u t h i n k t h a t c h i l d p o v e r t y c o u l d b e e l i m i n a t e d in t o d a y ' s w o r l d or is it p a r t of a problem that will always b e with us?

Children in Africa

INTRODUCTION • Jonathan Swift was a complex character who showed how literature could be used to make man aware of his own and society's shortcomings. Read his proposals for the solution of the problem of child poverty in eighteenth-century Ireland.

A Modest Proposal For Preventing The Children of Poor People in Ireland

From Being A Burden1 to Their Parents or Country, and For Making Them Beneficial to The Public

It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this great town or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabin2

doors, crowded with beggars3 « ! the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags4 and importuning every passenger for an alms5. These mothers, instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling6 to beg sustenance for their helpless infants: who as they grow up either turn thieves for want7 of work, or leave their dear native country to fight for the Pretender8 in Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadoes9. I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of 1 0 their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom a very great additional grievance11; and, therefore, whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children sound, useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation. (...) There is likewise12 another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us! sacrificing the poor innocent babes I doubt more to avoid the expense than the shame13, which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast. The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned14 one million and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand

Text 1 ) 1 2

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GLOSSARY • -

Burden: something too heavy to carry/to bear cabin: poor housing beggars: poor people begging in the street rags: old and torn clothes an alms: money strolling: walking around want: absence Pretender: James Stuart, son of James II (1688-1766) Barbadoes: this is a reference to the fact that many Irishmen emigrated to the West Indies

10. at the heels of: following

11. grievance: problem 12. likewise: as well 13. shame: moral

discomfort 14. reckoned: calculated

9.


15. breeders: able to have children

16. apprehend: think 17. distresses: difficult

conditions 18. this being granted:

even supposing that 19. miscarry: lose an

unborn child 20. reared and provided

for: maintained and taken care of

21. utterly: totally 22. liable: subject 23. of my acquaintance:

that I know 24. wholesome: healthy 25.stewed: cooked in

sauce 26. fricassee: meat dish 27. for breed: to make

more children 28. fore or hind quarter:

front or back part 29. title: right 30. a prolific diet: food

that encourages conception

31. Lent: forty days before Easter, when Catholics are not supposed to eat meat

32. glutted: full to excess 33. popish: Catholic 34. endeavoring: trying 35. relieving: helping

•

couples whose wives are breeders15; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couples who are able to maintain their own children, although I apprehend16 there cannot be so many, under the present distresses17 of the kingdom; but this being granted1 8 , there will remain a hundred and seventy thousand breeders. 1 again subtract fifty thousand for those women who miscarry19, or whose children die by accident or disease within the year. There only remains one hundred and twenty thousand children of poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this number shall be reared and provided for20, which, as I have already said, under the present situation of affairs, is utterly21 impossible (...). I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable22 to the least objection. I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance23 in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome24 food, whether stewed25, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee26 or a ragout. I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred and twenty thousand children already computed, twenty thousand may be reserved for breed27, whereof only one-fourth part to be males; which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle or swine; and my reason is, that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages, therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be offered in the sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind quarter28 will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter. I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title29 to the children. Infant's flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in March, and a little before and after; for we are told by a grave author, an eminent French physician, that fish being a prolific diet30, there are more children born in Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent31

than at any other season; therefore, reckoning a year after Lent, the markets will be more glutted32 than usual, because the number of popish33 infants is at least three to one in this kingdom: and therefore it will have one other collateral advantage, by lessening the number of papists among us. I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavoring34 to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving35 the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children by which I can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.

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A Modest Proposal - Jonathan Swift 57

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What, according to the writer, saddens people who walk through Dublin or travel in Ireland?

2 What do the children of the poor do when they grow up?

3 How should the person who solves the problem created by poor children be honoured?

4 What are the main causes of the voluntary abortion or the murder of illegitimate children? (Paragraph 3)

5 Find the statistics in the fourth paragraph which refer to this information. Number of: - inhabitants in the kingdom of Ireland; - couples in which the wife is of child-bearing age; - couples who can maintain their children financially; - miscarriages/infant deaths per annum; - children born to poor parents.

6 Who informed the writer about the nutritional potential of young children?

7 How many children of the poor will be reserved for breeding? What will the male/female ratio be among the breeders? What will happen to the remaining children of the poor?

8 Why should the children who are to be sold for consumption be well-fed in the last month of their first year?

9 Why does the writer think that landlords would make good consumers of children?

1 0 Why will infant's flesh be particularly plentiful in March?

1 1 What is the ratio between Catholic and non-Catholic children in Ireland?

1 2 What proof does the writer give of having no personal financial interest in his proposal?

ANALYS IS 1 In the opening paragraphs the writer seems to be sympathetic to the cause of the poor. He speaks of poor women who would like to have an 'honest livelihood', refers to the children of the poor as 'helpless' and 'innocent' and wishes to make them 'sound, useful members of the commonwealth'. Does the attitude expressed by the writer towards the poor at the beginning of the text prepare the reader for the suggestion he is about to make? Why does Swift want the reader to be 'unprepared' for the proposal in the sixth paragraph?

2 The passage is written in the style of a scientific discourse. Divide the text into the following parts: - Identification of a principal and secondary problem

to be addressed: paragraph(s) - Close analysis of the problem including relevant

statistical data: paragraph(s) - Proposal of solution and its ramifications:

paragraph(s) - Conclusion: paragraph(s)

3 Some features that we normally associate with scientific, economic or political texts are included in the passage. Find examples of the following: - use of statistics; - references to authoritative sources.

4 Focus on the attention to detail. Underline the number of ways a child can be cooked, according to the writer, in the sixth paragraph. Find another example in which the writer shows great attention to detail.

5 What effect do the pseudo-scientific style of the text and the attention to detail create? Which ending would you choose for the following statement? The detached scientific style of the passage and the attention to detail ... a. ... makes the proposal less horrific. b . . . . makes the proposal even more horrific.

6 Find references in the text where the writer describes his proposal as 'modest' or 'humble'. Does the writer's insistence on the modest nature of his proposal make it seem even more outrageous?


Satire

f -

OVER T O Y O U

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Satire is the art of ridiculing a subject through laughter and scorn. While comedy evokes laughter as an end in itself, satire uses laughter as a weapon against a vice. Satire may be directed at an individual, a type of person, a social class, an institution, a political ideology, a nation or even the entire human race. Satirists try to use their art to improve the world we live in. By making the vice they target contemptible and repulsive, they hope to contribute to its elimination (• Visual Link D5).

A satire may have several targets. Making references to Text D12 say which you would consider to be the objects of Swift's satire in A Modest Proposal.

Which contemporary social injustice would you choose to satirise? What preposterous solution to the problem would you put forward as your 'modest proposal'?

Satire does not exist only in literature. It is also popular in films, TV shows, songs, comic strips, cartoons, etc. Can you think of any examples?

L I N K -[ to the world of music After he had seen a documentary about the devastating effects of famine in Ethiopia, Irish pop singer Bob Geldof called upon his fellow musicians to join together to raise funds for the stricken people. He wrote the song Do they know it's Christmas?, which he recorded with a host of other pop celebrities including George Michael, Bono of U2 and Sting. The record was released in November 1984 and was a huge Christmas hit all over the world. All proceeds from the record were spent on helping famine victims in Ethiopia.

ft Read the lyrics of the song and then answer the questions below.

Do they Know it's Christmas?

It's Christmas time There's no need to be afraid At Christmas time We let in light and we banish shade And in our world of plenty We can spread a smile of joy Throw your arms around the world At Christmas time

But say a prayer Pray for the other ones At Christmas time it's hard

But when you're having fun There's a world outside your window And it's a world of dread and fear Where the only water flowing Is the bitter sting of tears And the Christmas bells that ring there Are the clanging chimes of doom Well tonight thank God it's them instead of you

Feed the world Let them know it's Christmas time Feed the world Do they know it's Christmas time at all?

1 Both Bob Geldof's song and Jonathan Swift's essay address social issues. They both try to draw public attention to the problem of poverty and, in the case of Geldof's song, the devastating effect of famine. Is the tone of the two works similar? Which of the two would you consider to be harsher?

2 In the opening lines of the song Geldof underlines man's humanity. Find sentences in which mankind is described as warm and loving. Does Swift make any references to man's goodness in his work? Swift's is a biting attack on man's inhumanity to man. Geldof's work is an appeal to man's humanity. Which of the two is more effective, in your opinion?

3 Do you respond better when people criticise negative aspects of your personality or when they appeal to your more positive instincts?

Gulliver's Travels - Jonathan Swift 5 9

Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift

Does the perfect human being exist? Jonathan Swift certainly did not think so. He was an acute observer of human faults and frailties and pointed out in no uncertain way how imperfect we are. Here are some common faults: pride, greed, aggression, cruelty, jealousy. Add to the list and give a practical example of one of them. For example, greed: sometimes, even though people are very rich, they do not relax and enjoy their wealth but keep working to get even richer.

INTRODUCTION • Gulliver's Travels appeals to both children and adults for different reasons. Children are fascinated by the lone traveller who has adventure after adventure in strange lands peopled by tiny midgets, giants and talking horses. For an adult the book is a highly sarcastic and often funny condem-nation of man's ignorance, cruelty and pride.

THE STORY

10

l.

On being shipwrecked, Lemuel Gulliver swims to the island ofLillipid. He is amazed to find that all the inhabitants are no more than six inches (13 cm) tall. He then travels to other strange places, including Brobdingnag ( • Text D13), a land of giants, before ending his adventures among the Houyhnhnms, a sophisticated and highly intelligent race of horses.

The Benefits of Gunpowder »^•»«i Gulliver explains to the king of Brobdingnag how people in Europe use gunpowder, and offers to help make it for him.

TRAVELS PART II A Voyage to Brobdingnag

Chapter 7 ( . . . )

But, great allowances should be given to a King who lives wholly secluded from the rest of the world, and must therefore be altogether unacquainted with the manners and customs that most prevail in other nations1: the want of2 which knowledge will ever3 produce many prejudices, and a certain narrowness of thinking, from which we and the politer countries of Europe 5 are wholly exempted4. And it would be hard indeed, if so remote a Prince's notions of virtue and vice were to be offered as a standard for all mankind. To confirm what I have now said, and further to show the miserable effects of a confined education, I shall here insert a passage which will hardly obtain belief5. In hopes to ingratiate myself farther into his Majesty's favour6, I told him of an invention discovered between three and four hundred years ago, to make a certain powder, into a heap7 of which the smallest spark of fire falling, would kindle8 the whole in a moment, although it were as big

GLOSSARY •

3. 4. 5.

But, great allowances ... other nations: because the king knew nothing (altogether unacquainted) of the world outside his own kingdom (wholly secluded), we must have sympathy for him and make a special effort to understand him the want of: the lack of

ever: always exempted: free from will ... belief: will be hard to believe In hopes ... favour: in order to make the king like me more heap: a massed quantity kindle: set fire to

I ^ ^ ^ ^


9. rammed: pushed 10. hollow: empty 11. brass: a soft metal 12. lead: a hard metal 13.discharged: shot 14. ranks: lines of soldiers 15.batter: beat, knock 16. masts and rigging:

parts of a ship that hold up the sails

17. lay all waste: destroy everything

18. engine: cannon 19.besieging: attacking 20. rip up: tear up 21. burst: explode 22. splinters: pieces of

wood and stone 23. dashing out:

smashing 24. the manner of

compounding them: how to mix them

25. pretend to dispute: try to challenge or oppose

26. tribute of acknowledgement: thank you

as a mountain, and make it all fly up in the air together, with a noise and agitation greater than is thunder. That, a proper quantity of this powder rammed9 into an hollow10 tube of brass11 or iron, according to its bigness, would drive a ball of iron or lead12 with such violence and speed as nothing was able to sustain its force. That the largest balls 20 thus discharged13, would not only destroy whole ranks1 4 of an army at once, but batter 1 5 the strongest walls to the ground, sink down ships with a thousand men in each, to the bottom of the sea; and when linked together by a chain, would 25 cut through masts and rigging16, divide hundreds of bodies in the middle, and lay all waste17 before them. That we often put this powder into large hollow balls of iron, and discharged them by an engine 1 8 into some city we were besieging1 9 , 30 which would rip up 2 0 the pavements, tear the houses to pieces, burst21 and throw splinters22 on every side, dashing out 2 3 the brains of all who came near. That I knew the ingredients very well, which were cheap, and common; I understood the 35 manner of compounding them24, and could direct his workmen how to make those tubes of a size proportionable to all other things in his Majesty's

kingdom, and the largest need not be above a hundred feet long; twenty or thirty of which tubes, charged with the proper quantity of powder and 40 balls, would batter down the walls of the strongest town in his dominions in a few hours, or destroy the whole metropolis, if ever it should pretend to dispute25 his absolute commands. This I humbly offered to his Majesty as a small tribute of acknowledgment26 in return of so many marks that I had received of his royal favour and protection27. 45

The King was struck with horror at the description I had given of those terrible engines, and the proposal I had made. He was amazed how so impotent and grovelling28 an insect as I (these were his expressions) could entertain such inhuman ideas, and in so familiar a manner as to appear wholly unmoved at all the scenes of blood and desolation, which I had 50 painted as the common effects of those destructive machines, whereof29

he said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been the first contriver 3 0 . As for himself, he protested, that although few things delighted him so much as new discoveries in art or in nature, yet he would rather lose half his kingdom than be privy to31 such a secret, which he 55 commanded me, as32 I valued my life, never to mention any more.

27.marks ... protection: the many favours he had done for me

28. grovelling: low, servile 29. whereof: of which 30. contriver: inventor

31.be privy to: know 32. as: if

Gulliver's Travels - Jonathan Swift 61

A strange effect of narrow principles and short viewsl that a prince possessed of every quality which procures veneration, love, and esteem; of strong parts33, great wisdom and profound learning, endued with34 admirable talents for government, and almost adored by his subjects, should from a nice unnecessary scruple, whereof in Europe we can have no conception, let slip an opportunity to put into his hands, that would have made him absolute master of the lives, the liberties, and the fortunes of his people.

60

33. of strong parts: with a strong character

34. endued with: with

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 According to Gulliver (paragraph 1) why should the king be excused for not being acquainted with the 'manners and customs' of other nations?

2 What are the negative repercussions of the king's 'confined education'? (Paragraph 1)

3 In which lines in the second paragraph does Gulliver define: - gunpowder? Line to - guns/cannons? Line - bullets/cannon balls? Line Why doesn't Gulliver refer to these inventions by name?

4 In the second paragraph Gulliver explains the uses of the powder to the king. Use the text to link the verbs in box A with the expressions in box B.

5 Gulliver says that he knows the ingredients for the powder (paragraph 2). What does he volunteer to do for the king in return for the 'royal favour and protection' he has received?

6 Under what circumstances would the king need the powder, according to Gulliver?

7 How does the king react to Gulliver's proposal?

8 What does he command Gulliver never to do again?

9 What does Gulliver attribute the king's reaction to? (Paragraph 4)

1 0 What opportunity has the king let slip by, according to Gulliver?

A destroy batter sink down cut through lay waste rip up tear dash out

B

the houses to pieces all before them whole ranks of an army at once the brains of all who came near the pavements the strongest walls to the ground masts and rigging ships with a thousand men in each

ANALYS IS 1 From whose point of view is the episode narrated? • Gulliver's • The king's • An external narrator • Both Gulliver's and the king's

2 Focus on the first paragraph. a. Which expressions show that Gulliver feels that his

culture is superior to the king's? b. How would you define Gulliver's attitude towards

the king? • Sympathetic • Patronising II Respectful • Dismissive IS Other:

3 Focus on the second paragraph. a. In his speech on gunpowder Gulliver refers to

numbers and measurements. Find examples in the text.

b . How would you describe Gulliver's description of gunpowder and its uses? ft Logical • Scientific • Incoherent • Subjective • Practical IS Theoretical OS Other:

c. What impression of Gulliver is created? Choose from the following adjectives. • Rational SB Passionate • Precise II Emotional S Scientific • Detached • Logical • Creative IS Other:

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

4 Focus on the third paragraph. a. Underline the words and expressions that convey

the king's: - reaction to Gulliver's proposal; - assessment of Gulliver; - opinion of the creator of gunpowder.

b. On the basis of his reaction to Gulliver's suggestions, which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe the king? • Narrow-minded • Detached • Passionate • Humane • Prejudiced • Conservative • Other:

5 Which of the two characters, Gulliver or the king, represents Swift's point of view? justify your answer.

6 In the first paragraph Gulliver accuses the king of having 'prejudices' and 'narrowness of thinking'. In the second paragraph he speaks of the king's 'confined education' and in the fourth paragraph he refers to his 'narrow principles and short views'. Are these accusations more appropriately applied to the king or to Gulliver? Justify your answer.

7 Re-read the first sentence of the second paragraph. Does the episode Gulliver recounts expose the 'miserable effects' of the 'confined education' of the king? Do you detect an ironic twist in this sentence?

8 Does the physical difference between the king and Gulliver take on another meaning in the light of your analysis?

9 Which of the following are targets of Swift's satire? • The British sense of superiority • The British monarchy • Western civilisation • Gunpowder • Man's insensitivity to the suffering of others • Man's disregard for human life • Man's obsession with power • The British parliamentary system Which target do you think he most successfully ridicules?

1 0 How would you define Swift's style? • Poetic • Figurative • Ornate • Complex • Clear • Simple

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P An unreliable narrator is one whose interpretation and evaluation of events do not coincide with the beliefs held by the author. The unreliability of a narrator is not always immediately obvious. The reader is often initially led to believe that the narrator is reliable, and encouraged to share his viewpoint. The delayed exposure of the fallibility of the narrator adds humour and bite to a satirical text.

In Text D1 3 Gulliver is a fallible narrator. At what point in the passage does it become clear that he is unreliable, i.e. that Swift does not share his beliefs?

The character in the passage who represents Swift's point of view is the king. Briefly re-tell the story from the king's viewpoint. Start like this: One day Gulliver informed me that he had something very important to tell me. He started to describe a powder which he said...

Does the new version maintain the same level of humour and satirical bite as the original?

The king is amazed to hear that humans use gunpowder to kill each other and destroy each other's cities. Gulliver is amazed the king is so ignorant of the ways of the world and the realities of war. Organise a debate in which one side supports the view that in the future, through education and diplomacy, we will be able to build a world which will not need weapons or armies. The other side supports the view that there will always be armies, weapons and wars because man is by nature power-hungry and violent.

Unreliable narrator

TASK

OVER T O Y O U

Writers' Gallery - Jonathan Swift

WRITERS' GALLERY

••••••••I^HH Family and education Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin of

English parents. His father died before he was born and he was maintained by a rich relative. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was an unruly and uninterested student.

Stella In 1689 he moved to England, where he became a secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman. Frustrated in his expectations of a career, he returned to Ireland and was ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. Life as a modest parish priest did not suit him, however, so he returned to Temple's home as a tutor to a young girl, Esther Johnson, who was to play an important role in his life and whom he would later immortalise as 'Stella' in his writings.

In London When his patron died in 1699, Swift returned to Dublin, where he was later joined by Esther-Stella. During one of his frequent trips to London he met Addison and Steele (• p. D104) who published Swift's A Tale of a Tub. Like most writers of the period, Swift was actively involved in politics and initially he supported the Whigs. Disgusted, however, by their alliance with the Dissenters, he joined the Tories. He became a close friend of Tory leaders and was introduced to writers of similar political views, such as Pope (• pp. D23-27), Gay ( • p. D108) and Congreve ( • pp. D33-37). Together they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and collaborate on joint literary projects. It was during his time spent in London that he wrote a series of letters to Esther-Stella, which were posthumously (1768) published as the Journal to Stella. The letters, written in part in baby talk, show Swift's softer side and give a fascinating view of life in London at the beginning of the eighteenth century. While in London Swift started seeing another young lady, whom he called 'Vanessa' in the poem Cadenus and Vanessa. The relationship ended abruptly when 'Vanessa' demanded that he choose between her and Stella. The separation led to Vanessa's death 'of a broken heart' in 1723.

Back in Ireland In 1713 Swift moved back to Ireland where, outraged by the injustices he perceived in England's treatment of Ireland, he used his writing skills to support Irish causes, producing some of his most memorable political pamphlets. The publication of A Modest Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufacture (1720), The Drapier's Letters (1724) and his masterpiece Gulliver's Travels (1726) won him public acclaim. Swift's final years were spent largely alone and with serious health problems, which became even worse after Stella's death in 1728. He died at the age of seventy-eight and was buried in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, by the side of his beloved Stella.

The man and the writer Jonathan Swift was a complex, passionate individual. His biting satirical writing has often given rise to the idea that he was a misanthrope. However, he showed great concern for his fellow human beings, spending a third of his income on charities and dedicating much of his time and writing to the causes of the poor and the victims of injustice.

TASK Jonathan Swift had a complex personality. After reading about his life, what opinion have you formed of the man?

ays

6 4 THE AUGUSTAN AGE 229 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

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WORKS Jonathan Swift was a prolific writer who is best remembered for three great satirical works.

The Battle of the Books (1704) is a mock-heroic satire in which Swift imagines a real battle between books at the Royal Library over the controversy about ancient and modern learning. The Ancients are led by Homer while the Moderns are under the leadership of Milton. A Tale of a Tub (1704) is a satirical allegory about the three major religious groupings in eighteenth-century Britain: Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Dissenters. The narrator tells the story of a father who leaves each of his three sons a coat (the Christian religion) with strict instructions that on no account should they alter it. Peter (St - the Roman Catholic Church), Martin (Luther - the Anglican Church) and Jack (Calvin - the Dissenters) gradually disobey their father by altering their coats to make them more fashionable. Though the book was meant to defend the Church of England, many passages pour a torrent of ridicule on all three opponents. Gulliver's Travels (1726) is generally regarded to be Jonathan Swift's masterpiece, one of the great literary works and perhaps the greatest satiric work of all time. Like all of his other writings, Swift published the Travels under a pseudonym. Several of his writings had already incurred the wrath of important people, and there was enough criticism of the English government and monarchy to bring charges of sedition. Initially Swift set out to write a satire on the vices and follies of his time, but as the work proceeded he widened his aim to target virtually every aspect of human experience. Swift's satire is pointed and pessimistic: his task is to expose absurdities, not to provide remedies. The book takes the form of a parody of travel literature, which at the time was very popular. It is divided into four books: In Book I Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon on a merchant ship, tells of how he was shipwrecked and washed up on the island of Lilliput, where the inhabitants are only six inches tall. Despite their diminutive size, the Lilliputians have delusions of grandeur, and the pomp of their emperor (representing the British monarchy) and their war with their neighbours across the channel (the war between England and France) are made to look ridiculous. In Book II Gulliver is in Brobdingnag, a kingdom of giants. In an interview with the king about European civilisation, Gulliver boasts about the marvels of gunpowder and the glory of the judicial system. To Gulliver's surprise, the king is horrified and says that what he has heard would lead him to believe that mankind is ' the most pernicious Race of little odious Vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth'. In Book III Gulliver visits Laputa, a flying island where the nobles literally have their heads in the cloud. Here the satire is directed against philosophers, men of science and historians. On Laputa Gulliver meets philosophers who have become so absorbed in their speculations that they are totally divorced from reality. In Book IV Gulliver travels to the land of the Houyhnhnms, rational horse-like creatures that are contrasted with the filthy humanlike Yahoos. The two races represent the two extremes of human potential: rationality and bestiality. When Gulliver returns home, he feels so alienated from his own species that he prefers to spend his time in the stable with the horses than with his own family.

TASK Condense the text 'Swift's works' into a thirty-second talk. As you do not have much time you should only choose the most significant information.

Pamela - Samuel Richardson 6 5

Pamela by Samuel Richardson

People have many different ways of letting someone know they like them. Sometimes a smile or a wink is a way of saying you would like to know another person better. A more direct approach would be to say straight out, 'Where have you been all my life?' to someone you have never spoken to before.

1 Try to think of five different strategies that people use to attract the attention of someone they like.

2 Make a list of all the strategies on the board and vote to see which one most people in the class think is most effective.

INTRODUCTION • Samuel Richardson was one of the chief exponents of the epistolary novel in English. An epistolary novel was a series of letters between the main characters, that together made up a coherent story. Pamela was the most successful of this type of novel in the eighteenth century and, like many successful books and films today, encouraged Richardson to write a sequel, Pamela II.

THE STORY Pamela Andrews is a poor, intelligent fifteen-year-old. When her kind employer, Lady B, dies, she has to work for her son, Mr B, who tries to seduce her in every possible way, but she rejects him indignantly. To break down Pamela's resistance, he takes her off to his country house and imprisons her for forty days. He continues to put pressure on her to give in to his desires ( • Text D14) and almost rapes her twice. In desperation Pamela thinks of commit-ting suicide, but she realises that even though her master has treated her abominably, she quite likes many things about him. Mr B accepts that violence and harassment will get him nowhere, and is delighted to find that when he expresses his love for Pamela in gentler terms, she reveals her tender feelings towards him. She turns down his first offer of marriage but eventually accepts that she can trust him and agrees to become his wife. The novel is made up of letters, written mostly by Pamela, and her personal diary of events.

Lucifer in the Shape of my Master This passage is taken from Pamela's diary. She is walking in the garden with Mr B.

Wednesday Morning (...) He presently began by squeezing my hand; and then, truly, all the way we walked, he would put his arm about my waist. I would have removed his arm: but he called me little fool! and bid1 me not distrust his honour. Had he not told me, he said, that I might rely upon it2? And it would be better for me if I did. He then said abundance of kind and praiseful things3, enough to make me proud, had not his designs4 been so apparent. After walking about, he led me into a little alcove5 in the further part of the garden, which having a

• Pamela Andrews, a young servant girl

• Mr B, Pamela's master

Text D14

GLOSSARY • -

3.

bid: ordered rely upon it: count on it abundance ... praiseful things: a lot of compliments designs: objective alcove: a covered, hidden place

ST., ^ ,f* ^


6. which having ... resisted: I agreed to go to the alcove because I knew there was a passage through it

7. teazing: (teasing) playful

8. I might: I should 9. and would ... him:

and wanted to get away from him

10. demean himself: lower himself to my level

11. reverence: respect 12. my ever-honoured

lady: Lady B 13. fast: tight and close 14. notwithstanding:

despite what I had said

15.and had I not ... regardless of: and had I not ignored

16. bold: courageous, less shy

17. use me thus: abuse me like this

18. haughty: arrogant 19. alike: equally 20.and perhaps ... did

not: if I did not obey him he might use my disobedience as an excuse to punish me

21. disdain: it would be dishonourable for him to run after his servant girl

22. throwing abroad: throwing out

23. With unwilling feet: reluctantly, because I did not want to

24. endeavour: try 25. Command from me

... with pleasure: I do not mind dying if that is what you want

26. shew: show 27. seek not: do not try 28. fabric: my character

and morals 29. affected: moved and

touched emotionally 30.yards: 1 yard: 0.9144

m 31. attend him: wait for

him •

passage through it, I the less resisted6; and still the less, as he had led me through once without stopping; but then stopping in it, he began to be 10 very teazing 7 . He made me sit on his knee; and still on my struggling against such a freedom, he bid me rely on his honour, solemnly assuring me that I might8 . But then kissing me very often, though I resisted every time, I told him, at last, and would have got from him 9 , that I would not stay with him in this place. I would not be so freely used. And I wondered 15 he should so demean himself1 0 .1 told him, moreover, that he would level all distance between us, and I should lose all reverence11 for him; though he was the son of my ever-honoured lady12.

He held me fast13 notwithstanding1 4 , professing honour all the time with his mouth, though his actions did not correspond. I begged and prayed 20 that he would let me go: and had I not appeared quite regardless of1 5 all he said, and resolved not to stay, if I could help it, I knew not how far he would have proceeded: (...)

He put his arm round me, and his other hand on my neck; which made me more angry and bold1 6 ; and he said, 'Who then am I?' 'Why' , said I, 25 (struggling from him, and in a great passion) 'to be sure, you are Lucifer himself in the shape of my master, or you could not use me thus1 7 . ' 'These are too great liberties,' said he, in anger; 'and I desire, that you will not repeat them, for your own sake: for if you have no decency towards me, I'll have none towards you.' 30

I was running from him; and had got at a little distance, when he in a haughty 1 8 tone, called out, 'Come back! Pamela, come back when I bid you! ' Too well I knew, as I told you before, that every place was alike1 9

dangerous to me; and that I had nobody to run to for safety: and I stopped at his call; for he stopped too, as if to see if I would obey him, and perhaps 35 to have a pretence against me if I did not 2 0 ; or in disdain21 to run after a girl as me. 'How can I, sir,' said I, throwing abroad22 my supplicating arms, 'how can I go back, to a gentleman who has so demeaned himself to his poor servant girl?' ' C o m e back, ' repeated he in a more haughty tone, throwing out in a threatening manner one arm, and looking taller than 40 usual, as I thought, and he is a tall, and very majestic man. What could I do? With unwilling feet23, and slow, I went back; and seeing him look angry, I held my hands together, and wept, and said, 'Pray sir, forgive me. ' ( . . . ) 'I will endeavour 2 4 , sir,' said I 'always to preserve that decency towards you, that veneration for you, which is due from me to the 45 son of that ever-honoured lady, who taught me to prefer my honesty to my life. Command from me, sir, that life, and I will lay it down with pleasure25, to shew26 my obedience to you. But I cannot be patient, I cannot be passive, when my virtue is in danger. For God's sake, sir, seek not 2 7 to destroy the fabric28 which your good mother took so much pleasure in building up.' 50

He seemed affected29, yet angrily said, he never saw such a fool in all his life! And walking by the side of me some yards30 without saying a word, he at last went in, bidding me attend him 3 1 in the garden after dinner.

Pamela - Samuel Richardson 6 7

COMPREHENS ION 1 What did Mr B tell Pamela to rely on as she tried to resist his advances? 2 Pamela accuses Mr B of 'levelling all distances' between them (lines 16-1 7). Explain what she means in your own words.

3 When Mr B asks 'Who then am I?' (Line 25) What reply does he expect? How does he react to Pamela's answer?

4 Why, according to Pamela, does Mr B stop running after her?

5 Why does Pamela ask for forgiveness? (Line 44)

6 Why does Pamela go back when Mr B calls?

7 What is Pamela prepared to sacrifice for her master? What is she not prepared to sacrifice?

ANALYS IS 1 Find examples of the following narrative techniques in the passage: a. narration of events c. dialogue which is indirectly reported b. dialogue which is directly reported d. description. Which narrative techniques does Richardson use most? 2 From whose point of view* is the story told? Can we tell if Pamela is describing exactly what happened? Have we any direct insight into what Mr B is thinking? How are Mr B's thoughts indirectly presented in the text?

3 Focus on the character of Pamela. Which of the following adjectives best describe her? • Helpless • Obedient • Calculating • Innocent • Two-faced • Dignified • Independent • Moralistic • Determined • Diplomatic

4 Consider how Mr B is presented in the passage. How would you describe him? • Arrogant • Manipulative • Authoritarian • Patient • Tenacious 5 Pamela is told through a series of letters and a personal journal. What effect(s) does the journal style create? • It helps the reader to understand what the narrating character (in this case Pamela) is thinking. • It encourages the reader to identify and sympathise with the narrator. • It gives the reader an objective account of events. • It makes the reader the 'addressee' of the letters or journal and involves him more directly in the story.

• Intimidating

, The novel of incident and the novel of

character

WRITERS WORKSHOP The novel of incident and the novel of charac ter are two broad categories that are widely used to classify novels. The novel of incident is story-driven: the plot is carefully developed and the reader's attention is held by the unfolding of events. The novel of character is character-driven and focuses on the character's motive for what he or she does and how he or she will turn out as a person. In this type of novel the reader finds psychologically complex characters, whose inner worlds of feelings and emotions are explored and analysed.

In the extract you have read is the emphasis on what the characters do or the motives behind their actions? On the basis of your analysis, do you think that Samuel Richardson's Pamela is generally classified as a novel of incident or a novel of character?

Most works strike a balance between the development of storyline and character analysis, but some genres favour one of the two: adventure or science fiction stories, for example, are generally story-driven, while love stories or stories exploring human relationships are usually character-driven. Can you think of a novel, play or film that you would consider to be predominantly story-driven or character-driven?

Do you admire Pamela for the way she deals with Mr B? Do you think her reaction is just right or should she have behaved differently? Discuss in groups.

i 6 8 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years Samuel Richardson was born into a lower middle

class family. When he was seventeen years old he was apprenticed to a printer, whose daughter he married, and in 1721 he set up his own printing business. He was extremely hard-working and his business prospered and grew. On the personal front, however, he suffered tragedy: six of his children died in infancy and his wife died in 1731. Two years later he remarried and had six more children, four of whom survived.

Writing career Richardson's career as a writer began at an early age. By the time he was thirteen he was composing letters for young lovers and writing prefaces and dedications for booksellers. He started novel-writing almost by accident at the age of fifty-one. He was asked to compose a guide to letter-writing on the problems

of daily life for the poorly-educated. While writing the models he occasionally continued the same subject from one letter to another. One such 'series' of letters involved a father writing to his daughter in service on hearing that her master had tried to seduce her. The exchange of letters between father and daughter gave him an idea for a novel. He had heard the story of a young girl in service who had preserved her virtue and was rewarded by marriage, and he used this as his central theme. He interrupted his work on the letter-writing guide and set to work on Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) which he completed in just two months. The collection of model letters was published a year later as Letters to and for Particular Friends. Richardson went on to write two more novels: Clarissa ( 1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-1754) . In later life he suffered from nervous disorders which today would probably be identified as Parkinson's disease. He died in 1761.

SAMUEL RICHARDSON

(1689-1761)

WORKS

a » «

Pamela Richardson, along with Defoe ( • pp. 4 4 - 5 4 ) and Fielding ( • pp. 70-78), is credited with giving shape to perhaps

the most influential literary genre of the past three centuries: the novel. Written in an epistolary form and as a personal journal, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) became, by eighteenth-century standards, a best-seller. The epistolary form which he used in it was already popular in France but Richardson took it to new heights. The single-story plot, built on domestic conflict in familiar indoor settings, contrasted greatly with the episodic adventures in an exotic desert island setting of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe ( • pp. D44-54). Richardson also explored the psychological dimension of characters and showed a deep insight into the workings of the heart. The influential contemporary literary critic Dr Johnson ( • p. D104), said, 'if you were to read Richardson for the story your impatience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself... but there is more knowledge of the human heart in one letter of Richardson's than in all of Tom Jones.' In 1742, Richardson published a second part to Pamela, where the heroine is displayed as a perfect wife and mother, who writes long letters of advice on moral, domestic and general subjects. Although very successful at the time, today it is considered of less importance.

Clarissa Written again in the epistolary form, Clarissa, Richardson's second novel, tells the story of a well-bred young lady who, against the advice of her family, elopes with an unscrupulous man who holds her prisoner and rapes her. When she realises she has made a mistake, she distances herself from

Writers' Gallery - Samuel Richardson

her persecutor and dies alone in shame and grief. Clarissa, the longest novel in the English language (over a million words), was very well received in England and on the continent, where it was translated into French, Dutch and German. Sir Charles Grandison For his third and final novel, Sir Charles Grandison (published in seven volumes 1 7 5 3 - 1 7 5 4 ) , Richardson chose a male protagonist . The novel tells the story of the benevolent Sir Charles, who is torn between his love for a beautiful English woman, Harriet Byron, and an Italian noble lady, Clementina Porretta. Sir Charles is saved from his dilemma when, at the last minute, the Roman Catholic Clementina refuses to marry a Protestant heretic. Sir Charles remains loyal to his faith, returns to England and marries Harriet.

Reputation Samuel Richardson was a self-educated tradesman who had little formal literary training, yet he made an impact on English literature which is nothing less than remarkable. His work, which in the nineteenth century was particularly criticised for excessive sentimentality and moralism, is today acknowledged as having been extremely influential in the development of the English novel.

'He held me fast notwithstanding, professii

honour all the time with his mouth, thougl

his actions did not correspond.' From Pam<

TASK Choose the correct option. 1 Samuel Richardson was

® a p r i n t e r by trade. b j a publisher

2 He suffered

[a] from extremely poor health, [bj devastating personal tragedies.

3 His first novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, is [a~l made up of an exchange of letters

between father and daughter.

about a father struggling to persuade his daughter to preserve her virtue.

4 Pamela aims to !~a~l entertain readers with humorous situations. fb"l stimulate readers to meditate on the

rewarding principles of virtue.

5 Richardson's second novel, Clarissa, is

1 a j a completely different novel, narrated in the third person.

"b] also based on letters.

6 Sir Charles Grandison is

the male protagonist of Richardson's third epistolary novel.

[5] the main character of a play which Richardson wrote in later life.


Tom Jones by Henry Fielding

Think of a film where there is a fight scene and answer the following questions. 1 Who was fighting? Were they individuals or groups? 2 Were they using weapons and, if so, what were they? 3 Was anyone killed or injured? 4 How did the fight end? 5 Was it realistic or comic?

INTRODUCTION • Henry Fielding described Tom Jones as a ' c o m i c epic in prose' . It is indeed epic l e n g t h a n d descr ibes a h u g e cross -sec t ion of people in a h u m o r o u s way. F ie lding h a d an in-de knowledge of h u m a n nature and depicted his characters with all their vices and virtues. Tom Jones is n o m e a n s a perfect h u m a n be ing but , for all his faults, h e c o m e s across as o n e of t h e most lova characters in English literature ( • Visual Link D5).

CHARACTERS

• Tom Jones, Mr Allworthy's nephew; Blifil's half-brother

• Mr AUworthy, a country gentleman; Tom's and Blifil's uncle

• Blifil, Tom's half-brother

• Squire Western, Mr Allworthy's neighbour

• Sophia, Squire Western's daughter

• Thwackum, Tom's and Blifil's teacher

- > GLOSSARY

THE STORY As a new-born baby, Tom is abandoned and found in the bedroom of Mr AUworthy, a kind, gentleman who brings him up along with his dead sister's child, Blifil. The two boys are t different; while Tom is honest, brave and trustworthy, Blifil is insincere, cruel and scheming One of the boys' teachers is Mr Thwackum, a brutish and sadistic church chaplain. He an alliance with Blifil against Tom ( • Text D15) and manages to convince MrAllwo disown the boy. Tom is forced to leave his home and seek his fortune. During his travels Tom has many adventures and shows what a generous and able man is. He is also very handsome and many women fall for him, but he is still in love with childhood sweetheart, Sophia. To his great surprise, Mr AUworthy finds out that Tom's mother was his own sister. He realises that he has been tricked into believing that Tom was wicked and welcomes him home. Tom marries Sophia and forgives everyone who has wronged him, including his b brother Blifil.

Text D15

1. darted: flashed 2. Fie upon it!: archaic

expression of disgust wicked slut: immoral woman hath: has abridged ... tuition: you no longer need lessons from me

3.

A Battle Royal Thwackum and Blifil have heard Tom talking to a girl in the woods and want to know H she is. The girl runs off while Tom faces his two opponents.

... And now Thwackum, having first darted1 some livid lightning from his fiery eyes, began to thunder forth, 'Fie upon it!2 Fie upon it! Mr Jones. Is it possible you should be the person? ' - 'You see, ' answered Jones , 'it is possible I should be here. ' - 'And who, ' said Thwackum, 'is that wicked slut3 with you? ' - 'If I have any wicked slut with me, ' cries Jones , 'it is possible I shall not let you know who she is. ' - T command you to tell me immediately,' says Thwackum: 'and I would not have you imagine, young man, that your age, though it hath 4 somewhat abridged the purpose of tuition5 , hath totally taken away the authority of the master. The relation

Tom Jones - Henry Fielding 71

of the master .and scholar is indel ib le ; as, 10

indeed, all o ther relat ions are; for they all derive their original from heaven. I would have you think yourself, therefore, as much obliged to obey m e now, as when I taught y o u your f irst r u d i m e n t s . ' 'I b e l i e v e you 15 w o u l d , ' cr ies J o n e s , ' b u t t h a t wil l n o t happen, unless you had the same b i rchen 6

argument to convince me. ' 'Then I must tell you plainly,' said Thwackum, 'I am resolved to discover the wicked wretch7 . ' 'And I must 20

tel l you p l a i n l y , ' r e t u r n e d J o n e s , 'I am resolved y o u shal l n o t . ' T h w a c k u m t h e n offered to advance, and J o n e s laid ho ld of his arms; w h i c h Mr Blifi l endeavoured to rescue8, declaring, 'he would not see his old 25 master insulted.'

J o n e s n o w f i n d i n g h i m s e l f engaged wi th two, thought it necessary to rid himsel f of one of his antagonists as soon as possible. He, therefore, applied to the weakest first; 30

and, l e t t i n g t h e parson go, he d i rec ted a b l o w at t h e y o u n g squire 's breast , w h i c h luckily taking place, reduced him to measure his length on the ground9 . Thwackum was so in tent on the discovery, that , the m o m e n t he found himself at liberty, he stept forward directly into the fern1 0 , wi thout any great considerat ion of what might , in the mean time, befal1 1 his friend; but he had advanced a very few paces in to t h e t h i c k e t 1 2 , before J o n e s having defeated Blifil, overtook the parson, and dragged him backward by the skirt of his coat.

T h i s p a r s o n h a d b e e n a c h a m p i o n in his y o u t h , a n d h a d w o n m u c h h o n o u r by his fist, b o t h at school and at t h e university. He had now, indeed, for a great number of years, declined the practice of that noble art; yet was his courage full as strong as his faith, and his body n o less strong t h a n e i ther . He was m o r e o v e r , as t h e reader may, p e r h a p s , h a v e c o n c e i v e d 1 3 , s o m e w h a t irascible in his nature . W h e n he looked back, therefore, and saw his friend stretched out 1 4 o n the ground, and found himself at the same t ime so roughly handled by one w h o had formerly been only passive in all confl icts between them, (a c ircumstance which highly aggravated the whole) his patience at length gave way; he threw himsel f in to a posture of offence, and col lect ing all his force, at tacked Jones in the front, with as much impetuosity as he had formerly attacked him in the rear15.

Our h e r o e 1 6 r ece ived t h e e n e m y ' s a t t a c k w i t h t h e m o s t u n d a u n t e d i n t r e p i d i t y 1 7 , a n d h is b o s o m r e s o u n d e d w i t h t h e b l o w 1 8 . T h i s he p r e s e n t l y 1 9 r e t u r n e d w i t h n o less v i o l e n c e , a i m i n g 2 0 l ikewise at t h e

'lories now finding himself

engaged with two, thought it

necessary to rid himself of one ...'

6. birchen: with a stick (Thwackum used to beat Jones)

7. wretch: evil person 8. endeavoured to

rescue: tried to save 9. reduced him ... on

the ground: he fell and lay on the ground

10. fern: a green plant with large leaves

11.befal: happen to 12. thicket: a group of

bushes and small trees 13.conceived: realised 14. stretched out: lying 15.in the rear: from

behind (Thwackum used to beat him on the backside)

16. heroe: hero 17. undaunted

intrepidity: fearless bravery

18.his bosom ... blow: you could hear a loud noise when his chest (bosom) was hit

19. presently: soon 20. aiming: targeting

4

72 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

21. dexterously: skilfully 22. belly: stomach 23.two pounds ...

proceed: Thwackum had eaten so much (two pounds: one pound: 0.4536 kg) that (whence: from where) when Jones hit him in the stomach there was no noise (hollow: empty)

24. lusty: powerful 25. much more pleasant

... describe: it was more enjoyable and easier to see the fight than to write or read about it

26. the latter: Thwackum 27. that . . . dubious: there

was no doubt who would win the fight

28. engaging: fighting 29.for though ... duet:

although Thwackum (the pedagogue) had recently been used to beating his students individually (the human instrument: the human body), like a musician who plays on his own, he was still able to join Blifil in beating Jones, as if they were two musicians playing a duet

30.The victory ... numbers: the side which had more people would win the fight

31.on a sudden: suddenly

32. paid their compliments: hit

33.d-n'd: damned: an expression which shows you are angry with someone

34. ROYAL: a battle royal is a noisy confused fight

35. raged: continued 36. laid sprawling:

knocked down 37.to apply for quarter:

to surrender, to admit defeat

38.happening... the field: he was going through the field with some friends by chance

parson's breast; but he dexterously21 drove down the fist of Jones, so that it reached only his bel ly 2 2 , where two pounds of beef and as m a n y of pudding were then deposited, and whence consequently no hollow sound could proceed23 . Many lusty24 blows, much more pleasant as well as easy 60 to have seen, than to read or describe25, were given on both sides: at last a violent fall in which Jones had thrown his knees into Thwackum's breast, so weakened the latter26, that victory had been no longer dubious27, had not Blifil, who had now recovered his strength, again renewed the fight, and, by engaging28 with Jones, given the parson a moment's time to shake 65 his ears, and to regain his breath. And now both together attacked our heroe, whose blows did not retain that force with which they had fallen at first; so weakened was he by his combat with Thwackum: for though the pedagogue chose rather to play solos on the human instrument, and had been lately used to those only, 70 yet he still retained enough of his ancient knowledge to perform his part very well in a duet29. The victory, according to m oder n cus tom, was like to be decided by numbers 3 0 , when, on a sudden3 1 , a fourth pair of fists appeared in the battle, and immediately paid their compliments 3 2 to the parson; and the 75 owner of them at the same time, crying out 'Are not you ashamed, and be d—n'd3 3 to you, to fall two of you upon one?' The battle, which was of the kind, that for dist inct ion's sake is called ROYAL34, now raged35 with the utmost violence during a few minutes; till Blifi l be ing a second t i m e laid sprawl ing 3 6 by J o n e s , T h w a c k u m 80 condescended to apply for quarter37 to his new antagonist, who was now found to be Mr Western himself: for in the heat of the action none of the combatants had recognized him. In fact, that honest squire, happening, in his afternoon's walk with some company, to pass through the field38 where the bloody battle was fought, 85 and having concluded from seeing three men engaged, that two of them must be on a side, he hastened 3 9 from his companions , and with more gallantry 4 0 than policy4 1 , espoused4 2 the cause of the weaker party. By which generous proceeding43 , he very probably prevented Mr Jones from b e c o m i n g a v i c t im to t h e w r a t h 4 4 of T h w a c k u m , and to t h e p ious 4 5 90 friendship which Blifil bore his old master; for besides the disadvantage of such odds46, Jones had not yet sufficiently recovered the former strength of his broken arm4 7 . This reinforcement, however, soon put an end to the action, and Jones with his ally48 obtained the victory.

39. hastened: left quickly 40. gallantry: courage 41. policy: wisdom, sagacity 42. espoused: supported 43. By which generous

proceeding: thanks to his help

44. wrath: anger

45. pious: hypocritical. Blifil seemed to be a perfect, virtuous boy, but he was insincere and calculating

46. odds: probability. In the fight the odds were against Jones winning because he

was up against two opponents

47. broken arm: Jones had broken his arm while rescuing Mr Western's daughter, Sophia, when she fell off her horse

48. ally: Mr Western

Tom Jones - Henry Fielding 238

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What does Tom Jones refuse to tell Thwackum?

2 What expression does Thwackum use to refer to the lady who is hiding?

3 What excuse does Blifil make for getting involved in the fight?

4 While Tom is fighting with Blifil what does Thwackum do? Is he concerned about Blifil's well-being?

5 How did Thwackum 'win honour' at school and at university?

6 When Tom was Thwackum's student, why was he passive in all conflicts between them? In what sense did Thwackum, the teacher, attack Tom from the rear?

7 Why did no 'hollow sound' emerge from the parson's belly?

8 What saved Thwackum from being beaten by Tom?

9 Why does Squire Western feel that the parson should be ashamed of himself?

TO Apart from the fact that he was fighting against two adversaries, what made Tom Jones's chances of obtaining victory slim?

ANALYS IS 1 Which narrative mode is used in the text? • Narration of events • Dialogue • Description

2 Is the narrator* internal or external to the story? Does the reader see the episode from more than one point of view*?

3 Find a sentence in which the narrator addresses the reader directly. Find a line in the text where the narrator refers to the art of writing. Who does the pronoun 'our' refer to in line 54? Would you define the relationship between the narrator and the reader as close or distant? Which of the following words would you choose to define the narrator? • Detached • Unobtrusive • Omnipresent • Interfering • Objective • Humorous • Other:

4 Before becoming a novelist Henry Fielding was a successful playwright. What aspect of his novel-writing was clearly influenced by his experience in the theatre? What elements of the passage you have just read would make it suitable for a stage performance?

5 Are the characters in the passage presented through: - their words and actions? - their thoughts and feelings? Is there any evidence in the text that Fielding is interested in the inner worlds of his characters?

6 Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe Tom? • Arrogant • Heroic • Gallant • Impetuous • Stoic

7 Fielding often plays with the names of his characters. Thwackum is a combination of 'thwack', which means 'to give a hard and noisy blow' and 'um' which means 'them'. Why does Fielding give the character this name?

8 Find information in the text that suggests that Thwackum: - is authoritarian; - has a fiery temper; - is gluttonous; - has no concern for others; - inflicts corporal punishment on his students; - has always enjoyed physical combat. Thwackum is a teacher and a parson. Is his behaviour fitting for an educator and a man of God?

9 Thwackum personifies hypocrisy, one of the vices that Fielding targets throughout his novel. How would you describe the way in which Fielding attacks Thwackum and what he represents? • Bitter • Sarcastic • Humorous • Effective • Pedantic • Heavy-handed

1 0 Focus on the description of the fight scene (paragraphs 2-8) . Find where the narrator: - describes the blows as pleasant to see; - compares fighting to playing music; - refers to blows as 'compliments'.

Which of the following adjectives best suits the description in your opinion? • Light-Hearted • Solemn • Graphic • Violent • Realistic • Other:

1 1 What is the overall tone of the passage? • Satirical • Light-hearted • Detached • Philosophical • Rational • Other:

1 2 Fielding described his novel as a 'comic epic in prose'. Can you identify both epic and comic elements in the passage you have read?

239 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' WORKSHOP The narrator In a novel the person who is telling the story is referred to as 'the narrator'. The narrat

may be first-person or third-person. • The first-person narrator has a part in the story. He speaks as 'I' and usually talks

about himself although he may also narrate a story about other people. • The third-person narrator stands outside the story. He always refers to the characters

by name or uses the third-person pronouns 'he', 'she' or 'they'. The third-person narrator may be omniscient or non-omniscient.

• The omniscient narra tor knows everything about the f ictional world he is describing. He reports on all the characters and events and knows not only what characters do but also their thoughts and motivations.

• The non-omniscient narrator tells the story in the third person, but limits himself to what is experienced, thought and felt by a single character or at most by a very limited number of characters in the story. The narrator may also be intrusive or non-intrusive.

• The intrusive narrator has opinions about the characters and expresses his views on the personalities or events.

• The non-intrusive narrator does not comment or evaluate. He remains impartial and describes without intruding.

Referring to the definitions above and the passage you have read, explain why the narrator in Henry Fielding's Tom jones is defined as a third-person omniscient intrusive narrator.

OVER T Q Y O U The intrusive narrator usually openly addresses the reader to c o m m e n t or evaluate on what is happening in the story. He may summarise past events, anticipate future developments or offer moral generalisations on topics that are related or unrelated to the plot. Read the following extract from Tom jones. Add an intrusion in which the narrator addresses the reader directly. Example: Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London. I regret, reader, that I cannot tell you exactly what he was doing because it was a delicate matter of a private nature.

From Tom Jones, Chapter III Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London, on some very particular business (...) He came to his house very late in the evening and after a short supper with his sister, retired much fatigued to his chamber. Here, having spent some minutes on his knees (...) he was preparing to step into bed, when, upon opening the cloaths, to his great surprise, he beheld an infant wrapt up in some coarse linnen in a sweet and profound sleep, between his sheets. He stood some time lost in astonishment at this sight; but as good nature had always the ascendant in his mind, he soon began to be touched with sentiments of compassion for the little wretch before him.

Thwackum kept discipline in the classroom by beating his students, and in the text you have read Tom is, in some ways, getting his own back on his old teacher. Do you think that corporal punishment might be an effective way of keeping students under control? What do you think are the best ways to maintain discipline in a classroom? Discuss with your classmates.

Writers' Gallery - Henry Fielding

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years Henry Fielding was born into an aristocratic

family in Somerset, in 1707. He was educated first at Eton, then for two years at the Dutch University of Leyden. A decline in family fortunes obliged him to interrupt his studies and return to London where, in the nine-year period from 1728 to 1737, he wrote over twenty plays. Much of his work was satirical and targeted the leading political figures of the day, exposing political and social corruption. His last play, Love in Several Masques, enraged the government to the extent that it introduced the Licencing Act of 1737, according to which all plays had to be submitted for the censorship of the Lord Chamberlain. Career Fielding decided to stop writing for the theatre and turned his literary talents to novel-writing. He married a lady of

means and resumed his legal studies, qualifying as a court lawyer in 1740. In his legal work he came into contact with people of all social ranks, and this helped him to see the good and evil in society, which he describes in his novels.

In 1744 his wife died and, three years later, in the face of much criticism, he married her former maid. He continued to be successful in his legal career. In 1748 he was made Justice of the Peace for Westminster and the following year London Magistrate. He was seriously concerned about social injustice and judicial corruption, and dedicated much of his time to improving prison conditions and fighting for judicial reform. He and his brother John were responsible for London's first organised police force. Fielding's health was poor, so in 1754 he decided to move to Portugal, where he hoped the more temperate climate would help him recover. After a few months, however, he died and was buried in the English cemetery in Lisbon.

HENRY FIELDING

(1707-1754)

WORKS Plays Fielding was a successful playwright and wrote some notable plays including Tom Thumb: a Tragedy (1730), which

ridicules one of the most popular forms of theatre at the time: the heroic tragedy.

Novels His true talent emerged, however, when he turned his attention to novel-writing. His first novel is a parody of Samuel Richardson's best selling Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded ( • pp. D65-67). Fielding deplored the sentimentality, hypocrisy and middle-class moralising of Richardson's work. In his novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741) he depicts Richardson's central character not as an innocent virtuous girl but as a scheming, devious social climber. His second novel, The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), tells the story of Pamela's good and modest brother Joseph, who has to defend his virtue from the attacks of his mistress, Lady Booby. In 1747 Fielding began work on his greatest literary achievement: The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling ( • pp. D70-74).

Features of Tom Jones More than any other writer of his time, he saw the vast potential of the novel as a new literary genre. Several features of his novel mark it out as a clear development of and improvement on the works of Defoe and Richardson: • the plot is no longer a series of episodes or a single story: it involves a large cast of characters,

representing various social ranks, and the episodes are interwoven in a structured and organised way;


« «i

TASK Prepare to answer these questions in no more than 1 0 0 words:

a. What were Henry Fielding's most memorable works? b . What are the innovative elements in his novels?

• each of the novel's eighteen books is prefaced by an introductory chapter in which the reader is reminded that what he is reading is f iction, and instructions are given on how to approach what for contemporary readers was a relatively new literary form;

• an omniscient third-person narrator is used to comment on the action. The reader is not asked to identify with the protagonists, and the detachment allows him to appreciate the comic episodes;

• the story is not used as a vehicle for Puritan moralising. Tom is not, for example, criticised for his numerous sexual encounters.

Fielding's belief that man, whatever his f inancial standing or social background, has a natural inclina-tion towards goodness emerges indirectly from the action in the novel and the warmly humane manner in which the characters are portrayed. Fielding's classical education and aristocratic family background distinguished him from other novelists of the early eighteenth century, like Defoe and Richardson. He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with heroic actions but with the trivial events of daily life. His final novel Amelia shows his deep concern for social issues. His humour and his innovations in the structure of the novel have earned him the title of 'father of the English comic novel'.

Tristram Shandy - Laurence Sterne 7 7

Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne

Can you explain the play on words and double meanings in the following sentences?

In jail, convicts use cell phones. Math teachers have lots of problems. Santa's helpers are subordinate clauses. It is better to love a short girl than not a tall. When a clock is hungry it goes back four seconds. To some, marriage is a word; to others, a sentence.

INTRODUCTION • Tristram Shandy is unique in the history of English literature. In a period when the c o n v e n t i o n s for the nove l were be ing laid d o w n b y writers such as Defoe, Fielding and Richardson, Laurence Sterne chal lenged those convent ions . Unf in ished sentences, b lank pages, exuberant digres-sions, wordplay, dashes, diagrams and eccentric typography are just some of the innovative features of this remarkable work. The most revolut ionary aspect, however, is the t ime structure. Sterne does n o t present the reader with a chronologica l order of events, but follows the t h o u g h t patterns of the main character. This means that ideas and stories are mixed up together in a confused way just as they are in our minds ( • Visual Link D5).

THE STORY In simple terms Tristram Shandy is an autobiography in which Tristram tells the story of his life from infancy, through adolescence, and up to early manhood. However, most of the book is a series of digressions which move away from the main story into areas which range from philosophy and science to religion and military strategy. The reader is dragged away from the main story to such an extent that Tristram's birth is only described in Volume III. Tristram goes into great detail in describing his father, Walter, a man of great learning who tends to get lost in convoluted philosophising and his Uncle Toby ( • Text D16) who is obsessed with military fortifications. The book ends in Volume IX with yet another digression which leaves the reader wondering why the book should finish at that particular point.

You Shall See the Very Place M S B When he was a soldier, Uncle Toby was wounded in his private parts. In this text he offers to show Mrs Wadman, whom he likes, where exactly he was wounded. Corporal Trim is Uncle Toby's servant.

Volume IX, Chapter XX

— You shall see the very place, Madam, said my uncle Toby. Mrs Wadman b lush'd 1 — look'd towards the door — turn'd pale —

CHARACTERS

• Uncle Toby, Tristram's uncle

• Mrs Wadman, a lady Uncle Toby likes

• Corporal Trim, Uncle Toby's servant

GLOSSARY • -

Note: the verbal suffix -erf was commonly spelt -'d

1. blush'd: became red in the face


2. slightly: a bit 3. for the sake of: in

order to help 4. L—d: Lord 5. drop down: faint 6. Whilst: while 7. parlour: sitting room 8. garret: small room in

the attic 9. prithee: an archaic

form of 'please' 10. step directly for it:

get it now 11.Montero cap: a

hunter's hat 12. lame: disabled 13. quoth: said 14. shews: shows 15.mere words: words

alone 16.first springs:

beginning 17. mist which hangs

upon: fog that surrounds

18. endeavour: try 19. thrice: three times 20. emunctories: nasal

passages 21. whereabouts: where 22. blow: injury 23. gave a slight glance:

quickly looked at 24. waistband: the top

part of his trousers 25.plush breeches: good

quality trousers 26. It fell out otherwise:

something different happened

27.St Nicolas: a fortification

28. salient: projecting 29. St Roch: a

fortification 30. stick a pin: point to,

using a pin 31.sensorium: brain 32.Namur: city in

Belgium where Uncle Toby fought

33. purchased: bought 34. pasted down: stuck

on 35. aid: help 36. lumber: material that

has been stored away

blush'd slightly2 again — recovered her natural colour — blush'd worse than ever; which for the sake of3 the unlearned reader, I translate thus — "L—d4! I cannot look at it — What would the world say if I look'd at it? I should drop down5, if I look'd at it — I wish I could look at it — There can be no sin in looking at it. —I will look at it." Whilst6 all this was running through Mrs Wadman's imagination, my uncle Toby had risen from the sopha, and got to the other side of the par-lour7-door, to give Trim an order about it in the passage —

* * * * * * * * * * *

* * * * * — I believe it is in the garret8, said my uncle Toby — I saw it there, an' please your honour, this morning, answered Trim — Then prithee9, step directly for it10, Trim, said my uncle Toby, and bring it into the parlour. The Corporal did not approve of the orders, but most chearfully obey'd them. The first was not an act of his will — the second was; so he put on his Montero cap11, and went as fast as his lame12 knee would let him. My uncle Toby returned into the parlour, and sat himself down again upon the sopha. — You shall lay your finger upon the place — said my uncle Toby. — I will not touch it, however, quoth13 Mrs Wadman to herself. This requires a second translat ion:— it shews14 what little knowledge is got by mere words15 — we must go up to the first springs16. Now in order to clear up the mist which hangs upon17 these three pages, I must endeavour18 to be as clear as possible myself. Rub your hands thrice19 across your foreheads — blow your noses — cleanse your emunctories20 — sneeze, my good people! — God bless you — Now give me all the help you can.

Volume IX Chapter XXVI (...)

— And whereabouts21, dear Sir, quoth Mrs Wadman, a little categorically, did you receive this sad blow22? — In asking this question, Mrs Wadman gave a slight glance23 towards the waistband24 of my uncle Toby's red plush breeches25, expecting naturally, as the shortest reply to it, that my uncle Toby would lay his fore-finger upon the place — It fell out otherwise 2 6 — for my uncle Toby having got his wound before the gate of St Nicolas21, in one of the traverses of the trench, opposite to the salient2 8 angle the demibastion of St Roch29; he could at any time stick a pin30 upon the iden-tical spot of ground where he was standing when the stone struck him: this struck instantly upon my uncle Toby's sensorium31 — and with it, struck his large map of the town and citadel of Namur'2 and its environs, which he had purchased3 3 and pasted down 3 4 upon a board by the Corporal's aid35, during his long illness — it had lain with other military lumber3 6 in the garret ever since, and accordingly the Corporal was detached in to the garret to fetch it.

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Tristram Shandy - Laurence Sterne 7 9

My uncle Toby measured off thirty toises37 , with Mrs Wadman's scissors, from the returning angle before the gate of St Nicolas; and with such a vir-gin modesty laid her finger upon the place, that the goddess of Decency, if then in being — if not, 'twas her shade38 — shook her head, and with a finger wavering39 across her eyes — forbid her to explain the mistake.

ss 37. toises: units of

measurement 38.if not ... shade: if she

was not there, it was her shadow

39. wavering: shaking

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 The passage revolves around a basic misunder-standing about the word 'place'. When Uncle Toby in line 8 offers to show Mrs Wadman the very place, he intends the place (on a map) where he suffered his injury. What does Mrs Wadman think he means?

2 What is Mrs Wadman's reaction to being shown the place? Is she at all curious?

3 In line 20 Uncle Toby gives Trim an order 'about it'. Is it immediately clear what 'it' refers to?

4 Uncle Toby orders Corporal Trim to 'step directly for it' (line 24). What physical handicap makes 'stepping directly' an act which is 'not of his (Corporal Trim's) will', i.e. something he cannot do even if he wants to?

5 In lines 3 0 - 3 3 the misunderstanding between Uncle Toby and Mrs Wadman continues. What is Mrs Wadman referring to when she says she will not touch 'it'?

6 Uncle Toby suffered his injury 'below the waist'. Where is this made obvious in the text? Does this explain Mrs Wadman's embarrassed reaction to Uncle Toby's suggestion that she should see the place?

7 Where and how was Uncle Toby injured?

8 What was the 'it' (referred to in question 3) that Corporal Trim was sent off to get?

9 Why didn't Mrs Wadman explain her misunderstanding to Uncle Toby?

ANALYS IS 1 The chapter opens with Uncle Toby and Colonel Trim calling upon Mrs Wadman. What do you think the asterisks at the beginning of text represent? • Bad language which is unprintable. • Gestures such as shaking hands, sitting down, etc. II The pleasantries exchanged by the characters.

2 Why does the narrator choose to use asterisks? Because: • what is said would be offensive to the reader. • the initial exchanges between the characters would

be of little interest to the reader. • they liven up the page graphically.

3 In which line in the opening paragraph does the narrator refer to the readers?

4 In lines 8-11 the narrator describes Mrs Wadman's reaction to Uncle Toby's proposal, which he then translates into thoughts in lines 12-17. Link each reaction to a thought. Example: Reaction: Mrs Wadman blush'd Thought: L d! I cannot look at it.

Reaction Thought Look'd towards the door Turn'd pale Blush'd slightly again Recovered her natural colour Blush'd worse than ever

5 Consider the exchange between Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim in lines 20-29 . Is the complete dialogue reported? What graphical devices does the narrator use to replace the missing information?

6 In lines 3 4 - 3 8 the narrator again addresses the reader. He announces that he is going to 'clear up the mist', implying that he is going to clarify some ideas that may not have been fully understood. He says he must clear himself. What does he invite the reader to do? In what way has the reader 'cleared' himself? Can you explain the play on word 'clear'?

7 It is not until Chapter XXVI that the misunderstanding about the word 'place' is resolved and the meaning of 'it' is revealed to the reader. How does delaying these revelations affect the text? • It intensifies the humour. • It frustrates the reader. • It builds up expectation. • It confuses the reader.


8 Which adjective(s) would you choose to define the tone in which the narrator addresses the reader? • Friendly • Detached • Pedantic • Sarcastic • Playful • Serious • Other:

9 Laurence Sterne was influenced by the philosopher John Locke's theory on the associaton of ideas, which holds that man's thoughts are linked together irrationally, without any apparent logical connections. Are there any examples of incomplete, interrupted

ideas or illogical associations in the text that show the Lockean influence in Sterne's writing?

1 0 Laurence Sterne is generally acknowledged as an innovator of the highest originality who pointed the way for twentieth-century writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust. Like his modern-day counterparts, Sterne transforms his readers from passive recipients to active contributors. In what way is the reader called upon to make an active contribution to the text you have just studied?

The anti-novel

I i tf-V' I TASK

K i l l f i t s 5 • .

Jmk > ' OVER T O Y O U

WRITERS' WORKSHOP The term anti-novel refers to novels that break with the traditional conventions of the genre. Anti-novels rely for their effect on the confounding of the reader's expectations by: • the omission or annihilation of traditional elements (character, plot etc.); • the introduction of innovative elements.

Laurence Sterne is widely considered to be the father of the English anti-novel. Some of the anti-novel features of his masterpiece Tristram Shandy include: - a non-conventional plot in which the hero of the story is born in the third volume of the book; - an eccentric narrator who, for example, tells the reader to turn back several pages and read

a passage a second time; - syntactical, layout and typographical innovations such as unfinished sentences, blank

pages and dashes or asterisks which the reader must interpret. Which of the features of the anti-novel can you identify in the passage you have read?

An example of a typographical innovation which Sterne used in Tristram Shandy can be seen in the following extract from Volume IX, Chapter 4:

Whilst a man is free — cried the Corporal, giving a flourish with his stick thus —

A thousand of my father's most subtle syllogisms could not have said more for celibacy.

Use a typographical feature to express an idea of your own. For example: I got the ball on the halfway line. I skipped past a midfield player and a defender. There was just the goalkeeper between me and the goal. I ran first to the left, dropped my shoulder, rounded him on the right and stuck the ball into the left hand corner of the goal.

In Tristram Shandy Laurence Sterne broke all the rules that had been established for novel writing. Do you know any form of contemporary comedy (films, TV shows, stand-up comedians) that you would consider unconventional? In what way are they innovative?

Writers' Gallery - Laurence Sterne

aisiia WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years Laurence Sterne was born in Ireland of English

parents. When he was eleven years old his family settled in Halifax, in the north of England, and he attended the local grammar school. In 1731 Sterne's father died, leaving the family penniless. With the financial help of a generous relative, Sterne succeeded in entering Jesus College, Cambridge, as a sizar (poor student) and received his degree in 1737. He then entered the Anglican church and became a vicar in a small parish in Yorkshire.

Family life In 1741 Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley. However, their family life was not very happy. Despite personal misfortune, Sterne seemed to make the most of his situation. He spent his time playing the violin, reading widely, painting,

socialising with the local gentry and courting the local ladies. He earned a reputation as a preacher and his sermons were eagerly awaited.

Writing career In 1759 he began work on his novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman. The first version of Volumes I and II was rejected, but a revised version of the material was published in 1760. The novel was successful despite the fact that many influential men of letters, including Dr Johnson (• p. D104), Richardson ( • pp. D65-69) and Goldsmith ( • pp. 38-43), expressed negative opinions. Sterne became a celebrity and was well received by London's fashionable society and invited to court. As a result of his literary success he was offered the curacy of Coxwold in Yorkshire, where he named his home, Shandy Hall. In 1761 he published four more volumes of Tristram Shandy, which again met with great success. He undertook a seven-month tour of France and Italy during 1765, which provided him with material for a second novel, A Sentimental Journey (published in 1768). After his travels he returned to London, where he fell in love with Mrs Eliza Draper, the young wife of an official of the East India Company, for whom he wrote a journal (Letters from Yorick to Eliza), which was published after his death in 1768. Soon after his burial Sterne's body was taken by grave robbers and used for an anatomy lecture in Cambridge. Someone recognised the body, and it was quietly returned to the grave. It is now buried close to Shandy Hall, which has become a museum.

• S ^ ^ ^ H f f l P W R I ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H Tristram Shandy Sterne's literary reputation is built mainly on his masterpiece The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,

Gentleman. Written in nine volumes, it is unquestionably one of the most original works in the history of English literature. There is no plot in the conventional sense of the word (the reader has to wait until Volume III for the main protagonist to be born) and there is no clearly identifiable beginning, middle or end to the storyline. Essentially the book is a series of exuberant digressions on subjects as diverse as birth and death, joy and sorrow, wit and folly. The narrator, Tristram, introduces the reader to a series of memorable characters: • Walter, Tristram's father, whose obsession is science; • Uncle Toby, Walter's brother, whose passion is the recreation of military sieges; • Corporal Trim, who shares Toby's love for all things military;

LAURENCE STERNE

(1713-1768)


TASK Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Laurence Sterne.

The title page for an early nineteenth-century edition of A Sentimental Journey.

lit m Arr.v a I.JAM . Puhlish'd by IS. I iufl-h<'8. Sulloll.- Strrrt.

and mm/ /"• luiil <n ill /'".i/mvAV/., 1ROB.

'"><• CapiiW. IW-«

• Parson Yorick, the argumentative yet amiable local vicar; • Dr Slop, the incompetent man midwife who delivers Tristam; • Mrs Wadman, the neighbour who wishes to marry Toby. Uncle Toby and Parson Yorick are generally regarded as two of the great comic characters in English literature. The cast of eccentric characters is only one example of originality in Tristram Shandy. Sterne seems to have set out to de l iberate ly u n d e r m i n e the rules for n o v e l wri t ing as es tab l i shed by Defoe , Richardson and Fielding. Indeed, his work is often referred to as an anti-novel. Other examples of innovation are: • the fragmented storyline, in which the sequence of events is deliberately disordered. Sterne

maintained that this non-l inear approach to storytelling was more successful in capturing the essence of human experience;

• a new perception of time. Influenced by Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding, Sterne believed that time as measured by the clock had little relation to time as perceived by the human mind;

• typographical innovations which included blank pages, dots, dashes, passages in foreign languages, chapters reduced to one line and misplaced chapters.

Sent imental Journey Sterne's second and last novel Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768) is written in a similar style to Tristam Shandy. In it Sterne uses the character of Parson Yorick, who describes his journey through France (he never actually reaches Italy). The novel is a parody of the travel literature which was popular at the time and, in particular, the work of Tobias Smollet, who is caricatured in the book as Smelfungus. The extent of Laurence Sterne's creative genius was only truly appreciated after his death. His great skill in creating comic characters influenced a host of later writers, including Charles Dickens ( • Module F). His e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with the n o t i o n of t ime and free association of ideas foreshadowed Bergson's theory of 'la duree' and James Joyce's ( • Module G) 'stream of consciousness ' . He is widely regarded as one of the truly outstanding figures in English literature.

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ontext Historical and Social Background

Britain 1625-1702 In order to understand the political and social developments in Britain in the seventeenth century, we must first have a clear idea of the religious make-up of the country. The vast majority of the population belonged to one of the following three religious groups:

• The Church of England (Anglican Protestants). This was the official state Church as established by Henry VIII during the Reformation. It did not differ greatly from the Roman Catholic Church and had a hierarchical structure governed by archbishops and bishops. To many English people it was a living symbol of their country's independence from what they saw as a corrupt Pope in Rome.

• The Roman Catholic Church (Catholics). A sizeable minority did not accept the Reformation and remained Catholic in the hope that the Reformation would be overturned and that their religion would become the religion of state as it had been in the past.

• Puritans, Presbyterians and Dissenters. These groups, also known as non-conformists, started to form during the reign of Elizabeth I. They were Protestants who believed that the Reformation had not been radical enough and that the Church of England was still too close to the Roman Catholic Church. They elected their ministers and criticised as undemocratic the hierarchical

structure of the other Churches. They had very strict moral principles and believed that the way to salvation lay in a life of hard work and avoidance of all forms of frivolous entertainment.

As we shall now see, these religious differences were to have an enormous influence on seventeenth-century Britain.

The Tudor monarchs had made it clear, beyond any doubt, that it was the king or queen who ruled the country and not Parliament. This autocratic attitude was brought to even further lengths by James I and reached a high point during the reign of Charles I ( 1625-1649) , who believed he had a divine right to rule and his acts were answerable only to God. In 1629 Charles even dissolved Parliament and ruled for eleven years without one.

'ing Charles I.

DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS

/249 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

King v. Parliament

• Visual Links D1 and D2

The Civil War

Oliver Cromwell

The Republic

The Restoration

• Visual Link D3

fames II

This is an illustration (1658) of Oliver Cromwell standing

on Error and Fiction. The three figures on the column on

the right are England, Scotland and Ireland.

The Puritans, however, refused to accept passively the systematic discrimination they were subjected to. The House of Commons gradually became a Puritan stronghold from which opposition to the king was organised. When Charles was forced to reopen Parliament in 1640 to ask for taxes to finance a war in Scotland, Parliament refused to help him and insisted on having more say in the run-ning of the country. They also accused him of not doing enough to suppress Catholics, though his unwillingness to do so may have been because his wife was Catholic. The breaking point between the two sides came when Parlia-ment demanded control of the army (1642). Charles's refusal meant that Civil War was inevitable.

A Puritan army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, was organised to fight against the king's royalist forces, which included lords, nobles and members of the Anglican church. The Puritans were popularly known as 'Roundheads' because they had very short hair while the supporters of Charles were known as 'Cavaliers'. The war ended with a Puritan victory and Charles was executed on June 30th 1649. Cromwell and his followers set about founding a republic, which became known as the Commonwealth. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished while the country was ruled according to Puritan principles. The new republic's greatest asset was Cromwell, a charismatic political leader and a brilliant military strategist at the head of the efficient 'New Model Army'. His military exploits included the suppression of rebellions in Ireland and Scotland and the defeat of both Holland and Spain. On his death in 1658 there was no one of the same calibre to follow him, so the Commonwealth fell into decline and eventually collapsed in 1660. After twenty years of political strife, the English people were happy to welcome back the monarchy in the form of Charles II, who had lived in exile in France. This period is known as the Restoration because the system of government returned to what it had been before the Cromwellian revolution. Opposition from Catholics and Puritans was suppressed but Charles, mindful of the mistakes his predecessors had made, was careful to consult Parliament before making decisions, and so managed to maintain a peaceful balance of power. The relative tranquillity of Charles' reign, which lasted twenty-five years, was interrupted when James II ( 1685-1688) came to the throne and once again religion was a catalyst for conflict . James was a Catholic and wanted to re-establish Catholicism as the main religion in the land. His policy of appointing Catholics to top government positions was a serious threat to a Protestant

Historical and Social Background 8 5 uUffl

establishment that feared losing power. They found a champion, however, in William I II ( 1689-1702) , whose Protestant army forced James to flee from England to Ireland. William followed him across the Irish Sea and his victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 marked the definitive end to any Catholic hopes of ever again acceding to the English throne. William's victory became known as the Glorious Revolution because he was the first monarch to officially recognise the constitutional rights of Parliament. The Bill of Rights, an 'Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subjects' (1689) clearly marked the boundaries of the monarch's powers; for example: • no law could be passed or repealed without the approval of Parliament; • all taxation had to be approved by Parliament; • no armed forces could be kept within the kingdom without the consent of

Parliament. With the passing of this bill the era of the divine right of kings had finally come to an end.

William III

The Glorious Revolution

The Bill of Rights

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T H E D I V I N E R I G H T O F K I N G S

Read what fames I said about the Divine Right of kings. The kings were, before any Parliaments were holden1 or laws made; and by them was the land distributed (which at the first was wholly2 theirs), states erected and forms of government devised3 and established. And it follows of necessity the Kings were the authors and makers of the laws and not the laws of the Kings. And according to these fundamental laws it lies in the power of no Parliament to make any kind of law without his sceptre giving it the force of a law. (...) And as ye4 see it manifest that the king is over-lord of the whole land, so is he master over every person that inhabiteth the same, having power over the life and death of every one of them (...) A good king will frame5 all his actions to be according to the law, yet is he not bound thereto6 but of his good will, and for good example-giving to his subjects. (1598)

(...) The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's lieutenants7 upon earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation is compared to the Divine power. (From a speech to Parliament - 1610) GLOSSARY

1. holden: held 2. wholly: completely

3. devised: planned 4. ye: you 5. frame: shape

6. bound thereto: obliged to do it

7. lieutenants: substitutes

TASK These sentences re-phrase the concepts expressed in the texts above. Put them in the order they appear in the text.

The king is the supreme ruler of the land and of all its people. A good ruler will act according to the law not because he has to, but out of good will and to set a good example for his subjects. Parliament cannot make laws unless the king agrees. Monarchs existed before Parliaments and laws were created. Kings are God's representatives on earth and their power derives to them from God.


TASKS — — 1 The seventeenth century was an age of conflict. Match the opponents in columns A and B.

A B

Anglican protestants James II Kings Roundheads Cavaliers Catholics Oliver Cromwell Parliament William III Charles 1

2 Find words that match these definitions. a. Religious groups that distanced themselves radically

from the Church of Rome. b. Principle stating that the monarch is only

answerable to God. c. Republic founded by Cromwell. d. Return of the monarchy. e. Conflict with little bloodshed. f. Document limiting the monarch's powers.

THE ECONOMY AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Improved standard of living

Free time

London

What was life like for the average English person in this century of religious and political conflict? In general, working life was very much as it had been in Tudor times, as

eighty percent of the population continued to make a frugal living off the land. In the second half of the century, however, there was a marked improvement in the economy, mainly thanks to newly-created wealth being brought back from the colonies. The way in which spices were used to preserve meat is an example of how colonial expansion improved the quality of life in England. Previous generations only ate fresh meat because they had no way of preserving it and consequently, for long periods during the winter, they were limited to a vegetarian diet. When pepper and other spices were brought back from India and the East, meat was available all year round. How people spent their free time was greatly influenced by the political climate. When the Puritans came to power, all forms of public entertainment were banned and all theatres were closed. The Restoration produced a strong reaction against the moral rigidity of the Commonwealth and people started having fun again. London became a booming theatrical centre, while sports of various kinds were played, including fox hunting and a rudimentary form of football. London continued to be the country's main social, political and economic centre despite two events which greatly disturbed the life of the city. The outbreak of plague in 1665 and the Great Fire of 1666 decimated the population and destroyed most of the buildings. Gradually the city recovered from these two terrible blows and grew so quickly in the latter years of the century that by 1700 one tenth of the English population lived there. The economic prosperity that characterised this period can be seen in the construction of such public buildings as St Paul's Cathedral, which was started in 1675, the Bank of England (1694) and the Stock Exchange (1698).

ENGLAND AND THE REST OF THE WORLD

Mercantilism

At war with Holland

As we have seen, the economic boom of the second half of the seventeenth century was greatly helped by colonial expansion. This expansion was one facet of an economic policy called Mercantilism that

was put into practice by successive governments from the end of the seventeenth century right through the eighteenth century. The acquisition of new colonies was encouraged because they provided cheap raw materials and new markets for goods produced in England. In 1652 conflicting interests over control of sea trade led to a series of naval wars with Holland. After two years the Dutch were defeated and no ships challenged the English trade vessels on the seas.

m № j

Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d 8 7

William Penn (1644-1718), the

founder of the state of Pennsylvania,

negotiates the sale of land with a

group of native Indians.

Expansion was both towards the east and west. Migrations to the New World continued throughout the century. By 1640, the Puritans had started over twelve towns, home to 15,000 people, mainly along the eastern coasts. To the east lay the exotic riches of India. The East India Company, which had been established at the very start of the century, set in motion a highly profitable trade in tea, spices and other goods through the ports of Madras in the west and Bombay in the east. Although very few English people actually settled in India in the seventeenth century, the foundation was laid for colonial expansion in the following centuries.

As the eighteenth century dawned, two of England's historic conflicts seemed to have been resolved: • The Church of England, following the failure of the Puritan Commonwealth

and the victory of Protestant William over Cathol ic James, had established itself firmly as the dominant Church in the land.

• Parliament had gained power at the expense of the monarchy. William's Bill of Rights, which recognised the central role of Parliament in government, was a f u n d a m e n t a l step in t h e process t h a t eventual ly led to t h e creat ion of a parliamentary democracy.

All in all, the seventeenth century in England, although it was a time of constant religious and pol i t ical f ight ing and feuding, was an age that stabilised the relationships between Church and state, and between Parliament and monarchy, in a way that guaranteed a solid base for future economic and colonial expansion.

Westward expansion

Eastward expansion

Summing up

TASKS

1 Write sentences about seventeenth-century England. This was the century when ... This was a time when ... From an economic point of view ... From a religious point of view ... From a political point of view ... Despite wars, conflicts, disease and even a Great Fire, ...

2 Prepare a brief talk on the historical background to seventeenth-century English literature. Choose one of the topics below. a. Religion in seventeenth-century Britain b. King v. Parliament c. The Restoration d. Everyday life in the seventeenth century e. England and the rest of the world.

s s h i jf 8 8 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Britain 1702-1776 r r- c When Queen Anne, the last of the Stuart dynasty, acceded to the throne FROM CONFLICT TO STABILITY . „ . , , . , . 7 ' ' , ,

in 1702, Britain was leaving behind a century that had seen it torn apart by religious and political divisions. These divisions having been resolved to a satisfactory degree if not totally, the country could look forward to a new century of relative peace, stability and prosperity.

AGRICULTURE

Land enclosures

For centuries, agriculture had provided employment for most of the population. Over the years very little had changed, and in 1700 farmers

and peasants still grew crops on small disorganised holdings or raised sheep on common land, open fields that nobody owned but anybody could use. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand for wool, the system of land enclosure was intensified. What had previously been common land was split up and fenced off into large farms that were bought by wealthy farmers.These farms, which could rely on new varieties of grass that enabled sheep and cattle to survive the winter, soon became highly efficient and provided the necessary raw material for the booming clothing industry.

THE START OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Mechanisation

With wool now being produced in greater quantities than ever, new technologies and efficient labour organisation were needed to transform it quickly into the finished products that an expanding market demanded.

To satisfy this demarid small factories were built. The production process was split up so that every worker did only one specific job. This division of labour increased production dramatically and became accepted procedure in all factories. Along with innovative work practices, mechanisation was the key to success for the newly-born British industrial sector. Automatic looms that could make cloth far more quickly and in far greater quantities than ever before were first invented in the 1760s and marked a giant step forward in the Industrial Revolution. If wool and cloth were the prime sources of wealth during the early years of the Industrial Revolution, coal and iron were the foundation stones on which the revolution was built . Both were in plentiful supply and would provide respectively the energy and the tools for industrial expansion. Both industry and agriculture had met the challenges of a changing world by innovating and modernising. These changes improved the quality of life for many, but others found their lives turned upside-down and struggled to come to terms with a new world.

THE DOWNSIDE OF PROGRESS

Working conditions

As more and more land was enclosed and common land became more scarce, thousands of peasants were forced to find other ways of making a

living. Many went to work in the cities, while those who remained in the country often fell into poverty. In order to deal with the increasing number of poor peasants, workhouses were built all over the country. These were grim and often cruel institutions where the destitute were given just enough to eat in return for their labour. The workhouse was to remain a feature of British life right up to and during the nineteenth century. Those who went to the cities did find paid employment, but they had to endure subhuman living and working conditions. Factories had an insatiable need for workers, so children were employed along with men and women. No allowance was given for their age and they had to work the same long hours and endure the same unhealthy environment their parents had to.

Historical and Social Background 8 9 uUffl

Cities found it difficult to cope with the new arrivals. Many families lived in overcrowded slums without any form of sanitation. Some people did not even have beds and slept on sawdust on the floor. It is of little surprise then that, on average, one in four babies died at birth.

Living conditions

Despite the constant struggle to make a living in both city and country, the quality of people's lives improved in various ways. Hospitals became a feature of most new towns, with the result that life expectancy increased for those who managed to survive birth. Many towns also collected a new tax called 'rates'. This money was used to improve living conditions and, where it was put to good use, a sense of civic pride developed among the inhabitants. In the country, farmers who had benefited from the agricultural revolution built fine brick houses that made their lives more comfortable and lessened the hardships of winter. Travelling also became easier as more roads were built, while a network of canals was used mainly to transport goods. Two drinks played a big part in everyday life in eighteenth-century Britain: gin and coffee. Drinking alcohol was a way to escape from the drudgery of the working day, so the gin palaces that sprang up in many towns became the favourite haunts of people in search of company and cheap liquor. The social effects of heavy drinking were devastating, however, as families were ruined and town centres were transformed into battlefields for drunken mobs. Coffee, brought in from the colonies, was a more genteel drink than gin. The first coffee house was opened in London in 1652, to be followed by many more in the eighteenth century. They were the favourite meeting places for the middle and upper classes, who exchanged information about politics, literature, business and the affairs of the day.

EVERYDAY LIFE

Quality of life

Coffee houses

The voice of the middle classes was to be heard not only in the coffee THE RLSE OF houses but in society at large. They were the people who had become rich THE MIDDLE CLASSES thanks to the agricultural and industrial revolutions, and on whom the economic well-being of Britain increasingly depended. They were the farmers • Visual Link D8


who had modernised their enclosed lands, the factory owners whose entrepreneurial spirit would transform Britain into the first industrialised country in the world, and the merchants who traded around the world. For centuries, power had rested with the aristocracy and had been handed down from father to son, but in eighteenth-century Britain power became increasingly associated with money, and those who had it became more and more influential in the fields of politics and the arts. Initiative, self-reliance, faith and patriotism were the qualities that helped the middle classes to become the driving force in Britain in the eighteenth and later centuries.

GOVERNMENT

Prime Minister

Tories and Whigs

The House of Hanover

Economic progress, powered by the middle classes, was greatly helped by the stable political climate of the time.

The Glorious Revolution ( • p. D85) had limited the power of the monarch in favour of Parliament. This process was consolidated during the eighteenth century and led to the creation of a constitutional monarchy. Under this system the king or queen formally appointed ministers, but they were then answerable to Parliament. The monarch depended on Parliament for his income and could not suspend laws passed by it. The ministers formed a Cabinet that made major policy decisions. Gradually it was felt that one member of the Cabinet should act as leader to coordinate government strategy, and so the post of Prime Minister was created. Sir Robert Walpole, who was a member of the cabinet between 1721 and 1742, is regarded as being the first Prime Minister in British history. Another major development was the establishment of a two-party political system in parliament. The old aristocracy and the Church of England tended to support the Tory party, while the emerging middle classes generally supported the Whigs, who held a majority in parliament for sixty years from the reign of George I. The term 'Tories' is still used to refer to the Conservative party today. While Parliament ran the country, the monarchy remained a powerful symbol of British identity and a link with the past. After the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714), George I came to the throne and started the dynasty of the House of Hanover, which lasted until 1837. A curious indication of how little the king counted in ruling the country was the fact that George I could not even speak English.

AT HOME AND ABROAD

Scotland

Colonial expansion

Although the first three quarters of the eighteenth century were generally peaceful, parliament had to call out the army periodically to stifle

rebellion at home and protect strategic interests abroad. The unification of England and Scotland in 1707 was not universally accepted north of the border. A rebel movement grew and fought for Scottish independence, but it was finally defeated at the battle of Culloden in 1745. Following wars with France and Spain, Canada and Florida in North America, Senegal in Africa and Grenada in the West Indies became British possessions, while the East India Company ( • p. D87) consolidated its monopoly over trade in the East. Although France and Spain did their utmost to thwart British ambitions, the number of colonies continued to grow. They supplied cheap and plentiful supplies of fur, sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco and silk, while Captain James Cook opened new horizons when he became the first white man to set foot in Australia in 1770.

Historical and Social Background 256 uUffl

The first blow to British colonial expansion occurred in 1776, when the American colonies declared their independence from the mother country ( • p. El 12). The loss of America was indeed a big shock, but it was to prove a minor setback in the economic and social development of the country. The economic growth and relative political stability that characterised the eighteenth century were to have lasting effects. America may have been lost, but the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the strength of British trade made a solid foundation from which Britain could set its sights on being a major world power.

THE MAKING OF A WORLD POWER

Ziive, the British

nder, is greeted by the

eader, Mia /affier;

g the British victory at

le of Plassey (1757).

TASK Answer these questions. a. What agricultural revolution took place in the eighteenth century? b . How was industrial productivity increased? c. How did the quality of life gradually improve? d. What social class emerged in the eighteenth century?

M E C H A N I S A T I O N


This extract is from a petition written by workers in Leeds (a major wool manufacturing centre in the North of England). It appeared in a local newspaper in 1786.

... the Scribbling-Machines1 have thrown thousands of our petitioners out of employ2, whereby3 they ... are not able to procure a maintenance for their families, and deprived them of the opportunity of bringing up their children to labour. ... The number of Scribbling-Machines ... being no less than one hundred and seventy ... as each machine will do as much work in twelve hours, as ten men can in that time do by hand ... one machine will do as much work in one day as would otherwise employ twenty men. ... We therefore hope, that the feelings of humanity will lead those who have it in their power to prevent the use of those machines, to give every discouragement they can to what has a tendency so prejudicial to their fellow-creatures. ... But what are our children to do; are they to be brought up in idleness4? Indeed as things are, it is no wonder to hear of so many executions5 ; for our parts, though we may be thought illiterate men, our conceptions are, that bringing children up to industry, and keeping them employed, is the way to keep them from falling into those crimes, which an idle habit naturally leads to. (...)

Signed, on behalf of THOUSANDS, by Joseph Hepworth Thomas Lobley, Robert Wood Thos. Blackburn

GLOSSARY

1. Scribbling-Machines: automatic wool-making machines

2. employ: work 3. whereby: because of

which 4. idleness: lack of

activity 5. executions: death

penalties

An employer keeps a

close eye on his worke

in this seventeenth-

century textile mill.

TASK In our automated world we take it for granted that machines and gadgets work for us. Think of one machine, gadget, home appliance or electronic device that is commonly used today. Describe what it does. Then say how long it took and how much work was needed to do the same job in the past.

Historical and Social Background 93 u U f f l

MAIN EVENTS: The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages

1625-1649 Reign of Charles 1 1629 Charles 1 dissolves Parliament and rules for eleven years without one 1640 Charles reopens Parliament 1642-1649 Civil War June 30th 1649 Charles 1 executed 1649-1660 The Commonwealth 1652-1654 War with Holland 1660-1685 Reign of Charles II 1666 The Great Fire of London 1685-1688 Reign of James II 1689-1702 Reign of William III 1689 The First Bill of Rights 1690 The Glorious Revolution 1702-1714 Reign of Queen Anne (last of the Stuart dynasty) 1707 Unification of Scotland and England 1714-1727 Reign of George 1 (first king of the House of Hanover) 1727-1760 Reign of George II 1721-1742 Sir Robert Walpole becomes first de facto Prime Minister 1745 Scottish rebels defeated at the battle of Culloden 1756-1763 The Seven Years' War between England and France 1760-1820 Reign of George III 1770 Captain Cook discovers Australia 1776 American Declaration of Independence

y , , 9 4 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

The Literary Background

POETRY

The Cavalier poets

The Metaphysical poets

John Donne (1572-1631)

Songs and Sonnets

Puritan and Restoration Literature For a period after the Renaissance, poetry lost its originality and power and generally consisted of poor copies of Elizabethan models. There were,

however, some poets who broke with the Elizabethan tradition. They are commonly divided into two groups: the Cavalier poets and the Metaphysical poets. The Cavalier poets defended the monarchy against the Puritans during the reign of Charles I. They included Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Robert Lovelace and Sir John Suckling. They did not believe in an overly studious approach to the writing of poetry. They saw the ideal gentleman as being a lover, a soldier, a wit, a musician and a poet, and their poetry reflects their rather light-hearted approach to life. Their poems embodied the spirit of the upper classes before the Puritan Commonwealth. They wrote poetry for occasions such as births, marriages or great parties. They are remembered primarily as the first poets to celebrate the events of everyday life, and as such are the forerunners of an important tradition in English literature. The Metaphysical poets, who included George Herbert, Richard Crashaw and Henry Vaughan, followed in the tradition of J o h n Donne. The features of Metaphysical poetry are:

• the use of conceits*: comparisons between objects which at first glance seem to have nothing in common;

• the argumentative quality of the love poems, in which the poet tries to persuade his lover to share his point of view;

• the dramatic quality of the language, which often seems to be one side of a dialogue between the poet and his lover, or God, or himself;

• the wide range of subjects from which the poet draws his imagery. Metaphysical poets used, for example, the areas of the sciences, travel, medicine, alchemy and philosophy to create original imagery. This is in stark contrast with much of Elizabethan poetry which used the stock imagery of the period (birds, flowers, sun, moon, stars);

• the use of wit*: wit in the seventeenth century referred to the ability to relate dissimilar ideas, and implied intellectual genius. The Metaphysical poets displayed this form of genius in the use of paradoxes*, conceits* and puns*.

The term 'metaphysical', which was used by the literary critic Samuel Johnson ( • p. D104) in the eighteenth century, may be misleading because the poetry did not deal with philosophical speculation but with the themes of religion and love. Johnson, who was not an admirer of this form of poetry, used the word 'metaphysical' to criticise what he considered to be the poets' desire to be original at any cost. He was not alone in his criticism and, in fact, the Metaphysical poets were unpopular throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that the admiration of the great modern poet T.S. Eliot helped generate new appreciation for Donne and his followers.

The father of metaphysical poetry was John Donne (• pp. D2-9). Although he lived in the Elizabethan era, his poems were published posthumously and belong both thematically and stylistically to this period. In Songs and Sonnets Donne deals with the theme of love in a way that strongly contrasts with the Elizabethan tradition. Love is presented as an intensely


intimate and physical experience. The poems are addressed to a very real lover, often the poet's wife. The rhythm of the poems is the rhythm of natural speech and the language is dramatic. Striking and original images called conceits* associate dissimilar ideas, while paradoxes*, epigrams* and puns* are common features. The poet often tries to persuade his lover to share his point of view through poetry which appeals both to the intellect and the emotions. John Donne deals with religious themes in the Holy Sonnets in an equally original way. The poet addresses God in a tone that often borders on the irreverent, and uses the language of physical suffering and love to describe his spiritual crises and devotion. While some poets fall clearly into the categories of Metaphysical or Cavalier, one of the greatest poets of the era, Andrew Marvell ( • pp. D10-13), combined features of both schools. Marvell's style has the elegant sophistication of the Cavaliers while his use of intense imagery, paradox and wit* is reminiscent of the metaphysicals. Marvell was a prolific prose writer and essayist, but it is for his poems, which were first printed three years after his death, that he is best remembered.

The greatest seventeenth century poet J o h n Milton ( • pp. D14-22) also defies c lassi f icat ion. Although some of his greatest works were published in the Restoration period, Milton belongs in spirit to the Puritan age of Cromwell's Commonwealth, which he supported fervently. He was educated as a Humanist ( • p. C54) and had a thorough knowledge of classical Greek and Latin literature. His masterpiece Paradise Lost (1667) is written in the style of the Aeneid or the Iliad and contains the classic conventions of the epic: elevated subject matter, an invocation to God, a beginning in medias res, and detailed lists of characters. Milton's passion for Greek and Latin made him very fond of long sentences - the very first in Paradise Lost runs to sixteen lines - and both his sentence structure and rich vocabulary are largely Latin-derived. His style and diction greatly influenced later English poetry.

Classical influences can also be seen in the work of J o h n Dryden. The son of a wealthy Puritan family, he received a classical education and had a thorough knowledge of Greek and Latin literature. He was inspired by the Latin poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Tibullus and tried to reproduce the balance and clarity of their work in his poetry. He became a master of the heroic couplet* - two rhyming l ines of iambic pentameters - and rhetorical devices such as parallelism*, antithesis* and repetition*. His best work is political: Absalom and Achitophel (1681-1682), generally considered to be his greatest poem, was written in support of the court in a period of political crisis. Although he is best remembered for his poetry, Dryden also wrote prose and drama and is widely regarded as the father of literary criticism. He wrote several essays on poetry and theatre, and tried to establish guidelines for good taste in literature. He exercised a major influence on the poets of the early eighteenth century, in particular Alexander Pope ( • pp. D23-27) .

Holy Sonnets

Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)

John Milton (1608-1674)

• Visual Link D4

John Dryden (1631-1700)

TASK Write a name on each line Father of literary criticism .

Wrote poems combining features of both the Cavalier and the Metaphysical poets Was mainly inspired by Latin poets Wrote Absalom and Achitophel Wrote the Holy Sonnets

Father of Metaphysical poetry Wrote Paradise Lost Wrote Songs and Sonnets

ill /96 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

DRAMA

Theatres closed

New theatres

Restoration theatres

• Visual Link D4

Heroic tragedy

The Comedy of Manners

No great dramatists emerged in the immediate post-Shakespearean period. Playwrights continued to write in the Shakespearean style but did not

reach the same great literary heights or introduce innovations of any note. In 1642 the Puritans closed the theatres, declaring them improper places for decent people. Theatres remained closed for eighteen years and were not reopened until Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660. After the Restoration the frugal, sober and sombre society created by the Puritans was replaced by a more pleasure-seeking and licentious attitude to life. The immoral behaviour of the Court set an example that was readily followed by the upper classes. The king, Charles II, nicknamed 'the Merry Monarch', was a patron of the theatre and during his reign he com-missioned the building of two new theatres: Drury Lane (1674) and the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1732). Restoration theatres were very dif-ferent from Elizabethan playhouses ( • pp. C 5 8 - 6 0 ) . They were smaller and indoor. The audience no longer surrounded the stage but sat facing the actors, who did not enter the stage through doors at the back as they had in Elizabethan times, but from the sides. Painted scenery was used to reproduce settings. Performances took place at night: the audience sat in the dark while the stage was illuminated by candles and torches. Female roles, which in the past had been played by young boys, were now played by women.

The middle and lower classes, who still lived by a strict Puritan moral code, considered theatre-going to be immoral, so drama became a form of entertainment for the upper classes, and theatres became meeting places where socialites displayed their fashionable clothes and discussed the latest gossip. Restoration audiences favoured spectacular productions. Shakespeare's works continued to be performed but changes were often made to the original texts to make the productions more lavish and sensational. The Court had spent almost twenty years in France, and the French influence can be seen in a new type of drama called heroic tragedy, which became popular for a while. Heroic tragedies: • tried to emulate epic poetry; • were mainly about love and valour; the main character was generally a hero whose

passionate love conflicted with the demands of honour and his patriotic duty; • were written in rhyming couplets and in an elevated style, both of which made

the language extremely artificial. Dryden's All for Love is a good example of this type of drama. It was, however, in a type of play called the Comedy of Manners that the Restoration found its peculiar excellence. Its main features were: • it reflected the life of the Court, which was portrayed as being immoral, corrupt

and licentious but also elegant, witty and intelligent;

Christopher Wren built St Paul's Cathedral

(1675-1710) on the site of the building

that had been destroyed by the Creat Fire

of 1666.


H 97 O P

• its main targets of criticism were middle-class values and ideals, conventions, hypocrisy and above all the institution of marriage. True love was rarely a theme as sex was favoured over feelings;

• the dialogues were prose rather than verse. The comic effect was achieved primarily through the wit and sparkle of the dialogue, which was often in the form of 'repartee', a kind of verbal fencing match of witty comments and replies;

• in Elizabethan drama comic characters were usually low and humble in origin. In the Comedy of Manners they were aristocratic ladies and gentlemen who were easily recognised by the audience as fashionable members of society;

• two new male character types were created: the gallant and the fop. The gallant was usually the hero of the play. He was a witty, elegant, sophisticated yet cynical lover. The fop was a figure of fun, ridiculed for his stupidity and pompous pretentiousness;

• the leading female characters generally had no feelings or morals. Their only interests were fashion and breaking their marital vows;

• the characters usually had names that captured some aspects of their personality: Scandal, Lady Fidget, Petulant, Mrs Squeamish, Sir Fopling Flutter and Tattle. Although this form of character naming dates back to the Morality plays ( • p. B47), it is important to note that the Comedy of Manners had no moral didactic purpose. These plays were written purely to entertain theatre audiences.

While the Comedy of Manners was a distinctly English form of drama, it was clearly influenced by Continental writers and trends. Restoration dramatists learned how to develop characters from the French playwright Moliere (1622-1673), whose elegant style also became a model to be imitated. The Spanish writer Calderon de la Barca ( 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 8 1 ) showed them how to organise a complex plot that often involved multiple subplots. The Italian Commedia dell'Arte provided inspiration for the more farcical elements of the plays. The most outstanding writer of the Comedy of Manners was William Congreve ( • pp. D33-37 ) . In his masterpiece The Way of the World he eliminated the coarser elements of the genre and pushed its literary limits to new heights of sophistication and refinement. The Comedy of Manners has continued to be a popular form of theatre. In the eighteenth century, playwrights eliminated the indecency but maintained the wit and gaiety. In the early nineteenth century under Queen Victoria it declined, to be revived, however, by Oscar Wilde ( • Module G) at the turn of the century. Since then it has become popular again through the works of both British and American writers.

• Meanwhile, Elsewhere, p. D98

William Congreve (1670-1720)

• Visual Link D5

TASK



LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE: Moliere

English Restoration comedy was greatly influenced by the works of the French playwright and actor Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, better known as Moliere. Like Congreve, he satirised the shortcomings and hypocrisy of his society, but went even further than his English counterpart in pointing out the idiosyncrasies of humanity at large. His comedies, which are still widely produced today, ridicule human vices as exemplified in his characters: Le Tartiiffe (1664) is a religious hypocrite, Le Misanthrope (1666) is antisocial, Le Malade Imaginaire (1673) is a self-centred hypochondriac and the main character in L'Avare (1669), Harpagon, is so greedy that he forces his children into unwanted but lucrative marriages. As well as pointing out the defects of individuals, Moliere also examined the relationships between people. In L'Ecole des Maris (1661), for example, an older husband tries, with disastrous results, to come to terms with his younger wife ( • Milton, p. D21).

While Moliere's place is assured in the history of European theatre, he is also remembered every day in the French language because the names of his characters are used to describe a person who has a particular vice, e.g. a hypocrite is a Tartuffe and a miser is a Harpagon.

Le Malade Imagine

(1673).

TASKS 1 Link each person to a quote. Harpagon Tartuffe Le Malade Imaginaire Le Misanthrope The husband in L'Ecole des Maris

'Why did I ever get married?' 'I must have some rare disease.' 'Money makes the world go round.' 'If only everyone was perfect like me. 'Who needs friends anyway?'

2 What modern vices would you ridicule in a play? What name would you give the characters that represent them? For example: A drunkard - Mr Beerall. Choose one of your characters and prepare a fifty-word plot for a play.


PROSE

Robert Burton (1577-1640)

Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)

John Milton (1608-1674)

John Bunyan (1628-1688)

The great political and social turmoil of the first half of the seventeenth century was reflected in the prose writing of the time. The burning issues of religion, education, politics and philosophy were the subjects of pamphlets, essays and treatises. The language used in these prose works was heavily influenced by Latin, which was still the principal language of international culture. Sentences were long and complex in structure, vocabulary was Latinate and concepts were frequently repeated. Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne are perhaps the two most representative prose writers of the period. Robert Burton wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), a huge treatise of over half a million words. It is an analysis of the causes, symptoms and cures for melancholy, which was considered an illness at the time. Sir Thomas Browne wrote Religio Medici (1642), a spiritual autobiography in which he shows that religion and science can coexist. Although he preferred poetry (he described writing prose as writing with his left hand), J o h n Mi l ton also produced some excellent pamphlets including Areopagitica (1644), a defence of free speech and writing, and Of Education (1664) in which he expresses his opinions on how young people should be educated. All three of these writers were extremely familiar with Latin, and its influence is clear in their works: the sentences are long and complex with numerous subordinate clauses which often lead to confusion. The writer who most successfully captured the Puritan spirit is undoubtedly John Bunyan. A firm believer in Parliament, he joined Cromwell's army at the age of

sixteen to fight against Charles I. When the army disbanded in 1649 Bunyan returned home to Bedford near London and started preaching. He was self-taught and based most of his learning on the Authorised Version of the Bible, which had been published in 1611. During the Restoration he was imprisoned for twelve years for preaching without a l icence. He subsequently spent several spells in prison but finally obtained a licence and continued preaching until his death in 1688. He started writing his great masterpiece The Pilgrim's Progress, which was published in 1678, during one of his periods in prison. It is a pow-

he first picture in John Bunyan's

he Pilgrim's Progress, which he

egan to write in 1675.

The Pilgrim's Progress


The scientific revolution

• Visual Link D6

The Royal Society

A new prose style

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

John Locke (1632-1704)

The diary

Samuel Pepys (1633-1703)

• Pieces of the Past, p. D102

John Evelyn (1620-1706)

erful allegory of man's quest for salvation that is widely considered to be one of the greatest works of religious literature of all time and a forerunner to the eigh-teenth-century novel. It tells the story of the main character, Christian, who travels from the City of Destruction to the City of God, has many adventures and faces many perils on his way. The language is simple and concise and accurately represents the speech of rural people at the time when Bunyan wrote. The book's engaging plot, humorous episodes and often ironic tone made it hugely successful in Britain and abroad. The scientific revolution, which took place after the Restoration, also played an important part in creating a new and clear, concise prose style. Charles II was fascinated by science and carried out his own experiments in anatomy. Empiricism - the idea that scientific assertions had to be tested by experiment -was becoming increasingly important. From 1697 weekly lectures were held in London on astronomy, geometry, medicine, law, divinity and music. These lectures - which strangely for the time were given in English and not Latin -attracted some of the great thinkers of the time and prompted the foundation of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. Interest in experimental science led to the discoveries of such great scientists as Isaac Newton, who demonstrated the laws of gravitation, and Edmund Halley, who published the first star catalogue based on the telescope, and calculated the orbit of many comets, including the comet of 1682 called 'Halley's comet'. The new studies in experimental science needed clear, concise language. English gradually abandoned the long and complex sentence structures which led to ambiguities and obscurities and replaced them with a simpler, more accurate style. The new prose style can be seen in the works of the two great philosophers of the period, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan (1651), expressed his support for absolute monarchy as the only form of government that can protect society from the destructive greed of the individual. John Locke supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government (1690), which greatly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution, and in which he suggested that a parliament elected by the people is the best form of government. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) made an important contribution to the development of English empiricism. Both Hobbes and Locke wrote with clarity and economy. The second half of the seventeenth century saw the emergence of a new literary form: the diary. As science started to explore the workings of the human mind, people became more interested in themselves, and started to keep records of their private thoughts and actions in diaries. The most famous diarist of the period was Samuel Pepys. He was an extraordinary man: he founded the Royal Navy, was an outstanding Civil Servant and became President of the Royal Society. It is not, however, the public side of the man that his diary reveals but the intimate details of his private life. He wrote the diary in eleven volumes between 1660 and 1669. He wrote for himself, in a secret code of shorthand, contractions and foreign words, and the texts were only deciphered in 1825. He spoke of the great events of the day such as the Great Plague (1665), the Great Fire (1666), the Dutch Wars (1664) and political intrigues. But it is his frank accounts of everyday life in a wealthy family, written in a simple style and rich in detail and humour, that make his work unique. Pepys's friend John Evelyn, a country gentleman and one of the founders of the Royal Society, also kept a diary. He started writing it when he was only twenty-one

| Pppjl|j^ 9

The Literary B a c k g r o u n d 101 Q [ M

years old and continued for most of his life. He was interested in gardens, travel and life at court. He wrote mostly about places and events and his diary is full of information and scientific observation. Unlike Pepys, he did not include intimate details about his personal life. Indeed, the more detached, impersonal tone suggests that he may have written the diary not purely for personal pleasure but for a possible future audience. Like Pepys', his diary is a valuable historical document.

Seventeenth-century English literature will be remembered for the contribution of the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets and, in particular, for the work of John Donne, Andrew Marvell and John Milton. The great theatrical innovation was The Comedy of Manners, which has since become a standard of the English stage. The century's greatest achievement was, however, in prose writing, where the development of a straightforward, concise and accurate prose style provided the foundation on which the great novel writing of the eighteenth century could be built.

Summing up

The Great Fire of

.ondon (1666).

TASK Choose the correct option. a. Most prose works in the seventeenth century were

la] religious pamphlets, philosophical essays and scientific texts.

~b] collections of short stories and didactic novels.

b. Prose writers wrote in

a simplified form of Latin. ~b~| a Latinate form of English.

c. John Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress, [a] a humorous novel about the travels of an

allegorical character. j~b~l a deeply religious pamphlet written in highly

complex Latinised English.

d. Samuel Pepys's diary deals with

fa] great events and everyday life.

fb] the history of The Royal Navy.


S A M U E L P E P Y S ' S D I A R Y

Samuel Pepys's diary includes interesting comments on the London theatrical scene.

'(I went) To the Theatre, where was acted Beggars Bush; it was very well done; and here the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage.' (3rd January 1661)

'And here [at the King's Theatre] I sitting behind in a dark place, a lady spit1 backward upon me by a mistake, not seeing me, but after seeing her to be a very pretty lady, I was not troubled at it at all.' (28th January 1661)

'Saw The Scornful2 Lady now done by a woman which makes the play appear much better than ever it did to me.' (12th February 1661)

'To the King's Theatre, where we saw Midsummers Nights Dreame, which I have never seen before, nor shall ever I see in my life. I saw, I confess, some good dancing and some handsome women, which was all my pleasure.' (29th September 1662)

'Here [at the King's Theatre] I saw ... Lady Cromwell, when the House began to fill she put on her vizard3, and so kept it on all the play; which of late is become a great fashion among the ladies, which hides their whole face. So to the Exchange, to buy things with my wife; among others, a vizard for herself.' (12th June 1663)

'To the King's House to The Mayd's Tragedy; but vexed4 all the while with two talking ladies and Sir Charles Sedley, yet pleased to hear their discourse ... And one of the ladies... did sit with her mask on, all the play, and being exceedingly witty as ever I heard woman, did talk most pleasantly with him; but was, I believe, a virtuous woman, and of quality. He would fain5 know who she was, but she would not tell; yet did give him many pleasant hints6 of her knowledge of him, by that means setting his brains at work to find out who she was, and did give him leave to use all means to find out who she was but pulling off her mask. He was mighty witty, and she also making sport of him very inoffensively, that a more pleasant rencontre71 never heard. By that means lost the pleasure of the play wholly ...' (18th February 1666)

'After dinner with my wife to the King's House, to see The Mayden Queene, a new play of Dryden's mightily commended8 for the regularity of it and ... wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nell... that I never can hope ever to see the like done again by a man or woman ... but so great performance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell doth this, both as a mad girlie and then, most and best of all, when she comes like a young gallant9... It makes me, I confess, admire her.' (2nd March 1667)

'To the King's House, and there, going in, met with [actress] Knepp, and she took us up [to the backstage and room where] Nell was dressing herself... she gave us fruit... But, Lord! to see how they were both painted would make a man mad, and did make me loath1 0 them; and what base company of men comes among them, and how lewdly11 they talk! ... But to see how Nell cursed12, for having so few people in the pit13, was pretty; the other house [theatre] carrying away all the people at the new play.' (5th October 1667)

GLOSSARY 1. spit: expelled saliva 2. Scornful: showing contempt 3. vizard: mask 4. vexed: annoyed

5. fain: willingly 6. hints: suggestions 7. rencontre: unexpected meeting 8. commended: recommended,

praised

9. gallant: a fashionable gentleman 10. loath: loathe, feel disgust for 11. lewdly: obscenely 12. cursed: said obscenities 13. pit: the area in front of the stage

TASK Use a red pen to underline comments which apply only to the age when the diary was written (for example: 'the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage'). Use a blue pen to underline comments which could equally be used to describe the situation today. Look at the text now: Is there more red or blue?


Augustan Literature The seventeenth century was a period of tumultuous change, witnessing as it did a revolution, a civil war, major parliamentary reform and the emergence of a powerful new middle class. The extravagance of the Renaissance was replaced by Puritan pragmatism and although the Commonwealth failed, Puritan morality became an integral part of the English character. The scientific revolution and rationalist philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Rene Descartes and John Locke ( • p. D100) spread the idea that reason rather than religion was the key to the understanding of man and the world that surrounds him. It is not surprising, therefore, that the eighteenth century brought with it a general desire for order, clarity and stability. Writers of the period drew inspiration from the Latin poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid who, under the patronage of Emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), created the golden age of classical literature. English writers tried to emulate the Latin poets, and indeed the early and mid-eighteenth century became known as 'the Augustan Age'. The influence of the classical writers is most clearly seen in the poetry of the first half of the century.

The poets of the Augustan Age admired the harmony, concision, elegance and technical perfection of classical literature. They tried to adhere to the guidelines for good taste set out in Horace's Ars Poetica, which was widely studied at the time. In it the Roman poet established the basic principles for the writing of poetry. Evidence of the Augustan poets' self-control can be seen in their quest for perfect form. They imitated classical literary genres such as the epic, pastoral, satire* and Pindaric ode*. They paid great attention to rhyme and metre: iambic pentameters* rhymed in pairs (heroic couplets*) became the standard poetic measure. They sought technical perfection rather than originality. The early eighteenth-century poets believed that the language of poetry should be far removed from everyday speech. They wrote for a cultured upper-class reading public in high poetic diction and Latinate sentence structures. The neo-classical poets, as they came to be called, did not write poetry to express their own feelings. They believed that the poet had a social role: to explore the universal human experience and expose society's evils. Not surprisingly, much of their greatest work came in the form of satire. The greatest poet of the Augustan age was Alexander Pope. When he was just sixteen he wrote his Pastorals, in which he displayed great skill in poetic metre. In 1714 he published his masterpiece, the mock-heroic poem The Rape of the Lock. In this satire of Augustan society he shows his unrivalled skill in the use of the heroic couplet. Most of the work that followed was moral and satirical. The Dunciad (1728) is a satirical attack on the debased moral values of eighteenth-century society; the Essay on Man and Moral Essays are philosophical verse essays on the human condition. Pope was unquestionably the most popular poet of his day. In the nineteenth century his work was widely criticised as lacking poetic value and depending too heavily on imitation. The great twentieth-century poet and critic T.S. Eliot, however, re-appraised the work of Pope, stating that he preferred the conscious craftsmanship and attention to poetic form of the neo-classicals to the poetry of personal emotions, which characterised the Romantic period of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century ( • Module E).

INTRODUCTION

'The Augustan Age'

POETRY

Horace's Ars Poetica

Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

• Visual Link D5

/ 1 0 4 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

PROSE

Journalism

The Tatler

Although the neo-classical poetry of the Augustan Age is still widely admired, the eighteenth century is best remembered for the development

of prose-writing. The early part of the century witnessed a dramatic rise in prose output in the form of journalism, essay writing, political satire and pamphleteering. This proliferation of prose-writing can be attributed to a number of factors: • the advancement of printing technology, which made publishing more

efficient and cheaper; • the expansion of the school system and the subsequent growth in the number

of people who could read and write; • the opening of circulating libraries, which gave people access to newspapers,

journals and books; • the growth in the number of middle-class readers. In previous centuries reading

had largely been confined to the aristocracy and the upper classes. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the middle classes were better educated and wished to understand the world in which they had become a potent economic and political force;

• the increase in the number of women readers. The Puritans considered their wives to be equal partners in marriage, business and spiritual affairs, and encouraged them to read. Time-consuming household tasks such as making bread, candles and clothes were no longer necessary since most of these commodities could now be bought in shops, and consequently women had more time to dedicate to reading.

The new middle-class reader-ship was largely Puritan and showed a distinct preference for factual writing over fiction (which they regarded to some extent as lying). In response to this taste there was a remarkable prolifera-tion of journalistic writing. Two great figures stand out in this field in the early part of the century: Richard Steele and Joseph Addison. When Richard Steele started publishing his newspaper The Tatler in 1709, there were already several newspa-pers in circulation contain-ing information about home and foreign affairs. Steele understood that the new middle-class reader needed to be entertained as well as informed, and so he includ-ed in his newspaper articles on fashion, taste, gossip, duelling and gambling as well as serious pieces on the political issues of the day. Later Steele joined forces

I

T H E

S P E C T A T O R ,

№ I. T H U R S D A Y , M A R C H I , 1 7 1 0 - 1 1 .

Non fumum ex fulgore, fed exfumo ilare lucem Cogitat, ut fpeciofa dehinc miracula promat.

HOR. Ars Poet. ver. 143.

One with a flafh begins, and endsinfmoke ; The other out of fmoke brings glorious light, And (without railing expettation high) Surprifes u s with dazzling miracles. R O s co M M O N .

IH A V E obferved, that a Reader feldom perufes a book with pleafure, until he knows whether the writer of it be a black or a fair man, of a

mild or choleric difpofition, married or a bache-lor, with other particulars of the like nature, that conduce very much to the right underftanding of an author. To gratify this curiofity, which is fo natural to a reader, I defign this paper and my next as prefatory difcourfesto my following writings, and -hall give fome account in them of the feveral per-fons that are engaged in this work. As the chief

VOL. I, f A trouble

The first issue ofThe Spectator (1710).


with his old school friend Joseph Addison and together they published a new periodical called The Spectator (1711-1714). Like its predecessor, The Spectator was aimed at a middle-class reading public. However, it contained more essays on literary and moral issues and was less concerned with polit ical news. It was written in clear, simple, almost conversational prose which could be understood by any reasonably educated person. Its appeal was increased by the introduction of a group of fictitious characters representing all walks of life in eighteenth-century England including commerce, the army, the country gentry, the Church and the town. It appeared daily and was immensely popular. Its articles were often the subject of debate in the fashionable coffee houses which had become centres of business transactions and social life. Samuel Johnson also started his literary career as a journalist, making contributions to various publications and eventually publishing his own periodical, The Rambler. A great classicist, Johnson wrote poetry, drama, essays on political and moral matters, biographies and literary criticism of the highest order. However, he is perhaps best remembered for his Dictionary of the English Language (1755), the first attempt to standardise the pronunciation, definitions and meaning of over 40,000 English words.

The eighteenth-century novel was, to a large degree, an evolution of the non-fictional prose-writing of the period. Prose fictional works of the previous centuries, based on old legends, ancient battles and chivalrous medieval adventures, had little appeal for the new middle-class readers who wished to read about themselves and the world they lived in. Five towering literary figures -Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, J o n a t h a n Swift and Laurence Sterne - moulded fictional prose into a literary form that appealed to the eighteenth-century reader. In doing so they created the dominant literary genre of the next three centuries: the modern novel. Not surprisingly, many of the early novelists started their literary careers in journalism. Daniel Defoe wrote for several periodicals and started his own newspaper, The Review, before turning to novel-writing at the age of sixty. His first novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), was loosely based on the real-life experience of a shipwrecked sailor, Alexander Selkirk, and was presented as a true story in diary form told by the hero himself. The fact that it was published as a true story made it more acceptable to middle-class readers, who regarded fiction with suspicion. The hero of the story, Robinson, also had a strong appeal for the new readership as he was a perfect example of the Puritan ideal of a self-made man: an ordinary man who, through hard work and faith in God, overcomes adversity. Robinson Crusoe is generally regarded as the first novel in the English language. Defoe went on to write five more novels, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack, Roxana, Memoirs of a Cavalier and a pseudo-factual account of London during the great plague entitled A Journal of the Plague Year. While Daniel Defoe showed little interest in the feelings and thoughts of his characters, Samuel Richardson's contribution to the development of the novel lies in the attention he paid to his characters' psychological profiles. His most successful novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), tells the story of a young servant girl who, having resisted the amorous advances of her master, wins his heart and eventually marries him. The novel is composed of letters, mostly written by Pamela, and her personal diary of events. The epistolary form was already popular in France but Richardson raised it to new heights. It is, however, in the creation of characters with psychological depth that Richardson

The Spectator

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

THE NOVEL

Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)

Robinson Crusoe

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)

Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded

U) il 0 6 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Henry Fielding (1707-1754)

• Visual Link D5

Tom Jones

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

shows his greatest skill. His characters are not simply men of action involved in perilous adventures: they have inner worlds of feeling and emotions which Richardson explores with insight and sensitivity. Pamela also shows Richardson's mastery of dialogue, which is presented in the form of long transcriptions of conversations in the letters. Pamela was greatly appreciated by the middle-class readership for its morality and realism, and by eighteenth-century standards it was a runaway best-seller. Richardson published two more novels, both in the epistolary form: Clarissa (1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-1754). Henry Fielding, the son of an aristocratic family, found the moralising in Pamela so offensive that he wrote An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741), an irreverent parody of Richardson's work. Fielding was the first writer to consciously explore and define the new literary genre. Unlike his predecessors, he made no attempt to disguise his work as fact in the form of memoirs or letters. He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with the heroic actions of the classic epic poems but with the unimportant and preferably humorous events of daily life. In 1749, he published what many consider to be his masterpiece, The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling. The novel tells the story of an orphan, Tom Jones, who after many adventures discovers his true identity and marries the lady he loves. Fielding was the first English novelist to create a well-structured complex plot involving many characters drawn from different social classes. His work is innovative and original and he is generally considered to be the father of the English comic novel. While Henry Fielding employed humour to criticise the failings of eighteenth-century society, Jonathan Swift used hard-hitting and at times bitter satire. Swift, like Defoe, started his career as a journalist. He quickly gained a reputation as a satirist targeting, among other subjects, political corruption and English misrule in Ireland.

A scene from Gulliver's Travels (1996). 1


L I N K T O F R E N C H L I T E R A T U R E : V o l t a i r e

Jonathan Swift stands out among English writers of the eighteenth century as the one who attacked most fiercely the shortcomings of his society and of man in general. Satire was his most powerful weapon, a weapon that was also used to great effect in France by Voltaire. Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), better known as Voltaire, was one of the leading intellectual figures behind the French Enlightenment. He was a great admirer of England and having been exiled there from 1726 to 1729, he wrote the Lettres Philosophiques (1773) which attacked the French monarchy. He was a tireless campaigner against evil, injustice and hypocrisy. In his most popular work, Candide (1759), the hero, a young man called Candide, travels around the world and tries to understand the evils of life. In the following text from Chapter 3 he is caught up in a war between the Bulgarians and the Arabs. Read it and answer the questions.

Never was anything so gallant, so well accoutred1, so brilliant, and so finely disposed as the two armies. The trumpets, fifes2, hautboys3, drums, and cannon made such harmony as never was heard in Hell itself. The entertainment began by a'discharge4 of cannon, which, in the twinkling of an eye5, laid flat about 6,000 men on each side. The musket6 bullets swept away, out of the best of all possible worlds, nine or ten thousand scoundrels7 that infested its surface. The bayonet was next the sufficient reason of the deaths of several thousands. The whole might amount to thirty thousand souls. Candide trembled like a philosopher, and concealed himself as well as he could during this heroic butchery. At length, while the two kings were causing Te Deums8 to be sung in their camps, Candide took a resolution to go and reason somewhere else upon causes and effects. After passing over heaps of dead or dying men, the first place he came to was a neighbouring village, in the Arabian territories, which had been burned to the ground by the Bulgarians, agreeably to the laws of war. Here lay a number of old men covered with wounds, who beheld9 their wives dying with their throats cut, and hugging their children to their breasts, all stained10

with blood. There several young virgins, whose bodies had been ripped11 open, after they had satisfied the natural necessities of the Bulgarian heroes, breathed their last; while others, half-burned in the flames, begged to be dispatched12 out of the world. The ground about them was covered with the brains, arms, and legs of dead men.

Chapter 3

GLOSSARY 1. accoutred: equipped 5. twinkling of an eye: one second

6. musket: rifle 7. scoundrels: bad and dishonest men 8. Te Deums: religious songs

9. beheld: saw 10. stained: discoloured tl.ripped: torn 12. dispatched: sent

2. fifes: small flutes 3. hautboys: oboes 4. discharge: firing

TASK W h o is Voltaire attacking in this passage? Underline the words that are ironic.

/ 1 0 8 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Gulliver's Travels

• Visual Link D5

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

Tristram Shandy

DRAMA

Licensing Act: 1737

John Gay (1685-1732)

Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774)

His great satirical novel, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 and was an immediate success. It has been interpreted at many different levels: as a travel book for children, a biting political satire and an indictment of a society that accepts war and corruption and rejects altruism and reason as a way of life. Perhaps the most innovative work in the new field of novel-writing was done by Laurence Sterne, an Anglican priest who seemed to adhere to none of the rules that had been established for the new genre. His Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1761), ostensibly an autobiography, includes so many digressions that by conventional standards the plot is preposterous. Add to this unfinished sentences, blank pages, pages containing just one word, and idiosyncratic syntax and it is clear that this novel is the work of a very original mind. Sterne seems to suggest that the orderly chronological narration of events which could be found in other novels of the period did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human mind. In his attempt to capture human consciousness, Sterne foreshadows the work of twentieth-century novelists such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner ( • Module G).

The eighteenth century was not a particularly interesting period for drama. The Licensing Act of 1737 allowed the Lord Chamberlain to censor

theatrical performances, and many talented writers including Henry Fielding turned their attention from drama to the new literary genre of novel-writing. While theatre-goers in the seventeenth century were largely aristocratic, the eighteenth-century theatre audience was predominantly middle class and dictated new trends: • the seventeenth-century Comedy of Manners ( • pp. D96-97) was rejected for

its licentiousness and amorality; • Shakespeare continued to be performed, but his plays were often cut or

transformed to suit the public's taste; • melodramas - unimaginative sentimental pieces with strong didactic elements

- became very popular but were of little literary value; • pantomime, a mixture of singing, dancing and knockabout comedy, which was

clearly inspired by the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, was also very fashionable. Perhaps the most notable theatrical work of the early part of the century is John Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1727). The play is a combination of prose and sixty-nine songs set to traditional or fashionable melodies of the day. In it Gay makes fun of the fashion for Italian opera and satirises contemporary politics. T/ie Beggar's Opera is generally considered to be the forerunner of the modern musical. Towards the end of the century a more refined version of the Comedy of Manners again became popular. Playwrights such as Oliver Goldsmith in She Stoops to Conquer ( • Text D9) and Richard Brinsley Sheridan in The School for Scandal maintained the witty dialogue of Restoration comedies and excluded the indecent and amoral elements.

A PERIOD OF TRANSITION In the second half of the eighteenth century, the admiration for the classical ideals which had characterised the Augustan Age began to wane:

• the grandeur, rationalism and elevated sentiments of the early part of the century gave way to a simpler, more genuine form of expression;

• there was a renewed interest in nature and the simple rural life; • in France the influential philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau questioned the

importance of reason and exalted man's emotional capacities and imaginative powers.

In English literature the earliest evidence of this cultural shift can be seen in the poetry of Thomas Gray and the Graveyard Poets, and in Horace Walpole's Gothic novel, The Castle ofOtranto.


A flier printed to attract people to

one of the earliest productions of

John Cay's Beggar's Opera.

a/jusid v t j u v (/<m /i'arrnvriwiMtJ'fof/o;

fis-fxri to- tAa/ej noted n>/ifcA c/ta.rrri e/uL, agtc

y entsr tastt/ tn, cfotinoJ t f c / e n t t ) & Monnv,

eqqa<rh w€r tfc i/czm~ onTV .

Thomas Gray's literary reputation rests on a handful of poems written in the middle years of the century. One of these poems, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard ( • Text D7), is generally considered to be his masterpiece. In it the poet walks around a graveyard reflecting on the mortality of the villagers who are buried there. In the final lines the poet considers his own death and composes his epitaph. The sentimental, melancholic introspection of the poem was a clear shift from the neo-classical style, and foreshadowed what was to come during the Romantic period. Thomas Gray's work inspired a group of poets known as the 'Graveyard Poets'. Like Gray, they found inspiration in graveyards and wrote on the theme of mortality. In 1764, Horace Walpole, a close friend of Gray's, published a novel entitled The Castle of Otranto. This tale tells the story of a family curse and is full of ghosts, demons, torment, images of ruin and decay and violent emotions. Walpole was so unsure of how the public would react to his work that he published it anonymously, claiming that it was a translation of a work by a medieval Italian writer. The novel was, in fact, a great success and gave rise to a new literary genre: the Gothic novel (the word Gothic at the time was synonymous with the wild and barbarous). This genre was further developed by Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley in the Romantic period ( • p. E88-95).

Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

The Graveyard Poets

Horace Walpole (1717-1797)

The Gothic Novel

TASK Answer these questions. a. Why is the first half of the eighteenth century called

'The Augustan Age'? b . What factors encouraged authors to turn to prose

writing?

c. What trends dominated theatrical tastes in the eighteenth century?

d. What changes took place on the literary scene in the second half of the century?


CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK -[to Art/Science/Mathematics The Seventeenth Century - An Age of Discovery

The seventeenth century in Europe was an age of research, discovery and innovat ion in a wide range of fields. The mathematic ian Leibnitz ( 1 6 4 6 - 1 7 1 6 ) devised calculus, Galileo ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 4 2 ) perfected the telescope, and the philosophers Hobbes (1588-1679) and Locke (1632-1704) examined how best to organise the state. Britain produced, in particular, a group of scientists, a mathematician and an architect whose work has had a lasting effect on their fields of study. They were:

John Napier (1550-1617) mathematician - he invented logarithms. John Ray ( 1 6 2 7 - 1 7 0 5 ) naturalist - he invented a new system of classification for plants.

Robert Boyle ( 1 6 2 7 - 1 6 9 1 ) physicist, general scientist, philosopher. Not only did he formulate Boyle's Law on gas pressure, but he also helped to

Ian Vermeer, The Geographer (c. 1668).

separate the science of chemistry from alchemy.

Robert Hooke (1635-1702) mathematician, physicist, astronomer and naturalist. Among his many inventions was the first pneumatic pump. Isaac Newton ( 1 6 4 2 - 1 7 2 7 ) mathematician and physicist - he formulated the Law of Gravity and developed calculus independently of Leibnitz. Christopher Wren ( 1632 -1723) mathematician, astronomer and architect. A leading scientist of his day and president of the Royal Society. He is best remembered for his reconstruction of St Paul's Cathedral after the Great Fire of London (1666).

PROJECT a . Find o u t as m u c h as y o u c a n a b o u t t h e w o r k of o n e of t h e a b o v e m e n . Your research will b e d o n e in Italian,

b u t try t o g e t used t o tak ing n o t e s in English. Use a d i c t i o n a r y t o f ind t h e t rans la t ion for key w o r d s .

b . Prepare a talk in English o n w h a t y o u h a v e r e s e a r c h e d .

c . If y o u h a v e t i m e , d o s o m e m o r e research o n d iscover ies a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e s i n c e t h e

s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y in t h e field y o u h a v e e x a m i n e d .


A potrait of John Locke by

Herman Vereist (16417-1690?).

A potrait of David Hume by

lames Tassie (1735-1799).

Montesquieu.

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK [ t 0 philosophy/History The Age of Reason

Robinson Crusoe was a huge best-seller in the eighteenth century because it told the story of a man who, even though he believed in God, used his powers of logic and reasoning to resolve practical problems. He was an heroic figure for an age that wanted to free itself from the superstitions of the past and build a future based on man's ability to understand the world around him and change it. Philosophers in England and France, in particular, developed theories that were to change the political and social histories of their countries. Choose one of the following and do a research project as indicated below ( • Visual Link D6).

John Locke (1632-1704) In many ways he was the father of the Age of Reason. Among his many writings were Thoughts concerning Education (1693) on how to bring up young boys and his Letters on Toleration (1689-1704), which defend the right to freedom of religious belief and expression. David Hume (1711-1766) Hume wrote on a wide range of topics, including politics in Political Discourses (1752) and religion in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779). Montesquieu (1689-1755) In his most influential work, De TEsprit des Lois, he argues against despotism.

PROJECT Find o u t w h a t t h e m a i n ideas are in t h e work/works m e n t i o n e d . Explain w h y t h e s e ideas w e r e n e w a n d a b r e a k

with t h e pas t . Explain h o w t h e s e ideas i n f l u e n c e d t h e social and/or political his tory of t h e c o u n t r y .

THE ROMANTIC AGE

1776-1837 7 wandered lonely as a cloud, that floats on high o'er vales and hills.'

From I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud by William Wordsworth

I N T R O D U C T I O N • Robert Burns is Scotland's national poet. He wrote both in standard English and Scottish dialect. His prolific output includes thousands of songs and poems, the best known of which Auld Lang Syne which is sung all over the English-speaking world on New Year's Eve. The two that follow deal with love, a favourite theme of Burns, who was famed for his amorous adventures.

Robert Burns

In this p o e m Burns is trying to say in the most convincing way possible, 'I will always love you' . Read it and say i you think that t h e w o m a n he is writing t o will be convinced.

Text E l

— • GLOSSARY

1. Luve: love 2. newly sprung: just

blossomed 3. fair: beautiful 4. art thou: you are 5. bonie lass: pretty girl 6. thee: you 7. a': all 8. gang: go 9. melt wi': liquefy with 10. fare thee weel:

goodbye 11. a while: for the

moment 12.Tho': even if

•

A Red, Red Rose O My Luve !'s like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung2 in June O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly play'd in tune.

As fair3 art thou4, my bonie lass5, So deep in luve am I; And I will love thee6 still, my dear, Till a'7 the seas gang8 dry.

Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi'9 the sun: I will love thee still, my Dear, While the sands o' life shall run.

And fare thee weel10, my only Luve! And fare thee weel, a while11

And I will come again, my Luve, Tho'1 2 it were ten thousand mile!

10

Alfred Chalon, Girl reading a letter.

Robert Burns 3

COMPREHENSION

1 W h o is t h e p o e t addressing in t h e p o e m ? 3 W h a t is he telling his love?

2 W h a t is he a b o u t t o d o ?

ANALYSIS 1 T h e first quatrain conta ins t w o similes*. Analyse t h e m by filling in this table .

tenor common ground vehicle

My Luve (line 1 ) m y Luve (line 3 )

2 In the s e c o n d and third quatrains t h e p o e t says t h a t his love is everlast ing. Underline t h e striking visual i m a g e s he uses t o underline t h e s t rength of his feel ings.

3 T h e tab le b e l o w lists s o m e of t h e features of medieval ballads*. Tick t h e features of t h e medieval ballad that you find in this p o e m and give e x a m p l e s .

The medieval ballad A Red, Red Rose

- narrates a story which beg ins in medias res - leaves t h e motives b e h i n d t h e character 's act ions

unexpla ined - contains f e w descriptive details - is c o m p o s e d in s imple t w o or four line stanzas - consists of a l ternate four and three stress lines - rhymes on t h e s e c o n d and t h e fourth line - makes extensive use of repetition - uses s tock descriptive phrases - includes a refrain

tells t h e story of a man w h o must leave his lover

4 Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*.

5 How would you define t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e p o e m ?

Simple • Conversational • Direct • Sophist icated • Artificial • Other :

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooter') is the use of exaggeration to draw attention to or under l ine the impor tance of a particular s ta tement . It is of ten used to provoke a reaction, or for serious or comic effect. Perhaps the most famous example of hyperbole in English literature is when Christopher Marlowe's hero Doctor Faustus ( • pp. C 2 - 7 ) asks of Helen of Troy, 'Is this the face that launched a thousand ships . . .? ' Hyperbole is commonly used in everyday speech:

I'd give my right arm for a slice of pizza.

A type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration is magnified so greatly that it refers to an impossibility is called an adynaton (from Greek a, 'without' and dynasthai, 'to be able').

Find t w o e x a m p l e s of adynaton in t h e p o e m A Red, Red Rose.

Create your own s e n t e n c e s using hyperbole or a d y n a t o n .

Hyperbole

TASK

OVER T O Y O U

Think of a love p o e m in English or into your own l a n g u a g e you like and read it aloud to t h e rest of t h e class.

4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

A kiss can m e a n di f ferent th ings in d i f ferent c o n t e x t s a n d cul tures . It c a n b e a sign of a f fec t ion or a s imple greet ing. Read t h e following p o e m and say if you can associate with t h e feelings that this particular kiss expresses.

o

- • GLOSSARY

X. seal: mark 2. pledge: promise 3. bliss: happiness 4. dumb: mute 5. Dove-like fondness:

pure affection 6. Glowing: bright 7. Sorrowing joy: joy

that gives pain 8. Lingering: not

wanting to separate 9. thine: yours

•

E Humid Seal of Soft Affections Humid seal1 of soft affections, Tenderest pledge2 of future bliss3, Dearest tie of young connections, Love's first snowdrop, virgin kiss!

Speaking silence, dumb4 confession, 5 Passion's birth, and infant's play, Dove-like fondness5, chaste concession, Glowing6 dawn of future day!

Sorrowing joy7, Adieu's last action, (Lingering8 lips must now disjoin), 10 What words can ever speak affection So thrilling and sincere as thine9!

The Kiss by Francesco Hayez (1867).

C O M P R E H E N S I O N : 1 Circle t h e words in the first quatrain that suggest that a kiss forms a b o n d between two people.

2 Underline the phrases in the second and third quatrains that convey the idea that kissing is a form of communica t ion .

3 Which phrases in the text would you associate with a relationship that is in its early s tages?

4 Which phrase(s) suggest(s) : a) h o p e b) innocence c ) affection/tenderness d) sadness e) playfulness?

ANALYS IS 1 The p o e m is very musical. Work out t h e rhyming scheme*. Is it regular?

a . Listen to the p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic* (an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) or trochaic* (a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable)?

b. Find examples of alliteration*.

c. W h a t is t h e dominant consonant sound in the p o e m ? Do you find it appropriate for a p o e m about kissing?

2 Find examples of oxymorons* in t h e p o e m .

Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.

Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

5g i l l i S i S l l l i W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R

Robert Burns was born in Scotland in 1759, the eldest

of seven children. Although the family often had f inancial difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read. A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His many casual relat ionships resulted in the birth of several illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 ,000

copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day. The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would have five more) and started to work on a col lect ion of traditional Scottish folk songs which eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose. Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector. Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114 songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000 people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth of their national poet on 25th January.

ROBERT BURNS

(1759-1796)

WORKS For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple

joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions have made him a symbol of national identity. Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship. Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life and works in t h e fol lowing order: - family b a c k g r o u n d - difficulties in private life - success as a p o e t - main t h e m e s in his p o e m s - Scottish nationalism and tradition

m


A kiss c a n m e a n di f ferent t h i n g s in d i f ferent c o n t e x t s and cu l tures . It c a n b e a sign of a f fec t ion or a s imple greet ing. Read t h e following p o e m and say if you can associate with the feelings that this particular kiss expresses.

Q

— • GLOSSARY

1. seal: mark 2. pledge: promise 3. bliss: happiness 4. dumb: mute 5. Dove-like fondness:

pure affection 6. Glowing: bright 7. Sorrowing joy: joy

that gives pain 8. Lingering: not

wanting to separate 9. thine: yours •

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Circle t h e words in the first quatrain that suggest that a kiss forms a b o n d between two people.

2 Underline the phrases in the second and third quatrains that convey t h e idea that kissing is a form of communica t ion .

3 Which phrases in the text would you associate with a relationship that is in its early s tages?

4 Which phrase(s) suggest(s) : a) hope b) i n n o c e n c e c ) affection/tenderness d) sadness e ) playfulness?

ANALYS IS 1 The p o e m is very musical. Work out the rhyming scheme*. Is it regular?

a. Listen to t h e p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic* (an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) or trochaic* (a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable)?

b. Find examples of alliteration*.

c. W hat is the dominant c o n s o n a n t sound in the p o e m ? Do you find it appropriate for a poem a b o u t kissing?

2 Find examples of oxymorons* in the p o e m .

H

Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.

Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

P H H I W R I T E R S ' G A L L E R Y

Robert Burns was born in Scotland in 1759, the eldest

of seven children. Although the family often had financial difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read. A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His many casual relationships resulted in the birth of several illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 ,000

copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day. The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would have five more) and started to work on a col lect ion of traditional Scottish folk songs which eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose. Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector. Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114 songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000 people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth of their national poet on 25 th January.

ROBERT BURNS

( 1 7 5 9 - 1 7 9 6 )

WORKS For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple

joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions have made him a symbol of national identity. Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship. Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life and works in t h e following order: - family b a c k g r o u n d - difficulties in private life - success as a p o e t - main t h e m e s in his p o e m s - Scottish nationalism and tradition

, £ 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

William Blake I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Blake was a visionary. He did not like the rational, materialistic world arou him, but dreamed of a wprld where imagination and feelings would be central to people's lives. In the th poems that follow he envisages a world where the colour of a person's skin will be irrelevant, and presents with two very contrasting images of God ( • Visual Link E5).

Living in a society where t h e colour of your skin is different from that of nearly everybody else's around you can cause problems for a person in today's world. When Blake was writing - two hundred years a g o - these problems were accentuated because societies were less multicultural than they are today. In the poem you are going t o read, a black boy, with the help of his mother , tries to find a way to tear down the barriers that have been built be tween him and white children. W h a t solution does he c o m e up with?

Songs of Innocence

Q m s m The Little Black Boy

GLOSSARY

4.

5.

1. bore: gave birth 2. southern: a country

in the southern hemisphere

3. bereav'd: deprived, without lap: the upper part of your legs when you are sitting down a little space: for a short time

6. to bear: to stand, to put up with

7. beams: shining lines of light from the sun

8. shady: not in the sun 9. grove: small wood 10. love and care: the

person I love and look after

My mother bore1 me in the southern2 wild And I am black, but O! my soul is white; White as an angel is the English child: But I am black as if bereav'd3 of light.

My mother taught me underneath a tree 5 And sitting down before the heat of day, She took me on her lap4 and kissed me, And pointing to the east began to say.

Look on the rising sun: there God does live And gives his light, and gives his heat away. 10 And flowers and trees and beasts and men receive Comfort in morning joy in the noon day.

And we are put on earth a little space5, That we may learn to bear6 the beams7 of love And these black bodies and this sun-burnt face 15 Is but a cloud, and like a shady8 grove9.

For when our souls have learn'd the heat to bear The cloud will vanish we shall hear his voice. Saying: come out from the grove, my love and care10, And round my golden tent like lambs rejoice. 20

f William Blake 7

T h u s 1 1 did m y m o t h e r say a n d kissed m e ,

A n d t h u s I say t o 'little Engl i sh b o y ;

W h e n I f r o m b l a c k a n d h e f r o m w h i t e c l o u d f ree 1 2 ,

A n d r o u n d t h e t e n t o f G o d l ike L a m b s w e j o y 1 3 :

I ' l l s h a d e 1 4 h i m f r o m t h e h e a t til l h e c a n bear ,

To l e a n i n j o y u p o n o u r fa ther ' s k n e e .

A n d t h e n I ' l l s t a n d a n d s t r o k e 1 5 h i s s i lver hair ,

A n d b e l ike h i m a n d h e wi l l t h e n l o v e m e .

25

IX.Thus: in this way X2.When I ... free: when

he no longer has a white cloud and 1 no longer have a black one

X3.joy: rejoice X4. shade: protect him

by blocking the sun X5.stroke: caress

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What colour does the black boy believe his soul is?

2 What does he compare the English child to in line 3?

3 Where , according to the black boy's mother, does C o d live?

4 What does Cod give to t h e natural world and m a n ?

5 Why are we put on earth, according to t h e black boy's mother?

6 W hat does she c o m p a r e their 'black bodies ' and 'sun-burnt face ' to in t h e fourth stanza?

7 W h a t happens when people die, according to t h e black boy's mother?

8 W hat will the black boy do when he and the English boy leave their ' c louds '?

9 When will the English boy love the black boy?

ANALYS IS 1 The p o e m is built around a series of contrasts, a. Put the following terms from the p o e m into the

appropriate co lumn, black white

black bodies sun-burnt face white angel shady grove black cloud white cloud shade silver hair

brightness darkness

b. Which column refers to t h e English boy and which column refers to the black boy?

2 The black boy is clearly aware that the colour of his skin makes him different.

a. Which line in the first stanza conveys the idea that he is envious of the English child?

b. Which lines suggest that t h e black boy is unhappy with the colour of his skin?

3 How would you define the relationship between t h e black boy and his mother? justify your answer by referring to the text .

• Loving • Detached • Formal • Simple • Uncivilised • Other:

4 In the third stanza the boy's mother associates God with the sun.

a. What kind of God does she depict? Refer to t h e text in your answer. • A loving C o d • A G o d of mercy • A God of punishment • A God of justice • Other:

b . Which line suggests that God views man as part of nature?

5 In t h e fourth stanza t h e boy's mother explains the meaning of life t o her son. Does she view life as a joyous experience , or as a learning experience, or as an exper ience of hardship and suffering? Refer to t h e text in your answer.

THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

6 Which image in the fifth stanza conveys t h e idea of God as a shepherd?

7 Although he is a victim of discrimination, the little black boy seems to hold no hatred for the English boy. Find evidence in the last stanza of his willingness to help the English boy.

8 Focus on t h e f inal j ine of t h e p o e m . The little black boy is already resigned to the fact that he will not receive the love of the English boy in this life. He hopes that when he dies he will be like the English boy, w h o will then love him. a. Which adjectives would you c h o o s e to describe t h e

little black boy?

• Loving • Naive • Self-loathing • Prejudiced • Victimised • Innocent • Other:

b . In the title of the poem Blake underlines the fact that the boy is 'little'. How does this affect your response to the p o e m ?

LINK

9 The speaker in the p o e m is a little child. In part of t h e p o e m he speaks directly to the reader, and in the rest he reports what his m o t h e r says. In his poetry Blake often represents the speech of children by linking ideas with the simple con junct ion 'and' . a. Find evidence of the use of this t e c h n i q u e in t h e

p o e m .

b . Focus on lines 21 and 2 2 . Can you identify non-standard usage of g r a m m a r and syntax? What does this suggest about t h e person w h o is speaking?

1 0 Listen again to the recording of t h e p o e m . Identify the rhyming s c h e m e . How would you define the rhythm of the p o e m ?

• Soft and relaxing • Harsh and aggressive

Does it suit t h e c o n t e n t of the p o e m ?

[ to the world of music Afro-American folksongs or worksongs were songs that were sung by slaves in the British colonies before slavery was abolished. At the t ime he wrote The Little Black Boy, William Blake was deeply involved in the abolitionist m o v e m e n t . Read the folksong. Can you see any similarities be tween h o w the little black boy in Blake's p o e m views t h e present and the future, and h o w they are represented in the s o n g ?

I w a n t to go h o m e

"Dere'V no rain to wet you, O, yes, I want to go home. Dere's no sun to burn you, O, yes, I want to go home; O, push along, believers, O, yes, &c.2

Dere's no hard trials, 0 , yes, &c. Dere's no whips a-crackin', O, yes, &c. My brudder on de wayside, O, yes, &c. O, push along, my brudder, O, yes, &c. Where dere's no stormy weather, O, yes, &c. Dere's no tribulation, 0 . yes, &c."

GLOSSARY

1. Dere: there 2. Sc.: etc.

f William Blake 9

Today we accept it as natural that there are many theories, both scientific and religious, to explain how the world was m a d e . William Blake, like most of his contemporar ies , believed that G o d m a d e t h e world. But w h a t is God really like? Here is the first of Blake's two, very different, depictions of God.

Little Lamb who made thee1? Dost thou2 know who made thee? Gave thee life & bid thee feed3. By the stream & o'er the mead4; Gave thee clothing of delight, 5 Softest clothing wooly5 bright; Gave thee such a tender voice, Making all the vales6 rejoice! Little Lamb who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee? 10

Little Lamb I'll tell thee, Little Lamb I'll tell thee! He is called by thy7 name, For he calls himself a Lamb: He is meek8 & he is mild, 15 He became a little child: I a child and thou a lamb, We are called by his name. Little Lamb God bless thee. Little Lamb God bless thee. 20

GLOSSARY 1. thee: you 5. wooly: woolly 2. Dost thou: do you 6. vales: valleys 3. bid thee feed: told you to eat 7. thy: your 4. o'er the mead: over the 8. meek: very quiet and

meadow, field gentle

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 W h o is the poet addressing? What question does he ask the addressee?

2 What gifts has the Creator given the lamb?

3 Underline t h e words in the first stanza that refer to where the lamb lives.

The Lamb H g U Q

William Blake, The Lamb (1789).

4 W h o is the poet referring to as 'He' in line 1 3?

5 In line 1 4 the poet says that the Creator calls himself a 'Lamb' . Can you explain this biblical reference?

6 What does the poet mean when he says in line 1 6 that the Creator ' b e c a m e a little child'?


ANALYS IS 1 T h e p o e m is f o r m e d by a quest ion and an answer. In which lines is the quest ion p o s e d and in which lines is it a n s w e r e d ?

2 Find descriptive details in t h e first stanza t h a t

appeal to t h e reader's :

- sight: By the stream & o'er the mead - touch : - hearing:

3 A m o o d of g e n t l e happiness is c rea ted in t h e first stanza. Underline t h e words t h a t c o n v e y this a t m o s p h e r e . W h a t kind of world is depic ted in t h e p o e m ?

4 In t h e s e c o n d stanza the p o e t establishes a link

b e t w e e n the Creator, t h e l a m b and t h e p o e t as a child.

a . In which lines are these links m a d e ? b . W h a t qualities d o t h e Creator, l a m b and child

( p o e t ) share? c . W h a t d o e s t h e Creator, w h o b e c a m e t h e child

Jesus, have in c o m m o n with lambs?

5 Which of t h e following would you consider to b e t h e main theme* of t h e p o e m ?

• T h e i n n o c e n c e and joy of t h e l a m b and ch i ldhood reflect t h e true nature of G o d .

• G o d has c rea ted m a n y wonderful things, including lambs and children.

• If m a n lives in c lose c o n t a c t with nature, h e b e c o m e s m o r e godlike.

• Man can only truly e x p e r i e n c e G o d t h r o u g h nature. • G o d is no t responsible for all t h e evil t h a t exists in

t h e world. Evil is t h e result of man 's corrupt ion.

6 How would you descr ibe t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e

p o e m ?

• Sophist icated • Refined

• Childlike • Simple

• Poetic • Scientific

In w h a t way d o e s the diction of t h e p o e m reinforce

t h e t h e m e ?

7 Examine t h e musical features of t h e p o e m .

a . Is t h e rhyming s c h e m e regular? b . Find e x a m p l e s of alliteration* in t h e p o e m .

Example : Little Lamb c. Find e x a m p l e s of assonance* in t h e p o e m .

Example: By the stream & o'er the mead. d. W h a t are t h e prevailing c o n s o n a n t and vowel

sounds? Would you cons ider t h e m t o b e harsh or g e n t l e ?

Listen to the recording again . W h i c h of t h e following is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?

• Iambic* • Trochaic* • Anapestic* Is t h e rhythm of t h e p o e m strong and regular or weak and irregular?

f . Underline e x a m p l e s of repetition* in t h e p o e m . Repetition and a s trong t rocha ic rhythm pattern are typical of nursery rhymes and prayers. In w h a t w a y is it appropr ia te t h a t Blake's p o e m should remind t h e reader b o t h of a nursery r h y m e and a prayer?

f William Blake 11

Is God always kind and gent le and helpful? Read this poem and find out what Blake thinks.

Songs of Experience

Tyger1 Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night; What immortal hand or eye, Could frame2 thy fearful3 symmetry4?

In what distant deeps5 or skies Burnt the fire of thine6 eyes! On what wings dare7 he aspire8? What the hand dare seize9 the fire?

And what shoulder, & what art10, Could twist the sinews11 of thy12 heart? And when thy heart began to beat, What dread13 hand? & what dread feet?

What the hammer? What the chain, In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil14? What dread grasp15, Dare its deadly terrors clasp16?

When the stars threw down their spears17

And water'd heaven with their tears: Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee?

Tyger, Tyger burning bright, In the forests of the night: What immortal hand or eye, Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?

The Tyger

10

15

20

EH Q

GLOSSARY

9.

1. Tyger: tiger 2. frame: make 3. fearful: frightening 4. symmetry:

symmetrical form or shape

5. deeps: low, underground places

6. thine: your 7. dare: to be brave

enough to do something

8. aspire: rise up, fly high like Icarus seize: to take hold of something suddenly and violently; here it means 'steal the fire' like Prometheus

10. art: skill, ability 11. sinews: muscles 12. thy: your 13. dread: frightening 14. anvil: heavy iron

block on which pieces of metal are shaped using a hammer

15.grasp: the way you hold something

16. clasp: hold tightly 17. spears: poles with

sharp ends, used as a weapon in the past

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 W h o is the speaker addressing in the p o e m ?

2 What question does he ask in the first stanza?

3 Where does the speaker think the creator may have found the fire of the tiger's eyes? (Line 5 )

4 According to the fourth stanza, where was the tiger's brain created?

5 How did the stars react to t h e creation of t h e tiger?

6 W hat question does t h e speaker ask in line 2 0 ?


ANALYSIS

1 T h e p o e m o p e n s with a striking visual i m a g e of t h e t iger 'burning br ight in t h e forests of t h e night ' (lines 1 - 2 ) . Explain t h e contras t c o n t a i n e d in this i m a g e .

2 In line 4 t h e p o e t uses t h e word ' symmetry ' .

a . W h a t d o you think he is referring t o ? • T h e geometr ica l design of t h e tiger's face/body. • T h e b a l a n c e of beauty and d a n g e r in t h e tiger. • T h e g o o d and evil t h a t the t iger m a y represent .

b . Why, in your opinion, does t h e p o e t descr ibe t h e s y m m e t r y as ' fearful '?

3 In t h e s e c o n d stanza t h e p o e t refers t o ' t h e fire' in t h e t iger 's eyes.

a . W h a t associat ions d o you m a k e with fire? Are t h e y positive or negat ive or a mixture of b o t h ?

b . Lines 7 and 8 make references to t h e legends of Icarus and P r o m e t h e u s . W h a t links t h e t iger t o t h e t w o legends? W h a t characterist ics d o e s t h e Creator of t h e t iger share with t h e t w o Greek heroes?

4 Does t h e third stanza focus on t h e Creator 's psychological profile or on his physical at tr ibutes? Which word in line 1 2 underlines t h e potential d a n g e r of t h e t iger?

5 T h e fourth stanza sugges ts that t h e t iger was c rea ted in a forge . W h i c h of the following c o n c e p t s do you associate with a f o r g e ?

• Light • Dark • Heat • Cold • D a n g e r • Security • Fire • Power

Have t h e c o n c e p t s you have c h o s e n already b e e n

used in t h e p o e m ?

6 Identify t h e use of personification* in lines 1 7 - 1 8 . How would you explain t h e reaction of t h e stars w h e n they witnessed, t h e creat ion of t h e t iger?

• T h e y wished t o de fend themselves against t h e d a n g e r s posed by t h e tiger.

• T h e y felt insignificant and helpless be fore t h e m a g n i f i c e n c e of God 's n e w creat ion.

• T h e y w e r e s a d d e n e d by t h e destructive nature of t h e tiger.

7 W h y d o e s t h e p o e t ask if t h e s a m e Creator m a d e b o t h t h e l a m b and t h e t iger? (Line 2 0 )

8 Apart f rom o n e word, t h e final stanza is identical t o t h e first stanza. W h i c h word has b e e n c h a n g e d ? Have t h e poet ' s quest ions a b o u t t h e nature of t h e Creator b e e n answered in t h e course of t h e p o e m or has his perplexity b e e n intensified?

9 W h i c h of the fol lowing e m o t i o n s d o e s t h e t iger

inspire in t h e p o e t ? You can c h o o s e m o r e than o n e .

• Fear • Horror • Awe • Disbelief • Admiration • Confusion • Panic

1 0 Examine t h e musical features of t h e p o e m .

a . Work o u t t h e rhyming s c h e m e . Is it regular?

b. Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*. Listen to t h e recording again . Which of t h e

fol lowing is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?

• Iambic* • Trochaic* • Anapestic* Is t h e rhythm of t h e p o e m gent le and sooth ing or s trong and striking? Is it appropr ia te t o t h e t h e m e of t h e p o e m ?

d . Underl ine e x a m p l e s of repetition* in t h e p o e m .

e . W h a t is t h e main syntactical s tructure?

1 1 Compare and contrast The Lamb and The Tyger in t e r m s of:

T h e L a m b T h e T y g e r

musical features syntax diction t h e animal t h e Creator t h e poet ' s response

f William Blake 13

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Symbols A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning: a writer takes a

concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place, an animal - and attributes to it a deeper meaning. Sometimes writers use symbols which are part of their culture, water representing life, for example. Writers can also use non-conventional, private symbols. We usually understand their meaning from the context in which they occur.

Blake relied heavily o n s y m b o l i s m in his poetry . E x a m i n e t h e s y m b o l s of t h e l a m b a n d t h e

t iger used in t h e p o e m s y o u h a v e jus t read . D r a w a s p i d e r g r a m of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s y o u m a k e

for e a c h a n i m a l . W h a t d o y o u think t h e y r e p r e s e n t ?

» a 3 a t H Y « H J In o u r daily lives w e are s u r r o u n d e d b y s y m b o l s . C h o o s e a s y m b o l t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a country ,

an ideology , a c o m p a n y , a b r a n d of p r o d u c t s , e t c . , a n d p r e p a r e a s h o r t talk o n its or ig ins a n d

m e a n i n g .

T h e link b e t w e e n m u s i c a n d Blake's p o e t r y is e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e tit le o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n s in w h i c h The Lamb a n d The Tyger appear: Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. T h e p o e m s h a v e , a s y o u h a v e s e e n t h r o u g h y o u r analys is , m a n y m u s i c a l q u a l i t i e s . C h o o s e t w o p i e c e s of m u s i c w h i c h y o u think in s o m e w a y w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e p o e m s a n d b e p r e p a r e d t o justify y o u r c h o i c e s .

Title page for The Songs of Innocence (1794), by William Blake.



Early years in London William Blake was born in

London in 1757, where he was raised in a state of economic hardship and received very little formal education. He showed early signs of artistic talent and, at the age of fourteen, became an apprentice in an engraver's shop, where he worked and learned the craft for seven years.

A period of great creativity The year 1783 marked the beginning of a period of great creativity in Blake's life. He published his first volume of poetry, Poetical Sketches, and invented a new method of printing, which he called 'illuminated printing', a mixture of engraving and painting which he claimed his dead brother Robert had revealed to him in a dream. In 1789 he engraved and published his first great literary work, Songs of

Innocence, followed in 1794 by The Maniage of Heaven and Hell and Songs of Experience. His output was outstanding: he made hand-coloured engravings for both his own poems and other authors' . However, his books were not printed and circulated in sufficient numbers to make his work profitable.

Depression and mysticism His disappointment at this lack of recognition led Blake to depression which verged on insanity. This gloomy period lasted seven years, from 1810 to 1817. He lived in a dirty studio, completely alienated from the material world and claiming that visions of angels, spirits, prophets and devils were inspiring his work.

The last years After 1818 he stopped writing poetry but continued to produce engravings, including the illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy, which he left uncompleted at his death in 1827. He was buried in a common grave in relative obscurity.

Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience Blake's greatness as one of the leading poets of English Romant ic ism is best

expressed in his 'illuminated books' - Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) - which he re-printed several t imes. They are visual and poet ic masterpieces where art and text are inextricably linked and mutually enrich each other. The lyrics in the Songs of Innocence are fresh, direct observations and show life as perceived by children; they read like simple, tender poetry written in a natural, unaffected style. However, these simple poems and illustrations often hide deeper meanings and more intricate patterns than first appear. The poems in the Songs of Experience reflect a gloomier vision of the world, where Evil has the upper hand over Good. Innocence and Experience, 'the two contrary states of the human soul', are shown in direct contrast in such poems as The Lamb ( • Text E4) and The Tyger ( • Text E5).

Prophetic Books In the so-called Prophetic Books, a series of long symbolic poems which he started writing in 1789, Blake expresses his condemnation of eighteenth-century political and social tyranny. The inspiration for these poems, which reflect Blake's view that the poet/artist is a prophet inspired by visionary messages, is Milton ( • pp. D14-22), of whose spirit Blake himself believed to be the living embodiment. The Prophetic Books, which contain some of his most powerful images, denounce authority in often abstruse language through a cast of imaginary mythological characters.

Writers' Gallery - William Blake

^ - M m m m m • m m m * m m

The Marriage of Heaven and Hell In the same years a prose work, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, develops Blake's idea that 'without Contraries is no progression'. The work includes aphorisms, anec-dotes and the 'Proverbs of Hell', such as 'The tygers of wrath are wiser than the horses of instruction'.

The Profecies A radical all of his life, Blake sympathised with the forces of revolution and he praised the American War of Independence in America: A Prophecy (1793), and the French Revolution in Europe: A Prophecy (1794). Tyranny and freedom are also the themes of the Book ofUrizen (1794).

Milton and Jerusalem Blake's mature work includes visionary epics written and illustrated between 1804 and 1818. The most outstanding works are Milton and Jerusalem. In both works Blake chose to have no conventional theme, characters, rhyme, or metre. He based his works on a series of highly personal symbols which are often difficult to interpret.

A romantic poet and a philosopher Appreciated only by his close circle of friends and admirers such as Coleridge ( • pp. E24-31) and Keats ( • pp. E52-63), Blake went largely unnoticed in his own time and in the Victorian period. Critics only discovered his work a full century after his death, and gave due recognition to its originality. Today Blake is acclaimed as one of the most inspired and original poets and painters of his time. His belief in the absolute predominance of Imagination over Reason subverted all the rules that governed eighteenth-century art and poetic forms ( • Visual Link E5). He rejected the basic principles of the Age of Reason and the classic models that restricted free artistic and poetic expession.

A revolutionary spirit Blake lived in a period of great social changes: the American, French and Industrial Revolutions all took place during his lifetime. Embracing these revolutionary ideas, he became a bitter critic of his own t ime. He asserted that religion, polit ics and industrialism were 'dark Satanic Mills' and 'Prisons are built with stones of Law, Brothels with bricks of Religion'. He called the new industrial England a 'land of poverty' and expressed his bleak vision in many poems. Unlike other British radicals of his time (Wordsworth, • pp. E l6 -23 ) he never disowned his views. He was not daunted by the Reign of Terror in France and continued until his death to believe that 'Active Evil is better than Passive Good'.

William Blake, The Ancient of Days (God as an Architect), 1794.

TASK Use t h e f o l l o w i n g key c o n c e p t s t o p r e p a r e a r e p o r t a b o u t t h e life a n d w o r k s of Will iam Blake.

- Born in to e c o n o m i c h a r d s h i p - Songs of Innocence a n d Songs - Largely u n n o t i c e d dur ing his

- Early artistic t a l e n t of Experience t i m e

- Engraver 's a p p r e n t i c e - Lack of r e c o g n i t i o n - Literary a n d artistic i n n o v a t o r

- I l luminated pr int ing - Radical polit ics

( I E ) 16 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

William Wordsworth I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Wordsworth is best known as a nature poet who found beauty, comfort and moral strength in the natural world. If he were alive today he would probably be a member of an organisation that campaigns to protect the environment . For him the world of nature is free from corruption and stress, and offers man a means of escape from industrialised society ( • Visual Links E2 and E3).

Have you ever felt you study t o o much or that there is t o o much to study? Well, read t h e following poem because William Wordsworth has s o m e advice for you!

Text E 6 The Tables Turned

- • GLOSSARY

1. quit: leave 2. you'll grow double:

you will not be able to stand up straight

3. clear your looks: give your eyes a rest

4. toil: hard work 5. lustre: light 6. mellow: soft 7. dull: boring 8. strife: struggle 9. linnet: small brown

singing bird 10.my life ... in it: there

is more to be learned from the linnet than from books

11. hark: listen 12. blithe: cheerful 13. throstle: singing bird 14.no mean preacher: a

good teacher 15. forth: out 16. ready wealth: riches

ready to be enjoyed 17. breathed: expressed 18. vernal: connected

with spring 19. sages: wise people 20. lore: knowledge 21. meddling: interfering 22. Mis-shapes: changes

the natural form 23. dissect: analyse in

detail

10

(...) Up! up! my Friend, and quit1 your books; Or surely you'll grow double2: Up! up! my Friend, and clear your looks3; Why all this toil4 and trouble?

The sun above the mountain's head, A freshening lustre5 mellow6

Through all the long green fields has spread, His first sweet evening mellow.

Books! 'tis a dull7 and endless strife8: Come, hear the woodland linnet9, How sweet his music! on my life, There's more of wisdom in it10.

And hark11! how blithe12 the throstle13 sings! He, too, is no mean preacher14: Come forth15 into the light of things, is Let Nature be your Teacher.

She has a world of ready wealth16, Our minds and hearts to bless -Spontaneous wisdom breathed17 by health, Truth breathed by cheerfulness. 20

One impulse from a vernal18 wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good Than all the sages19 can.

Sweet is the lore20 which Nature brings; Our meddling21 intellect Mis-shapes22 the beauteous forms of things: -We murder to dissect23.

A detail from Wivenhoe Park, Essex, by John Constable (1816).

25

William Wordsworth

Enough of Science and of Art; Close up those barren24 leaves25; 30 Come forth, and bring with you a heart That watches and receives.

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 In t h e first stanza the poet describes t h e negative effects of studying t o o hard. Wha t negative physical effect and psychological effects does he ment ion?

2 What t ime of the day is it? How has the poet's friend spent the day?

3 Which adjectives does t h e poet use to describe t h e evening sun? In what way can t h e light b e freshening? W h o does 'His' refer to in line 8 ?

4 What adjective does he use to describe life spent studying books in the third stanza?

5 W h o does 'He' refer to in line 1 4 ? What does the poet hear in the linnet's s o n g ?

24.barren: not fertile 25. leaves: pages of a

book •

6 W h o or what does 'She ' refer to in line 1 7 ? W hat 'wealth ' can nature give us, according to the poet in the fifth stanza?

7 W hat can a 'vernal w o o d ' teach, according to the sixth stanza?

8 Which is t h e effect of the human intellect on one 's perception of the beauty and knowledge of nature? (Seventh stanza)

9 Which line in t h e first stanza does line 3 0 e c h o ?

1 0 W h a t does man need to bring with him in order to appreciate nature? (Eighth stanza)

ANALYS IS 1 The p o e m explores the t h e m e of man's c o m m u n i o n with Nature. Which poetic device does the poet use to draw man and nature closer toge ther? • Rhetorical questions • Irony K Personification*

2 The relationship b e t w e e n man and nature as described in the poem is almost religious in its intensity. Find examples of religious terms used in t h e text .

3 In the p o e m t h e dull, colourless world of books is contrasted with t h e bright, colourful world of Nature. Find references to t h e light and colour of nature in t h e text .

4 Examine the table below.

Do we normally associate these c o n c e p t s and people with t h e world of books or the world of nature? Check t h e references in t h e p o e m . Is the usual association upheld?

5 Explain the pun* in line 3 0 .

6 Find examples of exclamations and imperatives in the poem. Identify the rhyming scheme. Which adjective(s) would you use to define t h e m o o d of t h e p o e m ?

7 Read the following extract from T h e Preface to The Lyrical Ballads ( • p. El 18), the collection of poems in which The Tables Turned first appeared. In it Wordsworth c o m m e n t s on t h e language of his poetry.

There will also be found in these volumes little of what is usually called poetic diction; I have taken as much pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it; this I have done (...) to bring my language near to the language of men (...)

O n e of Wordsworth's object ives was to write poetry in the language used by c o m m o n m e n . How would you define the language of The Tables Turned? Do you think he reached his goal of writing in the language of m e n ?

8 The expression ' to turn t h e tables ' means ' to invert' or ' to c h a n g e around' . How would you relate the title of the poem The Tables Turned to its contents?

abstract concepts people

wisdom truth moral evil and g o o d

preacher teacher sage

Wordsworth says that t h e world of nature is a source of knowledge and learning. Look at the following list of sources of learning in today's world and rank them in order of importance . C o m p a r e and discuss your order of importance with your classmates.

The h o m e • T h e mass media • The school • T h e Internet

4 mill

. 18 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

While out walking in the country on a bright, windy day, Wordsworth saw fields of daffodils stretching out before h i m . His s i s ter D o r o t h y w a s wi th him a n d says in h e r Journals, 'I n e v e r s a w d a f f o d i l s s o b e a u t i f u l ' . D o e s Wordsworth m a n a g e to convey the beauty of t h e flowers to you?

Q BEES I Wandered Lonely As A Cloud I wandered1 lonely as a cloud That floats2 on high o'er vales3 and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host4, of golden daffodils5; Beside the lake, beneath6 the trees, 5 Fluttering7 and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle8 on the milky way9, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of the bay: 10 Ten thousand saw I at a glance10, Tossing11 their heads in sprightly12 dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they Outdid13 the sparkling14 waves in glee15; A poet could but not be gay16, 15 In such a jocund company; 1 gazed17 - and gazed - but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft18, when on my couch19 I lie In vacant or in pensive mood20, 20 They flash upon that inward21 eye Which is the bliss22 of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.

GLOSSARY

1. wandered: moved 6. beneath: under 11. Tossing: moving in an for a long time slowly 7. Fluttering: moving quickly uncontrolled way 18. oft: often

2. floats: moves slowly like a bird's wings 12. sprightly: energetic 19. couch: sofa in the air 8. twinkle: shine 13. Outdid: did better 20.In vacant ... mood:

3. o'er vales: over the intermittently 14. sparkling: shining not thinking about valleys 9. milky way: white band of brightly anything or thinking

4. host: large number stars that can be seen across 15. glee: happiness deeply about something 5. daffodils: yellow the sky at night 16. gay: happy 21. inward: inner, inside

spring flowers 10 . glance: quick look 17. gazed: looked attentively 22. bliss: perfect happiness

William Wordsworth

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 W h e r e is t h e p o e t in t h e first stanza and w h a t is he d o i n g ? Is he a lone or in c o m p a n y ?

2 W h a t d o e s he u n e x p e c t e d l y c o m e across?

3 Find references in t h e t e x t t o t h e colour, t h e location, n u m b e r and m o v e m e n t of t h e daffodils.

4 In which line d o e s t h e p o e t descr ibe his response to t h e s c e n e ?

5 W h e r e is t h e poet in t h e fourth stanza, and w h a t is he d o i n g ?

6 W h a t 'fills' the poet ' s 'hear t with pleasure ' and makes it ' d a n c e ' ?

ANALYS IS I 1 In t h e o p e n i n g t w o lines t h e p o e t says t h a t he ' w a n d e r e d lonely' and c o m p a r e s himself t o a ' c loud t h a t floats on high ' . W h a t s tate of mind is he in?

2 T h e description of t h e daffodils contras ts with t h e poet ' s feel ings. Find words in lines 3 - 6 t h a t contras t with ' lonely ' and 'wander ing and f loat ing ' .

3 Identify t h e simile* that o p e n s t h e s e c o n d stanza. Find the words in this stanza that c o n v e y t h e idea of a) multi tude, b ) br ightness and c ) m o v e m e n t .

4 Find e x a m p l e s of personification* in t h e s e c o n d and third stanzas. W h a t is t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e daffodils c o m p a r e d t o ?

5 Find three s y n o n y m s in t h e third stanza for ' h a p p y ' and 'happiness ' . T h e sounds of t h e words t h a t t h e p o e t c h o o s e s t o descr ibe t h e daffodils also c o n v e y t h e sense of joy t h e y inspire. W h i c h words in t h e first three stanzas would you consider j o y o u s - s o u n d i n g ?

6 Focus on line 1 7 . T h e daffodils have had an a lmost hypnot ic e f fect on t h e poet . How is this idea c o n v e y e d ?

7 In t h e fourth stanza t h e setting* has c h a n g e d . Is t h e t e n s e of t h e verbs in this stanza t h e s a m e as t h e o thers? T h e m o o d has also c h a n g e d . W h i c h words in lines 1 9 - 2 0 s u g g e s t a m o o d that is m o r e : a ) static, b ) melancholy, c ) meditat ive?

8 W h a t metaphor* d o e s t h e p o e t use for h u m a n imaginat ion in line 21 ? Which word recalls t h e sparkling br ightness of t h e daffodils?

9 Which words in lines 2 3 - 2 4 recapture t h e e m o t i o n and m o v e m e n t of t h e first three s tanzas?

T O Read Wordsworth 's definition of a poet : He is a man ... who rejoices more than other men in the spirit of life that is in him. (...) he has (...) a disposition to be affected more than other men by absent things as if they were present; an ability of conjuring up in himself passions, which are indeed far from being the same as those produced by real events, yet do (...) more nearly resemble the passions produced by real events, than any thing which (...) other men are accustomed to feel in themselves.

Explain how I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud supports this definition of the poet .

W h e n Wordsworth calls up t h e i m a g e of t h e daffodils in his mind, he relives t h e sensat ions of w o n d e r and joy he felt w h e n he first saw t h e m . Think of a natural sett ing which you particularly liked and write a short a c c o u n t of t h e e m o t i o n s it stirs up in you.

!0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

In English there is a saying, 'S top the world, I want to g e t off'. People use it when they are under great stress and would literally like the world to stop moving, so that they can have a rest. Wordsworth feels like this in the following p o e m and would like to see a radical c h a n g e in his life.

Q Text E 8 The World Is Too Much With Us

GLOSSARY

1. late and soon: all the time, forever

2. lay waste: lose 3. sordid boon: squalid

benefit 4. bares her bosom:

shows her breasts howling: making a lot of noise up-gathered: quiet, closed out of tune: playing or singing higher or lower than the correct musical note It moves us not: it (the world) has no emotional effect on us suckled: fed (with milk from the breast)

10. creed outworn: an old-fashioned religion

11. lea: area of grassy land

12. glimpses: visions 13. forlorn: sad 14. Have sight of: see 15. Proteus: Greek sea

god 16. Triton: Greek sea god

who played a trumpet (horn) made from a shell which was covered in flowers and leaves (wreathed)

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The world is too much with us; late and soon1, Getting and spending, we lay waste2 our powers; Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon3!

The Sea that bares her bosom4 to the moon; The winds that will be howling5 at all hours, And are up-gathered6 now like sleeping flowers; From this, for everything, we are out of tune7;

It moves us not8. - Great God! I'd rather be A Pagan suckled9 in creed outworn10; So might I, standing on this pleasant lea11,

Have glimpses12 that would make me less forlorn13; Have sight of14 Proteus15 rising from the sea Or hear old Triton16 blow his wreathed horn.

10

William Wordsworth

COMPREHENSION

1 In line 2 t h e p o e t says t h a t w e h a v e lost ' o u r p o w e r s ' . W h a t p o w e r s is h e referring t o a n d w h y h a v e w e lost t h e m ?

2 W h i c h line c o n f i r m s t h a t m a n has b e c o m e a l i e n a t e d f r o m n a t u r e ?

3 W h o or w h a t w i t n e s s e s t h e b e a u t y of t h e sea , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o e t in line 5 ?

4 In lines 6 - 7 t h e p o e t gives t w o contras t ing descr ipt ions of t h e winds: 'howl ing at all hours ' a n d 'up-g a t h e r e d n o w like s leeping f lowers ' . W h i c h i m a g e descr ibes h o w t h e winds would like t o b e ? W h i c h i m a g e descr ibes h o w t h e winds are d u e t o m a n ' s indif ference?

5 W h i c h lines s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o e t w o u l d like t o return t o a m o r e primitive a n d childlike s t a t e ? W h a t w o u l d h e h o p e t o g a i n f r o m re turn ing t o a s i m p l e r w a y of l iving?

ANALYSIS

1 T h e p o e m is wr i t ten in t h e f o r m of a sonnet*. Is it a Pe t rarchan o r a S h a k e s p e a r e a n s o n n e t ? Identi fy t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e . Explain t h e s t ruc ture of t h e p o e m in t e r m s of q u a t r a i n s a n d ses te t s .

2 W h i c h figure of speech* d o e s t h e p o e t use in lines

5 - 6 t o s u g g e s t t h a t m a n a n d n a t u r e should b e o n e ?

3 Line 5 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e sea reveals h e r b e a u t y t o

m a n k i n d , w h o is indif ferent a n d p r e o c c u p i e d with t h e

mater ia l w o r l d . W h a t i m a g e in line 7 re inforces t h e

idea of n a t u r e c o n c e a l i n g her b e a u t y ? W h a t d o t h e

still w i n d s a n d t h e s l e e p i n g f lowers h a v e in c o m m o n ?

4 W h e r e is t h e turning point in t h e p o e m ? H o w is t h e

reader 's a t t e n t i o n d r a w n t o it? H o w d o e s t h e

express ion 'it m o v e s us n o t ' c o n t r a s t with w h a t fo l lows?

5 T h e final six lines of t h e p o e m c o n t a i n several

r e f e r e n c e s t o g o d s a n d rel igion. U n d e r l i n e t h e m .

W h a t re la t ionship b e t w e e n rel igion a n d n a t u r e is

e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e s e l ines?

Oxymoron WRITERS' WORKSHOP

An o x y m o r o n is the combination of words which at first sight seems to be contradic-tory or incongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposition emphasises a contrast, express-es a truth or creates a dramatic effect. Oxymorons are paradoxical metaphors that are reduced to two words, usually ad jec t ive -noun ( 'burning ice ') or adverb-adject ive ('painfully beautiful').

Identify an o x y m o r o n in line 4 of The World Is Too Much With Us.

Is it an a d j e c t i v e - n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n o r an a d v e r b - a d j e c t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n ?

W h a t p u r p o s e d o e s it s e r v e ?

I I To e x p r e s s a t ruth • To c r e a t e a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t

• To e m p h a s i s e a c o n t r a s t • All o f t h e a b o v e

OVER T O Y O U C r e a t e t h r e e o x y m o r o n s of y o u r o w n .

•DD Is W o r d s w o r t h ' s m e s s a g e in this p o e m r e l e v a n t t o d a y ? D o w e lead s u c h stressful lives t h a t w e h a v e n o t i m e t o

a p p r e c i a t e t h e wor ld a r o u n d us? W h a t c r e a t e s stress for us t o d a y ? Discuss with y o u r c l a s s m a t e s .

I, v

• A M

2 2 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

M B WLs % IFL H

WILL IAM WORDSWORTH

(1770-1850)


Early years William Wordsworth was born in 1770 in a little town

in the Lake District in the north-west of England. When he was just eight years old his mother died, and he also lost his father five years later. The children were separated and raised by guardians. In 1787 Wordsworth entered Cambridge, but he was not particularly interested in his studies. While still a university student he went on a three-month walking tour of France, the Swiss Alps and Italy, and was greatly impressed by the beauty of the landscape. When he f inished his degree he returned to France for a year and became a passionate supporter of the democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Financial problems, however, forced him to return to England, where he went to live

with his sister Dorothy in a small village in Dorset. In 1793 he published his first two books of verse, which received little notice from either the critics or the public.

The friendship with Coleridge Two events then changed his life forever: he inherited a sum of money which covered his daily necessities and, in 1795, he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( • pp. E24-31), a poet with similar radical political and literary views. This friendship had a lasting impact on both poets. William and Dorothy went to live close to Coleridge. Together they discussed political issues, read, wrote, exchanged theories on poetry and commented on each other's work. In this period of intense creativity they produced the Lyrical Ballads (1798), a landmark in English Romanticism. Coleridge contributed four poems and Wordsworth nineteen to the collection. The collection was not well-received by the literary critics of the day. Later that year Wordsworth, his sister Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany. Coleridge continued his studies in philosophy, while Wordsworth wrote several of his finest lyrical poems and started work on The Prelude, an autobiographical poem which he continued to revise throughout the rest of his life. Two years later a second edition of the Lyrical Ballads appeared, with new poems by Wordsworth, who also provided a prose Preface illustrating his and Coleridge's principles of poetry.

The Lake District, home and marriage William and Dorothy moved to Grasmere, one of the loveliest villages in the Lake District, a region which Wordworth immortalised in his poetry. In 1802 Wordsworth married a childhood friend and together they had five children. During this period he produced Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), a collection which includes some of his finest verse and most famous sonnets. His reputation began to grow and his work became increasingly popular. He did, however, suffer personal tragedy when two of his children died. His close friend Coleridge was experiencing serious health problems and the two became estranged and never fully reconciled.

Maturity and conservatism As his fame as a poet grew, Wordsworth became more conservative politically. He was given a well-paid government job and openly campaigned for the conservative Tory party. The younger generation of Romantic poets criticised him for abandoning the radical polit ics and idealism of his youth, while recognising the debt they owed him for the great innovations of his poetry.

Writers' Gallery - William Wordsworth 23

WORKS The Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth's contribution to English poetry cannot be overestimated. His work with Coleridge on the

Lyrical Ballads established Romanticism as a literary movement in England, and the prose Preface to the second edition came to be considered as a Romantic manifesto (• p. El 18). Many critics consider the long poem The Prelude, published posthumously in 1850 in twenty-four books to be his greatest achievement. The poem describes the crucial experiences and stages of the poet's life and is an introspective account of his emotional and spiritual development. Further evidence of Wordsworth's genius can be found in Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), which contains, among other celebrated poems, 'I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud' ( • Text E7).

Nature Wordsworth was a great innovator. He found his greatest inspiration in nature, which he believed could elevate the human soul and exert a positive moral influence on human thoughts and feelings. He identified Nature with God and was more pantheistic in his vision than Christian. His poetry celebrates the lives of simple rural people, whom he sees as being more sincere than people living in cities. Children are also regarded as pure and innocent, uncorrupted by education and the evils of the world ( • Visual Links E2 and E3).

Poetry as intuition Wordsworth believed that intuition, not reason, should guide the poet. Inspiration should come from the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he wrote in the Preface, originates from 'the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings' which is filtered through 'emotion recollected in tranquillity'.

Reputation Wordsworth renewed English poetry both in content and style. He started writing at a time when poetry was constrained by literary conventions, affected diction and emphasis on form. By rejecting these restraints, Wordsworth permanently extended the range of English poetry.

A drawing of Tintern Abbey, by the great romantic

painter I. W. Turner (c. 1794). After a visit to Tintern

Abbey William Wordsworth wrote one of his best-

known poems.

' ' •

As he advanced in age, however, his poetic vision grew weaker and his output was largely uninspired and written in the 'elevated' artificial style against which he had rebelled. In 1840 he was awarded a government pension and the title of Poet Laureate, in recognition of his contribution to English literature. He died in 1850, a few days after his eightieth birthday.

TASK W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g d o y o u f ind in W o r d s w o r t h ' s b i o g r a p h y ?

• Political pass ion a n d i n v o l v e m e n t • Personal t r a g e d y • A c a d e m i c e x c e l l e n c e

• Hostile cri t ic ism • In teres t in f o r e i g n cu l ture • C o n s i s t e n c y of v iews

• Lack of m o r a l s t a n d a r d s • Literary i n n o v a t i o n • Love of n a t u r e

• I n t e n s e Christ ian beliefs • Idealism f o l l o w e d b y c o n s e r v a t i s m • T a l e n t as a satirist


The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge

INTRODUCTION • While walking in the hills in the Lake District, William Wordsworth suggested to close friend, Coleridge, that he write a story about an adventure at sea. Coleridge took up the suggestio and the result was The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Of the Romantic poets, Coleridge was one of the most imaginative, and in the Rime he transports t' reader into fantastical, unforgettable settings (• Visual Link E4).

We s o m e t i m e s associate certain things with g o o d luck and bad luck. For example , a rabbit 's foo t is t h o u g h t to bring g o o d luck while walking under a ladder means trouble in store. Such human superstitions play a big part in the p o e m you are about to read.

The killing of the albatross as illustrated by Custave Dore (1875).

THE STORY The Rime, or story, is told by the Ancient Mariner to a man who is on his way to a wed-ding. The Mariner was working as a sailor on a ship that was blocked in by ice near the South Pole. Suddenly an albatross appears out of the fog and is welcomed as a sign of good luck by the crew. Not long after, the ice splits and the bird flies alongside the ship as it continues its voyage. Then, one day, for no apparent reason, the Mariner shoots and kills the albatross. The ship is blown north to the Equator into a honible sea where there is no wind. The sailors say it is the Mariner's fault for bringing about their bad luck, and hang the albatross around his neck so that he will never forget what a terrible thing he has done ( • Text E9). All the sailors die and he sees no way out of a hopeless situation until, one night, he is so struck by the beauty of the watersnakes that are swimming around the ship, that he blesses them. The albatross falls from his neck ( • Text E10) and the ship sails home. He is saved, but as a penance he has to travel around the world and tell his story, which serves as a warning to everyone to love all God's creatures. Note: The notes in a smaller font are a summary of what happens in the poem.

Text E9

- • GLOSSARY

1. hellish: evil 2. work 'em woe: bring

them bad luck 3. averred: claimed 4. wretch: evil person 5. slay: kill

Water, Water, Every Where The Ancient Mariner has just killed the albatross.

Part II (...) (The shipmates cry out against the ancient Mariner for killing the bird of good luck.)

And I had done a hellish1 thing. And it would work 'em woe2: For all averred31 had killed the bird That made the breeze to blow. Ah wretch4! said they, the bird to slay5, 5 That made the breeze to blow!

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 303

(But when the fog cleared off, they justify the same, and thus make themselves accomplices to the crime.)

Nor dim6 nor red, like God's own head, The glorious Sun uprist7: They all averred I had killed the bird That brought the fog and mist8. 10

'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay, That bring the fog and mist.

(The fair breeze continues; the ship enters the Pacific Ocean, and sails northward, even till it reaches the Line.)

The fair breeze blew, the white foam9 flew, The furrow10 followed free; We were the first that ever burst11 15 Into that silent sea. (The ship hath been suddenly becalmed.) Down dropped12 the breeze, the sails dropped down, 'Twas sad as sad could be; And we did speak only to break The silence of the sea! 20

30

All in a hot and copper13 sky, The bloody Sun, at noon, Right up above the mast14 did stand, No bigger than the Moon.

Day after day, day after day, We stuck15, nor breath16 nor motion17; As idle18 as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean. (And the Albatross begins to be avenged.)

Water, water, every where, And all the boards19 did shrink20; Water, water, every where, Nor any drop21 to drink.

The very deep22 did rot23: O Christ! That ever this should be! Yes, slimy things24 did crawl25 with legs 35 Upon the slimy sea.

About, about, in reel and rout26

The death-fires27 danced at night; The water, like a witch's oils, Burnt green and blue and white. 40

And some in dreams assured were28

Of the Spirit that plagued29 us so; Nine fathom30 deep he had followed us From the land of mist and snow.

25

6. dim: dark 7. uprist: rose up 8. mist: light fog 9. foam: white spray on

the top of waves 10. furrow: track that a

boat leaves behind it in the sea

11. burst: moved suddenly

12.dropped: fell 13. copper: reddish-

brown metal 14. mast: tall pole on

which the sails of the ship are hung

15. We stuck: we did not move

16. breath: wind 17.motion: movement 18. idle: not moving 19.boards: the wood

from which the ship was made

20. shrink: become smaller

21. drop: very small amount of liquid

22. deep: the bottom of the sea

23. rot: start decomposing

24. slimy things: slippery, unpleasant creatures like snakes

25. crawl: move very slowly

26. in reel and rout: as if they were dancing

27. death-fires: optical illusions created by an electrical storm. They were known as St Eimo's fires and were believed by sailors to mean that death was on the way

28. assured were: were sure

29. plagued: caused continual suffering

30. fathom: one fathom is 1.8 metres

We stuck, nor breath nor motion; as idle as a painted ship upon a painted ocean.'


31. utter: total 32. drought: period when

there is no rain 33. withered at the root:

their tongues were dying like a plant that does not get any water

34. choked: suffocated 35. soot: black powder

produced when something is burnt

36. well a-day: exclamation expressing displeasure at what happened on that day

•

(A Spirit had followed them; one of the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed souls nor angels; concerning whom the learned Jew, Josephus, and the Platonic Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus, may be consulted. They are very numerous, and there is no climate or element without one or more.)

And every tongue, through utter31 drought32, 45 Was withered at the root33; We could not speak, no more than if We had been choked34 with soot35.

(The shipmates, in their sore distress, would fain throw the whole guilt on the ancient Mariner: in sign whereof they hang the dead sea-bird round his neck.) Ah! well a-day36! what evil looks Had I from old and young! 50 Instead of the cross, the Albatross About my neck was hung.

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What 'hellish thing ' had the mariner d o n e ? How did the o ther crew m e m b e r s react to the mariner's d e e d ? What m a d e t h e m c h a n g e their reaction?

2 In what way did the o ther sailors b e c o m e 'accomplices to the cr ime'? See the second note .

3 W h a t path did the ship take? What did the sailors run out of?

4 W hat type of animals did t h e mariner see? W hat spectacle did he witness at night?

5 What was causing the sailors' misfortune? (Stanza 10 )

6 Why could they no longer speak?

7 W hat did t h e other sailors do to punish t h e mariner for his cr ime?

ANALYS IS 1 Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in the form of a ballad*. Here are s o m e of t h e features of a medieval ballad.

a. Tick the features that you identify in Coleridge's work and find examples . A ballad: • narrates a story.

recounts the adventures of the ancient mariner • is c o m p o s e d in simple t w o or four line stanzas. • consists of alternate four and three stress line. • rhymes on the second and fourth line. • contains few descriptive details. • leaves t h e motives behind the characters ' actions

unexplained. • makes extensive use of repetition*. • uses stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white

s teed' for a white horse, etc . • includes a refrain.

b. Medieval ballads are generally divided into five categories, according to t h e subject matter of their stories. Which of the following categories do you think The Rime of the Ancient Mariner could be classified under? • Love stories • Crime and punishment • Historical ballads • Outlaws and bad men K Ballads of the supernatural

c. Why do you think Coleridge chose the ballad form for his work?

2 Underline sentences in the text where the sun or the sea are ment ioned. Are they described in a realistic or symbolic way?

3 Find religious references in the second, eighth and twelfth stanzas, and a reference to the supernatural in t h e tenth stanza. Do you think the sea-animals described in the eighth stanza are real or supernatural, or could they be either?

4 How would you define t h e a tmosphere created in t h e p o e m ? What e lements contr ibute to the creation of t h e a tmosphere?

5 Consider the simile* in lines 27-28. W h a t does it convey? • A sense of paralysis • A sense of beauty • The idea of colour • The idea of an unreal world • Other:

6 Explain the paradox* contained in t h e image in t h e seventh stanza.

7 Find examples of end-of-line rhymes*, regular rhythm patterns and alliteration*.

mmmm


Internal rhymes

OVER TO YOU

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Internal rhymes are rhymes that occur within a line. Like the more frequently used end rhymes (the rhyming of final words) they are used to add a musical quality to the language.

There are several examples of internal rhyme in the text you have just read. Example: For all averred I had killed the bird Find other examples in lines 5 and 1 5 .

Experiment with internal rhyme. Think of two or three words that rhyme and try to include t h e m in the s a m e sentence . Example: same, name He told me his name, which was the same

Text E10

The Ancient Mariner observes the awfid situation he finds himself in.

Part IV

(•••)

Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide wide sea! And never a saint took pity on My soul in agony.

(He despiseth the creatures of the calm.)

The many men, so beautiful! 5 And they all dead did lie: And a thousand thousand slimy1 things Lived on, and so did I.

Alone On A Wide Wide Sea!

GLOSSARY • 1. slimy: slippery and

unpleasant like snakes

2. rotting: decomposing

3. deck: top level of a ship

4. or ever: before 5. gusht: (gushed)

come out 6. wicked: evil 7. whisper: very quiet

voice 8. lids: eyes 9. close: closed lO.balls: eyeballs tl.pulses: pulsations 12.load: heavyweight 13.weary: tired

I looked to heaven, and tried to pray; But or ever4 a prayer had gusht5, A wicked6 whisper7 came, and made 15 My heart as dry as dust.

I closed my lids8 and kept them close9, And the balls10 like pulses11 beat; For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky Lay like a load12 on my weary13 eye, 20 And the dead were at my feet.

(And envieth that they should live, and so many be dead.)

I looked upon the rotting2 sea, And drew my eyes away; 10 1 looked upon the rotting deck3, And there the dead men lay.

many men, so beautiful! And they all dead did lie...'


'Oh happy living things! no tongue their beauty, might declare...'

14.sweat: liquid that comes through your skin when you are hot or frightened

15.melted: disappeared 16.limbs: bodies 17.reek: have an

unpleasant smell 18.curse:

condemnation 19.drag: pull down 20.abide: stop 21.beams: shining lines

of light

(But the curse liveth for him in the eye of the dead men.)

The cold sweat14 melted15 from their limbs16, Nor rot nor reek17 did they: The look with which they looked on me Had never passed away. 25

An orphan's curse18 would drag19 to hell A spirit from on high; But oh! more horrible than that Is the curse in a dead man's eye! Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse, 30 And yet I could not die.

(In his loneliness and fixedness he yearneth towards the journeying Moon, and the stars that still sojourn, yet still move onward; and every where the blue sky belongs to them, and is their appointed rest, and their native country and their own natural homes, which they enter unannounced, as lords that are certainly expected and yet there is a silent joy at their arrival.)

The moving Moon went up the sky, And no where did abide20: Softly she was going up, And a star or two beside - 35

Her beams21 bemocked the sultry main22, Like April hoar-frost23 spread; But where the ship's huge24 shadow lay, The charmed25 water burnt alway26

A still and awful red.

(By the light of the Moon he beholdeth God's creatures of the great calm.)

Beyond the shadow of the ship, I watched the water-snakes. They moved in tracks of shining white, And when they reared27, the elfish28 light Fell off in hoary flakes29.

Within30 the shadow of the ship I watched their rich attire31: Blue, glossy green, and velvet black, They coiled32 and swam; and every track Was a flash of golden fire.

22.bemocked the sultry main: made fun of the hot and windless sea

23.hoar-frost: white powdery ice

24.huge: very big

25.charmed: under a magic spell

26.alway: always 27.reared: came up out of the

sea 28.elfish: magical

29.hoary flakes: small ice-like pieces

30.Within: inside 31.attire: clothes 32.coiled: twisted and

turned


(Their beauty and their happiness.) (He blesseth them in his heart.) O happy living things! no tongue Their beauty might declare33: A spring of love gushed34 from my heart, And I blessed them unaware35: Sure my kind saint took pity on me, And I blessed them unaware.

(The spell begins to break.)

The self-same moment I could pray; And from my neck so free The Albatross fell off, and sank36

Like lead37 into the sea.

55

60

33.no tongue ... declare: nobody would be able to put into words how beautiful they were

34.gushed: came out quickly and in large quantities (like water from a pipe)

35.unaware: without realising what I was doing

36.sank: went down below the surface of the water

37.lead: a heavy metal

COMPREHENSION

1 Why was the mariner alone? What happened when he tried to pray? Did he get relief from closing his eyes?

2 Had the bodies of the dead crew m e m b e r s begun to d e c o m p o s e ?

3 Which was worse, according to t h e mariner: the curse of an orphan or the curse of a dead man's eye?

4 W h a t colour did t h e sea b e c o m e in the light of t h e m o o n ? W h a t colour was the sea in the shadow of the boat?

5 W h a t did the mariner see in the water? W hat did he unconsciously do?

6 When did the albatross fall from the mariner's neck?

ANALYSIS

1 This section of the poem may be divided into two parts. In t h e first part t h e mariner looks inwards, at his own condition and laments his misfortune. In the second part he looks outwards at his surroundings and finds a sense of harmony with nature. Identify the turning point in the text .

2 The t h e m e s of religion and the supernatural are strongly present in this section of the p o e m . Find references to religion in t h e first, fourth, seventh and twelfth stanzas. Identify t h e supernatural e lements in the text.

3 Explain the use of personification* in the eighth stanza. Which words/expressions (also consider the note) suggest that the m o o n is a benign natural e lement?

4 Focus on the description of the watersnakes in t h e tenth and eleventh stanzas. Underline the colours and the verbs of m o v e m e n t the mariner uses. Do you think that the watersnakes are real or magical animals, or could they be considered to be b o t h ?

5 The sun and the m o o n are two of t h e central symbols* in t h e p o e m . Underline t h e lines in which they are ment ioned in the t w o texts you have read. Which is associated with pain and suffering and which with gent leness and forgiveness?

6 The albatross is also an important symbol in the p o e m . The killing of the albatross has been interpreted in several different ways:

- man's indifference towards nature; - man's lack of Christian values; - the crucifixion of Jesus Christ; - the betrayal of basic human values and instincts; - the suppression of t h e creative drive and

imagination in man.

Do you agree with any of these interpretations or do you have your own personal view? Justify your response.

As you read Text El 0 again, listen to t h e recording and identify musical features such as alliteration*, repetition*, rhyme* and rhythm*.

Think of a c o m m o n superstition. Do s o m e research into its origin and explain your findings to t h e rest of t h e class.

HJMHHHHH Early years Samuel Taylor ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H w H H H U ^ ^ ^ H Coleridge was born in 1772 , the youngest of ten children. When his father died he was sent away to a London charity school for children of the clergy. He was an avid reader and a bright s tudent . In 1 7 9 1 he went to Cambridge, but he suddenly interrupted his education to enlist in a regiment of light dragoons. Later he was re-admitted into Cambridge , where he met the radical poet Robert Southey, whose sympathetic views on the French Revolution he shared. Together they planned the foundation of an egalitarian Utopian community in New England. The project was abandoned but the two friends collaborated on a verse drama, The Fall of Robespierre (1794).


Marriage Coler idge left Cambridge w i t h o u t a degree and, almost on impulse, married Southey's fiancee's sister. The marriage, which produced four children, was a failure: the couple lived apart for most of their lives.

Encounter with Wordsworth In 1795 Coleridge met William Wordsworth ( • pp. E16-23) , a poet wi th s imilar pol i t i ca l and l i terary views. T h e e n c o u n t e r produced o n e of the most creat ive partnerships in English literature. The result of their collaboration was the Lyrical Ballads (1798) , which opened with one of the four poems that Coleridge had contributed: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ( • Texts E9 and E10). He also began, but never completed, three other ballads, the finest of which is Christabel, and composed his celebrated opium-vision Kubla Khan. In 1798 he travelled to Germany with Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy. He had become disillusioned with the political radicalism inspired by the French Revolution and turned his a t tent ion to German philosophy, especially the ideas of the philosopher Immanuel Kant. He learned German, studied philosophy at Gottingen University and translated some works by the romantic poet Friedrich von Schiller into English.

Drug addiction In 1800 he returned to England and went with the Wordworths to live in the Lake District. By this time he had become addicted to opium, which was the only available relief for the pain he suffered due to various health problems. In 1804 he left for Malta, hoping to overcome his addiction and improve his health in a warmer climate. He worked as secretary to the governor of Malta for two years and then returned to England.

The Lake District In 1808 he moved back to the Lake District, close to the Wordsworths and Southey. Together they became known as the 'Lake Poets'. He fell in love with Wordsworth's sister-in-law, a love that was to be a source of great suffering all through his life.

The end of a friendship In 1 8 1 0 his f r iendship with Wordsworth c a m e to a b i t ter end. His addiction to opium got worse, producing terrible mood swings and making him unable to work productively. In the at tempt to free himself of the habit he went to live in the household of a physician in London.

London and fame In the following years he slowly regained his health, worked as a journalist and gave lectures that established his reputation as a distinguished literary critic.

Writers' Gallery - Samuel Taylor Coleridge

- 3 » * - f v y » » - ^mmm^mm^mm^

In 1816 the publication of the poems Christabel and Kubla Khan consolidated his fame. The following year he wrote his major prose work, Biographia Literaria ( • p. El 19), a series of dissertations on subjects ranging from literary criticism and philosophy to sociology. He died in 1834. His epitaph, which he wrote to sum up a life of suffering, reads:

Beneath this sod A Poet lies; or that which once was he. 0 lift one thought in prayer for S.T.C. That he, who many a year with toil of breath, Found Death in Life, may here find Life in Death.

Lyrical Ballads Coleridge's reputation as a poet is based on a small but magnificent corpus of work. The best expression of his

poetic vision can be found in his collaboration with Wordsworth in the Lyrical Ballads (• p. El 18). The contribution to the collection by the two poets was very different. While Wordsworth wrote poetry inspired by the simple things of everyday life, Coleridge turned to the past for mystery and wonder and took the readers into the fantastic world of the imagination. Wordsworth asked the readers to enjoy his natural descriptions, Coleridge on the other hand asked them to 'suspend disbelief' and let him lead them into mysterious and supernatural worlds.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner This can be clearly seen in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (• Texts E9 and E10), where the juxtaposition of ordinary experience with supernatural events, and the use of powerful symbols (the sun, the moon) and striking images create an eerie, otherworldly atmosphere which stimulates the reader's imagination.

Kubla Khan Kubla Khan, started in 1798 and published unfinished in 1816, was apparently inspired by a dream in an opium-induced sleep. Coleridge woke up with a clear image of the poem, but lost the vision, except for a few lines, when a visitor disturbed him. The poem's theme is the fabulous ancient Orient and its magic rites. Its most striking features are its suggestive imagery and musical rhythm.

Christabel In the same year Coleridge published another unfinished poem, Christabel, which he had written over a period of time. The poem is a medieval romance of the supernatural, which includes many Gothic elements. Coleridge was very disappointed when Wordsworth refused to include it in the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads.

Biographia Literaria Though he is best known today for his poetry, Coleridge wrote articles and dissertations on philosophy, political analysis and theology. His treatises and lectures made him the most influential English literary critic of the nineteenth century. In his Biographia Literaria (• p. El 19), considered his greatest critical work, Coleridge developed theories that were intended to be the introduction to a great philosophical work, which he never produced.

TASK

Use t h e following headings t o take notes on Coler idge 's life a n d works and t h e n prepare a short report .

- Early life and educat ion - Contr ibut ion to t h e Lyrical Ballads - G e r m a n y - Friendship with Wordsworth - Health p r o b l e m s - Rehabilitation and final years

MHMM


George Gordon Byron INTRODUCTION • Byron is remembered as much for his life as for his poetry. His amorous adventures and wholehearted participation in political movements were just two aspects of a life that helped to make him a legendary, heroic figure. The poems that follow reveal Byron's many-sided nature. He praises a beautiful girl, he complains that he no longer has the energy to enjoy life as he used to and he resolves to give his support to the Greek independence movement.

Painters must always pay close attention to the quality of light in their paintings. A little more light or shade can c h a n g e our impression of t h e subject mat ter greatly. In this p o e m Byron, like a painter, focuses his at tention on light and how it can e n h a n c e beauty.

Q Text E l l

• GLOSSARY

1 climes: regions or climates Thus mellow'd ... denies: her beauty is soft (mellow'd). It is a tender light, not the harsh, bright light (gaudy) of daytime shade: piece of darkness ray: piece of light Had half impair'd: would damage waves: undulates raven tress: shiny black hair dwelling-place: home

9. brow: forehead 10. win: conquer people's

heart 11. tints that glow: soft

colours that shine 4

2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

She Walks In Beauty She walks in beauty, like the night

Of cloudless climes1 and starry skies; And all that's best of dark and bright

Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellow'd to that tender light

Which heaven to gaudy day denies2.

One shade3 the more, one ray4 the less, Had half impair'd5 the nameless grace

Which waves6 in every raven tress7, Or softly lightens o'er her face;

Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling-place8

10

And on that cheek, and o'er that brow9, So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,

The smiles that win10, the tints that glow11, is But tell of days in goodness spent,

A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent!

Maria Bicknell (Mrs John Constable) by lohn Constable (1816).

George Gordon Byron

COMPREHENS ION 1 What does the poet compare the lady's beauty to, in the opening two lines of the poem?

2 Which word in line 6 suggests that daylight is too strong?

3 Which phrase means 'beauty' in line 8?

4 Make a list of the physical features that are mentioned in the poem.

ANALYSIS ; 1 Contrast the phrase 'She walks in beauty' with 'She is beautiful'. What nuances of meaning does the phrase used by Byron suggest?

• That the beauty he is describing is out of the ordinary, complex, mysterious.

• That he is describing more than physical beauty. • That the lady he is describing is not only beautiful

herself, but is also surrounded by beauty.

2 The opening simile* compares the lady's beauty to the light of a starry, cloudless night. What is the poet trying to capture in this simile? • The undefinable quality of the lady's beauty. • The fact that her beauty is composed of different

elements: darkness and light. • The delicacy and gentleness of the lady's beauty

(contrast with the 'gaudy' light of day). • The fact that the lady's beauty contains something

sinister, a dark quality.

3 The lady's beauty is compared to the perfect balance of opposites (line 3: 'best of dark and bright'). Find other examples of balancing opposites in the second and third stanzas.

4 Find words or phrases in the poem that associate the lady's beauty with softness, calmness and purity.

5 Find examples of personification* in the poem.

6 Identify the rhyming scheme of the poem. Find examples of alliteration*, assonance* and run-on lines*.

7 ft Listen again to the recording of the poem. How would you define the rhythm*? Is it in keeping with the theme of beauty in the poem?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Parallelism is the repetition in the same line or in close proximity of similar syntactical

structures. An example of parallelism in She Walks in Beauty can be found in l ine 7:

One shade the more, one ray the less

Parallelism is a sophist icated form of repeti t ion which is used to emphasise the m e a n -

ing of the separate clauses. It also creates a harmonious syntactical ba lance which adds

a musical quality to the language.

Identify the repetition of conjunctions in the first verse of the poem. Find examples of parallelisms within the same line and in successive lines in the final verse of the poem.

Parallelisms are often used in proverbs and sayings, for example: 'live and let live', 'all's well that ends well'. Think of some examples in your own language.

Byron associates the beauty of the woman with night-time. Which time of day do you particularly like? Do you look forward to a balmy summer's evening or do you thrill at a glorious sunrise on a frosty winter's morning? Tell the rest of the class.

3 4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry rnMmmf:

Byron was only thirty-six when he died, but in the following short poem he seems to need a rest from the hectic life he has led.

Text E 1 2 So We'll Go No More A-Roving

A portrait of Byron by Thomas Phillips (1835).

So we ' l l g o n o m o r e a - r o v i n g 1

So la te i n t o t h e n i g h t ,

T h o u g h t h e h e a r t b e still as l o v i n g ,

A n d t h e m o o n b e still as b r i g h t .

For t h e sword o u t w e a r s 2 its s h e a t h 3 ,

A n d t h e soul wears t h e breast ,

A n d t h e h e a r t m u s t pause t o b r e a t h e ,

A n d Love i tse l f h a v e rest .

T h o u g h t h e n i g h t was m a d e for lov ing ,

A n d t h e d a y re turns t o o s o o n ,

Yet we ' l l g o n o m o r e a - r o v i n g

B y t h e l i g h t o f t h e m o o n .

10

GLOSSARY 1. a-roving: verb form used in

poetry or songs (roving: going out to enjoy ourselves)

2. outwears: lasts longer than 3. sheath: the covering for a

sword

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Divide the poem into:

a. S ta tement of intent: lines b . Explanation: lines c. Reformulation of intent: lines

2 When did t h e poet g o 'a-roving'? W hat kind of activities do you think 'roving' included?

3 W hat seems to have caused the poet to stop roving?

ANALYS IS

I

1 The poet uses the pronoun 'we ' and not 'I'. What effect does this have on the p o e m ?

• It involves t h e reader more directly. • It suggests that t h e 'roving' was d o n e in company. • It distances the reader from the p o e m .

2 Focus on t h e metaphor* in the opening line of the second stanza. The 'sword' represents the poet 's spirit, while the ' sheath ' represents his body. By comparing his spirit to a sword, what does the poet suggest a b o u t his attitude to life?

3 How would you define t h e t o n e of t h e p o e m ?

4 The p o e m is based on an old Scottish folk song. Which of the following features of folk songs can you identify in it?

• Colloquial verb form • A refrain • Strong and regular rhythm* and rhyming s c h e m e • Extensive use of repetition* • A chorus (a repeated verse)

George Gordon Byron

In this poem Byron is saying that he no longer has the energy to live at the hectic p a c e he has been used to. Do you think there is a t ime in life w h e n w e should or must slow down and give up s o m e of t h e things w e like doing, or can we keep going with the same energy and enthusiasm of youth as we grow older? Discuss with your classmates and find examples of people w h o you think have m a n a g e d to live life to the full even in their later years (for example : Nelson Mandela, Tina Turner).

Byron was never a man to settle for a quiet h o m e life of easy comfort and was always looking for new adventures. This poem was written just a few months before he died. Read it and find out what n e w project was to take up all his energies in his final days.

On This Day I Complete My Thirty-Sixth Year Text E 1 3

'Tis1 t i m e t h i s h e a r t s h o u l d b e u n m o v e d 2 ,

S i n c e o t h e r s it h a t h c e a s e d t o m o v e 3 :

Yet, t h o u g h I c a n n o t b e b e l o v e d 4 ,

Sti l l let m e love !

M y days are i n t h e y e l l o w leaf 5 ;

T h e f lowers a n d fruits o f l o v e are g o n e ;

T h e w o r m 6 , t h e c a n k e r 7 , a n d t h e gr ie f 8

Are m i n e a l o n e !

T h e fire t h a t o n m y b o s o m preys 9

Is l o n e 1 0 as s o m e v o l c a n i c isle;

N o t o r c h is k i n d l e d 1 1 at i ts b l a z e -

A f u n e r a l p i l e 1 2 .

T h e h o p e , t h e fear, t h e j e a l o u s care,

T h e e x a l t e d p o r t i o n 1 3 o f t h e p a i n

A n d p o w e r o f love, I c a n n o t share ,

B u t w e a r t h e c h a i n .

But 'tis not thus14- and 'tis not here -S u c h t h o u g h t s s h o u l d s h a k e m y soul , n o r now,

W h e r e g lory decks t h e h e r o ' s bier,

O r b i n d s h i s b r o w 1 5 .

10

15

20

GLOSSARY 1. 'Tis: it is 2. unmoved: not feel strong

emotions 3. Since ... move: because my

heart (it) and emotions no longer cause passion in other people (hath ceased: have stopped)

4. beloved: loved by others

5. My days ... yellow leaf: I am getting older

6. worm: long, thin insect that is usually associated with death

7. canker: destructive infection

8. grief: great sorrow 9. The fire ... preys: the

fire of passion that is eating away (preys) at my heart (bosom)

10. lone: alone 11. kindled: lit 12. funeral pile: large

amount of wood on which a dead body is burnt

13. exalted portion: large amount

14.'Tis not thus: it is not in this way

15.Where glory ... brow: where glory can be seen on the hero's face (binds his brow) as he is carried away from the battlefield on a piece of wood (bier)

% f 3 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

16. banner: a big flag used as a standard by an army

17. Greece: Byron helped the Greeks in their struggle against Turkish domination

18.The Spartan ... shield: when Spartans died in battle they were carried (borne) from the field on their shields (pieces of metal or wood that soldiers used to protect themselves from attack)

19.Think ... lake: think of your ancestors. Byron was descended from the kings of Scotland

20. strike home: attack the enemy, in this case the Turks

21.Tread ... down: repress (tread: walk on) these reawakened passions, i.e. thoughts of love

22. Unworthy manhood: you are not acting as a man should in these circumstances

23. thee: you 24. frown: an angry or

unhappy facial expression

25.thou ... thy youth: you regret your youth

26. Seek out: look for 27. grave: a place in the

ground where a dead body is buried

T h e sword, t h e b a n n e r 1 6 , a n d t h e f ield,

G l o r y a n d G r e e c e 1 7 , a r o u n d m e see!

T h e S p a r t a n , b o r n e u p o n h i s s h i e l d 1 8 ,

W a s n o t m o r e free .

Awake! ( n o t G r e e c e - s h e is awake ! ) 25

Awake, m y spirit ! T h i n k t h r o u g h whom

T h y l i f e - b l o o d t racks its p a r e n t lake 1 9 ,

A n d t h e n strike h o m e 2 0 !

Tread t h o s e r e v i v i n g p a s s i o n s d o w n 2 1 ,

U n w o r t h y m a n h o o d 2 2 ! - u n t o t h e e 2 3 30

I n d i f f e r e n t s h o u l d t h e s m i l e or f r o w n 2 4

O f b e a u t y be .

If t h o u regret 'st t h y y o u t h 2 5 , why live?

T h e l a n d o f h o n o u r a b l e d e a t h

Is h e r e : - u p t o t h e f ield, a n d give 35

Away t h y b r e a t h !

Seek o u t 2 6 - less o f t e n s o u g h t t h a n f o u n d -

A soldier 's grave 2 7 , for t h e e t h e bes t ;

T h e n l o o k a r o u n d , a n d c h o o s e t h y g r o u n d ,

A n d t a k e t h y rest . 40

George Gordon Byron

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Why, according to the poet, should his heart no longer be moved? (First stanza)

2 What awaits the poet in the future? (Second stanza)

3 Does the poet still feel passion? Is it shared by others? (Third stanza) Which aspects of love can the poet no longer share? (Fourth stanza)

4 Why does the poet feel that this is not the time or place for gloomy thoughts on lost love? Where is the poet and what is he involved in?

5 What, according to the poet, should give him the strength to fight?

6 What 'honourable death' does he desire?

ANALYS IS 1 The poem deals with several themes: love, loneliness, ageing, valour and death. Find at least one line reference for each of them.

3 In lines 6 and 7 which words convey the joys of love and the pain of being without love? What musical device is used in the phrase suggesting the joys of love?

4 The idea of fire is used in an extended metaphor in the third stanza. What does the fire represent? Which striking fire images represent the poet's loneliness and despair?

5 Which aspects of love does the poet focus on in the fourth stanza? Are they the features of love that people generally wish to share?

6 In the sixth and seventh stanzas the poet refers to Greece's glorious past (lines 2 3 - 2 4 ) and to his own noble ancestry (lines 2 7 - 2 8 ) . How do these thoughts condition his attitude to death? a They make him more cheerful. • They make him see death as an honourable end.

7 In the final part of the poem the poet sees death as an honourable escape from the pain of living unloved. Underline the euphemisms* he uses for death in the last two stanzas.

8 The poem is written in the form of a soliloquy*. In the first part of the poem he uses the pronoun 'I'. Which pronoun does he use in the second part? What does this change signal?

• The poet's wish to cast off his gloomy thoughts. • The poet's uncertainty about being involved in

battle. • The poet's desire to change.

9 How would you define the tone of the poem?

1 0 Identify the rhyming scheme* of the poem. Is it regular throughout?

Each stanza is composed of three iambic tetrameters* (four feet) followed by a iambic dimeter* (two feet). What effect does the short final line of each stanza create?

• It interrupts the flow of the poem and adds tension. • It makes the rhythm more dramatic. • It makes the rhythm more regular. • It adds variety.

2 Analyse the metaphor* used by the poet in line 5 using the table below.

t e n o r c o m m o n ground vehicle ageing

Byron is regarded as a hero in Greece for the part he played in the national liberation struggle against Turkish domination. From your studies of history and literature, find another writer who was actively involved in a political or social cause. Describe the cause which they supported and the part which they played in it ( • Visual Link E1).

. i 316 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY

mm Family background George

G o r d o n Lord B y r o n was b o r n

in L o n d o n in 1 7 8 8 . His parents h a d b e e n l iving in France whi le

h i d i n g f r o m t h e i r c r e d i t o r s , b u t j u s t b e f o r e B y r o n ' s b i r t h h i s

m o t h e r r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d . His f a t h e r s t a y e d o n in F r a n c e ,

w h e r e h e d i e d t h r e e years later , p o s s i b l y c o m m i t t i n g s u i c i d e .

Byron was b o r n l a m e a n d l imped all of his life.

Education He was educated at Harrow a n d t h e n at Cambridge .

An avid reader o f t h e c lass ics , e s p e c i a l l y poet ry , h e w r o t e a n d

publ ished in 1 8 0 7 his first work, Hours of Idleness, a co l lec t ion of

s e n t i m e n t a l p o e m s . T h e cr i t i cs were n o t i m p r e s s e d a n d B y r o n

repl ied t o his detrac tors w i t h a f a m o u s satire, English Bards and

Scotch Reviewers. W h e n his great u n c l e died t h e fo l lowing year, B y r o n inher i ted t h e t i t le (Baron Byron of Rochdale) ,

s o m e m o n e y and t h e Byrons ' ancestral h o m e , Newstead Abbey.

GEORGE GORDON BYRON ( 1 7 8 8 - 1 8 2 4 )

The 'Grand Tour' In 1 8 0 9 he set out o n his ' G r a n d Tour' , t h e c u s t o m a r y trip abroad t h a t af f luent

educated y o u n g m e n w e n t o n . Over two years, he visited all t h e Medi terranean countr ies and started

work o n t h e poet i ca l a c c o u n t o f th i s trip, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, w h i c h t o o k h i m e ight years t o

c o m p l e t e ( • Visual Link E6).

Success and scandal Back in England he publ ished the first t w o c a n t o s o f Childe Harold. T h e p o e m

m e t w i t h ins tant success a n d establ ished Byron as o n e o f England's leading R o m a n t i c poets . He was

just twenty- four years old w h e n he 'awoke o n e day t o f ind h imse l f famous ' .

He was very o u t s p o k e n about his radical pol i t ical views, a n d his private life was t h e source of m u c h

s c a n d a l . A r u m o u r t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h his hal f -s is ter h a d led t o t h e b i r t h o f a c h i l d b e g a n t o

circulate and outraged fash ionable society.

Marriage and self-exposed exile In 1 8 1 5 Byron tried t o f ind stabil i ty in marriage, b u t his wife left

h i m jus t b e f o r e t h e b i r t h o f Ada, h i s o n l y l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d . At th i s p o i n t h e h a d b e c o m e a soc ia l

o u t c a s t . He left E n g l a n d n e v e r t o re turn a n d w e n t t o G e n e v a , w h e r e h e was j o i n e d b y Percy a n d

M a r y S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 8 8 - 9 5 ) a n d M a r y ' s s t e p s i s t e r C l a i r e C l a i r m o n t , w i t h w h o m B y r o n h a d a

daughter , Allegra. T h i s was o n e o f t h e m o s t product ive periods of h is life. He b e g a n t h e p o e m The

Prisoner ofChillon, f in ished t h e th ird c a n t o o f Childe Harold a n d started t h e drama Manfred.

Italy In 1 8 1 6 m o v e d to Venice, where he lived with nineteen-year-old Countess Teresa Guiccioli and

h e r r i c h , a g e d h u s b a n d . T h r o u g h Teresa a n d h e r f a m i l y h e j o i n e d a b r a n c h o f t h e C a r b o n a r i ,

conspirators f ighting against the Austrian oppressors. He then jo ined other British radical exiles, such as

Shel ley ( • pp. E 4 0 - 5 1 ) at Pisa, where t h e y publ ished a poli t ical journal , The Liberal. In 1 8 2 2 , short ly

before Shelley drowned in a boat ing accident, the group of English expatriates went their separate ways.

Greece Byron ' s h e a l t h was n o t good, b u t w h e n h e h e a r d t h a t t h e Greeks were prepar ing a revolt

against t h e Turks h e j o i n e d t h e i n s u r g e n t s at M i s s o l o n g h i . He c o n t r i b u t e d m o n e y a t h e cause a n d

Writers' Gallery - George Gordon Byron

•iMtiF um&H wm? • ^ s m »

was m a d e c o m m a n d e r in chief , b u t did n o t live l o n g e n o u g h t o take part in a n y mil i tary ac t ion . In

1 8 2 4 his h e a l t h failed h i m , and he died o n April 1 9 t h . He was o n l y thir ty-s ix years old. His remains

were sent b a c k to England,whi le his hear t was buried at Misso longhi .

Poems B y r o n wrote p o e m s in a great var ie ty o f metres , such as She Walks in Beauty ( • Text E l l )

a n d Ode on Venice in w h i c h t h e poet celebrates t h e city's beauty a n d l a m e n t s its decay. Childe Harold's

Pilgrimage, a p o e m i n f o u r c a n t o s w r i t t e n b e t w e e n 1 8 1 2 a n d 1 8 1 9 , t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f a y o u n g

disi l lusioned n o b l e m a n w h o travels to t h e places that Byron h a d visited o n his G r a n d Tour. Harold is

e n c h a n t e d b y t h e glorious past of these countr ies as ref lected in their m o n u m e n t s a n d admires t h e

w o n d e r s o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . T h e u n f i n i s h e d p o e m Don Juan, w h i c h m a n y c r i t i c s c o n s i d e r h i s

masterpiece , is a p icaresque verse satire w i t h several autobiographica l references . T h e hero 's travels,

adventures, love affairs, ideas, impress ions and feelings are very close ref lect ions o f w h a t Byron did,

felt a n d t h o u g h t . T h e p o e m is also a satire against c o n v e n t i o n a l restraint, society a n d the R o m a n t i c

poets w h o h a d turned f r o m poli t ical radical ism t o conservat i sm ( • pp. E 2 2 - 2 3 ) .

Drama T h e drama Manfred is inspired b y the frustrat ion induced b y t h e ref lect ion t h a t m a n is 'ha l f

dust, ha l f deity, alike unf i t t o sink or soar' . T h e protagonis t is t h e s tereotype o f t h e R o m a n t i c hero :

a m b i g u o u s l y h a n d s o m e , t o r m e n t e d , p a s s i o n a t e , m e l a n c h o l i c , e m o t i o n a l , sol i tary. Torn b e t w e e n

n o b l e aspirat ions a n d sin, a n d u n a b l e t o solve t h e dual ism, he c o m m i t s suicide.

Tragedy T h e tragedy in five acts Marino Faliero, Doge of Venice dramat ises a n episode in V e n e t i a n

history, w h e n t h e doge f o r m e d an al l iance wi th t h e people to o v e r t h r o w the state. T h e m a i n interest

of Marino Faliero, like in all his o t h e r theatr ical works, lies in its pol i t ical c o n t e n t .

Reputation A l t h o u g h B y r o n ' s w o r k w a s w i d e l y c r i t i c i s e d o n m o r a l g r o u n d s a n d f r e q u e n t l y

at tacked b y critics, it was i m m e n s e l y popular in England a n d t h e rest o f Europe; his sales were bet ter

in G e r m a n y a n d France t h a n in Britain. As a R o m a n t i c i c o n his i m p o r t a n c e was e n o r m o u s . T h e poet

T e n n y s o n ( • M o d u l e F) s u m m e d up the general react ion t o his dea th w h e n he wrote o n hear ing t h e

n e w s : ' t h e w h o l e w o r l d d a r k e n e d t o m e ' . B y r o n e m b o d i e d t h e R o m a n t i c s p i r i t a n d g a v e i t a

recognisable face. He left b e h i n d h i m t h e endur ing image of the Byronic hero : a gloomy, unsat isf ied

social outcast , a wanderer in foreign lands, a f ighter against social in just ice , w h o in his quest for self-

realisation, refuses t o accept social codes a n d c o n v e n t i o n s .

B y r o n e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t l i t e r a r y g e n r e s , i n c l u d i n g

poetry a n d drama.

TASK Byron's life seems to reflect the essence of the typical Romantic hero'. Which elements do you find in his

biography that support this statement?


Percy Bysshe Shelley I N T R O D U C T I O N • At t h e e n d o f h i s essay, A Defence of Poetry ( 1 8 2 1 ) , S h e l l e y w r o t e t h a t ' P o e t s a r e t h e

u n a c k n o w l e d g e d legis la tors o f t h e w o r l d ' . H e b e l i e v e d t h a t p o e t r y w a s a force f o r g o o d , b o t h for t h e indiv i -

dual a n d soc ie ty . T h r o u g h h i s p o e t r y h e felt h e c o u l d c h a n g e his f e l l o w m a n a n d c h a n g e t h e w o r l d .

Natural sett ings or natural p h e n o m e n a can have a profound effect on us. A glorious sunset might fill us with a sense of peace , while a very loud clap of thunder might make us shake in fear. Shelley is sitting in a w o o d bes ide t h e river Arno near F lorence at t h e end of s u m m e r . He is fasc inated by t h e power and majesty of t h e west wind and hopes it will help him pull out of his depression.

Q InSgMEi Ode To The West Wind

i

O wi ld W e s t W i n d , t h o u 1 b r e a t h o f A u t u m n ' s b e i n g ,

T h o u , f r o m w h o s e u n s e e n p r e s e n c e t h e leaves dead

Are d r i v e n 2 , l ike g h o s t s f r o m a n e n c h a n t e r f l ee ing 3 ,

Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic4 red, Pestilence-stricken5 multitudes: O thou, 5 Who chariotest6 to their dark wintry bed

T h e w i n g e d seeds 7 , w h e r e t h e y lie c o l d a n d low,

E a c h l ike a c o r p s e 8 w i t h i n its grave 9 , u n t i l

T h i n e 1 0 azure sister o f t h e S p r i n g 1 1 shal l b l o w

H e r c l a r i o n 1 2 o ' e r t h e d r e a m i n g ear th , a n d fill 10

( D r i v i n g sweet b u d s 1 3 l ike f l o c k s 1 4 t o feed i n air)

W i t h l iv ing h u e s 1 5 a n d o d o u r s p l a i n 1 6 a n d hi l l :

W i l d Spirit , w h i c h a r t 1 7 m o v i n g e v e r y w h e r e ;

D e s t r o y e r a n d preserver ; hear, o h , hear !

• GLOSSARY

I 1. thou: you 2. Thou, from ...

driven: even though they cannot see you, the leaves are blown away by you

3. enchanter fleeing: running away from a magician

4. hectic: bright 5. Pestilence-stricken:

diseased 6. chariotest: carries 7. winged seeds: seeds flying

as if they had wings

8. corpse: dead body 9. grave: where dead

bodies are buried in the ground

10. Thine: your 11. azure sister of

the Spring: zephyr (gentle wind

announcing the arrival of spring)

12.clarion: trumpet 13.buds: young flowers 14. flocks: groups of birds 15. hues: colours 16. plain: flat land 17. art: are

Percy Bysshe Shelley 41

II T h o u o n w h o s e s t r e a m 1 8 , m i d 1 9 t h e s teep sky's c o m m o t i o n 1

L o o s e c l o u d s l ike ear th ' s d e c a y i n g leaves are s h e d 2 1 ,

S h o o k f r o m t h e t a n g l e d b o u g h s 2 2 o f H e a v e n a n d O c e a n 2 3 ,

Angels o f r a i n a n d l i g h t n i n g 2 4 : t h e r e are spread

O n t h e b l u e surface o f t h i n e aery surge 2 5 ,

Like t h e b r i g h t h a i r u p l i f t e d f r o m t h e h e a d

,20 15

20

O f s o m e f ierce M a e n a d 2 6 , e v e n f r o m t h e d i m v e r g e 2 7

O f t h e h o r i z o n t o t h e z e n i t h ' s 2 8 h e i g h t ,

T h e l o c k s 2 9 o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g s t o r m . T h o u d i r g e 3 0

O f t h e d y i n g year, t o w h i c h t h i s c l o s i n g 3 1 n i g h t

W i l l b e t h e d o m e 3 2 o f a vas t s e p u l c h r e ,

V a u l t e d 3 3 w i t h all t h y c o n g r e g a t e d m i g h t 3 4

25

O f v a p o u r s , f r o m w h o s e sol id a t m o s p h e r e

B l a c k ra in , a n d fire, a n d h a i l wil l b u r s t 3 5 : o h , h e a r !

Ill T h o u w h o didst w a k e n f r o m his s u m m e r d r e a m s

T h e b l u e M e d i t e r r a n e a n 3 6 , w h e r e h e lay,

Lul led b y t h e co i l o f h i s c r y s t a l l i n e s t r e a m s 3 7 ,

Bes ide a p u m i c e i s le 3 8 in Baiae 's b a y 3 9 ,

A n d saw i n s leep o l d p a l a c e s a n d t o w e r s

Q u i v e r i n g w i t h i n t h e w a v e ' s i n t e n s e r d a y 4 0 ,

All o v e r g r o w n w i t h azure m o s s 4 1 a n d f lowers

So sweet , t h e s e n s e f a i n t s 4 2 p i c t u r i n g 4 3 t h e m ! T h o u

For w h o s e p a t h t h e At lant i c ' s level p o w e r s

30

II 18. stream: air-flow 19. mid: in the middle of 20. commotion: noisy confusion 21. Loose clouds ... shed: the

sky is like a tree from which scattered (loose) clouds are dropped down (shed) like dying (decaying) leaves

22.Shook ... boughs: shaken down from the intertwined i tangled) branches (boughs)

23. Heaven and Ocean: they are interconnected because vapour from the Ocean evaporates up to Heaven, where it forms clouds

24. Angels of rain and lightning: the clouds are

35

the first, innocent signs that there will be a fierce storm

25. aery surge: powerful sea of air

26. Maenad: in Greek mythology, a female follower of the god of wine (Dionysus). During celebrations Maenads danced in a wild (fierce) way

2 7. dim verge: dark edge 28. zenith: the highest point

reached by the sun or moon in the sky

29. locks: hair; here: the clouds 30. dirge: sad song (of the

wind)

31. closing: approaching 32. dome: circular roof 33. Vaulted: covered 34. congregated might:

assembled strength 35.Of vapours ... burst: from

the thick solid clouds that the west wind has gathered together, a violent storm (fire: lightning, hail: frozen rain) will erupt (burst)

III 36.Thou ... Mediterranean:

during the summer the Mediterranean was calm and seemed to be asleep but then you woke (didst waken) him up

37.Lulled ... streams: the sea is made to feel sleepy (lulled) by the serpentine movement (coil) of crystal clear underwater currents (crystalline streams I

38. pumice isle: island of volcanic rock

39. Baiae's bay: bay near Naples that was popular with Roman emperors

40.And saw ... day: you could see the ruins of the old town shaking slightly (quivering) below the surface of the intensely blue sea (wave's intenser day)

41. moss: flat plant that grows on wet surfaces. Under the sea it looks blue

42. faints: loses consciousness overcome by emotion

43. picturing: looking at

Shelley portrayed at Caracalla Baths by Joseph Severn.


44.Thou For whose ... chasms: when you blow, the Atlantic (Atlantic's level powers: the Atlantic when it is calm) makes a path for you between its giant waves (chasms: deep space between two rocks. In this case it is between two waves)

45. sea-blooms: sea flowers

46. oozy woods: the slimy, slippery plants that grow on the sea bed

4 7. sapless: sap is a liquid substance that carries food through a plant. Underwater plants do not have any sap

48. foliage: leaves of a plant

49. despoil: destroy

IV 50. mightest bear: might

carry 51. swift: fast 52. pant: breathe quickly 53. beneath: under 54. impulse: power 55.comrade: companion 56. wanderings: travels 57. As then ... vision:

when I was a boy I did not think (Scarce seemed) it was impossible (a vision) to run faster than (outstrip) the wind

58.1 would ... striven: I would never have tried

59. As thus: like I am doing now

60. prayer in my sore need: I am praying to you because I am in deep despair

61. thorns: sharp points (on a plant such as a rose)

62.1 bleed: I am losing blood

63. chained and bowed: imprisoned and bent over in a sign of submission

64. tameless: someone who will always be wild and free and cannot be brought under control

Cleave themselves into chasms44, while far below The sea-blooms45 and the oozy woods46 which wear The sapless47 foliage48 of the ocean, know 40

Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear, And tremble and despoil49 themselves: oh hear!

IV If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear50; If I were a swift51 cloud to fly with thee; A wave to pant52 beneath53 thy power, and share 45

The impulse54 of thy strength, only less free Than thou, O uncontrollable! If even I were as in my boyhood, and could be

The comrade55 of thy wanderings56 over Heaven, As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed 50 Scarce seemed a vision57; I would ne'er have striven58

As thus59 with thee in prayer in my sore need60. Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud! I fall upon the thorns61 of life! I bleed62!

A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed63 55 One too like thee: tameless64, and swift, and proud.

V Make me thy lyre65, even as the forest is: What if my leaves are falling like its own! The tumult of thy mighty66 harmonies

Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone, 60 Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce, My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!

Drive my dead thoughts over the universe Like withered67 leaves to quicken68 a new birth! And, by the incantation of this verse, 65

Scatter69, as from an unextinguished hearth70

Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawakened71 earth

The trumpet72 of a prophecy! O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 70

65. lyre: the Aeolian harp that produces music when the wind blows through it

66. mighty: powerful

67. withered: dead 68. quicken: stimulate 69. Scatter: throw around a

wide area 70. hearth: place where a fire is

burning

71. unawakened: still sleeping

72. trumpet: messenger. A trumpet is, literally, a musical instrument that you blow into

Percy Bysshe Shelley 4 3

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 The poem is divided into five stanzas. Choose a heading for each one.

• The effect of the wind on the sea. • The relationship between the poet and the wind. • The effect of the wind on the land. • The effect of the wind on the sky. • The relationship between the poet and the rest of

mankind.

2 Focus on the first stanza.

a. The poem is written in the form of an ode*. Who or what is the poem addressed to?

b . What does the poet compare to 'ghosts' (line 3) and 'pestilence-stricken multitudes' (line 5)?

c. In what sense is the wind both and a 'destroyer' and a 'preserver'?

3 Focus on the second stanza.

a. What, according to the poet, are like leaves shaken from 'Heaven and Ocean '?

b . In what sense are the clouds 'angels'/messengers? c. The stormy sky forms a sepulchral dome over the

land. Who or what has died?

4 Focus on the third stanza.

a. Where was the Mediterranean sleeping before the west wind awakened it?

b . What can the wind see below the waves? (Line 33) c. How does the Atlantic form a 'path' for the wind? d . How does the underwater foliage react to the

'voice' of the wind?

5 Focus on the fourth stanza.

a. What wishes does the poet express in lines 4 3 ^ 4 6 ? b . What does he wish to share with the wind? c. In what way was the poet's life different when he

was a boy? d . If the poet were a leaf, a cloud, a wave or a boy

again, what would he not have to do? e. What qualities does the poet share with the wind?

(line 5 6 )

6 Focus on the fifth stanza.

In the final stanza the poet makes a series of requests. Identify the line in which he asks the wind: - to transform him into a musical instrument: line - to b e c o m e his spirit: line - to carry his thoughts around the universe: line - to spread his words among men: lines

ANALYS IS 1 From a structural point of view the poem is a combination of the sonnet* form and terza rima*. Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem and note down the number of lines in each stanza.

2 The language used throughout the poem is highly figurative. The poet piles metaphor* upon metaphor to create dense, elaborate imagery*. Find the vehicles for the following tenors in the first stanza: wind, leaves, earth.

3 Many of the images Shelley creates appeal to the senses. Find the images that appeal to the various senses:

smell line 12 hearing lines 2 3 - 2 4 sight line 41 touch line 5 4

4 The imagery in the poem is drawn from the scientific, mythical and biblical spheres. Find an example for each.

5 Underline words and expressions in the poem that are associated with death and destruction, and life and regeneration. Does the poet view destruction as: • a futile end to a life cycle? • a necessary step towards renewal and regeneration?

6 In the fourth stanza the pronoun T appears for the first t ime. Underline the expressions that suggest that the poet: - is in a state of suffering. - has qualities which will allow him to overcome his

suffering.

7 In his essay A Defence of Poetry Shelley wrote: 'For the mind in creation is as a fading coal, which some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind, awakens to transitory brightness.' 'Man is an instrument over which a series of external and internal impressions are driven, like the alterations of an ever-changing wind over an Aeolian lyre.'

In which lines of the fifth stanza are similar ideas expressed?


8 The central symbol* of the poem is the wind: a natural force which causes destruction and rebirth. It can be interpreted in the context of the poem:

- as the political force of revolution which destroys the old order and builds a new and better future;

- as the creative force of the imagination, which transforms the old and familiar into the new and beautiful;

- as freedom, which rises up and overthrows any form of tyranny.

Do you find any of these interpretations particularly convincing?

9 Focus on the musical features of the poem.

Find examples of:

- alliteration* - assonance* - end rhyme* - run-on lines*

Listen again to the recording. How would you define the musicality of the poem?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Personif ica t ion is a type of m e t a p h o r in w h i c h h u m a n characteristics such as emot ions ,

personality, b e h a v i o u r a n d so o n are at tr ibuted t o an animal , o b j e c t or idea:

The proud lion surveyed his kingdom.

T h e pr imary f u n c t i o n of personi f i ca t ion is to m a k e abstract ideas clearer t o t h e reader

b y c o m p a r i n g t h e m t o e v e r y d a y h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . H u m a n i s i n g c o l d a n d c o m p l e x

abstract ions can br ing t h e m t o life, render t h e m m o r e interest ing a n d m a k e t h e m easier

t o unders tand.

Find one example of personification for each of the following in Ode to the West Wind and write the line references: wind seeds the Mediterranean the Atlantic sea foliage wave

What purpose does personification serve in Shelley's poem?

Personify in one or more sentences one of the following abstract ideas: Boredom Hatred Pride Kindness Victory Revenge

Poetry can be inspirational and affect the reader deeply. In Shelley's opinion, it can bring about 'a new birth' and be 'the trumpet of a prophecy'. Think of a poem in any language that you really like. Write down briefly why you like it and how it makes you feel.

TASK

OVER T O Y O U

Personification


T h r o u g h o u t h is tory , k ings a n d e m p e r o r s h a v e bui l t m o n u m e n t s t o c o m m e m o r a t e t h e i r v i c t o r i e s a n d achievements and to leave a reminder of their greatness to later generat ions. Shelley asks the question, 'Is all t h e effort that is put into making these m o n u m e n t s to posterity really worthwhile? '

Text E15

GLOSSARY •

1. Ozymandias: Ramses II of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), who had huge monuments built during his reign and whose colossal tomb was shaped like a Sphinx

2. trunkless: without the upper part of the body

3. sunk: buried in the sand

4. shattered: broken into little pieces

5. frown: facial expression of displeasure

6. wrinkled: twisted or curled

7. sneer: facial expression showing contempt, as if you are superior to others

8. Which yet survive ... heart that fed: have outlived the sculptor who imitated/made fun of (mocked) them and the king who felt them

9. ye: you 10. Mighty: powerful 11. wreck: something

that has been destroyed

12. boundless: limitless •

Ozymandias1

I m e t a t ravel ler f r o m a n a n t i q u e l a n d

W h o said: T w o vast a n d t r u n k l e s s 2 legs o f s t o n e

S t a n d in t h e d e s e r t . . . N e a r t h e m , o n t h e sand,

Half s u n k 3 , a s h a t t e r e d 4 v i sage lies, w h o s e f r o w n 5 ,

A n d w r i n k l e d 6 l ip, a n d s n e e r 7 o f c o l d c o m m a n d ,

Tell t h a t i ts s c u l p t o r wel l t h o s e p a s s i o n s read

W h i c h y e t survive, s t a m p e d o n t h e s e l i feless t h i n g s ,

T h e h a n d t h a t m o c k e d t h e m a n d t h e h e a r t t h a t fed 8 :

A n d o n t h e pedes ta l t h e s e w o r d s a p p ea r :

' M y n a m e is O z y m a n d i a s , k i n g o f k ings :

L o o k o n m y works , y e 9 M i g h t y 1 0 , a n d despair ! '

N o t h i n g b e s i d e r e m a i n s . R o u n d t h e d e c a y

O f t h a t c o l o s s a l w r e c k 1 1 , b o u n d l e s s 1 2 a n d b a r e

T h e l o n e a n d level s a n d s s t r e t c h far away.

A lithograph showing Ramses II temple.

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 W h o did t h e poet m e e t ?

2 What did t h e traveller see in the desert?

3 What details did he notice on the face?

4 W hat words appeared on the pedestal?

5 W hat surrounded the m o n u m e n t ?


ANALYS IS 1 Underline the words and expressions which describe Ozymandias as represented by the statue. What picture of the pharaoh emerges? Do the content and tone of the inscription (lines 1 0 - 1 1 ) confirm this view of the king?

2 Circle the words and expressions which describe the landscape surrounding the statue. Which aspects of the setting emerge most forcefully? Does the setting in which the monument stands make it seem ridiculous?

3 The poem is built on an ironic situation which is highlighted in line 11 .

a. Why did Ozymandias originally believe the mighty should despair when they looked on his works?

b. Why should the mighty despair when they look on his works today?

4 How would you describe the tone of the inscription?

5 What is the tone of the line that follows 'Nothing beside remains'? What is the effect of the stark contrast in tone?

• To highlight Ozymandias's magnificence. • To underline the central irony of the poem. • To emphasise the destructive nature of time.

6 Note down the number of lines in the poem. What poetic form did Shelley use? The poem can be divided into three parts. Which lines are dedicated to the description of the monument, the inscription and the surroundings?

7 Focus on the musical features of the poem.

a. Work out the rhyming scheme*. Is it regular throughout?

b. Find examples of alliteration* and run-on lines*. c. The following words are taken from the final three

lines of the poem. Read them aloud:

remains round boundless bare lone level far away What effect is created?

• An echoing effect which suggests the vast bareness of the desert.

• A playful rhyming effect which suggests that the poet is making fun of Ozymandias.

• A slow, mournful, clanging effect which suggests that the poet is mourning the destruction of a magnificent work of art.

8 On the basis of your analysis, define the theme* of the poem.

r H

Would the world be a poorer place if there were no forms of commemorat ion? What do you think are the best ways to ensure that people will be remembered? Is too much time and money spent on remembering the past? Discuss with your classmates.


Shelley, like Byron, had a rebel l ious spirit and a t t a c k e d in just ice and corrupt ion in early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England. In the following poem he paints a very negative picture of political and social life in the year 1 8 1 9 . Does he believe that this situation can ever c h a n g e ?

England In 1819 Text E16

An old, m a d , b l i n d , despised 1 , a n d d y i n g k i n g 2 , -

Pr inces , t h e dregs 3 o f t h e i r dul l race , w h o f low

T h r o u g h p u b l i c s c o r n 4 , - m u d f r o m a m u d d y spr ing 5 , -

Rulers w h o n e i t h e r see, n o r feel, n o r k n o w ,

But l e e c h 6 - l i k e t o t h e i r f a i n t i n g c o u n t r y c l ing 7 ,

Til l t h e y drop , b l i n d i n b l o o d , w i t h o u t a blow, -

A p e o p l e s tarved a n d s t a b b e d 8 i n t h e u n f i l l e d 9 f i e ld 1 0 , -

An army, w h i c h l iber t i c ide a n d p r e y

M a k e s as a t w o - e d g ' d sword t o all w h o w i e l d 1 1 , -

G o l d e n a n d s a n g u i n e 1 2 laws w h i c h t e m p t 1 3 a n d s lay 1 4 ;

Re l ig ion Chr is t less , G o d l e s s - a b o o k sea led 1 5 ;

A S e n a t e - T i m e ' s wors t s t a t u t e u n r e p e a l e d 1 6 , -

Are graves 1 7 , f r o m w h i c h a g lor ious P h a n t o m m a y

Burst, t o i l l u m i n e our t e m p e s t u o u s day.

A scene fr^,,, Madness of King George (1994).

GLOSSARY

1. despised: hated 2. An old ... king: George III,

who was blind and mentally ill. He died in 1820

3. dregs: the lowest forms of human life who deserve no respect

4. scorn: the feeling that someone is stupid or useless

5. mud ... spring: these people are corrupt (mud: wet, dirty earth) like their

ancestors were (spring: a place where water comes up naturally from the ground). Lines 2 and 3 are also a reference to George Ill's disreputable son, who was Prince Regent from 1811 to 1820

6. leech: small soft creature that sucks blood from animals

7. cling: hold very tightly 8. stabbed: killed with a knife 9. unfilled: not cultivated 10. A people ... field: this is a

reference to the Peterloo

Massacre in August 1819, when troops attacked peaceful protesters ( • p. E107)

11. An army ... wield: the army is like a sword with two edges. With one it kills freedom (liberticide), while with the other it hunts down and kills (prey) people (wield: hold the sword)

12. sanguine: stained with blood

13. tempt: lead into temptation 14. slay: kill

15.Religion ... sealed: the state Protestant religion is all-powerful and intolerant

16.Time's ... unrepealed: the statute is the law which prevented Catholics and Dissenters from holding office ( • p. E108) (unrepealed: not abolished)

17. graves: where people are buried when they die

. i 4 8 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Here is a list of the targets of Shelley's attack in the poem. Find the comments he makes about them: King, Princes, Rulers, Army, Laws, Religion, Senate.

2 What are the subjects of the verb 'are' in line 1 3 ?

3 What might the 'Phantom' (line 1 3) do?

ANALYS IS 1 Note down the number of lines in the poem. What poetic form does it take? Where does the turning point occur?

2 Focus on the sound and rhythm* of the poem.

a. Work out the rhyming scheme. Is it regular? b . Find examples of alliteration* and run-on lines*. c. Consider the punctuation. How many full stops are

there? Circle commas and dashes. Does the poem flow smoothly or is the rhythm irregular?

d . What does the rhythm of the poem convey? • The poet's sad, reflective mood. • The poet's anger and frustration. • The tumultuous state of English affairs. W The poet's passive resignation to what is

happening in England.

3 Focus on the language used in the poem.

a. Does the poet favour: • short, sharp words? • complex, sophisticated words? Give examples.

b . What does the choice of words suggest? • That in his anger and frustration the poet uses

words as blows to strike against his targets. • That the poet wished to use simple terms that

could be understood by the c o m m o n man.

4 The images that Shelley uses to attack the political and religious leaders of his country are extremely powerful. Which one do you find most effective and why?

5 The language throughout the poem is highly figurative. Focus on the following key images and try to interpret them.

a. In what sense is the field in which the people starve and are stabbed 'untitled'? (Line 7)

b. In what way is the state religion 'a book sealed'? (Line 11)

c. Why are the religious and political leaders considered 'graves'? (Line 1 3)

d. How do you interpret the 'glorious Phantom' (line 1 3) and in what sense might it 'illumine' the ' tempestuous day'?

6 Which adjectives would you choose to define the tone* of the poem? Is it the same throughout?

In this poem Shelley c o n d e m n s the massacre of unarmed civilians by the army (The Peterloo Massacre 1 8 1 9 , • p. E107). Think of one other incident in history where innocent civilians were killed by troops. Explain the context in which the massacre happened.


The four students who were killed at Ohio State University were protesting against the war.

GLOSSARY

1. Tin soldiers: armed soldiers used to control marches 2. Nixon: US president during the protests against the

Vietnam war 3. drumming: the sound of battle drums, i.e. conflict 4. Gotta get down to it: wake up to reality 5. gunning: firing, shooting

LINK

OHIO

Tin soldiers1 and Nixon2 coming, We're finally on our own. This summer I hear the drumming3, Four dead in Ohio.

{ to the world of music

Gotta get down to it4

Soldiers are gunning5 us down Should have been done long ago. What if you knew her And found her dead on the ground How can you run when you know? (twice)

by Neil Young (from the album Deja Vu)

TASKS

1 W h o is the target of Neil Young's attack in the song and why?

2 At the t ime this song was written, US society was b o m b a r d e d by news and images of violence. How does Neil Young try to personalise t h e events that took place in Ohio and thereby increase their impact on the listener?

3 How would you describe the t o n e of t h e s o n g ? Is it similar to the t o n e of Shelley's p o e m ?

EiA s jM

fc0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years P e r c y B y s s h e

Shel ley was b o r n in 1 7 9 2 i n t o

a p r o s p e r o u s a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l y . He w a s e d u c a t e d at O x f o r d

w h e r e h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e a d i n g s led h i m t o co-

w r i t e a d i s s e r t a t i o n , The Necessity of Atheism, t h e f i r s t o p e n

p r o f e s s i o n o f a t h e i s m t o be p r i n t e d in E n g l a n d , for w h i c h t h e

O x f o r d a u t h o r i t i e s e x p e l l e d h i m . S h e l l e y ' s f a t h e r d e m a n d e d a

p u b l i c r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e p a m p h l e t , b u t S h e l l e y r e f u s e d a n d

instead e loped t o S c o t l a n d with t h e s ixteen-year-old daughter o f

a c o f f e e h o u s e propr ie tor . T h i s c a u s e d a p e r m a n e n t break w i t h

his family.

PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY ( 1 7 9 2 - 1 8 2 2 ) Political writings T h e couple spent s o m e t ime in Ireland, where

Shel ley got invo lved in p r o m o t i n g pol i t ica l r ights for C a t h o l i c s .

He returned to Wales, where h e tried t o set up a c o m m u n e of Tike spirits'. During this period he wrote

p a m p h l e t s p r o m o t i n g ' f ree l o v e ' a n d c o n d e m n i n g , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , royalty, m e a t - e a t i n g a n d

rel igion. In 1 8 1 3 h e publ ished his first m a j o r p o e m , Queen Mab, w h i c h c o n t a i n e d m a n y of his early

poli t ical a n d phi losophica l ideas.

«SPSS

p f ^ p l

i S g i

A tempestous life In 1 8 1 4 h e m o v e d t o L o n d o n , w h e r e h e c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e

p h i l o s o p h e r W i l l i a m G o d w i n a n d fell in love wi th his s ix teen-year -o ld daughter , Mary. He left h is

w i f e , H a r r i e t , w h o h a d j u s t h a d t h e i r f i rs t c h i l d a n d was e x p e c t i n g a s e c o n d . T h e d e a t h o f h i s

g r a n d f a t h e r t e m p o r a r i l y so lved Shel ley ' s f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s a n d a l l o w e d h i m a n d M a r y t o e l o p e

abroad a c c o m p a n i e d b y Mary's f i f teen-year-old stepsister, J a n e 'Claire ' C l a i r m o n t .

H a v i n g t ravel led a r o u n d Europe , t h e t h r e e set t led in G e n e v a where , in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 1 6 , t h e y

were j o i n e d b y Lord B y r o n ( • pp. 3 2 - 3 9 ) , w h o b e c a m e Claire 's lover. It was dur ing th is per iod of

re lat ive t r a n q u i l l i t y t h a t S h e l l e y c o m p o s e d s o m e o f h is bes t p o e m s . M a r y gave b i r t h t o t h e i r son ,

Wi l l iam, a n d b e g a n work o n her novel , Frankenstein ( • pp. E 8 8 - 9 5 ) .

In t h e a u t u m n of 1 8 1 6 Harriet d r o w n e d hersel f in Hyde Park in L o n d o n , so Shel ley was free to marry

Mary. He returned to England a n d tried to win cus tody of his two chi ldren by his first marriage, b u t

his reputat ion as an atheist worked against h i m . During his t i m e in England he associated wi th Keats

a n d o t h e r l i terary figures, a n d worked o n pol i t ical p a m p h l e t s and essays.

Self-exile in Italy Dis i l lus ioned with Britain, in debt and suffering f r o m i l l -heal th , Shel ley m o v e d

w i t h his f a m i l y t o Italy, w h e r e h e w r o t e t h e d e e p l y m e l a n c h o l i c Stanzas Written in Dejection a n d

Prometheus Unbound, a lyrical drama in four acts .

T h e death of his adored son 'Wi l l -mouse ' was a personal tragedy a n d caused his wife M a r y to have a

nervous breakdown. T h e fami ly settled in Tuscany. T h e s u m m e r of 1 8 1 9 witnessed an extraordinary

burs t o f c reat ive energy. S h e l l e y wrote s o m e b e a u t i f u l lyrics i n c l u d i n g To a Skylark, The Cloud a n d

perhaps his best- loved poem, Ode to the West Wind ( • Text E14) . His polit ical writ ing was inspired by

the news from England and included the sonnet England 1819 ( • Text E l 6 ) . T h e period at Pisa saw the

birth of his youngest son, Percy Florence, and the publication of his famous A Defence of Poetry ( 1821) .

In 1 8 2 2 Shel ley m o v e d his fami ly t o Lerici. In August 1 8 2 2 h e was drowned in t h e bay of La Spezia.

His b o d y was c r e m a t e d o n the b e a c h at Viareggio in t h e presence of Byron a n d o t h e r close friends.

Writers' Gallery - Percy Bysshe Shelley

•• •• • mm> . u m m w m - •mmm^^s&mm

H f T I M i S H ^ H I B Q u e e n M a b and T h e Revol t o f I s l a m Shel ley 's early works are

^ ^ ^ M I M B A i i l i i i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y i n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l p a s s i o n . In t h e p o e m Queen

Mab, for e x a m p l e , Shel ley attacks such 'evils ' as c o m m e r c e , the m o n a r c h y , marriage, rel igion a n d t h e

e a t i n g o f m e a t . I n p l a c e o f t h e s e v i c e s h e p r o p o s e s r e p u b l i c a n i s m , f r e e l o v e , a t h e i s m a n d

v e g e t a r i a n i s m . The Revolt of Islam is a l o n g a l legor ic p o e m w h i c h t ransposes a h i g h l y personal i sed

version of t h e French Revolut ion in to an Oriental sett ing. T h e p o e m c o n t a i n s m a n y autobiographica l

references, a n d in t roduces t h e t h e m e of struggle a n d renewal w h i c h is present in m u c h of his later

work.

Italian period (1818-1822) Shelley's writ ings during his period in Italy inc lude s o m e of his f inest

work:

The Cenci ( 1 8 1 9 ) , a verse t ragedy based o n t h e true s tory o f Beatr i ce C e n c i , w h o was e x e c u t e d for

murder ing her father in R o m e at t h e end of the s i x t e e n t h century. T h e story, w h i c h involved incest

a n d a t h e i s m , f a s c i n a t e d S h e l l e y a n d so h e m a d e i t t h e b a s i s o f a p l a y w h i c h s h o w s s t r o n g

Shakespearean inf luences .

Prometheus Unbound ( 1 8 2 0 ) : a l y r i c a l d r a m a in f o u r a c t s . P r o m e t h e u s , t h e g i a n t w h o i n G r e e k

m y t h o l o g y s to le f ire f r o m h e a v e n a n d gave it t o m a n , b e c o m e s a h e r o w h o e m b o d i e s t h e m o r a l

salvation of M a n f r o m tyranny.

Odes T h e year 1 8 1 9 also saw t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f s o m e of Shelley's f inest lyrics: Ode to Liberty, The

Cloud, To a Skylark a n d Ode to the West Wind. T h e latter is cons idered b y m a n y critics to be Shelley's

greatest short p o e m . In it t h e poet asks t h e spirit o f the West W i n d to be b o t h destroyer and preserver,

a n d t o regenerate h o p e a n d energy in Nature , in t h e p o e t h i m s e l f a n d in m a n k i n d in genera l . It is

wr i t ten in five m a j e s t i c stanzas, e a c h tak ing t h e f o r m o f a s o n n e t . T h e musica l pat terns , w h i c h are

built o n internal rhyme*, assonance* a n d run-on lines*, clearly show t h e poet's mastery of his art.

A Defence of Poetry ( 1 8 2 1 ) is an essay in w h i c h Shel ley argues t h a t poetry can reform t h e world. In it

he c la ims t h a t t h e poet is a missionary, a prophet a n d a leader w h o , t h r o u g h his quest for t h e eternal

truths of beauty, c a n s h o w t h e way t o a bet ter society.

Reputation As a w r i t e r , S h e l l e y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i s e d f o r h i s o b s c u r e s y m b o l i s m , i n t e l l e c t u a l

arrogance a n d i n t e n s e self-pity. However, in his greatest works h e t r a n s c e n d s these l i m i t a t i o n s a n d

conveys a message o f h o p e a n d aspirat ion t h r o u g h strikingly beaut i ful prose a n d poetry.

TASK The many personal tragedies he experienced did not deter Shelley from spreading his message of hope for a better world. Discuss this statement, making reference to the information you have read about his life and works.


John Keats

T h e world of virtual reality is an artificial world which s o m e t i m e s s e e m s m o r e real and satisfying than our own everyday world. W h e n John Keats looks at the paintings on an ancient Grecian urn, he seems to lose himself in a perfect , u n c h a n g i n g reality of trees that never lose their leaves and love that never ends . W h a t lesson d o e s he learn from his trip into this virtually perfect world?

Text E l 7

I

GLOSSARY

6.

7.

8

Thou: you unravished: virgin, pure foster-child: adopted child Sylvan: rural who canst.. . rhyme: in this way (thus) your paintings can (canst) tell a story better than a poem leaf-fringed: with leaves around the edges haunts: moves like a spirit What leaf-fringed ... both: what story (legend) about gods or men is told in your pictures

9. Tempe: valley in ancient Greece

10.Arcady: region in ancient Greece that is synonymous with beautiful countryside

11. maidens: young women

12. loth: reluctant, not wanting to do something

13.pursuit: chase, running after someone or something

14. pipes and timbrels: musical instruments

Ode On A Grecian Urn

T h o u 1 still u n r a v i s h e d 2 b r i d e o f q u i e t n e s s ,

T h o u f o s t e r - c h i l d 3 o f s i l ence a n d s low t i m e ,

S y l v a n 4 h i s t o r i a n , w h o c a n s t t h u s e x p r e s s

A f l o w e r y ta le m o r e sweet ly t h a n o u r r h y m e 5 :

W h a t l ea f - f r inged 6 l e g e n d h a u n t s 7 a b o u t t h y s h a p e 5

O f dei t ies or m o r t a l s , o r o f b o t h 8 ,

In T e m p e 9 o r t h e da les o f A r c a d y 1 0 ?

W h a t m e n or gods are t h e s e ? W h a t m a i d e n s 1 1 l o t h 1 2 ?

W h a t m a d p u r s u i t 1 3 ? W h a t s truggle t o e s c a p e ?

W h a t pipes a n d t i m b r e l s 1 4 ? W h a t w i l d ecs tasy? 10

II Heard m e l o d i e s are sweet , b u t t h o s e u n h e a r d

Are sweeter ; t h e r e f o r e , y e 1 5 so f t p ipes , p lay o n 1 6 ;

N o t t o t h e sensua l ear, b u t , m o r e e n d e a r e d ,

Pipe t o t h e spirit d i t t ies o f n o t o n e 1 7 :

Fair y o u t h 1 8 , b e n e a t h 1 9 t h e trees, t h o u c a n s t n o t leave i s

T h y s o n g , n o r ever c a n t h o s e t rees b e b a r e 2 0 ;

B o l d 2 1 Lover, never , n e v e r c a n s t t h o u kiss,

T h o u g h w i n n i n g n e a r t h e g o a l 2 2 ye t , d o n o t gr ieve 2 3 ;

S h e c a n n o t f a d e 2 4 , t h o u g h t h o u h a s t 2 5 n o t t h y b l i ss 2 6 ,

Forever w i l t 2 7 t h o u love, a n d s h e b e fa i r 2 8 ! 20

II 15.ye: you 16. play on: continue playing 17.Not to the ... no tone: do

not play real music for our ears (sensual ear: the real ear that can hear musical notes) but silent music (ditties of no tone) for our

spirit, which we like even more (more endeared)

18. Fair youth: good-looking young man

19.beneath: under 20. bare: without leaves 21. Bold: confident, not shy 22.Though winning ... goal:

even though you are very near the girl

23. grieve: be sad 24. fade: disappear 25.hast: have 26. thy bliss: your happiness 27. wilt: will 28. fair: beautiful

John Keats 53

III Ah, h a p p y , h a p p y b o u g h s 2 9 t h a t c a n n o t s h e d 3 0

Your leaves, n o r ever b i d t h e S p r i n g a d i e u 3 1 ;

And, h a p p y m e l o d i s t 3 2 , u n w e a r i e d 3 3 ,

Forever p i p i n g 3 4 s o n g s forever n e w ;

M o r e h a p p y love ! m o r e h a p p y , h a p p y love! 25

Forever w a r m a n d still t o b e e n j o y e d ,

Forever p a n t i n g 3 5 , a n d forever y o u n g ;

All b r e a t h i n g h u m a n p a s s i o n far a b o v e ,

T h a t leaves a h e a r t h i g h - s o r r o w f u l 3 6 a n d c l o y e d 3 7 ,

A b u r n i n g f o r e h e a d , a n d a p a r c h i n g 3 8 t o n g u e 3 9 . 30

IV W h o are t h e s e c o m i n g t o t h e sacr i f ice?

To w h a t g r e e n altar, O m y s t e r i o u s priest ,

Leades t t h o u 4 0 t h a t h e i f e r 4 1 l o w i n g 4 2 a t t h e skies,

A n d all h e r s i lken f l a n k s 4 3 w i t h g a r l a n d s dressed?

W h a t l i t t le t o w n b y river or sea shore , 35

O r m o u n t a i n - b u i l t w i t h p e a c e f u l c i tadel ,

Is e m p t i e d o f t h i s folk, t h i s p i o u s 4 4 m o r n ?

And, l i t t le t o w n , t h y 4 5 s treets for e v e r m o r e

W i l l s i l ent b e ; a n d n o t a soul t o tel l

W h y t h o u a r t 4 6 deso la te , c a n e ' e r 4 7 r e t u r n . 40

O A t t i c 4 8 s h a p e ! Fair a t t i t u d e 4 9 ! w i t h b r e d e 5 0

O f m a r b l e m e n a n d m a i d e n s o v e r w r o u g h t 5 1 ,

W i t h forest b r a n c h e s a n d t h e t r o d d e n 5 2 w e e d 5 3 ;

T h o u , s i l ent f o r m , d o s t t ease us o u t o f t h o u g h t 5 4

As d o t h 5 5 e t e r n i t y : C o l d P a s t o r a l 5 6 ! 45

W h e n o l d age shal l t h i s g e n e r a t i o n w a s t e 5 7 ,

T h o u s h a l t 5 8 r e m a i n , i n m i d s t o f 5 9 o t h e r w o e 6 0

T h a n ours , a f r i e n d t o m a n , t o w h o m t h o u say 's t 6 1 ,

' B e a u t y is t r u t h , t r u t h beauty , - t h a t is all

Ye k n o w o n ear th , a n d all y e n e e d t o k n o w . ' 50

lohn Keats's drawing of a grecian urn.

Ill 29.boughs: branches 30. shed: let fall 31. bid the Spring adieu: say

goodbye to the spring 32. melodist: musician 33. unwearied: not tired 34. piping: playing 35.panting-, desiring 36. high-sorrowful: very sad

37. cloyed: we are tired of it because we no longer get pleasure from it

38. parching: thirsty

39.More happy ... a parching tongue: the eternal love on the urn is happier than our more passionate \ove that ends and leaves us sad

IV 40. Leadest thou: are you

leading

41. heifer: young cow

42. lowing: the deep sound that cattle make, mooing

43. silken flanks: shiny sides 44.pious: holy 45.thy: your

46. art: are 47. e'er: ever

48. Attic: from Athens 49. attitude: disposition

of figures in a painting

50. brede: intricate design

51. overwrought: elaborately decorated

52. trodden: stepped on 53. weed: wild plants 54.dost tease ...

thought: takes us away (tease out: separate) from our serious thoughts

55. As doth: as does 56. Pastoral: work of art

or literature about rural life

57. When ... waste: when this generation shall die

58. shalt: shall 59. in midst of: in the

middle of 60.woe-, sorrow and

sadness 61. thou say'st: you say


C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Who does 'Thou' refer to in line 1 ?

2 In the opening three lines the poet addresses the urn in three different ways. Identify them.

3 Through a series of questions the poet describes a Bacchanalian scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it?

4 In line 13 the poet says we cannot use the 'sensual ear' to hear 'unheard melodies'. What should we use to hear them, according to line 14?

5 In the second stanza the poet describes the scene on the urn in more detail. What is the 'Fair youth' beneath the trees doing? What can the 'Bold Lover' never do?

6 In the third stanza why are the songs 'forever new' (line 2 4 ) and the love 'Forever warm' (line 26)? Which lines describe the effect of human love?

7 In the fourth stanza the poet describes a second scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it?

8 In the final stanza the poet addresses the urn in four different ways. Identify them.

9 Underline the sentences that contain the message conveyed by the urn.

ANALYS IS 1 Which words suggest the silence of the urn in the opening two lines? The silence of the urn is underlined by the use of the sibilant's' sound . Underline all the words in the opening two lines that contain a n ' s ' sound. Explain the paradox* in the silent urn expressing a tale 'more sweetly than our rhyme'.

2 Find an example of metonymy* in line 4.

3 As he looks at the scene depicted on the urn, the poet feels uncertainty and excitement. How is his heightened emotional state conveyed in lines 7 - 1 0 ?

4 The second stanza introduces the paradox of 'unheard' melodies. Which expression in line 14 repeats this idea? The poet says that unheard melodies are sweeter because they 'Pipe to the spirit'. How do you interpret this concept?

5 In the second stanza the poet suggests that the immobility of art has both positive and negative consequences. Say whether the following are positive (P) or negative (N) aspects. thou canst not leave/Thy song nor ever can those trees be bare _E_ Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss She cannot fade thou hast not thy bliss Forever wilt thou love she be fair

6 Find examples of the personification* in lines 22 and 27. The contrast between the world of art and reality is continued in this stanza. Which adjectives describe love as it is depicted in the scene on the urn? From which semantic field are the images describing human love drawn (line 30)?

7 Extensive use is made of repetition* in the third stanza. Which words are repeated? What does the repetition of these words highlight? • The joy and permanence of the scene on the urn. • The poet's dissatisfaction with the transience of real

life and love.

8 A sense of mystery surrounds the pastoral scene described in the fourth stanza. How does the sentence structure help to create this enigmatic atmosphere?

9 Find an example of synecdoche* in line 39.

1 0 The poet uses four different expressions to address the urn in the fifth stanza. Which expression: - indicates where the urn is from? - underlines its beauty? - highlights its silence? - suggests that it is lacking in human warmth?

1 1 The poet's attitude toward the urn is ambivalent throughout the poem. He is fascinated by the timeless, youthful world represented on the urn which, however, he sees as lacking in human passion and the possibility of change. Which expressions describing the urn in lines 45 and 4 8 reiterate these conflicting views?

1 2 The final two lines of the poem have been the subject of much debate. Which of the interpretations below do you feel is closest to your own? • The world of art is superior to the real world of mankind. • An artist, by revealing beauty through his work,

reaches man's highest achievement, i.e. truth. • Art can console man through its beauty. It cannot

offer solutions to man's worldly problems. • Man should live his life truthfully and in the constant

search for beauty.

Keats seems to fall in love with the perfect, never-changing world he sees on the urn. Think of a scene in a work of art or a photograph which makes you feel like Keats does. Consider the setting, the characters and the actions.

John Keats 333

When s o m e o n e is in a state of ecstasy he or she somet imes falls into a trance, a state in which a person seems to be hypnotised. A trance can b e brought on, for example , by an intense spiritual exper ience or by narcotic drugs. When John Keats heard a nightingale sing o n e night, he was so enchanted that he fell into a trance. As you read the poem, notice how he gradually loses consciousness of the world around him only to suddenly wake up at the end.

Ode To A Nightingale1 Text E18

M y h e a r t a c h e s , a n d a d r o w s y 2 n u m b n e s s 3 p a i n s

M y sense 4 , as t h o u g h o f h e m l o c k 5 1 h a d drunk ,

O r e m p t i e d s o m e dull o p i a t e 6 t o t h e d r a i n s 7

O n e m i n u t e pas t 8 , a n d L e t h e - w a r d s h a d s u n k 9 :

'Tis n o t t h r o u g h e n v y o f t h y h a p p y lot ,

But b e i n g t o o h a p p y in t h i n e h a p p i n e s s 1 0 , -

T h a t t h o u , l i g h t - w i n g e d D r y a d 1 1 o f t h e trees,

In s o m e m e l o d i o u s p l o t 1 2

O f b e e c h e n g r e e n 1 3 , a n d s h a d o w s n u m b e r l e s s 1 4 ,

S i n g e s t 1 5 o f s u m m e r in f u l l - t h r o a t e d 1 6 ease .

II O, for a d r a u g h t o f v i n t a g e 1 7 ! t h a t h a t h b e e n

C o o l e d 1 8 a l o n g age i n t h e d e e p - d e l v e d e a r t h 1 9 ,

Tas t ing o f F l o r a 2 0 a n d t h e c o u n t r y g r e e n ,

D a n c e , a n d P r o v e n c a l 2 1 s o n g , a n d s u n b u r n t m i r t h 2 2 !

O for a b e a k e r 2 3 full o f t h e w a r m S o u t h ,

Full o f t h e true, t h e b l u s h f u l 2 4 H i p p o c r e n e 2 5 ,

W i t h b e a d e d b u b b l e s w i n k i n g at t h e b r i m 2 6 ,

A n d p u r p l e - s t a i n e d 2 7 m o u t h ;

T h a t I m i g h t dr ink , a n d leave t h e w o r l d u n s e e n ,

A n d w i t h t h e e 2 8 fade a w a y 2 9 i n t o t h e forest d i m 3 0 :

10

i s

20

GLOSSARY

1. Nightingale: small brownish bird that sings beautifully, especially at night

6.

drowsy: sleepy numbness: sensation of being unable to think, feel or react in a normal way sense: all my senses, my being hemlock: a poisonous plant that causes death through paralysis

dull opiate: narcotic drug containing opium which makes you want to sleep drains: drink to the very last drop past: ago Lethe-wards had sunk: In Greek mythology, Lethe was a river that caused forgetfulness. The poet is saying that the opiate has made him forget everything

10.'Tis not. . . happiness: I have not become sleepy and forgetful because I am

jealous of you, but because you have made me very happy

11. light-winged Dryad: wood nymph who flies easily through the air. A nymph is a spirit of nature who, in Greek and Roman legend, appeared as a young girl

12. plot: piece of land 13.beechen green: green like

beech trees 14. numberless: there are so

many you cannot count them

o

15. Singest: sings 16. full-throated: at full

voice

17. draught of vintage: drink of wine

18. hath been Cooled: has been kept cold

19. deep-delved earth: deep down under the ground

20. Flora: Roman goddess of flowers

21. Provencal: from Provence, in southern France, home in the Middle Ages to the troubadours, who composed and sang love lyrics

22. mirth: happiness and laughter

23. beaker: drinking cup 24. blushful: red 25. Hippocrene:

fountain on Mount Helicon that was sacred to the Muses and a source of poetic inspiration

26. With beaded... brim: the wine makes bubbles like beads (beaded) around the top of the cup (brim), which seem to be winking (to close and open one eye quickly, to send a message to someone).

27. stained: coloured 28. thee: you 29. fade away: disappear 30. dim: dark

mt , 5 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

III 31. hast: has 32.weariness ... fret:

tiredness, illness, and worry

33. groan: long, deep sound that you make when you are in pain

34. palsy: an illness that makes your arms and legs shake because you cannot control your muscles

35. spectre-thin: as thin as a ghost

36. leaden-eyed: with eyes that show a person is sad

37. lustrous: shining 38.Or new Love ... to-

morrow: Love cannot desire (pine) the eyes of Beauty for more than one day

IV 39. Bacchus and his

pards: wine (Bacchus is the Greek and Roman god of wine and the pards are leopards who pulled Bacchus' chariot)

40. viewless: invisible 41.Poesy: poetry 42.Though ... retards:

even though I am depressed and worried

43. haply: by chance 44. Clustered around:

surrounded 45. Fays: fairies 46. verdurous glooms:

green darkness 47. winding mossy

ways: twisting roads that are covered in moss (a flat, green plant)

III Fade far away, dissolve , a n d q u i t e forge t

W h a t t h o u a m o n g t h e leaves h a s t 3 1 n e v e r k n o w n ,

T h e wear iness , t h e fever, a n d t h e f r e t 3 2

Here, w h e r e m e n sit a n d h e a r e a c h o t h e r g r o a n 3 3 ;

W h e r e p a l s y 3 4 shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs ,

W h e r e y o u t h grows pale , a n d s p e c t r e - t h i n 3 5 , a n d dies;

W h e r e b u t t o t h i n k is t o b e ful l o f s o r r o w

And l e a d e n - e y e d 3 6 despairs ,

25

W h e r e B e a u t y c a n n o t k e e p h e r lus t rous 3 eyes j

Or n e w Love p i n e at t h e m b e y o n d t o - m o r r o w 38 30

IV Away! away! for I will f ly t o t h e e ,

N o t c h a r i o t e d b y B a c c h u s a n d h i s p a r d s 3 9 ,

But o n t h e v i e w l e s s 4 0 w i n g s o f P o e s y 4 1 ,

T h o u g h t h e dul l b r a i n p e r p l e x e s a n d re tards 4 2 :

Already w i t h t h e e ! t e n d e r is t h e n i g h t ,

A n d h a p l y 4 3 t h e Q u e e n - M o o n is o n h e r t h r o n e ,

C l u s t e r e d a r o u n d 4 4 b y all h e r s tarry Fays 4 5 ;

But h e r e t h e r e is n o l ight ,

Save w h a t f r o m h e a v e n is w i t h t h e breezes b l o w n

T h r o u g h verdurous g l o o m s 4 6 a n d w i n d i n g m o s s y ways 4 7 .

I c a n n o t see w h a t f lowers are at m y feet ,

N o r w h a t sof t i n c e n s e h a n g s u p o n t h e b o u g h s 4 8 ,

But , in e m b a l m e d 4 9 darkness , guess e a c h s w e e t 5 0

W h e r e w i t h t h e s e a s o n a b l e m o n t h e n d o w s 5 1

T h e grass, t h e t h i c k e t 5 2 , a n d t h e frui t - t ree wi ld ;

W h i t e h a w t h o r n 5 3 , a n d t h e pas tora l e g l a n t i n e 5 4 ;

Fast f a d i n g 5 5 v io le t s c o v e r e d u p i n leaves ;

A n d m i d - M a y ' s e ldest ch i ld ,

T h e c o m i n g m u s k - r o s e 5 6 , ful l o f d e w y 5 7 w i n e ,

T h e m u r m u r o u s 5 8 h a u n t 5 9 o f f l ies o n s u m m e r e v e s 6 0 .

35

40

45

50

48. boughs: branches of trees 49. embalmed: perfumed 50.guess ... sweet: I try to

make out what fragrances come from the various plants

51. Wherewith ... endows: which May (seasonable month) gives

52. thicket: group of bushes and small trees

53. hawthorn: small white tree that has small white leaves and red berries

54. pastoral eglantine: fragrant pink rose which is often referred to in pastoral poetry

55. Fast fading: dying quickly

56. musk-rose: a fragrant wti rose

57. dewy: dew is the drops < water that form during t night on plants and other objects

58. murmurous: noisy 59. haunt: place people like t

goto 60. eves: evenings

John Keats 57

III Darkling611 listen; and, for many a time

I have been half in love with easeful Death, Called him soft names in many a mused rhyme62,

To take into the air my quiet breath; Now more than ever seems it rich to die, 55

To cease63 upon the midnight with no pain, While thou art pouring forth thy soul64 abroad65

In such an ecstasy! Still wouldst thou66 sing, and I have ears in vain67 -

To thy high requiem become a sod68. 60

VII Thou wast69 not born for death, immortal Bird!

No hungry generations tread thee down70; The voice I hear this passing night was heard

In ancient days by emperor and clown: Perhaps the self-same song that found a path71 65

Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn72

The same that oft-times hath7 3

Charmed74 magic casements75, opening on the foam76

Of perilous77 seas, in faery78 lands forlorn79. 70

VIII Forlorn! the very word is like a bell

To toll80 me back from thee to my sole self! Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well81

As she is famed to do, deceiving82 elf83. Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades84 75

Past the near meadows85, over the still stream86, Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep

In the next valley-glades87: Was it a vision, or a waking dream?

Fled88 is that music: - Do I wake or sleep? 80

VI 61. Darkling: in the darkness 62. mused rhyme: poem 63. cease: die 64.pouring ... soul: singing so

beautifully at the top of your voice

65.abroad: over a wide area 66. wouldst thou: you would 67.1 have ears in vain: I would

not be able to hear any more 68. To thy ... sod: you would

continue to sing while I would be dead (sod: a piece of earth)

VII 69. wast: were 70. tread thee down: oppress

you 71. path: way 72.Perhaps ... corn: in the

Bible, Ruth heard the song of the nightingale while she was crying nostalgically for

her native home, Israel (alien corn: foreign land)

73. oft-times hath: often has 74. Charmed: entranced 75. casements: windows 76. foam: white spray 77. perilous: dangerous 78. faery: fairy 79.in faery ... forlorn: the

nightingale's song is often a feature of romantic fairy tales (forlorn: sad)

VIII 80. toll: call 81. the fancy ... well:

my imagination (fancy) cannot trick (cheat) me anymore and I must return to the real world

82. deceiving: to deceive is to make someone believe something that is not true

83. elf: imaginary creature like a small person with pointed ears

84. plaintive anthem fades: your high, sad song dies away

85. meadows: fields 86. still stream: calm,

small river 87. valley-glades: valleys 88. Fled: disappeared

•

An illustration for a nineteenth-century edition of Ode to a Nightingale.


C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 How does the poet feel, according to the opening four lines of the poem? Are these feelings caused by happiness or pain? Refer to line 6 in your answer.

2 What does the poet long for in the second stanza? What would drinking 'a draught of vintage' help him to do, according to lines 1 9 - 2 0 ?

3 In the third stanza the poet describes the world from which he wishes to escape. Find images for the following and quote the line references: suffering ageing sorrow and despair illness ephemeral love and beauty

4 What, according to the poet in the fourth stanza, will carry him to the nightingale?

5 In the fifth stanza the poet describes the luxuriant undergrowth in the wood. Circle the names of the plants and flowers that are at his feet. Can he see them? How does he know they are there?

6 Consider the sixth stanza. What has the poet often | considered as a possible escape from the suffering of human life? Why does this particular m o m e n t seem suitable for dying? What thought stops the poet from choosing the option of death?

7 Who else has heard the nightingale's song? What has the nightingale's song inspired?

8 What is imagination unable to do, according to line 73?

ANALYS IS 1 The languid feelings of the poet are mirrored by the slow, flowing movement of the opening four lines. Find examples in these lines of caesura*, run-on lines* and broad vowel sounds.

Which of these features: - creates a flowing movement? - slows the rhythm down? - creates pauses?

2 The poet attributes his dulled and drowsy mood to happiness. Is there any suggestion, however, in this first stanza, that the poet is experiencing sorrow and suffering? Consider his apparent need to forget ('and Lethe-wards had sunk', line 4) .

3 The description of the poet's state of mind is in stark contrast to the description of the bird. Which words and expressions in lines 6 - 1 0 suggest the carefree happiness of the nightingale?

4 In the second stanza the poet creates an atmosphere of warmth and merriment. By suggesting that the wine he wishes to drink should be 'cooled', he conveys the idea of a warm climate.

a. Find other words and expressions that you would associate with the concepts of warmth and merriment.

b . The joyful playfulness of lines 1 1 - 1 8 is enhanced by the use of alliteration*, assonance*, onomatopoeia* and images which appeal to the senses. Find examples of each of the above.

c. The mood in the final two lines of the stanza has changed. Which words create a darker, more sinister atmosphere?

5 In the third stanza the poet presents a graphic portrayal of human misery. He uses metonymy* ( 'hear each other groan', line 2 4 ) and personification* ( 'Where palsy shakes', line 2 5 ) to create striking images. Find another example of metonymy (for ageing) in line 2 5 and personification in line 29 .

6 Examine the poet's choice of words in lines 2 3 - 2 8 . Are they mostly monosyllabic or polysyllabic? Consider the rhythm* created by these words. How would you define it? Does the rhythm mirror the content of the stanza?

7 In the fourth stanza the poet says that he will escape from human suffering through poetry. a. Which images in this stanza suggest joyfulness? b. Which line introduces a note of sorrow? c. What word in the final line of the stanza reiterates

the sense of sadness?

8 The beauty of the world of nature as described in the fifth stanza contrasts sharply with the suffering of the human world in the third stanza. The poet piles image upon image appealing to all five senses. Say to which sense(s) the following images refer to.

- flowers are at my feet - embalmed darkness - white hawthorn - fading violets - musk-rose full of dewy wine - the murmurous haunt of flies

9 Note the onomatopoeia* of line 5 0 . Which sounds are repeated to suggest the buzzing of the flies?

John Keats 5 9

1 0 In the sixth stanza the poet considers death as a possible escape from human suffering.

a. What euphemism* for death is used in line 5 4 ? b . The climax* of the stanza comes in lines 5 5 - 5 6 ,

when the poet seems ready to embrace death. How would you describe the language he uses at this m o m e n t of heightened emotion?

c. The poet refuses to choose death because he wishes to continue listening to the nightingale's song, which he calls 'high requiem' in the final line of the stanza. Which word contrasts sonically with 'high requiem' and suggests the inappropriateness of death?

1 1 In the seventh stanza the nightingale's song becomes a symbol*. What does it symbolise? 18 Beauty • The immortality of art • Creative inspiration • Imagination Could it represent all of these concepts?

1 2 What is the tone of the final stanza and how is it created? Has the nightingale's song provided a solution to human suffering or has it only provided temporary relief? In the light of your answer to question 11, how do you interpret the final stanza of the poem?

1 3 Focus on the structure of the poem. a. Note down the number of lines in each stanza. The

lines are written in iambic pentameter*, with the exception of one line in each stanza. Which one?

b. Work out the rhyming scheme of the first two stanzas. Is it regular?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP A s s o n a n c e is t h e u s e o f s i m i l a r v o w e l s o u n d s r e p e a t e d in s u c c e s s i v e or p r o x i m a t e

words c o n t a i n i n g dif ferent c o n s o n a n t s . It creates vowel r h y m e as in the words ' n a m e ' ,

'hate ' , ' favour' .

Like al l i terat ion, assonance gives poetry a musica l quality. It also de termines r h y t h m :

• heavy, b r o a d sounds 'o ' , 'u ' , ' a ' ( t h o u g h , turn , heart , pa in ) t e n d t o s low t h e r h y t h m

down;

• s lender ' i ' a n d 'e ' (this, let) sounds create a quicker pace.

Examine lines 1 - 3 and lines 4 5 ^ 4 8 of Ode to a Nightingale.

a. Find examples of assonance. What vowel sounds dominate? • Long and broad • Short and slender

b. What kind of rhythm do they create?

c. In lines 1 - 3 the poet is describing the suffering of human mortality, while in lines 4 5 - 4 8 he is describing the joys of nature. Explain why the rhythm of each section is appropriate to the contents.

Use broad vowel assonance to write a slow-paced sentence. Use slender vowel assonance to write a quick-paced sentence. Example: All the tall flowers surrounded the house. She will miss him in spring.

Imagine you are standing near Keats when he says, 'I have been half in love with easeful Death'. He seems to be toying with the idea of suicide. What would you say to convince him not to do it.

OVER T O Y O U

Assonance Wmm


Have you ever felt that there are just not enough hours in a day, or days in a week, to do all the things you would like to d o ? John Keats had g o o d reason to worry about how short life is because he knew that, because of ill health, he would die young. This poem was written in 1 8 1 8 , just three years before he died at the age of twenty-five.

Text E l 9 When I Have Fears W h e n I h a v e fears t h a t I m a y c e a s e t o b e 1

B e f o r e m y p e n h a s g l e a n e d 2 m y t e e m i n g 3 b r a i n ,

B e f o r e h i g h - p i l e d 4 b o o k s , i n c h a r a c t e r y 5 ,

H o l d l ike r ich g a r n e r s 6 t h e full r i p e n e d 7 gra in ;

W h e n I b e h o l d 8 , u p o n t h e n i g h t ' s s tarred face,

H u g e c l o u d y s y m b o l s o f a h i g h r o m a n c e 9 ,

A n d t h i n k t h a t I m a y n e v e r l ive t o t race

T h e i r s h a d o w s , w i t h t h e m a g i c h a n d o f c h a n c e 1 0 ;

A n d w h e n I feel, fa ir 1 1 c r e a t u r e o f a n h o u r ,

T h a t I shal l n e v e r l o o k u p o n t h e e 1 2 m o r e ,

N e v e r h a v e r e l i s h 1 3 in t h e f a e r y 1 4 p o w e r

O f u n r e f l e c t i n g love ; - t h e n o n t h e s h o r e

O f t h e w i d e wor ld I s t a n d a l o n e , a n d t h i n k

Till l o v e a n d f a m e t o n o t h i n g n e s s d o s i n k 1 6 .

15

10

GLOSSARY

1. cease to be: die 2. gleaned: collected or

gathered 3. teeming: full, prolific 4. high-piled: a large amount,

one on top of the other 5. charactery: (archaic)

writing

6. garners: buildings where grain is stored

7. full ripened: fully grown and ready to be gathered, mature

8. behold: see 9. high romance: great poem 10. And think ... chance:

1 think 1 may never be able to write (trace) about them

(Their shadows), inspired by my imagination (the magic hand of chance)

11. fair: beautiful 12. thee: you 13. relish: great enjoyment 14. faery: fairy (archaic speUin 15.shore: coast 16. sink: go down

C O M P R E H E N S I O N The p o e m is written in t h e form of a sonnet*, which can be divided into three quatrains and a couplet . Link each division of t h e poem to its subject matter.

first quatrain

second quatrain

third quatrain

couplet

The poet expresses his fear that death will deprive him of his love.

The t h o u g h t of death isolates t h e poet and paralyses his ability to think.

The poet expresses his fear that death will cut short his work as a poet . Writing poetry is c o m p a r e d to harvesting.

The poet fears that death will not allow him to c o m p l e t e his work as a poet . Writing poetry is c o m p a r e d to drawing night skies.

John Keats 61

ANALYS IS 1 The poet is fearful that death will deprive him of artistic fulfilment. Which words in the opening quatrain suggest abundance, and therefore make the sense of deprivation stronger?

2 The poet chooses the night sky as a symbol* of artistic inspiration. Link the words taken from the second quatrain with the aspect of artistic inspiration they convey.

high (line 6 ) Vastness magic (line 8 ) Superiority huge (line 6) Mystery

3 Underline the expression in the third quatrain which suggests the transience of beauty.

4 The poet attributes magical powers to 'unreflecting love'. What kind of love is 'unreflecting', in your opinion?

5 Which words/expressions in the final couplet suggest:

- the relative insignificance of the individual in the general scheme of the universe?

- the alienation of the poet? - despair? How do you interpret the final two lines of the poem?

6 The poem is constructed on a series of subordinate clauses, based on the words 'When I . . . ' . In which line of the poem is the condition introduced by the opening phrase completed? What punctuation marks signal the turning point?

What effect does this postponing syntax have on the poem?

• It creates tension and expectation. • It underlines the poet's despair. • It adds mystery to the poem.

7 Consider the syntax of lines 1 2 - 1 3 . What device makes the expression 'I stand alone' stand out?

8 Work out the rhyming scheme* of the poem. Is it regular throughout? Find examples of alliteration* and assonance* in the first two lines.

9 Find the expressions in the poem that capture the following typically Romantic concepts:

- the spontaneous, almost magical process of artistic creation:

- the isolation of the poet:

Keats accomplished a great deal in his very short life. Think of another famous person who accomplished a lot even though he died young.


HfH^^^H^^H Early years J o h n Keats was

^ • • • • H I H I I ^ H b o r n in L o n d o n , w h e r e h i s

fa ther was t h e m a n a g e r o f a large l ivery stable. His early life was

m a r k e d b y a series o f persona l tragedies: h is fa ther was killed in

a n a c c i d e n t w h e n h e was e ight years old, h is m o t h e r died w h e n

h e was fourteen a n d o n e o f h is y o u n g e r brothers died in infancy.

He received relat ively l i t t le f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d at age s ix teen

h e b e c a m e a n a p p r e n t i c e t o a n a p o t h e c a r y - s u r g e o n . His f i rs t

a t t e m p t s a t w r i t i n g p o e t r y d a t e f r o m t h e y e a r s o f h i s

apprent i cesh ip and inc lude Imitation of Spenser, a h o m a g e t o the

El izabethan poet h e greatly admired.

WORKS In his s h o r t l i t e r a r y c a r e e r J o h n Keats w r o t e s o m e o f t h e m o s t

o u t s t a n d i n g a n d best - loved p o e m s in t h e English language.

His early p o e m s inc luded t h e s o n n e t On First Looking into Chapman's Homer ( 1 8 1 6 ) , w h i c h describes

the poet 's del ight at first reading C h a p m a n ' s seventeenth-century translat ion o f the Greek epic p o e m .

Endymion ( 1 8 1 7 ) tel ls t h e s tory o f a y o u n g s h e p h e r d w h o m t h e m o o n - g o d d e s s Se lene puts t o s leep

e t e r n a l l y so t h a t s h e c a n e n j o y h i s b e a u t y . A l t h o u g h t h e p o e m is s t r u c t u r a l l y w e a k a n d o f t e n

obscure, it shows f lashes o f i m m a t u r e genius.

The Eve of St. Agnes is a r o m a n t i c love story w h i c h b lends e l e m e n t s o f Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet,

C h a u c e r a n d B o c c a c c i o . T h e r ich sensuousness o f t h e i m a g e r y in t h e p o e m is an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e

greatness to c o m e .

The great year D e s p i t e f r e q u e n t a n d p e r s i s t e n t p e r i o d s o f i l lness , Keats d e d i c a t e d h i m s e l f t o

wr i t ing , a n d in w h a t is o f t e n referred t o as t h e G r e a t Year ( 1 8 1 9 ) h e p r o d u c e d s o m e of h is f ines t

works, inc luding his five great odes.

Death in Italy Keats's h e a l t h was n o w in a crit ical state a n d Shel ley asked h i m t o j o i n h i m in Pisa.

He did n o t accept Shel ley 's i n v i t a t i o n b u t did decide t o m o v e t o Italy, where h e h o p e d t h e w a r m e r

c l i m a t e w o u l d i m p r o v e h i s c o n d i t i o n . B e f o r e l e a v i n g , h e m a n a g e d t o p u b l i s h a t h i r d v o l u m e o f

p o e m s , Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and Other Poems. In 1 8 2 0 h e set t led in R o m e , w h e r e h e

died in February 1 8 2 1 at t h e age o f twenty-f ive.

The Odes In t h e f ive o d e s o f 1 8 1 9 , Ode to Psyche, Ode on a Grecian Urn ( • T e x t E 1 7 ) , Ode to a

Nightingale ( • T e x t E 1 8 ) , Ode on Melancholy a n d To Autumn, Keats r e a c h e d t h e p i n n a c l e o f h i s

J O H N K E A T S First poems I n 1 8 1 6 K e a t s o b t a i n e d a l i c e n c e t o p r a c t i s e

( 1 7 9 5 - 1 8 2 1 ) apothecary, but a b a n d o n e d t h e profession for poetry. He b e c a m e

fr iends w i t h Shel ley ( • pp. E 4 0 - 5 1 ) a n d in M a r c h 1 8 1 7 his first

b o o k of p o e m s was publ ished. Al though it sold poorly, this first v o l u m e of work in t roduced h i m i n t o

i m p o r t a n t l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . He m e t s e v e r a l o f t h e g r e a t l i t e r a r y f i g u r e s o f t h e d a y i n c l u d i n g

Wordsworth , w h o exercised an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n his approach to wri t ing poetry. In 1 8 1 7 Keats

left L o n d o n a n d travel led a r o u n d t h e Lake Distr ic t , S c o t l a n d a n d N o r t h e r n Ire land, w h e r e he was

i m p r e s s e d b y t h e b e a u t i f u l r u g g e d l a n d s c a p e . W h e n h e r e t u r n e d f r o m h is t rave ls h e n u r s e d h i s

b r o t h e r T o m t h r o u g h t h e f inal stages o f tuberculosis . After his brother 's death h e m e t a n d fell in love

wi th F a n n y Brawne, but his o w n h e a l t h was b e g i n n i n g t o fail.

Writers' Gallery - John Keats

creat ive powers . T h e y are lyr ical m e d i t a t i o n s

o n a r t a n d r e a l l i f e , e x p e r i e n c e a n d

a s p i r a t i o n s , l i f e a n d d r e a m s . T h e s e o d e s ,

w h i c h are so r i c h in e x q u i s i t e a n d s e n s u o u s

deta i l , r e p r e s e n t for t h e m a n y t h e c r o w n i n g

a c h i e v e m e n t o f English R o m a n t i c i s m .

L a Belle D a m e Sans M e r c i Wri t ten at about

t h e same t i m e as t h e Odes, t h e bal lad La Belle

Dame Sans Merci, w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d

posthumously , in l ine wi th t h e R o m a n t i c taste

f o r M e d i e v a l s e t t i n g a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e

destructive side o f an idyllic love.

Letters Apart f rom poetry, Keats also wrote a

series o f le t ters , p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y , in

w h i c h h e r e c o r d e d h i s t h o u g h t s o n p o e t r y ,

love, p h i l o s o p h y a n d people a n d events o f his

day. M a n y o f t h e l e t t e r s i n c l u d e v a l u a b l e

c o m m e n t a r i e s o n his work a n d give a profound

i n s i g h t i n t o h i s a r t i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c T.S. E l i o t

( • Module G) described the letters as ' the m o s t

impor tant ever written b y an English poet ' .

; yw- vmm • wmmt* sm. mm

Reputation After a part icularly savage at tack o n o n e o f his early works, Keats wrote t o his bro ther

'I t h i n k I shal l b e a m o n g t h e E n g l i s h Poets af ter m y d e a t h ' . His p r o p h e c y h a s i n d e e d c o m e t rue .

Keats's reputat ion c o n t i n u e d t o grow during t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, a n d s ince t h e n h e has, together

w i t h W o r d s w o r t h , b e e n t h e m o s t widely read of t h e Engl i sh R o m a n t i c poets . His Ode on a Grecian

Urn, Ode to a Nightingale a n d To Autiimn are as wel l -known a n d loved as a n y t h i n g b y Shakespeare.

TASK Explain how the events of John Keats's life help us to understand the major themes of his poetry:

- the passing of time; - the immortality of art; - death as an escape from human suffering; - beauty and art as a means of overcoming despair.

Emma by fane Austen

The t h e m e s of love and r o m a n c e have been dealt with in every art form in every era. Today romantic films, fiction and music are as popular as ever. Try to r e m e m b e r a love story you have seen or read and c o m p l e t e the following notes:

Names of the main characters: Sett ing: An important event in t h e story: Ending:

CHARACTERS

• Emma Woodhouse • Harriet Smith,

Emma's friend • Mr Elton, the local

vicar • Mr Cole, a vicar's

friend

• Visual Link E7

THE STORY Emma is a love story in which young men and women who live in the same area meet at dances, in each other's homes or while walking in the village. Emma, the main character, is a clever, pretty, twenty-one-year old, who lives alone with her father, Mr Woodhouse, near the village of Highbury. She becomes friends with seventeen-year-old Harriet, who has been abandoned by her parents. Emma decides that she will find a suitable husband for Harriet, but stops her marrying Robert Martin, a local farmer, because she thinks he is not good enough for her. She believes that Mr Elton, the local vicar, would be a much better match. ( • Text E20) Her attempt to make a match between Harriet and Mr Elton fails miserably but, undeterred, she tries to pair Harriet off with Frank Churchill. However, Frank announces a surprise engagement to Jane Fairfax, while Harriet herself believes that Mr Knightley, a close friend of Emma's, is in love with her. As it turns out, Mr Knightly is really in love with Emma and asks her to marry him. ( • Text E21) She accepts and decides to stop interfering in other peo-ple's lives. So, when she hears that Harriet has accepted Robert Martin's second proposal o marriage, she wishes the couple all the best.

Text E20 This Would Not Do! GLOSSARY

1. lane: narrow street 2. slight bend: small

curve 3. took ... footpath: left

the main road and walked down a side path

4. This would not do: this would not suit her plans

5. under pretence of having: pretending that she had

6. stooping down ... occupation of: bending over and completely blocking

7. begged ... walk on: asked them to keep walking

Emma and Harriet bump into Mr Elton on the road. T h e y w a l k e d o n . T h e l a n e 1 m a d e a s l ight b e n d 2 ; a n d w h e n t h a t b e n d was

passed, Mr. E l t o n was i m m e d i a t e l y i n s ight .

(...) Emma wants Harriet and Mr. Elton to be alone. A n x i o u s t o s e p a r a t e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e m as far as s h e c o u l d , s h e s o o n

a f t e r w a r d s t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f a n a r r o w f o o t p a t h 3 , a l i t t l e r a i s e d o n o n e

side o f t h e lane , l e a v i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r in t h e m a i n road . B u t s h e h a d n o t

b e e n t h e r e t w o m i n u t e s w h e n s h e f o u n d t h a t H a r r i e t ' s h a b i t s o f

d e p e n d e n c e a n d i m i t a t i o n w e r e b r i n g i n g h e r u p t o o , a n d t h a t , i n s h o r t ,

t h e y w o u l d b o t h b e s o o n af ter her . T h i s w o u l d n o t d o 4 ; s h e i m m e d i a t e l y

s t o p p e d , u n d e r p r e t e n c e o f h a v i n g 5 s o m e a l t e r a t i o n t o m a k e i n t h e l a c i n g

o f h e r h a l f - b o o t , a n d s t o o p i n g d o w n i n c o m p l e t e o c c u p a t i o n o f 6 t h e

f o o t p a t h , b e g g e d t h e m t o h a v e t h e g o o d n e s s t o w a l k o n 7 , a n d s h e w o u l d

f o l l o w in ha l f a m i n u t e . T h e y did as t h e y w e r e des ired; a n d b y t h e t i m e s h e

10

Emma - Jane Austen 65

15

20

25

30

j u d g e d it r e a s o n a b l e t o h a v e d o n e w i t h h e r b o o t , s h e h a d

t h e c o m f o r t o f f u r t h e r d e l a y i n h e r p o w e r 8 , b e i n g

o v e r t a k e n 9 b y a c h i l d f r o m t h e c o t t a g e , s e t t i n g o u t 1 0 ,

a c c o r d i n g t o o r d e r s , w i t h h e r p i t c h e r 1 1 , t o f e t c h b r o t h 1 2

f r o m H a r t f i e l d . To w a l k b y t h e s ide o f t h i s c h i l d , a n d t a l k

t o a n d q u e s t i o n h e r , w a s t h e m o s t n a t u r a l t h i n g i n t h e

wor ld , or w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t na tura l , h a d s h e b e e n

a c t i n g t h e n w i t h o u t d e s i g n 1 3 ; a n d b y t h i s m e a n s t h e o t h e r s

w e r e s t i l l a b l e t o k e e p a h e a d , w i t h o u t a n y o b l i g a t i o n o f

w a i t i n g f o r h e r . S h e g a i n e d o n t h e m , h o w e v e r ,

i n v o l u n t a r i l y ; t h e c h i l d ' s p a c e w a s q u i c k , a n d t h e i r s w a s

s l o w ; a n d s h e w a s t h e m o r e c o n c e r n e d a t i t , f r o m t h e i r

b e i n g e v i d e n t l y in a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h i n t e r e s t e d t h e m .

Mr. E l t o n w a s s p e a k i n g w i t h a n i m a t i o n , H a r r i e t l i s t e n i n g

w i t h a v e r y p l e a s e d a t t e n t i o n ; a n d E m m a h a v i n g s e n t t h e

c h i l d o n , w a s b e g i n n i n g t o t h i n k h o w s h e m i g h t draw b a c k

a l i t t le m o r e , w h e n t h e y b o t h l o o k e d a r o u n d , a n d s h e was

o b l i g e d t o j o i n t h e m .

M r . E l t o n w a s s t i l l t a l k i n g , s t i l l e n g a g e d i n s o m e

i n t e r e s t i n g detai l ; a n d E m m a e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w h e n s h e

f o u n d t h a t h e w a s o n l y g i v i n g h i s f a i r c o m p a n i o n a n a c c o u n t o f

yes terday 's p a r t y at h i s f r i e n d Cole ' s , a n d t h a t s h e w a s c o m e in h e r s e l f f o r 1 4

t h e S t i l t o n c h e e s e , t h e n o r t h W i l t s h i r e , t h e b u t t e r , t h e ce l l e ry , t h e b e e t -

root , a n d all t h e dessert .

' T h i s w o u l d s o o n h a v e l e d t o s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r o f c o u r s e ' , w a s h e r

c o n s o l i n g r e f l e c t i o n , ' a n y t h i n g in teres t s b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o love ; a n d a n y

t h i n g wil l serve as i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w h a t is n e a r t h e h e a r t 1 5 . I f I c o u l d b u t

h a v e kept l o n g e r away. '

T h e y n o w w a l k e d o n t o g e t h e r q u i e t l y , t i l l w i t h i n v i e w o f t h e v i c a r a g e

pales , w h e n a s u d d e n r e s o l u t i o n , o f at least g e t t i n g Harr ie t i n t o t h e h o u s e ,

m a d e h e r a g a i n f i n d s o m e t h i n g v e r y m u c h a m i s s 1 6 a b o u t h e r b o o t , a n d

fall b e h i n d t o a r r a n g e it o n c e m o r e . S h e t h e n b r o k e t h e l a c e o f f s h o r t , a n d

d e x t e r o u s l y 1 7 t h r o w i n g it i n t o a d i t c h 1 8 , w a s p r e s e n t l y o b l i g e d t o e n t r e a t 1 9

t h e m t o s top, a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d h e r i n a b i l i t y t o p u t h e r s e l f t o r i g h t s 2 0 so

as t o b e ab le t o walk h o m e i n t o l e r a b l e c o m f o r t .

' P a r t o f m y l a c e is g o n e , ' s a i d s h e , ' a n d I d o n o t k n o w h o w I a m t o

c o n t r i v e 2 1 . I r ea l ly a m a m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e c o m p a n i o n t o y o u b o t h , b u t I

h o p e I a m n o t so o f t e n i l l - equipped . Mr. E l t o n , I m u s t b e g leave t o s t o p at

y o u r h o u s e , a n d ask y o u r h o u s e k e e p e r for a b i t o f r i b b a n d or s tr ing, or a n y

t h i n g just t o k e e p m y b o o t o n . '

35

40

45

50

8. she had ... power: she found another chance of distancing herself from the couple

9. overtaken: passed 10. setting out: starting a

journey

11. pitcher: a kind of container 12. fetch broth: go and get

broth (hot soup) 13.acting ... design: talking to

the child not because it was part of a plan

14. she was come in herself

for: she herself had joined in the conversation only to hear about

15.any thing ... heart: any topic of conversation may help two people to get closer

'... She soon afterwards took possession of a narrow footpath... leaving them together in the main road.'

16. very much amiss: completely wrong

17. dexterously: with great ability

18. ditch: long narrow hole dug alongside a road

19. entreat: ask 20.acknowledged ...

rights: had to admit she was not able to fix the lace

21. contrive: put it right

THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENS ION 1 How did Emma first try to separate herself from Harriet and Mr Elton?

2 Why did her first attempt to distance herself fail?

3 What did she then do to get the couple to overtake her?

4 Why did she talk to the child who overtook her?

5 Why did she feel obliged to join the couple?

6 What were Harriet and Mr Elton talking about when she joined them?

7 What did she do so that Mr Elton would invite Harriet and her to his house?

ANALYS IS 1 In this passage both the exterior world of Emma's actions and the interior world of Emma's thoughts and feelings are described. Make a list of the actions Emma takes to distance herself from Harriet and Mr Elton, quoting from the text and giving line references.

ACTIONS

- she soon afterwards lines 3^1 took possession of a narrow footpath

2 Emma feels a range of emotions in this passage. Find a line reference for each emotion and explain its origin.

line emotion origin line 3 anxiety She wants Harriet

and Mr Elton to be alone.

frustration concern disappointment consolation

3 Can you find any evidence in the text that the social setting* of the novel is the upper or middle class?

4 Which adjectives would you use to describe Emma? justify your choices.

••mmm

Third-person narrator:

omniscient narrator and free indirect

speech

Wm

- m

WRITERS' WORKSHOP E x c h a n g i n g letters, a diary or journal , narra t ion by o n e o f t h e characters or b y s o m e o n e

outs ide t h e e v e n t s - a u t h o r s c a n c h o o s e f r o m m a n y di f ferent ways o f t e l l ing a story.

W h e n a s t o r y is t o l d b y s o m e o n e o u t s i d e t h e a c t i o n , h e is c a l l e d a ' t h i r d - p e r s o n

n a r r a t o r ' (because he refers t o everybody in t h e story in t h e third person: 'he ' , ' she ' or

' they ' ) . In this form of narra t ion t h e person w h o is te l l ing t h e story is l ike an observer

w h o is wi tness ing or has witnessed w h a t has h a p p e n e d , b u t plays n o part in the events .

In a c e r t a i n sense t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t o r is a k i n d o f g o d ( t h e t e r m ' o m n i s c i e n t

n a r r a t o r ' is a lso used) . W e have t h e s e n s a t i o n t h a t he k n o w s e x a c t l y w h a t is go ing t o

h a p p e n a n d h o w e a c h c h a r a c t e r wil l b e h a v e . T h i s k i n d o f n a r r a t o r was p a r t i c u l a r l y

p o p u l a r in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e J a n e

Austen uses in Emma is a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n narra t ive . S o m e t i m e s t h e

narrator is o m n i s c i e n t , at o t h e r t imes he sees t h i n g s f r o m t h e m a i n character 's p o i n t o f

view. In set t ing t h e scene, for e x a m p l e , t h e narrator is i n d e p e n d e n t , l o o k i n g d o w n o n

t h e characters f r o m a p o i n t outside t h e ac t ion . At o t h e r t imes it is clearly E m m a ' s p o i n t

o f view t h a t is expressed:

Emma - Jane Austen 67

But she had not been there two minutes when she found that Harriet's habits of dependence and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short, they would both be soon after her. This would not do; she immediately stopped, under the pretence of having some alteration to make in the lacing of her half-boot. (...)

A l though t h e narrat ing voice r e m a i n s outside t h e story, t h e phrase 'This would n o t d o '

is o b v i o u s l y a n e x p r e s s i o n o f E m m a ' s p o i n t o f view, c o n v e y i n g h e r f r u s t r a t i o n at

Harr ie t ' s b e h a v i o u r . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f s h i f t i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e v i e w p o i n t b e t w e e n a n

ob jec t ive a c c o u n t a n d subject ive interpreta t ion is called f r e e i n d i r e c t s p e e c h .

Th is t e c h n i q u e makes the reader feel less d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e story. Also, because m u c h

of t h e story is told f r o m t h e partial v iewpoint of o n e o f t h e characters , t h e reader gets

t h e idea that a n y t h i n g can h a p p e n in t h e course of t h e novel , just as it can in real life.

In t h e case o f E m m a it adds a n e l e m e n t o f h u m o u r , as t h e reader c o n t r a s t s t h e w a y

E m m a sees t h e w o r l d a r o u n d h e r a n d h o w it rea l ly is. Free i n d i r e c t s p e e c h is w i d e l y

used in m o d e r n n o v e l writ ing.

Read again lines 2 2 - 3 6 and examine how the point of view shifts from the omniscient narrator to Emma by identifying the following statements as objective view of events (O) or as Emma's view of events (E).

I I Mr Elton and Harriet are having a conversation.

L J The conversation between Mr Elton and Harriet is interesting.

I I Mr Elton is speaking with animation and Harriet is pleased by what she hears.

I I Emma is gaining ground on Mr Elton and Harriet.

Mr Elton is talking about his friend's party.

I I Emma interrupts them at an interesting point in their conversation.

Read the paragraph below, which is based on the events of Text E20. Which character's point of view is woven into the text? Justify your answer by referring to the text.

Mr Elton continued to talk to the rather dull Harriet about the party he had attended at Cole's home. Meanwhile, the charming Emma had fallen behind and was talking to a child. Thankfully, the child was walking quickly and so Emma would soon rejoin the company. As the child overtook them, Mr Elton noticed that Emma was no longer with her. He turned to see where she was and, to his disappointment, noticed that she was still some distance away. He slowed his pace down and eventually she caught up with them. He could see that she was happy to be in his company again.

Has Emma any right to organise Harriet's life for her? Should she not mind her own business? Is she acting in her young friend's best interests? Discuss.

,68 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Text E21 More Than Just Friends

CHARACTERS • Emma Woodhouse • Mr Knightley, a

close friend of Emma's

- • GLOSSARY

1. have in contemplation: be planning

2. that I fear is a word: that is the word I do not want to hear from you

3. look the question: see how she would react

4. overpowered: shocked

5. dread: terror 6. as was ...

convincing: as he was able to use in order to persuade her

7. Bear with: try to accept

8. The manner. . . recommend them: the way I behaved with you did not really show what my feelings were

9. groundless: without substance, unreal

Having mistakenly believed that Mr Knightley is in love with Harriet, Emma is relieved to discover that he is, in fact, in love with somebody else.

'But if you have any wish to speak openly to me as a friend, or to ask my opinion of any thing that you may have in contemplation 1 - as a friend, indeed, you may command me. - I will hear whatever 5 you like. I will tell you exactly what I think.

'As a friend!' - repeated Mr. Knightley. -'Emma, that I fear is a word2 - No, I have no wish. - Stay, yes, why should I hesitate? - I have gone too far already for concealment. 10 - Emma, I accept your offer - extraordinary as it may seem, I accept it, and refer myself to you as a friend. - Tell me, then, have I no chance of ever succeeding?'

He stopped in his earnestness to look the question3, and the expression is of his eyes overpowered4 her.

'My dearest Emma,' said he, 'for dearest you will always be, whatever the event of this hour's conversation, my dearest, most beloved Emma -tell me at once. Say "No", if it is to be said.' She could really say nothing. -'You are si lent, ' he cried, with great animation; 'absolutely silent! at 20 present I ask no more.'

Emma was almost ready to sink under the agitation of this moment. The dread5 of being awakened from the happiest dream, was perhaps the most prominent feeling. 'I cannot make speeches, Emma:' - he soon resumed; - and in a tone of 25 such sincere, decided, intelligible tenderness as was tolerably convincing6. - 'If I loved you less I might be able to talk about it more. But you know what I am. - You hear nothing but truth from me.' (...) 'Bear with7 the truths I would tell you now, dearest Emma.' (...) 'The manner, perhaps, may have as little to recommend them 8 . God 30 knows, I have been a very indifferent lover. - But you understand me. -Yes, you see, you understand my feelings - and will return them if you can. At present, I ask only to hear, once to hear your voice.'

Whi le he spoke, Emma's mind was most busy, and, with all the wonderful velocity of thought, had been able - and yet without losing a 351 word - to catch and comprehend the exact truth of the whole; to see that Harriet's hopes had been entirely groundless9, a mistake, a delusion, as complete a delusion as any of her own - that Harriet was nothing; that she was everything herself.

Emma - Jane

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 At the beginning of the passage, what kind of relationship does Emma believe exists between herself and Mr Knightley?

2 Why does Mr Knightley fear the word 'friend'?

3 What is Mr Knightley referring to when he asks if he would have 'no chance of ever succeeding'?

4 Why does Emma say nothing in answer to Mr Knightley's question?

5 What 'exact truth' has Emma understood by the end of the passage?

ANALYS IS — — 1 Focus on Mr Knightley's speech pattern. Find examples of:

- hesitations: lines - interrupted, unfinished sentences: lines - repetition: lines

What does the unstructured, chaotic way in which Mr Knightley speaks reveal about his state of mind?

2 Find the line in which Mr Knightley refers to his inability to express himself appropriately.

3 Does Mr Knightley ever directly state that he loves Emma? Make a list of the sentences that help Emma to understand how Mr Knightley feels for her.

4 Attribute the adjectives in the list below to Mr Knightley or Emma on the basis of the passage you have just read. Some adjectives may be included in both columns.

Shy Emotional Insecure Mature Sincere Perceptive Speechless

Mr Knightley Emma

Throughout the novel Mr Knightley is portrayed as calm, mature and eloquent, while Emma is seen as immature, interfering and somewhat superficial. Is this how they are portrayed in this key passage?

Have attitudes to marriage changed much since jane Austen's day? Are young people as anxious to get married today as Jane Austen's characters were? Discuss.


Pride and Prejudice by fane Austen

W h a t role should parents play in their chi ldren's c h o i c e of a par tner? Say w h e t h e r you a g r e e or not with t h e following s ta tements and explain why.

I I Parents should help their children find a partner.

I | Parents have no right whatsoever to interfere in their children's relationships.

1 The a g r e e m e n t of parents to a marriage is important because they will be more willing to help t h e young couple financially.

[1 ] Arranged marriages, in which parents c h o o s e w h o their son or daughter is going to marry, are t h e ones most likely to succeed.

• Visual Link E7

THE STORY The Bennets have five daughters and Mrs Bennet's driving ambition is to see all of them married ( • Text E22). Charles Bingley has come to live nearby with his friend Darcy. When Darcy realises that Charles likes Jane Bennet, he does his best to separate them on the grounds that her family are socially inferior. He himself likes Elizabeth Bennet, but when he says so to her, she says she can have nothing to do with someone who looks down on her family ( • Text E23). She changes her mind about him, however, when she learns that he has helped another sister, Lydia, who had eloped with a military officer, and the story ends happily with a double wedding between Charles and Jane, and Elizabeth and Darcy.

Text E22

CHARACTERS » Mr and Mrs Bennet • Elizabeth, Jane and

Lydia Bennet, three of the Bennets' five daughters

• Charles Bingley, a neighbour to the Bennets

• Darcy, Charles's friend

• Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Darcy's aunt and one of the richest people in the area

• GLOSSARY

1. acknowledged: recognised, admitted

2. be in want of: need 3. rightful: legal 4. is let at last: has

finally been rented

What A Fine Thing for Our Girls! In the opening chapter Mrs Bennet tells her husband of the arrival in the neighbourhood of Mr Bingley, an excellent prospective husband for one of their daughters.

IT is a truth universally acknowledged1, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of2 a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful3 property of some one or other of their daughters. 'My dear Mr Bennet, ' said his lady to him one day, 'have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last4?' Mr Bennet replied that he had not. 'But it is', returned she; 'for Mrs Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.' Mr Bennet made no answer. 'Do not you want to know who has taken it?' cried his wife impatiently. 'You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.' This was invitation enough.

Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 71

' W h y , m y d e a r , y o u m u s t k n o w , M r s L o n g says

t h a t N e t h e r f i e l d is t a k e n b y a y o u n g m a n o f large

f o r t u n e f r o m t h e n o r t h o f E n g l a n d ; t h a t h e c a m e

d o w n o n M o n d a y i n a c h a i s e a n d four 5 t o see t h e

p lace , a n d w a s so m u c h d e l i g h t e d w i t h it t h a t h e 20

agreed w i t h M r Morr i s i m m e d i a t e l y ; t h a t h e is t o

take p o s s e s s i o n b e f o r e M i c h a e l m a s 6 , a n d s o m e o f

h i s s e r v a n t s are t o b e in t h e h o u s e b y t h e e n d o f

n e x t w e e k . '

' W h a t is h is n a m e ? ' 25

'B ing ley . '

'Is h e m a r r i e d or s i n g l e ? '

' O h ! s ingle , m y dear, t o b e sure! A s i n g l e m a n o f

large f o r t u n e ; f o u r or f ive t h o u s a n d a year . W h a t

a f i n e t h i n g for o u r girls ! ' 30

' H o w so? H o w c a n it a f f e c t 7 t h e m ? '

' M y d e a r M r B e n n e t , ' r e p l i e d h i s w i f e , ' h o w c a n

y o u b e s o t i r e s o m e 8 ! Y o u m u s t k n o w t h a t I a m

t h i n k i n g o f h i s m a r r y i n g o n e o f t h e m . '

'Is t h a t h is d e s i g n 9 i n s e t t l i n g h e r e ? '

' D e s i g n ! N o n s e n s e , h o w c a n y o u t a l k so! B u t it is v e r y l i k e l y 1 0 t h a t h e may

fall i n love w i t h o n e o f t h e m , a n d t h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t vis i t h i m as s o o n as

h e c o m e s . '

' I s e e n o o c c a s i o n f o r t h a t . Y o u a n d t h e g i r l s m a y g o , or y o u m a y s e n d

t h e m b y t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h p e r h a p s wi l l b e st i l l b e t t e r , for, as y o u are as

h a n d s o m e as a n y o f t h e m , M r B i n g l e y m i g h t l i k e y o u t h e b e s t o f t h e

party . '

' M y dear, y o u f la t te r 1 1 m e . I c e r t a i n l y have h a d m y share o f beauty , b u t I d o

n o t p r e t e n d t o b e a n y t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y n o w . W h e n a w o m a n h a s f ive

g r o w n u p d a u g h t e r s , s h e o u g h t t o give o v e r 1 2 t h i n k i n g o f h e r o w n b e a u t y . '

' I n s u c h cases , a w o m a n h a s n o t o f t e n m u c h b e a u t y t o t h i n k o f . '

'But , m y dear, y o u m u s t i n d e e d go a n d see M r B i n g l e y w h e n h e c o m e s i n t o

t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d . '

i t is m o r e t h a n I e n g a g e f o r 1 3 , 1 assure y o u . '

' B u t c o n s i d e r y o u r d a u g h t e r s . O n l y t h i n k w h a t a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t it w o u l d

b e f o r o n e o f t h e m . S ir W i l l i a m a n d L a d y L u c a s a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o g o ,

m e r e l y o n t h a t a c c o u n t 1 4 , f o r i n g e n e r a l , y o u k n o w t h e y v i s i t n o n e w

c o m e r s . I n d e e d 1 5 y o u m u s t go, for it wil l b e i m p o s s i b l e f o r us t o vis i t h i m ,

if y o u d o n o t . '

'You are o v e r scrupulous , surely. I dare s a y 1 6 M r B i n g l e y wil l b e v e r y g lad t o

see y o u ; a n d I w i l l s e n d a f e w l i n e s b y y o u t o a s s u r e h i m o f m y h e a r t y

c o n s e n t t o h i s m a r r y i n g w h i c h ever h e c h u s e s 1 7 o f t h e girls; t h o u g h I m u s t

t h r o w in a g o o d w o r d for m y l i t t le Lizzy. '

i desire y o u wil l d o n o s u c h t h i n g . Lizzy is n o t a b i t b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s ;

a n d I a m s u r e s h e is n o t h a l f s o h a n d s o m e as J a n e , n o r h a l f s o g o o d

h u m o u r e d as Lydia. But y o u are a lways g i v i n g her t h e p r e f e r e n c e . '

35

40

45

50

55

60

The Bennet family from the film Pride and Prejudice (1995). m

5.

6.

chaise and four: type of carriage pulled by a horse Michaelmas: 29th September, St Michael's holy day

7. affect: be of interest for

8. tiresome: annoying 9. design: plan 10. likely: probable 11. flatter: say adulatory

words 12. give over: renounce 13.1 engage for: I wish

to promise 14. merely on that

account: solely for that purpose

15. Indeed: surely 16.1 dare say: I think 17. chuses: chooses


'They have none of them much1 8 to recommend them,' replied he; 'they are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of quickness than her sisters.' 'Mr Bennet, how can you abuse19 your own children in such a way? You 65 take delight in vexing20 me. You have no compassion on my poor nerves.' 'You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least.' 'Ah! you do not know what I suffer.' 70 'But I hope you will get over it, and live to see many young men of four thousand a year come into the neighbourhood.' 'It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come, since you will not visit them.' 'Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty I will visit them all.' 75 Mr Bennet was so odd a mixture2 1 of quick parts22 , sarcastic humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three and twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was less difficult to develope. She was a woman of mean21 understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. When she was discontented, she 80 fancied24 herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters married; its solace25 was visiting and news.

18. They have none of them much: they have nothing special

19.abuse: insult 20. vexing: provoking 21. so odd a mixture:

such a strange mix 22. quick parts: clever

mind 23. mean: little 24. fancied: considered 25.solace: fun

•

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What, according to t h e opening sentence , are wealthy young men in search of?

2 What news does Mrs Bennet give her husband? What information does she have a b o u t Mr Bingley?

3 How does Mr Bennet react to his wife's suggestion that he should visit Mr Bingley?

4 Which of his daughters seems to be Mr Bennet 's favourite?

ANALYS IS 1 The narrative t echnique used in this passage is free indirect speech*. Which character 's viewpoint is represented in the opening line?

2 The passage contains third-person narration* and dialogue.

a . Which of the two narrative techniques is used predominantly in: - lines 1 - 6 : ? - lines 7 - 7 5 : ? - lines 7 6 - 8 2 : ?

b . What is the function of: - t h e opening section of narration?

• To describe the characters. • To describe the setting. • To outline the main t h e m e of the novel.

5 Why, according t o Mrs Bennet, does her husband 'abuse ' his own children?

6 Why does Mr Bennet call his wife's nerves his 'old friends'? (Line 6 6 )

7 Make a list of the words and expressions the

narrator uses in the final paragraph to describe:

- Mr Bennet : - Mrs Bennet :

- the central dialogue? • To introduce Mr and Mrs Bennet and reveal

something of their characters. • To allow the author to c o m m e n t on t h e

action. • To develop t h e storyline. • To introduce opposing viewpoints on an issue

which the author believes to be worthy of serious consideration.

- the final section of the narration? • To confirm what has e m e r g e d about the

characters in the preceding dialogue. • To draw conclusions about t h e topic under

discussion. • To develop the storyline.


3 Focus on the character of Mr Bennet .

a . Find examples in the dialogue of his 'quick parts'

and 'sarcastic humour ' .

b . Mr Bennet asks his wife a series of questions. Underline t h e m in the text . Does he ask the questions because:

• he is genuinely interested in what his wife is talking about?

• he wishes to show his wife the absurdity of what she is saying?

c . Mr Bennet seems to en joy teasing his wife by deliberately misunderstanding her. Find examples in the text .

d . Mr Bennet describes his daughters as 'silly and ignorant like other girls'. How do you interpret this c o m m e n t ?

4 Focus on the character of Mrs Bennet .

a. Find evidence in t h e dialogue: - of her interest in material possessions:

- of her being 'of mean understanding' :

b . W h y do you think Mrs Bennet is so preoccupied with finding husbands for her daughters? Consider t h e historical period in which the novel was written when giving your answer.

5 Focus on t h e relationship between Mr Bennet and

his wife. Would you consider it to be a: • flattering • realistic • depressing • romanticised

view of life as a couple after twenty-three years of marriage? Justify your answer.

At the t ime when the novel was written, w o m e n were almost totally d e p e n d e n t on men financially, and therefore it was very important for a w o m a n to find a husband. Jane Austen herself never g o t married and would have faced considerable financial hardship if, after her father's death, she, her m o t h e r and her sister had not been supported by her brothers. Is it equally important for w o m e n to get married today from a financial point of view?

You Are Mistaken, Mr Darcy Darcy has just told Elizabeth that, despite her inferior social background, he wants to marry her. She has said no.

' A n d t h i s , ' c r i ed Darcy, as h e w a l k e d w i t h q u i c k s teps across t h e r o o m , 'is

y o u r o p i n i o n o f m e ! T h i s is t h e e s t i m a t i o n i n w h i c h y o u h o l d m e ! I t h a n k

y o u for e x p l a i n i n g it so ful ly. M y faults , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , are

h e a v y i n d e e d ! B u t p e r h a p s , ' a d d e d h e , s t o p p i n g i n h i s walk , a n d t u r n i n g

t o w a r d s her , ' t h e s e o f f e n c e s m i g h t h a v e b e e n o v e r l o o k e d 1 , h a d n o t y o u r

p r i d e 2 b e e n h u r t b y m y h o n e s t c o n f e s s i o n o f t h e s c r u p l e s t h a t h a d l o n g

p r e v e n t e d m y 3 f o r m i n g a n y ser ious des ign . T h e s e b i t t e r a c c u s a t i o n s m i g h t

h a v e b e e n suppressed, h a d I, w i t h greater pol icy , c o n c e a l e d 4 m y struggles,

a n d f l a t t e r e d y o u i n t o t h e b e l i e f o f m y b e i n g i m p e l l e d b y u n q u a l i f i e d ,

u n a l l o y e d i n c l i n a t i o n 5 ; b y r e a s o n , b y r e f l e c t i o n , b y e v e r y t h i n g . B u t

d isguise 6 o f every sort is m y a b h o r r e n c e . N o r a m I a s h a m e d o f t h e fee l ings

I r e l a t e d 7 . T h e y w e r e n a t u r a l a n d jus t . C o u l d y o u e x p e c t m e t o r e j o i c e i n

t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f y o u r c o n n e c t i o n s ? T o c o n g r a t u l a t e m y s e l f o n t h e h o p e o f

re la t ions , w h o s e c o n d i t i o n i n l i fe is so d e c i d e d l y b e n e a t h m y o w n ? '

E l i z a b e t h fe l t h e r s e l f g r o w i n g m o r e a n g r y e v e r y m o m e n t ; y e t s h e t r i e d t o

t h e u t m o s t 8 t o speak w i t h c o m p o s u r e w h e n s h e said,

Text E23

10

15

GLOSSARY • -

1. overlooked: not considered

2. had not your pride: if your pride had not

3. long prevented my: for a long time stopped me from

4. concealed: hidden 5. flattered...

inclination: convinced you that I was driven towards you without any reservations

6. disguise: dissimulation

7. related: told you about

8. to the utmost: with maximum effort

u g

7 4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Elizabeth Bennet (Jennifer Ehle) and Mr Darcy (Colin Firth) in the film Pride and Prejudice (1995).

9. than as ... refusing you: other than it saved me from the preoccupation that I would have felt on rejecting you

10. mingled: mixed 11. conceit: feeling of

superiority 12. ground-work of:

basis for 13. whom I could ever

be prevailed on: that I would ever be persuaded to

14. hastily: in a hurry 15.by every review of

it: each time she was going over what had happened

•

Y o u are m i s t a k e n , M r Darcy, if y o u s u p p o s e t h a t

t h e m o d e o f y o u r d e c l a r a t i o n a f fec ted m e i n a n y

o t h e r w a y , t h a n as i t s p a r e d m e t h e c o n c e r n

w h i c h I m i g h t h a v e f e l t i n r e f u s i n g y o u 9 , h a d

y o u b e h a v e d in a m o r e g e n t l e m a n - l i k e m a n n e r . '

S h e saw h i m s t a r t at t h i s , b u t h e s a i d n o t h i n g ,

a n d s h e c o n t i n u e d .

' Y o u c o u l d n o t h a v e m a d e m e t h e o f f e r o f y o u r

h a n d i n a n y p o s s i b l e w a y t h a t w o u l d h a v e

t e m p t e d m e t o a c c e p t i t . '

A g a i n h i s a s t o n i s h m e n t w a s o b v i o u s ; a n d h e

l o o k e d a t h e r w i t h a n e x p r e s s i o n o f m i n g l e d 1 0

i n c r e d u l i t y a n d m o r t i f i c a t i o n . S h e w e n t o n :

' F r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , f r o m t h e f i r s t

m o m e n t , I m a y a l m o s t say, o f m y a c q u a i n t a n c e

w i t h y o u , y o u r m a n n e r s , i m p r e s s i n g m e w i t h t h e

f u l l e s t b e l i e f o f y o u r a r r o g a n c e , y o u r c o n c e i t 1 1 ,

a n d y o u r se l f ish d i sda in o f t h e fee l ings o f o t h e r s ,

w e r e s u c h as t o f o r m t h a t g r o u n d - w o r k o f 1 2

d i s a p p r o b a t i o n , o n w h i c h s u c c e e d i n g e v e n t s

h a v e b u i l t s o i m m o v e a b l e a d i s l i k e ; a n d I h a d

n o t k n o w n y o u a m o n t h b e f o r e I f e l t t h a t y o u

w e r e t h e l a s t m a n i n t h e w o r l d w h o m I c o u l d

ever b e preva i l ed o n 1 3 t o m a r r y . '

' Y o u h a v e s a i d q u i t e e n o u g h , m a d a m . I p e r f e c t l y c o m p r e h e n d y o u r

f e e l i n g s , a n d h a v e n o w o n l y t o b e a s h a m e d o f w h a t m y o w n h a v e b e e n .

Forgive m e for h a v i n g t a k e n u p so m u c h o f y o u r t i m e , a n d a c c e p t m y bes t

w i s h e s for y o u r h e a l t h a n d h a p p i n e s s . '

A n d w i t h t h e s e w o r d s h e h a s t i l y 1 4 lef t t h e r o o m , a n d E l izabeth h e a r d h i m

t h e n e x t m o m e n t o p e n t h e f r o n t d o o r a n d q u i t t h e h o u s e . T h e t u m u l t o f

h e r m i n d w a s n o w p a i n f u l l y great . S h e k n e w n o t h o w t o s u p p o r t herse l f ,

a n d f r o m a c t u a l w e a k n e s s s a t d o w n a n d c r i e d f o r h a l f a n h o u r . H e r

a s t o n i s h m e n t , as s h e r e f l e c t e d o n w h a t h a d passed, w a s i n c r e a s e d b y e v e r y

rev iew o f i t 1 5 . T h a t s h e s h o u l d rece ive a n of fer o f m a r r i a g e f r o m M r Darcy !

T h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n in love w i t h h e r for so m a n y m o n t h s ! So m u c h

i n l o v e as t o w i s h t o m a r r y h e r i n s p i t e o f al l t h e o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h h a d

m a d e h i m p r e v e n t h i s f r iend 's m a r r y i n g h e r sister, a n d w h i c h m u s t a p p e a r

at least w i t h e q u a l f o r c e i n h i s o w n case , w a s a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e !

45

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What , according to Darcy in the opening paragraph, should he have d o n e in order to win Elizabeth's affections?

2 Was it t h e way Darcy m a d e his declaration that m a d e Elizabeth refuse? (Lines 1 7 - 2 6 )

3 W h a t were the first traits Elizabeth noticed when she first m e t Darcy?

4 W h a t m a d e Darcy's proposal of marriage to Elizabeth 'a lmost incredible'?


ANALYS IS 1 Focus on the character of Darcy.

a. Is there any evidence in the text of what Elizabeth describes as his 'arrogance' , 'conceit ' and 'disdain' of the feelings of others?

b. What does Darcy pride himself on? Which c o m m e n t made by Elizabeth seems to offend him most profoundly?

c. As a single, wealthy, socially superior young man, Darcy automatically assumes that Elizabeth will accept his proposal of marriage. Find evidence in the text of his disbelief at her refusal. What does Darcy's reaction suggest about the social values and conventions of the time?

2 Focus on the character of Elizabeth.

a. Which of the following adjectives do you think best describe her?

• Self-composed • Intelligent • Passive • Vindictive • Hysterical • Independent

b. Is there any evidence in the text that she may have been impetuous in forming her opinion of Darcy? Which expression suggests that she is exaggerating her dislike of Darcy?

c. Consider the final paragraph. Is there any suggestion that Elizabeth may admire Darcy and

be flattered by his attention? Does the final paragraph confirm or contradict what she has said previously in the passage?

3 Consider the style of the passage. How would you describe it?

• Elegant • Sophisticated • Balanced • Conversational • Artificial • Polite • Dramatic • Other:

4 Elizabeth and Darcy are involved in a passionate row. The language they use does not, however, seem to reflect the emotionally-charged situation: there are no repetitions, incomplete sentences, short exclamations or incoherencies. What effect does the polished dialogue create?

• It reminds the reader that both Darcy and Elizabeth belong to the refined upper and middle classes.

• It helps maintain the light-hearted, ironic tone of the novel.

• It makes the characters seem more realistic. • It adds an element of humour to the novel.

• It exposes the author's inability to write convincing dialogues.

• Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P There are two basic t e c h n i q u e s for revealing a character : ' s h o w i n g ' and ' tel l ing' .

A wri ter s h o w s c h a r a c t e r s t h r o u g h dia logue, m o n o l o g u e or i n t e r i o r m o n o l o g u e . T h e

reader is left t o interpret a n d draw c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m w h a t is said wi th litt le or n o h e l p

f r o m t h e narrator.

A writer tells the reader about characters w h e n he describes their personality, appearance,

feelings and motives for their behaviour. T h e reader does n o t have m u c h freedom to form

an o p i n i o n a n d m u s t depend o n w h a t t h e narrator says about t h e character .

In Text E23 Jane Austen uses a mixture of showing and telling. Identify the lines where she: - shows character through dialogue: lines - tells the reader about the characters' feelings: lines

In the final paragraph Jane Austen uses the technique of telling to describe Elizabeth's physical and emotional response to what has happened. Imagine you are re-writing this scene for the stage or cinema. Write a monologue for Elizabeth through which you show the contents of this paragraph. Include stage directions for physical actions.

What do the following types of pride mean to you? National pride Civic pride Family pride Personal pride Is pride a positive or negative emotion or both? Give examples.

Showing and telling


Family background J a n e

A u s t e n w a s b o r n o n 1 6 t h

December , 1 7 7 5 , in t h e village o f S teventon , near Basingstoke, in

H a m p s h i r e . T h e s e v e n t h o f e i g h t c h i l d r e n o f t h e R e v e r e n d

George Austen a n d his wife, Cassandra, she was educated m a i n l y j

at h o m e a n d never lived apart f r o m her family.

Social background As a y o u n g w o m a n , she e n j o y e d d a n c i n g at

loca l bal ls , w a l k i n g in t h e H a m p s h i r e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d v is i t ing

friends. She was a n avid reader. She read b o t h t h e serious a n d t h e |

p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e d a y ( h e r f a t h e r h a d a l i b r a r y o f 5 0 0 j

b o o k s b y 1 8 0 1 , a n d she wrote t h a t she a n d her f a m i l y were 'great

n o v e l r e a d e r s , a n d n o t a s h a m e d o f b e i n g s o ' ) . S h e w a s v e r y j

famil iar w i t h e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y novels , i n c l u d i n g t h e works o f

R i c h a r d s o n ( • p p . D 6 5 - 6 9 ) a n d F i e l d i n g ( • p p . D 7 0 - 7 6 ) . 1

T h r o u g h her act ive social life, she m e t m a n y m e n w h o w a n t e d to marry her, but she r e m a i n e d single ;

all h e r life. O n o n e o c c a s i o n , she did a c c e p t a proposa l o f marr iage f r o m t h e b r o t h e r o f o n e o f h e r

c losest friends, b u t she c h a n g e d her m i n d t h e fo l lowing day.

Writing career She started wri t ing in her ear ly teens . Her earliest works i n c l u d e d parodies o f t h e

l i terature o f t h e day a n d were original ly wri t ten for t h e a m u s e m e n t o f her family. M o s t o f t h e pieces j

are dedicated t o her relatives or fami ly fr iends. In t h e per iod b e t w e e n 1 8 1 1 and 1 8 1 7 she wrote her j

s i x m a j o r n o v e l s . S u c c e s s w a s n o t i m m e d i a t e . I n d e e d p u b l i s h e r s d e c l i n e d t o e v e n l o o k at t h e

m a n u s c r i p t o f Pride and Prejudice ( 1 8 1 3 ) . However, w h e n her novels were eventual ly publ i shed t h e y

were general ly well-received.

In 1 8 1 6 her h e a l t h began to fail a n d in 1 8 1 7 she w e n t t o W i n c h e s t e r in search o f m e d i c a l a t tent ion ,

b u t she died there after t w o m o n t h s . Her b o d y was buried in W i n c h e s t e r cathedral .

JANE AUSTEN ( 1 7 7 5 - 1 8 1 7 )

• • • • • • • • • I Background I n t h e p e r i o d w h e n J a n e A u s t e n w r o t e , g r e a t

changes were occurr ing in Europe. T h e French Revolut ion a n d t h e

collapse o f t h e ' anc ien regime' in France were fol lowed by t h e N a p o l e o n i c wars. In England, too, this

was a period of polit ical a n d social unrest . Music , l iterature a n d pa in t ing were also undergoing c h a n g e

in the form of t h e great R o m a n t i c Revolut ion ( • pp. E 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 ) . There is hardly a n y m e n t i o n of these

e v e n t s i n J a n e A u s t e n ' s n o v e l s . Her n o v e l s d e a l w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f a m i l i e s a n d

individuals in a rural sett ing. She herself said 'Three or four families in a C o u n t r y Village is the th ing

t o work o n ' . She c o n f i n e d her writ ing t o the world she k n e w from first-hand experience .

Novels Her m a j o r nove ls are Sense and Sensibility ( 1 8 1 1 ) , Pride and Prejudice ( 1 8 1 3 ) , Mansfield Park

( 1 8 1 4 ) , Emma ( 1 8 1 6 ) , Persuasion ( 1 8 1 8 ) a n d Northanger Abbey ( 1 8 1 8 ) .

Se t t ing E m m a perfect ly exempl i f ies t h e l imi ted canvas o n w h i c h Austen c h o s e t o work. W i t h t h e

e x c e p t i o n of t h e p i c n i c excurs ion t o B o x Hill, all the ac t ion is c o n f i n e d to t h e middle and upper class

h o m e s o f t h e village o f Highbury. T h e characters in her novels are also drawn f r o m t h e social mi l ieu

she k n e w best . T h e y b e l o n g t o t h e aristocracy, gentry a n d middle classes. Her greater unders tanding

of the female m i n d is also ref lected in h e r work ( • Visual Link E7).

Themes Further evidence o f J a n e Austen's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h her i m m e d i a t e world m a y be f o u n d

in the t h e m e s of her novels . T h e tradit ional values of t h e middle a n d upper classes such as property.

Writers' Gallery - Jane Austen 77

d e c o r u m , m o n e y a n d m a r r i a g e

are h e r m a j o r c o n c e r n s . In b o t h

Emma and Pride and Prejudice m a r r i a g e p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s

o f t h e p l o t . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g

t h a t m a r r i a g e w a s a m a j o r

p r e o c c u p a t i o n . At t h a t t i m e ,

w o m e n of t h e middle and upper

classes were, o f necessity, to ta l ly

d e p e n d e n t o n their h u s b a n d s or

f a t h e r s . J a n e A u s t e n h e r s e l f

exper ienced t h e risk o f b e i n g left

u n s u p p o r t e d . W h e n h e r f a t h e r

died, h e left h is w i d o w a n d t w o

d a u g h t e r s a v e r y s m a l l a n n u a l

i n c o m e . L i fe w o u l d h a v e b e e n

d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e t h r e e w o m e n

h a d n o t t h e s u r v i v i n g s o n s

cont r ibuted t o their i n c o m e .

Characters J a n e Austen is p r o b a b l y bes t r e m e m b e r e d for h e r analys is o f c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n d u c t .

Her characters have s t rengths a n d weaknesses, t h e y go t h r o u g h t imes o f trials a n d t h e y learn lessons.

T h e y are n o t d r i v e n b y w i l d p a s s i o n s . T h e s t r o n g i m p u l s e s a n d i n t e n s e l y e m o t i o n a l s ta tes t h e y

exper ience are regulated, contro l led and b r o u g h t t o order b y private ref lect ion.

J a n e Austen's c o m m i t m e n t t o reason a n d c o m m o n sense rather t h a n great pass ions l inks her work to

the e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t radi t ion o f c lassicism. There is l itt le ev idence in her work of t h e pass ionate

R o m a n t i c t h e m e s of the turn o f t h e century.

Style J a n e Austen ' s n o v e l s give t h e i m p r e s s i o n of ease, b u t t h e y are in fact t h e result o f care fu l

t h i n k i n g b y t h e author w h o was c o n s t a n t l y revising t h e m . Irony, wit a n d clear, ba lanced, apparent ly

s imple language are all essential e l e m e n t s of her style. T h e vividness o f t h e characters a n d t h e l ively

d i a l o g u e h a v e m a d e t h e n o v e l s e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l for t h e a t r e a n d c i n e m a a d a p t a t i o n . In fact , in

r e c e n t years J a n e Austen h a s e n j o y e d r e n e w e d popular i ty , t h a n k s t o h u g e l y success fu l f i l m s a n d

television series based o n her novels .

TASKS 1 What kind of social background did Jane Austen have?

2 What kind of literature influenced her as a writer?

3 Did she lead a secluded life?

4 When did she start writing?

5 Were her novels accepted for publication immediately?

6 As a writer, was she influenced by contemporary social, political and cultural events?

7 What is the setting of her novels?

8 What are the major themes of her novels?

9 What are the characteristics of her style?

1 0 Does her work belong more to the eighteenth-century neo-classical tradition or to the turn-of-the-century romantic tradition?


Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott

Stories based on heroic action have always been very popular.

a. Think of an adventure story or action movie you have seen recently. Which of the following characteristics would you attribute t o t h e hero of t h e story?

• Brave • Intelligent • Strong • Good- looking • Honest • Modest • Others :

b . Prepare a ten-line summary of the plot.

CHARACTERS • Richard the

Lion heart, king of England

• Prince John, Richard's brother

• Cedric, Saxon leader • Lady Rowena,

Saxon lady • Athelstane, Saxon

knight • Ivanhoe, Cedric's

son • Brian de Bois-

Guilbert, Norman knight

• Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, Norman knight

• Isaac, a Jew • Rebecca, Isaac's

daughter

THE STORY Ivanhoe is set in England during the Middle Ages, towards the end of the twelfth cen when England's popidation was both of Saxon and Norman descent. While King Richard the Lionheart is fighting an unsuccessful crusade in the Holy La Prince John has usurped the throne of England. The Saxon leader, Cedric, still hopes restore a Saxon to the throne by arranging a marriage between Lady Rowena a Athelstane, both of whom are of royal Saxon descent. So, when Cedric's son, Ivanhoe, fc in love with Lady Rowena and threatens to ruin his plans, he sends him away on t crusades. King Richard and Ivanhoe return to England together. They take part, incogni in a tournament at Ashby and defeat the Norman heroes, Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert and Reginald Front-de-Boeuf (• Texts E24 and E26). Ivanhoe reveals his identity while Rich keeps his. The following day, Ivanhoe, Cedric, Rowena, Athelstane and the two Jewish characters, Is and his daughter, Rebecca ( • Text E25), are taken prisoner by Bois-Guilbert and held Front-de-Boeuf's castle. The castle is placed under siege by a force led by Richard and Rob Hood. After an epic battle, all the prisoners are freed, except Rebecca, who is kidnapped Bois-Guilbert. She is accused of being a witch but Ivanhoe, in true chivalric spirit, offers defend her name in battle against the Norman knight. Ivanhoe defeats Bois-Guilbert a Rebecca is freed. Richard reveals his identity at last and reclaims the throne, while Ivanhoe, who has b reconciled with his father, marries Rowena. Rebecca leaves England with her father for ever.

• GLOSSARY 1. utmost: greatest 2. tide: winning trend 3. lists: sections of the

arena

Text E24 Fight On, Brave Knights T h e c h a m p i o n s t h u s e n c o u n t e r i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h t h e u t m o s t 1 fury, a n d

w i t h a l t e r n a t e success , t h e t i d e 2 o f b a t t l e s e e m e d t o f l o w n o w t o w a r d s t h e

s o u t h e r n , n o w t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y o f t h e l ists3 , as t h e o n e or

Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 79

nineteenth-century edition of Ivanhoe.

the other party prevailed. Meantime the clang4 of the blows and the shouts of the 5 combatants mixed fearfully with the sound of the trumpets, and drowned the groans5

of those who fell, and lay rolling defenceless beneath the feet of the horses. The splendid armour of the combatants was now 10 (Maced6 with dust and Wood, and %ave -way at every stroke of the sword and battle-axe. The gay plumage, shorn from the crests7, drifted upon the breeze like snowfYakes. AW that was beautiful and graceful in the 15 martial array8 had disappeared, and what was now visible was only calculated to awake terror or compassion. Yet such is the force of habit, that not only the vulgar spectators, who are naturally 20 attracted by sights of horror, but even the ladies of distinction, who crowded the galleries, saw the conflict with a thrilling interest certainly, but without a wish to withdraw their eyes from a sight so terrible. 25 Here and there, indeed, a fair cheek might turn pale, or a faint scream9 might be heard, as a lover, a brother or a husband was struck from10 his horse. But in general, the ladies around encouraged the combatants, not 30 only by clapping their hands and waving their veils and kerchiefs11, but even by exclaiming, 'Brave lance! Good sword!' when any successful thrust or blow took place under their observation. Such being the interest taken by the fair sex12 in this bloody game, that of the men is more easily understood. It showed itself in loud acclamations upon every change of fortune, while all eyes were so riveted13 on the lists that the spectators seemed as if they themselves had dealt and received the blows which were so freely bestowed14. And between every pause was heard the voice of the heralds, exclaiming, 'Fight on, brave knights! Man dies, but glory lives! Fight on. Death is better than defeat! Fight on, brave knights! For bright eyes behold your deeds15.'

The battle commences and the crowd roars on its heroes.

4. clang: metallic noise 5. groans: expressions of pain 6. defaced: dirtied 7. shorn from the crests: cut

from the top of the helmets

8. martial array: armour worn in battle

9. faint scream: weak cry of horror

10. struck from: forced to fall off

11. kerchiefs: handkerchiefs 12.Such being ... sex: if

women showed such great interest

13.riveted: firmly fixed

14. bestowed: given 15.For bright... deeds:

because beautiful women are watching your glorious actions


COMPREHENS ION — — 1 Why is the battle referred to metaphorically as a 'tide'? (Line 2)

2 What sounds could the spectators hear?

3 What defaced the armour of the combatants?

4 What happened to the coloured feathers that the combatants wore on their crests?

5 What reactions did the battle evoke from the spectators?

6 How did the ladies in the crowd react to the spectacle?

7 How did the ladies encourage the combatants?

8 How did the men show their appreciation for the spectacle?

9 Why, according to the spectators, should the knights fight on?

ANALYSIS 1 Say whether the following descriptive details appeal to your sense of sight (S) or your sense of hearing (H): [~~~1 the tide of battle seemed to flow now towards the

southern, now towards the northern extremity of the lists

[ 1 the clang of the blows j I the shouts of the combatants I | the groans of those who fell I | the splendid armour of the combatants was now

defaced with dust and blood

1 | the gay plumage, shorn from the crests, drifted upon the breeze like snowflakes

2 This extract is typical of Walter Scott's elegant style which is often based on symmetrical patterns of syntax. Focus on the first sentence. The expressions in column A are balanced by the expressions in column B.

a. Find the elements which provide balance in the first sentence of the second paragraph and complete the table.

b. Can you find other examples of symmetrical patterns in the syntax of the passage?

3 When the narrator says, 'the vulgar spectators, who are naturally attracted by sights of horror', he is commenting on what he sees and becomes an obtrusive narrator*. Where else does the narrator comment on what he sees? Give line references.

A B

utmost fury now towards the

southern the one

alternate success now towards the

northern the other party

A B

the vulgar spectators,

who are naturally attracted by sights of horror,

saw the conflict with a thrilling interest certainly

WRITERS WORKSHOP Descriptive passages try to recreate both the visual and emotive elements of a scene, situation or character. Through the careful choice of words and images, the writer tries to bring the scene to life for the reader. In descriptive passages, writers often try to communicate physical sensations. They choose words which recreate in the readers' imagination, sounds, smells, tastes, sight or tactile experiences.

1 In text E24 which senses does Walter Scott appeal to? Give examples from the text. 2 Which of the following does Scott try to convey to the reader in his description of the

tournament scene? • Noise • Movement • Grace • Beauty • Horror • Confusion • Fighting technique


O V E R T O Y O U

W r i t e r s o f t e n u s e f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h t o m a k e t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s m o r e v iv id . A f igure o f

s p e e c h is a n e x a m p l e o f l a n g u a g e b e i n g u s e d i n a n u n u s u a l w a y . S i m i l e s a n d

m e t a p h o r s are v e r y c o m m o n f igures o f s p e e c h .

A s i m i l e i s a n e x p l i c i t c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h u s e s ' l i k e ' , ' a s ' o r ' a s i f ' t o c o m p a r e t w o

e l e m e n t s w h i c h are u n a l i k e .

A m e t a p h o r is a n i m p l i e d c o m p a r i s o n w h e r e t h e l i n k i n g w o r d is o m i t t e d .

Find in Text E24: a) a m e t a p h o r for a battle; b) a simile for the shorn plumage .

Write a brief description (max. 1 0 0 words) of o n e of the following: a car crash a major sporting event a busy city street

a rock concer t a political demonstrat ion

Your description should include details which appeal to t h e senses of sight and hearing. You may also include details which appeal to t h e o ther senses, if you wish.

Find a report of a sports event . Does t h e writer include any descriptive e l e m e n t s ? Are there any aspects of t h e descr ipt ion t h a t appeal to t h e senses? Does t h e journalist use any similes or m e t a p h o r s ? How effect ive is t h e journalist in recreating the scene he is describing? Prepare a short evaluation of the report.

Unhappy Israelites

e.

Text E25

a* 'Ö

One of the main characters in Ivanhoe is Rebecca, a Jewish girl who is accused of being a witch. In Text E25 Walter Scott explains the role of the Jewish community in Medieval England.

( . . . ) for, e x c e p t p e r h a p s t h e f l y i n g f i sh , t h e r e w a s n o race e x i s t i n g o n t h e

e a r t h , i n t h e a i r , o r t h e w a t e r s , w h o w e r e t h e o b j e c t o f s u c h a n

u n i n t e r m i t t i n g , g e n e r a l , a n d r e l e n t l e s s p e r s e c u t i o n as t h e J e w s o f t h i s

p e r i o d . U p o n t h e s l i g h t e s t a n d m o s t u n r e a s o n a b l e p r e t e n c e s 1 , as w e l l as

u p o n a c c u s a t i o n s t h e m o s t a b s u r d a n d g r o u n d l e s s 2 , t h e i r p e r s o n s a n d

p r o p e r t y w e r e e x p o s e d t o every t u r n 3 o f p o p u l a r fury; for N o r m a n , S a x o n ,

D a n e , a n d B r i t o n , h o w e v e r a d v e r s e 4 t h e s e r a c e s w e r e t o e a c h o t h e r ,

c o n t e n d e d w h i c h s h o u l d l o o k w i t h g r e a t e s t d e t e s t a t i o n u p o n a p e o p l e

w h o m it w a s a c c o u n t e d a p o i n t o f r e l i g i o n t o h a t e 5 , t o revi le 6 , t o despise 7 ,

t o p l u n d e r 8 a n d t o p e r s e c u t e . T h e k i n g s o f t h e N o r m a n r a c e , a n d t h e 10

i n d e p e n d e n t n o b l e s , w h o f o l l o w e d t h e i r e x a m p l e i n al l a c t s o f t y r a n n y ,

m a i n t a i n e d a g a i n s t t h i s d e v o t e d p e o p l e a p e r s e c u t i o n o f a m o r e regular ,

c a l c u l a t e d , a n d se l f - in teres ted k i n d . It is a w e l l - k n o w n s tory o f K i n g J o h n ,

t h a t h e c o n f i n e d a w e a l t h y J e w i n o n e o f t h e r o y a l c a s t l e s , a n d d a i l y

c a u s e d o n e o f h i s t e e t h t o b e t o r n o u t 9 , u n t i l , w h e n t h e j a w o f t h e

u n h a p p y I s r a e l i t e w a s h a l f d i s f u r n i s h e d 1 0 , h e c o n s e n t e d t o p a y a l a r g e

s u m , w h i c h it w a s t h e t y r a n t ' s o b j e c t t o e x t o r t f r o m h i m . T h e l i t t le r e a d y

15

GLOSSARY • -

1. pretences: false reason, pretexts

2. groundless: without reason

3. every turn: every manifestation

4. however adverse: no matter how hostile

5. whom it was accounted ... hate: that religion itself taught to hate

6. revile: hate 7. despise: look down

upon 8. plunder: steal their

property 9. caused ... torn out:

had one of the man's teeth extracted

10.the jaw ... disfurnished: the mouth was missing half of the teeth


11. wringing: extorting 12. Exchequer: tax-

collecting office 13. dispoiling and

distressing: extorting money and causing suffering

14. bills of exchange: written promises to pay

15.for which ... indebted to them: commerce owes to the Jews

16. secured: made safe 17.in a measure ...

opposition to: partly working against

18. watchful: careful to notice what is happening

19. uncomplying: inflexible

•

m o n e y w h i c h w a s i n t h e c o u n t r y w a s c h i e f l y i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h i s

p e r s e c u t e d p e o p l e , a n d t h e n o b i l i t y h e s i t a t e d n o t t o f o l l o w t h e e x a m p l e o f

t h e i r sovere ign i n w r i n g i n g 1 1 i t f r o m t h e m b y every spec ies o f o p p r e s s i o n ,

a n d e v e n p e r s o n a l t o r t u r e . Yet t h e pass ive c o u r a g e i n s p i r e d b y t h e l o v e o f

g a i n i n d u c e d t h e J e w s t o d a r e t h e v a r i o u s e v i l s t o w h i c h t h e y w e r e

s u b j e c t e d , i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i m m e n s e p r o f i t s w h i c h t h e y w e r e

e n a b l e d t o real ise in a c o u n t r y n a t u r a l l y so w e a l t h y as E n g l a n d . In spi te o f

e v e r y k i n d o f d i s c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d e v e n o f t h e s p e c i a l c o u r t o f t a x a t i o n s

a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , c a l l e d t h e J e w ' s E x c h e q u e r 1 2 , e r e c t e d f o r t h e v e r y

p u r p o s e o f d i s p o i l i n g a n d d i s t r e s s i n g 1 3 t h e m , t h e J e w s i n c r e a s e d ,

m u l t i p l i e d , a n d a c c u m u l a t e d h u g e s u m s , w h i c h t h e y t rans fer red f r o m o n e

h a n d t o a n o t h e r b y m e a n s o f b i l l s o f e x c h a n g e 1 4 - a n i n v e n t i o n f o r w h i c h

c o m m e r c e is s a i d t o b e i n d e b t e d t o t h e m 1 5 , a n d w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o

t r a n s f e r t h e i r w e a l t h f r o m l a n d t o l a n d , t h a t , w h e n t h r e a t e n e d w i t h

o p p r e s s i o n i n o n e c o u n t r y , t h e i r t reasure m i g h t b e s e c u r e d 1 5 in a n o t h e r .

T h e o b s t i n a c y a n d a v a r i c e o f t h e J e w s b e i n g t h u s i n a m e a s u r e p l a c e d i n

o p p o s i t i o n t o 1 7 t h e f a n a t i c i s m a n d t y r a n n y o f t h o s e u n d e r w h o m t h e y lived,

s e e m e d t o i n c r e a s e in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e p e r s e c u t i o n w i t h w h i c h t h e y w e r e

visited; a n d t h e i m m e n s e w e a l t h t h e y usual ly a c q u i r e d in c o m m e r c e , w h i l e

it f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e d t h e m in danger , w a s at o t h e r t i m e s u s e d t o e x t e n d t h e i r

i n f l u e n c e , a n d t o s e c u r e t o t h e m a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n . O n t h e s e

t e r m s t h e y l i v e d ; a n d t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , i n f l u e n c e d a c c o r d i n g l y , w a s

w a t c h f u l 1 8 , suspic ious a n d t i m i d - y e t o b s t i n a t e , u n c o m p l y i n g 1 9 a n d skilful

i n e v a d i n g t h e dangers t o w h i c h t h e y were e x p o s e d .

20

25

30

35

40

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Does the narrator feel that the persecution of the Jews was justifiable? Refer to t h e text .

2 Which four ' races ' were united in their persecution of the Jews? How was the persecution of t h e Jews by the Norman king and nobles different from persecution carried out by other groups?

3 What torture was inflicted on a wealthy Jew held captive by King John, according to a well-known story?

4 Why were the Jews often sub jec ted to extort ion?

5 W h a t gave the Jews c o u r a g e ? Why did they remain in England?

6 W h a t was the Jew's Exchequer?

7 W h a t important commercia l invention was m a d e by the Jews?

8 Although they were often the victims of discrimination and persecution, the Jews were also influential and, to s o m e extent , protected. Explain this s ta tement , referring to the text .

ANALYS IS — 1 The table divides the text into three major points. Find material in t h e text which exemplifies each point.

1 Examples of persecution of the Jews Their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury...

2 Reasons why Jews remained in Britain

3 A positive and a negative c o n s e q u e n c e of Jewish wealth


2 Do the following words, which are used to describe the jews, have positive (P), negative (N), or neutral (NT) connotations? Write the appropriate abbreviation beside each word.

I | Devoted O Obstinacy f H Avarice

I | Suspicious O Timid [ J Obstinate

i I Uncomplying Q Skilful

3 What effect does telling the story of King John and the wealthy Jew have on the text?

• The gory details make the passage more interesting. • The story helps the reader to understand the

general point Scott is making. • The generalisations of the text are supported by the

specific detail of this story. • The tone of the passage is lightened by the

storytelling.

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Fiction is often used to comment on political and social issues. By addressing a subject in a fictional text, the writer can enhance its interest and force. Because he chooses a non-journalistic approach, the writer is not obliged to base his writing exclusively on facts. He can add elements such as anecdotes or personal experiences and may generally distort reality to serve his purpose.

In the passage you have read Walter Scott explains how the Jewish community lived in Medieval England.

- Is his writing based purely on fact or does it also include other elements? - Is Scott fully sympathetic to the plight of the Jews? - Are there elements of humour in the text? - Is Scott's style pedantic or does he use a lighter touch? Would you consider his approach to

be subjective or objective? justify your answer. - Is Scott's main aim to inform the reader, to entertain the reader, or a mixture of both?

Can you think of any work of fiction you have read or film that you have seen that had a social or political message? Why do you think a writer would choose fiction and not straightforward journalism to make a political or social statement? Are there any ways in which it might be more effective? Would the two forms of writing reach the same kind of public?

In groups, make a list of ethnic, national or social groups which are discriminated against in today's world. Choose one of the groups and make a list of adjectives that are c o m m o n l y associated with those people. Write a brief account of why you think they are the victims of discrimination.

4 Consider Scott's style. Find examples of multiple verbs or adjectives.

What effect does the technique of making lists of adjectives or verbs have on Scott's writing? • It is easier to understand what he is trying to say. • If he used only one or two words, the writing

would not be as effective.

Comment on political and sociaHssues

84 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

The Tournament I

Ivanhoe, incognito, challenges the Norma

knight Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert at the

tournament at Ashby. The Norman knigh

enters battle with mixed emotions because he

knows that if he wins, Rebecca, the woman he

loves, will die, but if he loses, he will no longer

be regarded as the greatest Knight Templar.

horse, was soon on foot, hastening to mend his fortune with his sword...'

- • GLOSSARY

1. .Visor: protection for the eyes

2. ashy: like ashes 3. flushed: coloured 4. thrice: three times 5. Faites ... chevaliers:

Do your duty, knights!

6. gage of battle: battle prize

7. Laisser aller: Let go 8. in full career: at full speed

9. This issue ... foreseen: everybody knew this was going to happen

10. reeled: turned violently

11. stirrups: metal loops attached to a saddle where a rider puts his foot for support

B u t I v a n h o e w a s a l r e a d y a t h i s

p o s t , a n d h a d c l o s e d h i s v i s o r 1 , a n d

a s s u m e d h i s l a n c e . B o i s - G u i l b e r t d i d

t h e s a m e ; a n d h i s e s q u i r e r e m a r k e d ,

as h e c l a s p e d h i s visor , t h a t h i s face ,

w h i c h h a d , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e

v a r i e t y o f e m o t i o n s b y w h i c h h e h a d

b e e n a g i t a t e d , c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e

w h o l e m o r n i n g o f a n a s h y 2 p a l e n e s s ,

w a s n o w b e c o m i n g v e r y m u c h

f l u s h e d 3 .

T h e h e r a l d t h e n , s e e i n g e a c h

c h a m p i o n i n h i s p l a c e , u p l i f t e d h i s

v o i c e , r e p e a t i n g t h r i c e 4 - Faites vos

devoirs, preux chevaliers5/ A f t e r t h e

t h i r d cry, h e w i t h d r e w t o o n e s ide o f

t h e l i s ts , a n d a g a i n p r o c l a i m e d t h a t

n o n e , o n p e r i l o f i n s t a n t d e a t h ,

s h o u l d dare b y word , c ry or a c t i o n t o

in ter fere w i t h or d i s turb t h e fair f ie ld

o f c o m b a t . T h e G r a n d M a s t e r , w h o

h e l d in h i s h a n d t h e gage o f b a t t l e 6 , R e b e c c a ' s g love , n o w t h r e w it i n t o t h e

lists, a n d p r o n o u n c e d t h e fatal words , Laisser aller7.

T h e t r u m p e t s s o u n d e d , a n d t h e k n i g h t s c h a r g e d e a c h o t h e r i n f u l l

c a r e e r 8 . T h e w e a r i e d h o r s e o f I v a n h o e , a n d i ts n o less e x h a u s t e d r ider ,

w e n t d o w n , as all h a d e x p e c t e d , b e f o r e t h e w e l l - a i m e d l a n c e a n d v i g o r o u s

s t e e d o f t h e T e m p l a r . T h i s i s s u e o f t h e c o m b a t a l l h a d f o r e s e e n 9 ; b u t

a l t h o u g h t h e spear o f I v a n h o e did b u t , in c o m p a r i s o n , t o u c h t h e s h i e l d o f

B o i s - G u i l b e r t , t h a t c h a m p i o n , t o t h e a s t o n i s h m e n t o f al l w h o b e h e l d it ,

r e e l e d 1 0 in h i s saddle , lost h i s s t i r rups 1 1 , a n d fell i n t h e lists.

I v a n h o e , e x t r i c a t i n g h i m s e l f f r o m h i s f a l l e n h o r s e , w a s s o o n o n f o o t ,

h a s t e n i n g t o m e n d h i s f o r t u n e w i t h h i s s w o r d ; b u t h i s a n t a g o n i s t a r o s e

i s

Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 8 5

n o t . W i l f r e d 1 2 , p l a c i n g h i s f o o t o n h i s breast , a n d t h e sword's p o i n t t o his

t h r o a t , c o m m a n d e d h i m t o y i e l d 1 3 h i m , or d ie o n t h e spot . B o i s - G u i l b e r t

r e t u r n e d n o answer . 35

' S l a y 1 4 h i m n o t , S i r K n i g h t , ' c r i e d t h e G r a n d M a s t e r , ' u n s h r i v e n 1 5 ,

u n a b s o l v e d ; kill n o t b o d y a n d soul ! We allow him vanquished16.'

H e d e s c e n d e d i n t o t h e l i s t s , a n d c o m m a n d e d t h e m t o u n h e l m t h e

c o n q u e r e d c h a m p i o n . His eyes w e r e c losed ; t h e dark red f lush was still o n

h i s b r o w 1 7 . As t h e y l o o k e d o n h i m i n a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e eyes o p e n e d ; b u t 4 0

t h e y were f i x e d a n d glazed. T h e f lush passed f r o m his brow, a n d gave w a y

t o t h e p a l l i d h u e 1 8 o f d e a t h . U n s c a t h e d 1 9 b y t h e l a n c e o f h i s e n e m y , h e

h a d died a v i c t i m t o t h e v i o l e n c e o f h i s o w n c o n t e n d i n g p a s s i o n s .

' T h i s i n d e e d is t h e j u d g e m e n t o f G o d , ' said t h e G r a n d Master , l o o k i n g

u p w a r d s - 'Fiat voluntas tua20'. 45

12. Wilfred: Ivanhoe. Ivanhoe's full name is Wilfred of Ivanhoe

13. yield: surrender 14. Slay: kill 15. unshriven: before

he has confessed his sins

16. We allow him vanquished: we claim victory over him

17. brow: forehead 18. hue: colour 19. Unscathed:

untouched, not injured

20. Fiat voluntas tua: let your will be done

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 Put the following series of events in the correct order:

I | Ivanhoe pointed his sword at Bois-Guilbert's throat.

I I The Grand Master said, 'Fiat voluntas tua' .

J Bois-Guilbert died.

1 I The knights closed their visors.

• Both knights fell to the ground.

• The Grand Master threw Rebecca 's glove into t h e lists.

2 What colour had Bois-Guilbert's face been all morning?

3 W hat would happen to anyone w h o disturbed the

c o m b a t ?

4 W hat did the Grand Master throw into t h e lists?

5 Which of t h e two c o m b a t a n t s was exhausted?

Which of the two knights struck the bet ter blow?

6 Why were t h e spectators astonished when Bois-

Guilbert fell from his horse? Which of the two knights

recovered more quickly from their fall?

7 W h o asked Ivanhoe not to kill Bois-Guilbert?

8 W hat was t h e cause of Bois-Guilbert's dea th?

ANALYS IS 1 Ivanhoe is set in the Middle Ages. In this passage Walter Scott refers to a n u m b e r of representative figures from that historical period.

a. Find the line reference to each of t h e m and try to

explain what they did in your own words.

- the esquire: line - the herald: line - the Grand Master: line

b. W hat effect does the inclusion of these figures have on Scott 's work?

• It makes it more authentic . • It makes it difficult for the readers to understand. • It helps to recreate the a tmosphere of the period. • It gives t h e reader an interesting insight into

medieval life.

2 Underline t h e words and expressions that refer to the colour of Bois-Guilbert's face. W hat do you think the c h a n g e s in colour represent?

Scot t ' s descr ipt ion of t h e bat t le b e t w e e n t h e t w o heroes is a lmost c i n e m a t o g r a p h i c in its a t tent ion to detail . Can you think of any great ' f ight scenes ' from films that you have seen?

HVMHHH|H|| Family background Sir W a l t e r S c o t t w a s b o r n in

Edinburgh o n 15th August, 1771 . W h e n he was o n l y two years old

h e g o t p o l i o , w h i c h le f t h i m l a m e f o r t h e res t o f h i s l i fe . T o

convalesce, he stayed with his grandparents in the Scottish Border

country, where he read widely about Scottish history and tradition.

•^••••••••H Features S co t t was a b o r n storytel ler . In his n o v e l s h e p l a c e d

M M M B a i i B i i i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B vivid c h a r a c t e r s in v i o l e n t , d r a m a t i c h i s tor i ca l se t t ings . Ivanhoe

( 1 8 2 0 ) , for e x a m p l e , is set against t h e conf l i c t b e t w e e n N o r m a n s a n d S a x o n s in England. Scot t is also

widely regarded as a master o f dialogue. He could capture t h e regional speech of h i g h l a n d peasants

w i t h t h e s a m e ease as h e c o u l d r e p r o d u c e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d , p o l i s h e d e l o q u e n c e o f k n i g h t s a n d

aristocrats.

Scot t arranged his plots a n d characters so the reader enters i n t o t h e lives o f b o t h great a n d ordinary

p e o p l e . He be l ieved t h a t every h u m a n was bas ica l ly d e c e n t regardless o f class, re l ig ion, pol i t i cs or

ancestry , a n d was t h e first n o v e l i s t to por t ray p e a s a n t c h a r a c t e r s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a n d real is t ical ly

a n d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o r t a n t role t h e y h a d in h is tory . In Ivanhoe, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are m a n y

f a m o u s h i s t o r i c a l f igures l ike R i c h a r d t h e L i o n h e a r t a n d R o b i n H o o d b u t t h e h e r o o f t h e n o v e l ,

I v a n h o e , is an ordinary knight , n o dif ferent f r o m t h o u s a n d s o f others .

T o l e r a n c e is a m a j o r t h e m e in S c o t t ' s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . His h e r o e s r e p r e s e n t t h e ' m i d d l e c o u r s e '

b e t w e e n extremes . I v a n h o e is an e x a m p l e o f a hero w h o is b o t h to lerant a n d fearless in his pursuit o f

just ice . He remains loyal t o Richard, t h e legi t imate k ing of England, h e respects R o b i n H o o d because

h e gives t o the poor, a n d h e risks his o w n life to save Rebecca's . Scot t was also very o p e n - m i n d e d in

re lat ion t o t h e recent h is tory o f Scot land. O n t h e o n e h a n d , he recognised that h is country 's u n i o n

w i t h England w o u l d b r i n g c o m m e r c i a l progress a n d m o d e r n i s a t i o n , b u t o n t h e o t h e r he m o u r n e d


Ballads and poems W h e n h e r e t u r n e d t o E d i n b u r g h , h e

b e c a m e a l a w y e r , b u t h i s rea l l o v e w a s w r i t i n g . He c o l l e c t e d

S c o t t i s h s t o r i e s a n d b a l l a d s in Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border

( 1 8 0 2 - 1 8 0 3 ) be fore d e d i c a t i n g h i m s e l f t o poetry. The Lay of the

Last Minstrel ( 1 8 0 5 ) a n d The Lady of the Lake ( 1 8 1 0 ) are t w o of h is

m o s t popular p o e m s .

The W a v e r l e y N o v e l s He is best remembered , however, as t h e first great writer o f his tor ical nove ls

in t h e Engl i sh l a n g u a g e . His first n o v e l Waverley, w h i c h deals wi th t h e Sco t t i sh rebe l l ion o f 1 7 4 5 ,

appeared a n o n y m o u s l y in 1 8 1 4 a n d was i m m e d i a t e l y successful . T h e n o v e l s w h i c h fo l lowed were

publ ished b y ' the author o f Waverley' a n d so were called t h e Waverley Novels.

Financial ruin S c o t t w a s v e r y p o p u l a r a m o n g h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . His n o v e l s r e a c h e d w i d e

audiences in Britain a n d abroad, a n d he was acc la imed as o n e o f the leading European writers o f his

day. In r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s w o r k , h e was m a d e a b a r o n e t in 1 8 2 0 . At t h e h e i g h t o f his career , t h e

b a n k r u p t c y o f h i s b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s b r o u g h t h i s o w n f i n a n c i a l r u i n . S c o t t r e f u s e d all o f fers o f

ass is tance a n d spent the rest o f his life wri t ing to pay off an e n o r m o u s debt . He died o n S e p t e m b e r

21st , 1 8 3 2 .

iüAML

Writers' Gallery - Sir Walter Scott 8 7

t h e loss o f S c o t l a n d ' s I n d e p e n d e n c e

a n d t h e d e c l i n e o f its n a t i o n a l ident i -

t y a n d t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e

m a j o r t h e m e s o f t h e Waverley Novels

w h i c h i n c l u d e d Waverley ( 1 8 1 4 ) , Guy

Mannering, ( 1 8 1 5 ) , The Antiquary

( 1 8 1 6 ) , a n d Rob Roy (1817).

TASK Use these headings to prepare a short report on Walter Scott's life and works.

- childhood - a career in law, literature and business - Waverley and the birth of the historical novel - dialogue

great and ordinary people literary acclaim and financial ruin

• Romantic elements in his work • influence on other writers

? vw - »mmm* a « mm

Reputation S c o t t c r e a t e d a n e w

l i t e r a r y f o r m , t h e h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l ,

w h i c h is st i l l p o p u l a r t o t h i s day. He

to ld t h e stories o f f i c t iona l charac ters

a n d r e a l p e o p l e a g a i n s t a u t h e n t i c

historical backgrounds . His interest in

t h e pas t , h i s c o n c e r n for t h e c o m m o n m a n , h i s use o f r e g i o n a l s p e e c h a n d h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

beauti ful natural sett ing placed h i m f i rmly in t h e r o m a n t i c t radi t ion. His i n f l u e n c e o n novel is ts such

as George Eliot, the Brontes , J a m e s F e n i m o r e C o o p e r a n d Alessandro M a n z o n i was profound.


Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

Along with Dracula, Frankenstein has b e c o m e a figure of terror and horror for generat ions of readers and c inema goers . But what is a monster? The dictionary defines a 'monster ' as:

a. an imaginary beast, usually made up of various animal or human parts; b . a person, animal or plant with marked deformity;

c . a cruel, wicked or deformed person.

Try to create your own pen picture of a monster using t h e headings below, and then see if the creature you have

imagined is in any way like t h e creature described in t h e texts.

My Frankenstein Sex: Male Female Other Physical appearance Way of talking Way of walking Diet Reaction to t h e outside world ( the city, the countryside, e tc . )

Reaction to people

CHARACTERS • Victor

Frankenstein, a scientist

• The monster, although he is not given a name in the novel he has come to be known as Frankenstein

• Visual Link E4

—— THE STORY Victor Frankenstein is born and grows up in Geneva before going to university in Ingolstadt. A brilliant student, he soon dedicates all his efforts to finding the secret of life ( • Text E27). After many years of work in his laboratory, the creature he has been working on comes to life, but Victor is horrified when he sees how grotesque it is ( • Text E28). The monster escapes and lives alone and isolated in a forest for many years. A small family live in a cottage nearby. He watches them secretly as they go about their daily business and gradually grows fond of them. From listening to them he eventually understands what they are saying. One day he finds a book written by Victor Frankenstein and realises how he has been created. He loses any faith he has ever had in humanity and sets out to get revenge on his creator. Meanwhile, Victor lives in constant fear that the monster will return. When he hears that his brother has been killed and a family friend is unjustly hanged for the murder, he realises that the monster is responsible. While walking in the Alps near Chamonix, he unexpectedly meets his creation, who asks him to make him a wife so that he will not be so lonely. At first he agrees, but then he changes his mind when he thinks of the catastrophic consequences of the couple having children. Consequently, the rampage of destruction continues and the monster first kills Victor's wife, Elizabeth, on their wedding night, and then his best friend. The scientist follows the monster to the Arctic and vows to destroy him, but dies in the attempt to find him, while his monstrous creation wanders off into the icy wastes, never to be seen again.

Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 8 9

A Sudden Light Broke In Upon Me Text E 2 7

t r u e . S o m e m i r a c l e m i g h t h a v e p r o d u c e d i t , y e t t h e s t a g e s o f t h e

d i s c o v e r y w e r e d i s t i n c t a n d p r o b a b l e . Af ter days a n d n i g h t s o f i n c r e d i b l e

l a b o u r a n d fat igue , I s u c c e e d e d in d i s c o v e r i n g t h e cause o f g e n e r a t i o n a n d

life; n a y 1 4 , m o r e , I b e c a m e m y s e l f c a p a b l e o f b e s t o w i n g 1 5 a n i m a t i o n u p o n

l i feless m a t t e r .

to

15

Victor Frankenstein tells us how he carried out research into the structure of the human body.

O n e o f t h e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h h a d p e c u l i a r l y a t t r a c t e d m y a t t e n t i o n

w a s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h u m a n f r a m e 1 , a n d , i n d e e d , a n y a n i m a l e n d u e d

w i t h l i f e . W h e n c e 2 , I o f t e n a s k e d m y s e l f , d i d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l i f e

p r o c e e d 3 ? I t w a s a b o l d q u e s t i o n , a n d o n e w h i c h h a s e v e r b e e n

c o n s i d e r e d as a m y s t e r y ; y e t w i t h h o w m a n y t h i n g s a r e w e u p o n t h e

b r i n k o f b e c o m i n g a c q u a i n t e d 4 , i f c o w a r d i c e o r c a r e l e s s n e s s d i d n o t

r e s t r a i n o u r e n q u i r i e s . I r e v o l v e d t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n m y m i n d , a n d

d e t e r m i n e d t h e n c e f o r t h 5 t o a p p l y m y s e l f m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h o s e

b r a n c h e s o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h r e l a t e t o p h y s i o l o g y . U n l e s s I h a d

b e e n a n i m a t e d b y a n a l m o s t s u p e r n a t u r a l e n t h u s i a s m , m y a p p l i c a t i o n t o

t h i s s t u d y w o u l d h a v e b e e n i r k s o m e 6 , a n d a l m o s t i n t o l e r a b l e . To e x a m i n e

t h e c a u s e s o f l i f e , w e m u s t f i r s t h a v e r e c o u r s e t o d e a t h . I b e c a m e

a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e s c i e n c e o f a n a t o m y : b u t t h i s w a s n o t s u f f i c i e n t ; I

m u s t a l s o o b s e r v e t h e n a t u r a l d e c a y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e h u m a n b o d y .

In m y e d u c a t i o n m y f a t h e r h a d t a k e n t h e g r e a t e s t p r e c a u t i o n s t h a t m y

m i n d s h o u l d b e i m p r e s s e d w i t h n o s u p e r n a t u r a l h o r r o r s . I d o n o t e v e r

r e m e m b e r t o h a v e t r e m b l e d at a t a l e o f s u p e r s t i t i o n , or t o h a v e f e a r e d t h e

a p p a r i t i o n o f a s p i r i t . D a r k n e s s h a d n o e f f e c t u p o n m y f a n c y ; a n d a

c h u r c h y a r d w a s t o m e m e r e l y t h e r e c e p t a c l e o f b o d i e s d e p r i v e d o f l i fe ,

w h i c h , f r o m b e i n g t h e seat o f b e a u t y a n d s t r e n g t h , h a d b e c o m e f o o d f o r

t h e w o r m . N o w I was led t o e x a m i n e t h e c a u s e a n d progress o f t h i s decay ,

a n d f o r c e d t o s p e n d d a y s a n d n i g h t s i n v a u l t s a n d c h a r n e l h o u s e s 7 . M y

a t t e n t i o n w a s f i x e d u p o n e v e r y o b j e c t t h e m o s t i n s u p p o r t a b l e t o t h e

d e l i c a c y o f t h e h u m a n fee l ings .

I s a w h o w t h e f i n e f o r m o f m a n w a s d e g r a d e d a n d w a s t e d ; I b e h e l d 8

t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f d e a t h s u c c e e d t o t h e b l o o m i n g c h e e k 9 o f life; I saw h o w

t h e w o r m i n h e r i t e d t h e w o n d e r s o f e y e a n d b r a i n . I p a u s e d , e x a m i n i n g

a n d a n a l y s i n g a l l t h e m i n u t i a e o f c a u s a t i o n 1 0 , a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e

c h a n g e f r o m l i fe t o d e a t h , a n d d e a t h t o l i fe , u n t i l f r o m t h e m i d s t o f t h i s

d a r k n e s s a s u d d e n l i g h t b r o k e i n u p o n m e - a l i g h t s o b r i l l i a n t a n d

w o n d r o u s 1 1 , y e t s o s i m p l e , t h a t w h i l e I b e c a m e d i z z y 1 2 w i t h t h e

i m m e n s i t y o f t h e p r o s p e c t w h i c h i t i l l u s t r a t e d , I w a s s u r p r i s e d , t h a t

a m o n g so m a n y m e n o f g e n i u s w h o h a d d i r e c t e d t h e i r e n q u i r i e s t o w a r d s

t h e s a m e s c i e n c e , t h a t I a l o n e s h o u l d b e r e s e r v e d t o d i s c o v e r s o

a s t o n i s h i n g a secre t .

R e m e m b e r , I a m n o t r e c o r d i n g t h e v i s i o n o f a m a d m a n . T h e s u n d o e s

n o t m o r e c e r t a i n l y s h i n e i n t h e h e a v e n , t h a n t h a t w h i c h I n o w a f f i r m is

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GLOSSARY • -

1. frame: body 2. Whence: from where 3. proceed: come from 4. upon the brink ...

acquainted: very close to getting to know thenceforth: from then on irksome: unpleasant charnel houses: storage places for bodies of dead people beheld: observed succeed ... cheek: destroy a flourishing life

10. minutiae of causation: details of a process of cause and effect

11. wondrous: wonderful 12. dizzy: feeling

confused 13.The sun ... true: my

words are as true as the fact that the sun is shining in the sky

14. nay: no 15.bestowing: giving

9.


C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 What was Victor's attention attracted by?

2 What, according to Victor, had stopped people from understanding the mystery of life?

3 Which areas of study did Victor dedicate himself to?

4 What made Victor persevere in studies which for most people would have been 'irksome and almost intolerable'?

5 What childhood experience made Victor unafraid of supernatural horrors?

6 Where did Victor carry out his research?

7 What did Victor witness while carrying out his research?

8 Did Victor make his discovery without much effort?

9 What did Victor discover?

ANALYS IS 1 In the first part of the passage Victor describes his great desire for knowledge and understanding. Underline words and expressions (lines 1-1 3) which relate to areas of study and Victor's curiosity and desire to know more. How would you describe the type of language used by Victor?

• Conversational • Scientific • Formal • Essential • Ornate • Other:

2 From line 1 3 to line 2 9 Victor explains how he investigated the causes of death. Underline all the words in this section that deal with death and the supernatural.

a. Is Victor's description of his work sanitised or does it contain graphic and disturbing details?

b. What does the fact that Victor was fearless and tireless in the pursuit of his work suggest about him as a man?

c. Does he c o m e across as average or extraordinary?

3 Consider the following phrases taken from the text: revolved these circumstances in my mind, and

determined thenceforth... Unless I had been animated by ... Now I was led to examine ... and forced to spend

days and nights... My attention was fixed ... I was surprised...

a. Are the verbal phrases used by Victor strong or weak?

b. Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe Victor?

• Cold • Ambitious • Mad • Eccentric • Self-confident • Fanatical

4 From line 2 9 to line 4 0 Victor creates expectations about his discovery. Underline the words and expressions that suggest that he has made an enormous breakthrough. Do the impressions the reader has formed about Victor make his extraordinary achievement more credible?

5 What image represents the discovery of the secret of life in lines 2 9 - 3 0 ? Is it an original image? Is it effective in this context?

Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 91

WRITERS WORKSHOP First-person r

narrative S S i f p

l i f e TASKS WL

OVER T O Y O U

T h e p a s s a g e y o u h a v e read is a n e x a m p l e o f a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e . T h e s t o r y is t o l d

b y t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r , V i c t o r , w h o u s e s t h e f i rs t p e r s o n p r o n o u n T t o d e s c r i b e h i s

e x p e r i e n c e . R e a d i n g a f i r s t -person n a r r a t i v e is l ike l i s t e n i n g t o s o m e b o d y t a l k i n g a b o u t

t h e m s e l v e s . It is o f t e n m o r e i n v o l v i n g b e c a u s e t h e e x p e r i e n c e is p r e s e n t e d as f i r s t - h a n d .

In Frankenstein it is important that the reader finds the first-person narrator, Victor, convincing because he is going to tell a story which could easily be dismissed as incredible.

1 Find references in the text to Victor's unorthodox upbringing, his unending thirst for knowledge, his passionate nature and his tireless pursuit of the understanding of t h e mystery of life.

2 Find examples of Victor's a t tempts to reassure the reader that what he is saying really happened . Do you think that Victor's passionate nature and unconventional educat ion make him more or less credible as a narrator? Justify your answer.

Briefly re-write (seventy words) t h e main points of t h e passage in a third-person narrative. Discuss h o w a different perspective can affect the reader's response.

Have you ever spent 'days and nights of incredible labour and fat igue' pursuing a personal goal? Were you successful and was it worth the effort?

The Accomplishment Of My Toils After years of work, Victor Frankestein finally sees his creation come to life.

It was o n a dreary 1 n i g h t in N o v e m b e r , t h a t I b e h e l d t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t

o f m y to i l s 2 . W i t h a n a n x i e t y t h a t a l m o s t a m o u n t e d t o a g o n y , I c o l l e c t e d

t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f l i fe a r o u n d m e , t h a t I m i g h t i n f u s e a s p a r k o f b e i n g

i n t o t h e l i f e l e s s t h i n g t h a t l a y a t m y f e e t . I t w a s a l r e a d y o n e i n t h e

m o r n i n g ; t h e r a i n p a t t e r e d d i s m a l l y a g a i n s t t h e p a n e s 3 , a n d m y c a n d l e

w a s n e a r l y b u r n t o u t , w h e n , b y t h e g l i m m e r 4 o f t h e h a l f - e x t i n g u i s h e d

l ight , I saw t h e dul l y e l l o w e y e o f t h e c r e a t u r e o p e n ; it b r e a t h e d hard , a n d

a c o n v u l s i v e m o t i o n a g i t a t e d its l i m b s .

H o w c a n I d e s c r i b e m y e m o t i o n s at t h i s c a t a s t r o p h e , o r h o w d e l i n e a t e

t h e w r e t c h 5 w h o m w i t h s u c h i n f i n i t e p a i n s a n d care I h a d e n d e a v o u r e d t o

f o r m 6 ? His l i m b s w e r e i n p r o p o r t i o n , a n d I h a d s e l e c t e d h i s f e a t u r e s as

b e a u t i f u l . B e a u t i f u l ! - G r e a t G o d ! His y e l l o w s k i n s c a r c e l y c o v e r e d t h e

w o r k o f m u s c l e s a n d arter ies b e n e a t h ; h i s h a i r was o f a lus t rous b lack , a n d

f l o w i n g ; h i s t e e t h o f pear ly w h i t e n e s s ; b u t t h e s e l u x u r i a n c e s o n l y f o r m e d a

m o r e h o r r i d c o n t r a s t t o h i s w a t e r y eyes , t h a t s e e m e d a l m o s t o f t h e s a m e

c o l o u r as t h e d u n - w h i t e s o c k e t s 7 i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e set , h i s s h r i v e l l e d

c o m p l e x i o n 8 a n d s t ra ight b l a c k l ips.

iText £ 2 8 1

GLOSSARY •

1. dreary: dark and depressing

2. beheld ... toils: saw the result of my hard work

3. pattered ... panes: struck against the windows (panes: glass

s sheets of a window) in an incessant and gloomy way

4. glimmer: very weak light

5. delineate the wretch: describe the

10 6.

unfortunate creature endeavoured to form: created through great effort

7. dun-white sockets: brownish-grey eye holes

15 8. shrivelled complexion: withered, dried out skin

92 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

9. breathless: that causes one to stop breathing

10. lassitude: tiredness 11. shroud: sheet

covering a dead body 12. folds of flannel: lines

formed in the material

13. dew: drops of perspiration

14. chattered: made a noise

15.muttered: said in a low voice

16. grin: smile 17. wrinkled: formed

lines on 18. seemingly to detain

me: apparently as if to hold me back

T h e d i f f e r e n t a c c i d e n t s o f l i fe are

n o t s o c h a n g e a b l e as t h e f e e l i n g s o f

h u m a n n a t u r e . I h a d w o r k e d h a r d for

n e a r l y t w o years , for t h e sole p u r p o s e

o f i n f u s i n g l i f e i n t o a n i n a n i m a t e

b o d y . For t h i s I h a d d e p r i v e d m y s e l f

o f r e s t a n d h e a l t h . I h a d d e s i r e d i t

w i t h a n a r d o u r t h a t f a r e x c e e d e d

m o d e r a t i o n : b u t n o w t h a t I h a d

f i n i s h e d , t h e b e a u t y o f t h e d r e a m

v a n i s h e d , a n d b r e a t h l e s s 9 h o r r o r a n d

d i s g u s t f i l l e d m y h e a r t . U n a b l e t o

e n d u r e t h e a s p e c t o f t h e b e i n g I h a d

c rea ted , I r u s h e d o u t o f t h e r o o m , a n d

c o n t i n u e d a l o n g t i m e t r a v e r s i n g m y

b e d c h a m b e r , u n a b l e t o c o m p o s e m y

m i n d t o s l e e p . At l e n g t h l a s s i t u d e 1 0

s u c c e e d e d t o t h e t u m u l t I h a d b e f o r e

e n d u r e d ; a n d I t h r e w m y s e l f o n t h e

b e d i n m y c l o t h e s , e n d e a v o u r i n g t o

seek a f e w m o m e n t s o f f o r g e t f u l n e s s .

B u t it w a s in v a i n : I s lept , i n d e e d , b u t

w a s d i s t u r b e d b y t h e wi ldest d r e a m s . I

t h o u g h t I saw El izabeth , in t h e b l o o m

o f h e a l t h , w a l k i n g i n t h e s t r e e t s o f

I n g o l s t a d t . D e l i g h t e d a n d surprised, I

e m b r a c e d her , b u t as I i m p r i n t e d t h e

f i r s t k i s s o n h e r l i p s , t h e y b e c a m e

l i v i d w i t h t h e h u e o f d e a t h ; h e r

f e a t u r e s a p p e a r e d t o c h a n g e , a n d I

t h o u g h t t h a t I h e l d t h e c o r p s e o f m y d e a d m o t h e r i n m y arms ; a s h r o u d 1 1

e n v e l o p e d h e r f o r m , a n d I s a w t h e g r a v e - w o r m s c r a w l i n g i n t h e f o l d s o f

f l a n n e l 1 2 . I s t a r t e d f r o m m y s l e e p w i t h h o r r o r ; a c o l d d e w 1 3 c o v e r e d m y

f o r e h e a d , m y t e e t h c h a t t e r e d 1 4 a n d e v e r y l i m b b e c a m e c o n v u l s e d : w h e n ,

b y t h e d i m o f t h e y e l l o w l i g h t o f t h e m o o n , as it f o r c e d its w a y t h r o u g h

t h e w i n d o w shut ters , I b e h e l d t h e w r e t c h - t h e m i s e r a b l e m o n s t e r w h o m I

h a d c r e a t e d . H e h e l d u p t h e c u r t a i n o f t h e b e d ; a n d h i s eyes, i f eyes t h e y

m a y b e c a l l e d , w e r e f i x e d o n m e . His j a w s o p e n e d , a n d h e m u t t e r e d 1 5

s o m e i n a r t i c u l a t e s o u n d s , w h i l e a g r i n 1 6 w r i n k l e d 1 7 h i s c h e e k s . H e m i g h t

h a v e s p o k e n , b u t I d id n o t h e a r ; o n e h a n d was s t r e t c h e d out , s e e m i n g l y t o

d e t a i n m e 1 8 , b u t I e s c a p e d , a n d r u s h e d d o w n s t a i r s . 1 t o o k r e f u g e i n t h e

c o u r t y a r d b e l o n g i n g t o t h e h o u s e w h i c h I i n h a b i t e d ; w h e r e I r e m a i n e d

d u r i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e n i g h t , w a l k i n g u p a n d d o w n i n t h e g r e a t e s t

a g i t a t i o n , l i s t e n i n g a t t e n t i v e l y , c a t c h i n g a n d f e a r i n g e a c h s o u n d as if i t

w e r e t o a n n o u n c e t h e a p p r o a c h o f t h e d e m o n i a c a l c o r p s e t o w h i c h I h a d

so m i s e r a b l y g i v e n life.

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Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 93

C O M P R E H E N S I O N — 1 How did Victor feel just before he gave life to the monster?

2 What were the first movements the monster made when it was brought to life?

3 How did Victor feel about his creation?

4 What did Victor do, when he witnessed the horror he had created?

5 What did Victor dream about?

6 What did Victor see when he awoke from his nightmare?

7 How did Victor spend the rest of the night?

ANALYS IS 1 Find the following in the opening paragraph of the text.

- the time of year:

- the time of day:

- the weather conditions:

- the quality of the light:

a. What kind of atmosphere does the description of the setting create? Choose from the following:

• Calm • Excitement • Expectation • Terror • Security • Fear

b . Would you consider this a typical setting for a horror story?

2 Make a list of the aspects of the monster's appearance that Victor describes as 'beautiful'. Make a list of the features he finds particularly repellent.

3 Consider the first two paragraphs. What is Victor's mood in the first paragraph? How does it change in the second paragraph? Identify the line which signals the change in mood. Where else in the text does Victor's mood change suddenly?

4 Consider the dream sequence in the third paragraph. Which expressions link the description of Elizabeth's body to the description of the monster? What image of death links Victor's description of his work in Text E27 to the description of his mother's corpse in the dream sequence?

5 In the course of this passage Victor experiences various states of mind.

a. Underline all the words and expressions that describe how he felt.

b. Compare Victor's state of mind in this text with how he felt in Text E27. What are the main differences? Are there any similarities?

6 Victor attributes his fear and repulsion to the hideous appearance of the monster. Does it seem logical that at the m o m e n t of his greatest discovery Victor should be preoccupied with the physical aspects of his creation? Is there any evidence in the text to suggest that Victor's anxiety may also be due to the fact that he feels he has exceeded some natural boundary in his work?


WRITERS' WORKSHOP The setting of a novel refers to: - the physical locale in which the action takes place; - the time of day or year; - the climatic conditions; - the historical period. The setting helps the reader, to visualise the action and adds credibility and authenticity to the story. It may also be used to create atmosphere and to reflect the state of mind of the characters.

In the text you have just read, the setting is Victor's home on a dark rainy November night. It is one o'clock in the morning and Victor is working by the half-extinguished light of a candle. Does the setting help to create expectation in the reader? What kind of expectations does it create? Is Victor's emotional turmoil more convincing in this setting? Do you generally experience heightened anxiety and fear during daylight hours or at night? How would the impact of the passage differ if the setting had been, for example, a warm, sunny day?

Choose one of the following situations and write a fifty-word description of the setting. Your description should include references to the physical location, the time of year and day, the atmospheric conditions and the quality of the light.

The perfect date The last day of the summer holidays The funeral of a loved one The day your team won a major trophy The night before an important examination

Victor Frankenstein tried to discover the secrets of human life with disastrous consequences . In the twentieth century scientists discovered that most of the secrets of human life are to be found in our genes. How mankind should use genet i c engineer ing and h o w far w e should go in tamper ing with nature are sub jec ts of heated debate. Tick the chart below:

1 agree with 1 disagree with 1 do not know

1 Human cloning 2 Animal cloning 3 Genetically-modified plants 4 Genetic testing of foetuses to discover malformation

or disease 5 Choosing what your child is going to look like 6 Genetic fingerprinting by the police 7 Genetic testing of prospective employees by employers

Copy the chart onto the board and write in the results for the whole class. Hold a class discussion on all the issues in the chart. Check if anyone has changed their minds on any issue after the discussion and change the class results accordingly.

Writers' Gallery - Mary Shelley 9 5

M A R Y SHELLEY ( 1 7 9 7 - 1 8 5 1 )

WRITERS' GALLERY

Family background M a r y

S h e l l e y was b o r n in L o n d o n

in 1 7 9 7 t o wel l -known parents . Her father, Wi l l iam G o d w i n , was

a r a d i c a l w r i t e r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r , w h i l e h e r m o t h e r , M a r y

Wollstonecraft , was a pioneer of women 's l iberation. From infancy,

M a r y was surrounded by f a m o u s phi losophers , writers a n d poets,

inc luding Wil l iam Blake a n d Samuel Coleridge.

Elopement with Shelley At t h e age o f s ix teen , M a r y ran away

with t h e twenty-one-year -o ld poet Percy Shel ley ( • pp. E 4 0 - 5 1 ) .

S h e l l e y p e r s o n i f i e d t h e g e n i u s t h a t she h a d a d m i r e d h e r en t i re

l i f e . H o w e v e r , t h e p o e t w a s a l r e a d y m a r r i e d a n d t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o c k e d soc ie ty . S h e b e c a m e a soc ia l o u t c a s t a n d

e v e n h e r o p e n - m i n d e d l iberal f a t h e r c o u l d n o t forgive her. S h e

left England a n d w e n t with Shel ley t o live o n t h e c o n t i n e n t .

Writing and personal misfortunes T h e idea o f w r i t i n g Frankenstein c a m e w h e n M a r y w a s o n

h o l i d a y in Switzer land in 1 8 1 6 w i t h Shel ley a n d Lord Byron ( • p. E 3 2 - 3 9 ) . T h e y were te l l ing each

o t h e r g h o s t s t o r i e s a n d d e c i d e d t h a t e a c h o f t h e m w o u l d w r i t e t h e i r o w n . In a h a l f - w a k i n g

n i g h t m a r e , M a r y s t ruck o n t h e idea o f a m a n - m a d e m o n s t e r , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y set a b o u t w r i t i n g

Frankenstein, w h i c h she t h e n f in ished in M a y 1 8 1 7 . She wrote t h e n o v e l whi le be ing o v e r w h e l m e d

b y a series o f ca lamit ies in her life. T h e worst o f these were t h e suicides o f her half-sister a n d Shelley's

wife. After t h e suicides, M a r y a n d S h e l l e y r e l u c t a n t l y marr ied . Publ ic hos t i l i ty towards t h e c o u p l e

w a s f i e r c e . T h e y m o v e d t o I taly, b u t t h e i r s t a y t h e r e was n o t a h a p p y o n e . T h r e e o f t h e i r f o u r

c h i l d r e n died. W h e n M a r y was o n l y t w e n t y - f o u r years old, h e r h u s b a n d d r o w n e d n e a r La Spezia,

leaving her penni less w i t h a two-year-old son . She re turned t o England, where she devoted hersel f t o

her son's welfare a n d educa t ion a n d c o n t i n u e d her career as a profess ional writer. She died in 1 8 5 1 .

WORKS M a r y Shel ley wrote several works - Valperga ( 1 8 2 3 ) , a r o m a n c e set

in f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Italy a n d The Last Man ( 1 8 2 6 ) , a v i s i o n of

t h e e n d of h u m a n c iv i l i sa t ion , set in t h e year 2 1 0 0 - b u t she is bes t r e m e m b e r e d as t h e a u t h o r o f

Frankenstein, or the The Modern Prometheus ( 1818 ) . In t h e novel , events such as t h e loss of her m o t h e r

at an early age and the death o f three o f her four chi ldren are reflected in her interest in the t h e m e s of

birth and creat ion. She dedicated t h e nove l t o her father, whose views o n property, social justice and

e d u c a t i o n are r e p r e s e n t e d . S h e s h a r e d P e r c y S h e l l e y ' s i n t e r e s t in s c i e n c e a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , in

chemis t ry a n d evolut ionary theories. She was in close c o n t a c t wi th o t h e r m a j o r poets o f t h e day a n d

was in f luenced by their writing, in particular b y Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ( • Texts E9

a n d E10) , w h i c h is also t h e tale o f a cr ime against nature. M a n y critics see t h e m o n s t e r as represent ing

Rousseau's n o b l e savage ( • p. E124) . T h e t rans format ion of Frankenste in from a gentle, loving be ing

to a murderous m o n s t e r reflects m a n y of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y beliefs regarding h o w social e n v i r o n m e n t

affects m a n ' s behaviour . M a r y Shelley's work e m b o d i e s t h e spirit o f t h e age in w h i c h it was wri t ten .

Her a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m o n s t e r , b o t h l o v i n g a n d fear fu l , m i r r o r s t h e m i x t u r e o f

fasc ina t ion a n d a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t inte l lectuals o f t h e day felt towards revo lut ion a n d c h a n g e after

the events o f the French Revolut ion.

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The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe

Do you have any of t h e following irrational fears? Fear of:

• flying • mice/rats • clowns • small spaces • being alone • open spaces • darkness • dogs • cats • birds • mirrors • clocks • dentists • crowds • spiders/insects

Do people ever bother you for illogical reasons? Have you ever m e t anyone and taken an instant dislike to t h e m for no obvious reason?

Text E29

• Visual Link E4

• GLOSSARY

1. dreadfully: terribly 2. sharpened my

senses: made my senses more intense

3. dulled: made less intense

4. Hearken: Listen 5. haunted: persecuted 6. vulture: large bird

which feeds on dead animals rid: free fancy me: think I am foresight: ability to imagine what will happen

10. latch: short metal bar used to block a door

11. thrust in: pushed in 12.cunningly: astutely 13. hinges: metal parts

that join a door to the frame

14. creaked: made a noise

7.

9.

The Eye

15

T R U E ! - n e r v o u s - very, v e r y d r e a d f u l l y 1 n e r v o u s I h a d b e e n a n d a m ; b u t

w h y wil l y o u say t h a t I a m m a d ? T h e disease h a d s h a r p e n e d m y s e n s e s 2 -

n o t d e s t r o y e d - n o t d u l l e d 3 t h e m . A b o v e a l l w a s t h e s e n s e o f h e a r i n g

a c u t e . I h e a r d a l l t h i n g s i n t h e h e a v e n a n d i n t h e e a r t h . I h e a r d m a n y

t h i n g s i n he l l . How, t h e n , a m I m a d ? H e a r k e n 4 ! a n d o b s e r v e h o w h e a l t h i l y

- h o w c a l m l y I c a n tel l y o u t h e w h o l e story.

It is i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y h o w f i rs t t h e i d e a e n t e r e d m y b r a i n ; b u t o n c e

c o n c e i v e d , it h a u n t e d 5 m e d a y a n d n i g h t . O b j e c t t h e r e was n o n e . Pass ion

t h e r e w a s n o n e . I l o v e d t h e o l d m a n . He h a d n e v e r w r o n g e d m e . H e h a d

n e v e r g i v e n m e i n s u l t . For h i s g o l d I h a d n o desire . I t h i n k it was h i s eye ! io

yes, it w a s th is ! H e h a d t h e e y e o f a v u l t u r e 6 - a pa le b l u e eye , w i t h a f i l m

o v e r it . W h e n e v e r it fell u p o n m e , m y b l o o d r a n c o l d ; a n d so b y degrees -

v e r y g r a d u a l l y - I m a d e u p m y m i n d t o t a k e t h e l i fe o f t h e o l d m a n , a n d

t h u s r id 7 m y s e l f o f t h e e y e forever.

N o w t h i s is t h e p o i n t . You f a n c y m e 8 m a d . M a d m e n k n o w n o t h i n g . But

y o u s h o u l d h a v e s e e n m e . You s h o u l d h a v e s e e n h o w wise ly I p r o c e e d e d -

w i t h w h a t c a u t i o n - w i t h w h a t f o r e s i g h t 9 - w i t h w h a t d i s s i m u l a t i o n I w e n t

t o w o r k ! I w a s n e v e r k i n d e r t o t h e o l d m a n t h a n d u r i n g t h e w h o l e w e e k

b e f o r e I k i l led h i m . A n d every n i g h t , a b o u t m i d n i g h t , I t u r n e d t h e l a t c h 1 0

o f h i s d o o r a n d o p e n e d it - o h so g e n t l y ! A n d t h e n , w h e n I h a d m a d e a n

o p e n i n g s u f f i c i e n t for m y h e a d , I p u t i n a d a r k l a n t e r n , all c l o s e d , c l o s e d ,

t h a t n o l i g h t s h o n e o u t , a n d t h e n I t h r u s t i n 1 1 m y h e a d . O h , y o u w o u l d

h a v e l a u g h e d t o see h o w c u n n i n g l y 1 2 1 thrus t it in ! I m o v e d it s lowly - very,

v e r y slowly, so t h a t I m i g h t n o t d i s turb t h e o l d m a n ' s s leep. It t o o k m e a n

h o u r t o p l a c e m y w h o l e h e a d w i t h i n t h e o p e n i n g so far t h a t I c o u l d see 25

h i m as h e l ay u p o n h i s b e d . Ha ! W o u l d a m a d m a n h a v e b e e n s o w i s e as

th i s , A n d t h e n , w h e n m y h e a d w a s wel l in t h e r o o m , I u n d i d t h e l a n t e r n

c a u t i o u s l y - o h , so c a u t i o u s l y - c a u t i o u s l y ( for t h e h i n g e s 1 3 c r e a k e d 1 4 ) - I

u n d i d it jus t so m u c h t h a t a s ingle t h i n ray fell u p o n t h e v u l t u r e eye . A n d

th is I did for seven l o n g n i g h t s - every n i g h t jus t at m i d n i g h t - b u t I f o u n d 30

20

The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe 9 7 O H M

so

the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work; for it was not the old man who vexed15 me, but his Evil Eye. And every morning, when the day broke, I went boldly into the chamber, and spoke courageously to him, calling him by name in a hearty16 tone, and inquiring how he has passed the night. So you see he would have been a very 35 profound old man, indeed, to suspect that every night, just at twelve, I looked in upon him while he slept.

Upon the eighth night I was more than usually cautious in opening the door. A watch's minute hand moves more quickly than did mine. Never before that night had I felt the extent of my own powers - of my 40 sagacity. I could scarcely contain my feelings of triumph. To think that there I was, opening the door, little by little, and he not even to dream of my secret deeds17 or thoughts. I fairly chuckled18 at the idea; and perhaps he heard me; for he moved on the bed suddenly, as if startled19. Now you may think that I drew back - but no. His room was as black as pitch with 45 the thick darkness, (for the shutters were close fastened, through fear of robbers), and so I knew that he could not see the opening of the door, and 1 kept pushing it on steadily20, steadily.

I had my head in, and was about to open the lantern, when my thumb slipped upon the tin fastening21, and the old man sprang up in bed, crying out - 'Who's there?' I kept quite still and said nothing. For a whole hour I did not move a muscle, and in the meantime I did not hear him lie down. He was still sitting up in the bed listening; - just as I have done, night after night, hearkening to the death watches in the wall.

Presently22 I heard a slight groan23, and I knew it was the groan of mortal terror. It was not a groan of pain or of grief - oh, no! - it was the low stifled2 4 s o u n d J h a t arises from the bot tom of the soul when overcharged with awe25. I knew the sound well. Many a night, just at midnight , when alt The world slept, it has welled up from my own bosom2 6 , deepening, with its dreadful echo, the terrors that distracted me. I say I knew it well. I knew what the old man felt, and pitied him, although I chuckled at heart. I knew that he had been lying awake ever since the first slight noise, when he had turned in the bed. His fears had been ever since growing upon him. He had been trying to fancy them causeless27, but could not. He had been saying to himself - 'It is nothing 65 but the wind in the chimney - it is only a mouse crossing the floor, or 'It is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp.' Yes, he had been trying to comfort himself with these suppositions: but he had found all in vain. All in vain; because Death, in approaching him, had stalked28 with his black shadow before him, and enveloped the victim. And it was the 70 mournful influence of the unperceived shadow that caused him to feel -although he neither saw nor heard - to feel the presence of my head within the room.

When I had waited a long time, very patiently, without hearing him lie down, I resolved to open a little - a very, very little crevice2 9 in the 75 lantern. So I opened it - you cannot imagine how stealthily30, stealthily -

55

60

The Sleep of Reason produces Monsters by Francisco Goya (1797).

15. vexed: disturbed 16. hearty: friendly and

sincere 17. deeds: actions 18. fairly chuckled:

laughed to myself 19.startled: frightened 20. steadily: constantly 21. tin fastening: metal

bar 22. Presently: then 23. slight groan: soft cry 24. stifled: suffocated 25. awe: terror 26. welled up ... bosom:

built up inside me 27. fancy them

causeless: think there was no logical reason for them

28. stalked: walked slowly like a hunter

29. crevice: opening 30. stealthily: slowly and

secretly

i 9jJ THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

until, at length3 1 a simple dim3 2 ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye.

It was open - wide, wide open - and I grew furious as I gazed upon33 it. I saw it with perfect distinctness - all a dull blue, with a hideous34 veil over 80 it that chilled35 the very marrow36 in my bones; but I could see nothing else of the old man's face or person: for I had directed the ray as if by instinct, precisely upon the damned spot.

And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but over-acuteness of the sense? - Now, I say, there came to my ears a low, dull, 85 quick sound, such as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I knew that sound well, too. It was the beating of the old man's heart. It increased my fury, as the beating of a drum stimulates the soldier into courage.

But even yet I refrained37 and kept still. I scarcely breathed. I held the lantern motionless. I tried how steadily38 I could maintain the ray upon 90 the eye. Meantime the hellish tattoo 3 9 of the heart increased. It grew quicker and quicker, and louder and louder every instant. The old man's terror must have been extreme! It grew louder, I say, louder every moment! - Do you mark40 me well I have told you that I am nervous: so I am. And now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence of that old 95 house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrollable terror. Yet, for some minutes longer I refrained and stood still. But the beating grew louder, louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety seized41 me - the sound would be heard by a neighbour!

31.at length: finally 32. dim: not bright 33. gazed upon: looked at 34. hideous: hateful 35. chilled: froze

36. marrow: soft substance inside bones

37. even yet I refrained: even then I did not act

38. steadily: fixedly 39. hellish tattoo: infernal

beating 40. mark: understand 41. seized: captured

C O M P R E H E N S I O N 1 How had t h e disease affected the narrator's sense of hearing?

2 Which physical aspect of the old man disturbed the narrator?

3 How did the narrator treat the old man during the week before he killed him?

4 What did the narrator do for seven nights in a row?

5 Why was he unable to do his 'work'?

6 W h a t caused the old man to wake up?

7 W h e n , according to the narrator, did he himself groan with terror?

8 W hat did the narrator see in the ray of light from the lantern?

9 W h a t sound did the narrator fear would be heard by t h e neighbours?

The Tell Tale He

ANALYS IS 1 What kind of narrator tells t h e story?

2 How would you describe the way the story begins?

• Dramatic • Conventional • Startling • Confusing • Unorthodox • Other :

3 a . T h e narrator repeatedly rejects the suggestion that he is mad. In lines 2 - 3 he says that madness dulls the senses, while his senses are sharp. Find other s ta tements in which t h e narrator dissociates himself from madness and m a d m e n .

b . He also makes several references to his s a g a c i t y j n line 1 6 he says 'You should have seen h o w wisely I proceeded ' . Find other sentences in which the narrator refers to his wisdom.

c. Is the narrator's claim to be sane and wise convincing? Is it supported by his behaviour? Justify your answer by referring to the text .

4 Underline sentences in which the narrator:

- addresses t h e reader directly;

- assumes that he knows what the reader is thinking.

How would you define the relationship that is

established between t h e reader and t h e narrator? • Disconcerting • Tense • Relaxed • Friendly • Overpowering • Other :

5 The narrator identifies the old man's eye as the source of his discomfort .

a . Circle references to the eye in the text . Does he ever refer to both of the old man's eyes? How does referring to a single eye reinforce t h e association with a vulture's eye?

b. W hat effect does focussing on a single eye have?

• It makes the old man seem ugly. • It makes the cr ime more justifiable. • It dehumanises t h e old man. • Other :

The Old Man's Hour Had Come T h e old m a n ' s h o u r h a d c o m e ! W i t h a l o u d yel l 1 , I t h r e w o p e n t h e l a n t e r n

a n d l e a p e d 2 i n t o t h e r o o m . H e s h r i e k e d 3 o n c e - o n c e on ly . In a n i n s t a n t I

d r a g g e d 4 h i m t o t h e f l o o r , a n d p u l l e d t h e h e a v y b e d o v e r h i m . I t h e n

s m i l e d gaily, t o f i n d t h e d e e d so far d o n e . But , for m a n y m i n u t e s , t h e h e a r t

b e a t o n w i t h a m u f f l e d 5 s o u n d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , d id n o t v e x m e ; i t w o u l d

n o t b e h e a r d t h r o u g h t h e wal l . At l e n g t h it ceased . T h e o ld m a n was dead .

I r e m o v e d t h e b e d a n d e x a m i n e d t h e c o r p s e . Yes, h e w a s s t o n e , s t o n e

d e a d . I p l a c e d m y h a n d u p o n t h e h e a r t a n d h e l d it t h e r e m a n y m i n u t e s .

T h e r e w a s n o p u l s a t i o n . H e was s t o n e d e a d . His e y e w o u l d t r o u b l e m e n o

m o r e .

If st i l l y o u t h i n k m e m a d , y o u wi l l t h i n k so n o l o n g e r w h e n I d e s c r i b e

t h e wise p r e c a u t i o n s I t o o k for t h e c o n c e a l m e n t o f 6 t h e b o d y . T h e n i g h t

w a n e d 7 , a n d I w o r k e d h a s t i l y 8 , b u t i n s i l e n c e . First o f all I d i s m e m b e r e d

t h e corpse . I c u t o f f t h e h e a d a n d t h e a r m s a n d t h e legs.

I t h e n t o o k u p t h r e e p l a n k s 9 f r o m t h e f l o o r i n g o f t h e c h a m b e r , a n d

d e p o s i t e d a l l b e t w e e n t h e s c a n t l i n g s 1 0 . I t h e n r e p l a c e d t h e b o a r d s s o

c l e v e r l y , s o c u n n i n g l y , t h a t n o h u m a n e y e - n o t e v e n h i s - c o u l d h a v e

d e t e c t e d a n y t h i n g w r o n g . T h e r e was n o t h i n g t o w a s h o u t - n o s ta in o f a n y

k i n d - n o b l o o d - s p o t w h a t e v e r . I h a d b e e n t o o w a r y f o r 1 1 t h a t . A t u b 1 2 h a d

c a u g h t all - h a ! ha !

W h e n I h a d m a d e a n e n d o f t h e s e labors , i t w a s f o u r o ' c l o c k - still dark

as m i d n i g h t . As t h e b e l l s o u n d e d t h e h o u r , t h e r e c a m e a k n o c k i n g at t h e

s treet door . I w e n t d o w n t o o p e n it w i t h a l ight hear t , - for w h a t h a d I n o w

Text E 3 0

10

15

20

GLOSSARY

yell: cry leaped: jumped shrieked: screamed dragged: pulled muffled: suffocated the concealment of: hiding

waned: gradually disappeared hastily: in a hurry planks: wooden boards

10. scantlings: small pieces of wood

11. wary for: careful about

12. tub: large round container

Jjg0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

13.suspicion ... aroused: he had suspected a criminal action was in progress

14. lodged at: passed to 15.deputed ... premises:

sent to search the house

to fear? There entered three men, who introduced themselves, with perfect suavity, as officers of the police. A shriek had been heard by a 25 neighbour during the night; suspicion of foul play had been aroused13; information had been lodged at14 the police office, and they (the officers) had been deputed to search the premises15.

I smiled, - for what had I to fear? 1 bade the gentlemen welcome16. The shriek, I said, was my own in a dream. The old man, I mentioned, was 30 absent in the country. I took my visitors all over the house. I bade them search - search well. I led them, at length, to his chamber. I showed them his treasures, secure, undisturbed. In the enthusiasm of my confidence, I brought chairs into the room, and desired them here to rest from their fatigues, while I myself, in the wild audacity of my perfect triumph, placed 35 my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the victim.

The officers were satisfied. My manner had convinced them. I was singularly at ease1 7 . They sat, and while I answered cheeri ly 1 8 , they chatted of familiar things. But, ere19 long, I felt myself getting pale and 40 wished them gone. My head ached, and I fancied a ringing20 in my ears: but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing became more distinct: - It continued and became more distinct: I talked more freely to get rid of21

the feeling: but it continued and gained definiteness - until, at length, I found that the noise was not within my ears. 45

No doubt I now grew very pale; - but I talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice. Yet the sound increased - and what could I do? It was a low, dull, quick sound - much such a sound as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath2 2 - and yet the officers heard it not . I talked more quickly - more vehemently; but the noise steadily 50 increased. I arose and argued about trifles23, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro24 with heavy strides25, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men - but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! What could I do? I foamed2 6 - I raved27 - I swore28! I swung29 the 55 chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder - louder - louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! - No, no! They heard! - They suspected! -They knew! - They were making a mockery 3 0 of my horror! - This I 60 thought , and this I th ink. But anything was better than this agony!

16.bade ... welcome: asked 22.gasped for breath: 26.1 foamed: drops of them to come in breathed with difficulty saliva fell from my

17. at ease: comfortable 23. argued about trifles: mouth 18. cheerily: happily talked about unimportant 27.1 raved: I talked wildly 19. ere: before things 28.1 swore: I used bad 20. fancied a ringing: felt a 2 4 - P a c e d t h e floor t o a n d f r o : language

ringing sound walked up and down 29.1 swung: I turned around 21.get rid of: free myself of 25. strides: paces 30. mockery: fun

The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe 379 OHM

A n y t h i n g w a s m o r e t o l e r a b l e t h a n t h i s d e r i s i o n ! I c o u l d b e a r t h o s e

h y p o c r i t i c a l s m i l e s n o l o n g e r ! I fe l t t h a t I m u s t s c r e a m or die! a n d n o w -

aga in ! - H a r k 3 1 ! Louder ! L o u d e r ! Louder ! Louder !

' V i l l a i n s ! ' I shr ieked , ' d i s s e m b l e 3 2 n o m o r e ! I a d m i t t h e deed! - Tear u p

t h e p l a n k s ! Here, h e r e ! - It is t h e b e a t i n g o f h i s h i d e o u s 3 3 heart! '-

T h e E n d

65 31. Hark: listen 32. dissemble: pretend 33. hideous: hateful


1 How did t h e narrator kill t h e old m a n ? How did he dispose of the body?

2 Why did the police officers c o m e to the house?

3 What sound did the narrator hear as he spoke to the police? How did he try t o block out t h e sound?

4 Did the narrator believe the police officers could hear t h e sound as well? Why, in his opinion, did they not react to t h e sound?

A N A L Y S I S

1 Underline words or phrases in the text which suggest the narrator's lack of remorse for what he has done .

2 How would you define t h e narrator's response to the crime he has c o m m i t t e d ?

• Pride • Pleasure • Confusion • Fear • Indifference • Other :

3 What t o n e does the narrator use when describing the murder and t h e c o n c e a l m e n t of body?

is Matter of fact • Clinical • Passionate • Apologetic • Remorseful • Other :

4 Is the narrator's primary concern :

• to justify his actions and win the sympathy of the reader?

• to explain to the reader that he proceeded in a logical m a n n e r and therefore should not b e considered a m a d m a n ?

5 Tension is created in the story through several

techniques : repetition*, syntax and a crescendo* effect.

a. Underline examples of repetition.

b. Are t h e sentences in t h e t ex t primarily:

• long and flowing?

M short and arhythmic?

c. Consider h o w tension is built up through a crescendo e f f e c t . Focus on paragraph 7 and fill in the table below.

t h e narra tor ' s behaviour t h e disturbing sound

1 talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice 1 talked more quickly -more vehemently 1 arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations 1 paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury 1 swung the chair upon which 1 had been sitting, and grated it upon t h e boards

Yet the sound increased -and what could 1 d o ?

d. Which sentence structures are used in the final part of the story to increase tension?

6 Which of the following best describes Poe's main interest in writing The Tell-Tale Heart?

• The in-depth analysis of the thwarted relationship between t h e old man and the narrator.

• The haunting and disturbing description of an eerie setting.

• The detailed a c c o u n t of w h a t was almost t h e perfect murder.

№ T h e exposure of t h e workings of an unstable mind.


7 By his own definition, Poe's style is based on the choice of 'the curt, the condensed, the pointed', a style in which every single word counts towards creating that 'certain unique or single effect' around which the tale revolves. In The Tell-Tale Heart, does Poe dedicate his attention to traditional elements of storytelling, i.e. setting, physical descriptions, characterisation? Does he succeed in eliminating all that is superfluous to his main objective in writing this story?

8 The term Gothic* is often used to refer to Poe's work. The principal aim of Gothic fiction is to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery, cruelty and nightmarish horrors. Can you identify any Gothic elements in The Tell-Tale Heart?

WRITERS' WORKSHOP First-person In a first-person narrative the reader sees events unfold through the eyes of a single

n a r r a t o r character who refers to himself as T'. The reader's vision of the story, or point of view, is limited to what the first-person narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters. The reader cannot see events as they actually are, but only as they appear to be to the mediating consciousness of the 'I' narrator. An author may choose the first-person narrative for very different artistic purposes: • first-person narration may lend authenticity to a fictional work, creating the illusion

that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced. The narrator may be presented as likable, perceptive, intelligent and reliable, and therefore the reader may be encouraged to accept what he relates and sympathise with his views;

• the reader may be encouraged to question the reliability of the narrator. This occurs when the narrator's vision of the world or interpretation of events is clearly different from the reader's. The unreliable narrator may be used to add humour or a satirical edge to a text ( • Swift, p. D58), or the psychological make up of the narrator himself may be the focus of the writer's attention.

TASK

OVER T O Y O U

Analyse the narrative technique in The Tell-Tale Heart.

a. Is the protagonist of the story referred to as: • T (first person) or • 'He' (third person)?

b. Does he relate events that he has personally experienced?

c. Is he presented as likable?

d. Is the reader encouraged to sympathise with his views?

e. Are there unbelievable or unlikely elements in his storytelling? Is he a reliable narrator?

f. Why did Poe choose the first person narrative technique?

• To lend authenticity to his work. • To add humour and satirical bite. • To examine the psychological make-up of the narrator.

In The Tell-Tale Heart, Edgar Allan Poe explores the mind of a psychopathic murderer. Although there is no direct reference to the narrator's state of mind in the text, numerous clues warn the perceptive reader of the storyteller's mental instability. Discuss with your classmates the elements in the story that help the reader realise that the narrator is insane.

The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe 381 OHM

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LINK -[ to the world of music In 1 9 7 7 N e w York-based rock band Talking Heads wrote the song Psycho Killer, in response to a series of murders carried out by the serial killer David Berkowitz (also known as 'Son of Sam' ) .

Read the lyrics. Underline t h e sentences in which the psycho killer describes his state of mind. Does he share any characteristics with Poe's narrator in The Tell-Tale Heart? What is t h e source of the psycho killer's frustration? Would the average person find these 'defects ' serious or trivial? Do you find any similarity with Poe's narrator's fixation on t h e old man's eye?

Psycho Killer I can't seem to face up to1 the facts I'm tense and nervous and I can't relax

I can't sleep 'cause my bed's on fire Don't touch me I'm a real live wire2

Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est?3

Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

You start a conversation, you can't even finish it. You're talkin' a lot, but you're not sayin' anything. When I have nothing to say, my lips are sealed4. Say something once, why say it again?

Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est? Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

Ce que j'ai fait, ce soir la Ce qu'elle a dit, ce soir la Realisant mon espoir Je me lance, vers la gloire5 . . . OK

We are vain and we are blind I hate people when they're not polite

Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est? Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

GLOSSARY

1. face up to: be able to deal with 2. live wire: wire charged with

electricity

3. Qu'est-ce que c'est?: (French) What is it? 4. sealed: tightly closed 5. Ce que ... gloire: (French) What I did,

that evening, what she said, that evening, seeing my hope I throw myself towards glory

Can you think of any psychopath ic characters in films you have seen or books you have read? W h y are people fascinated by these characters, in your opinion?

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» 104 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

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EDGAR ALLAN P O E ( 1 8 0 9 - 1 8 4 9 )

WRITERS' GALLERY

A foster family Edgar P o e w a s b o r n i n B o s t

1 8 0 9 . W h i l e he was still a y o u n g chi ld , h e lost b o t h his p

his father, w h o was an a l cohol i c , a b a n d o n e d t h e fami ly a

m o t h e r died of c o n s u m p t i o n . He was placed in a foster fa

R i c h m o n d , Virginia ; h e later adopted the i r f a m i l y n a m e , .

as h i s m i d d l e n a m e . He was, however , n e v e r o f f i c ia l ly ad

and his life was marked b y bit ter conf l i c t s wi th his foster fa

Studies and military career Be tween the ages o f six a n d e

Poe spent t i m e w i t h t h e Allans in England, where h e at ten

board ing school . W h e n h e re turned t o R i c h m o n d h e c o m

his s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d entered t h e Univers i ty o f Vir

He ran up h e a v y g a m b l i n g debts w h i c h his foster fa ther re

' to pay, so h e quit his studies and travelled to B o s t o n t o p u

l i t e r a r y c a r e e r . In 1 8 2 7 h e p u b l i s h e d h i s f i r s t b o o k , Tamerlane and other Poems, w h i c h

u n n o t i c e d . Tota l ly p e n n i l e s s , P o e e n l i s t e d in t h e Army, w h e r e his g o o d record persuaded h i

pursue a mi l i tary career. In 1 8 2 9 he entered t h e a c a d e m y of West Point , but after o n l y six m o n t

decided t o leave.

Poverty Little is k n o w n of w h a t h a p p e n e d in the n e x t few years. He lived in New York for a

of t i m e in e x t r e m e poverty, before dec iding to go a n d stay with an a u n t a n d her daughter, Virj

in B a l t i m o r e . T h e r e h e p u b l i s h e d a s e c o n d c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s a n d m a d e a m e a g r e l iv ing wri

a n d sell ing tales t o magazines . In 1 8 3 6 h e married his cous in Virginia, w h o s e pale, fragile, chi l

beauty is o f ten f o u n d in t h e hero ines o f his p o e m s . He was twenty-seven, she was th i r teen .

Nervous disorders and alcohol addiction Th is period of relative stabil i ty did n o t last. He began

s h o w s igns o f n e r v o u s d i sorders a n d b e g a n t o d r i n k heavi ly . He los t h i s j o b as e d i t o r a n d cri

However, h e c o n t i n u e d wr i t ing . In 1 8 3 9 he p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f short stories, t h e Tales of

Grotesque and Arabesque, w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m very litt le f a m e or m o n e y . His n e x t b o o k of c r ime

detect ive stories, The Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1841 ) , was m o r e successful.

Fame U n a b l e t o f ind e m p l o y m e n t , h e b e c a m e a freelance writer, editor a n d critic. His long-awai

f a m e c a m e with t h e publ ica t ion of a p o e m , The Raven ( 1 8 4 5 ) which , however, did n o t produce m

m o n e y due to lack o f adequate copyr ight pro tec t ion in t h o s e days. During t h e winter o f 1 8 4 6 - 1

his wife Virginia died. Poe began to lose his struggle wi th drinking, a n d a t t e m p t e d suicide.

Mysterious death In September 1 8 4 9 he left R i c h m o n d for Bal t imore , b u t he never c o m p l e t e d

j o u r n e y . He w e n t m i s s i n g a n d , a f ter f ive days , was f o u n d u n c o n s c i o u s o u t s i d e a t a v e r n w e a

c lo thes w h i c h were n o t his o w n . He was taken to hospita l where he died a few days later, aged thf

n i n e , o f u n k n o w n causes . In a cer ta in sense, h is l o n e l y dea th , s h r o u d e d in m y s t e r y a n d sufferi

h a d imita ted his art.

5

WORKS Tales of ratiocination Poe is w i d e l y regarded as t h e f a t h e r

t h e m o d e r n d e t e c t i v e s t o r y . M u r d e r s t o r i e s w e r e a l r e a d y

e x i s t e n c e at t h e t i m e h e w r o t e . H o w e v e r , h e s h i f t e d t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e a c t i o n t o t

i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s o l u t i o n o f t h e c r i m e . He c r e a t e d a d e t e c t i v e , M o n s i e u r D u p i n , w h o , t h r o u

Writers' Gallery - Edgar Allan Poe 105

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intui t ion, observat ion of detail, reason and psychological analysis could solve ex t remely compl ica ted

cases. He cal led his stories ' tales of ra t ioc ina t ion ' . The Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1 8 4 1 ) is o n e o f t h e

f inest e x a m p l e s . In c rea t ing th is genre h e paved t h e way for de tec t ive s tory writers l ike Sir Arthur

C o n a n Doyle a n d Agatha Christ ie .

Arabesque He also wrote tales of terror, w h i c h h e cal led 'arabesques ' . G o t h i c f i c t ion was popular at

t h e t i m e a n d p r o v i d e d s u c h bas ic e l e m e n t s as cast les , a n i m a t e d portrai ts , p h y s i c a l decay, s t o r m y

weather a n d h o w l i n g wolves. His characters are o f ten involved in a l i fe - threatening s i tuat ion, about

t o be e x e c u t e d or to have a fatal acc ident . In The Premature Burial ( 1 8 4 4 ) h e explores t h e terror o f a

m a n w h o regains consc iousness o n l y t o discover h e has b e e n buried alive. O t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g tales o f

terror are The Fall of the House of Usher ( 1 8 3 9 ) , The Black Cat ( 1 8 4 3 ) a n d The Pit and the Pendulum

( 1 8 4 3 ) , in w h i c h Poe uses his great ta lent t o make i m a g i n e d horror b e c o m e total ly physical .

Psychological thrillers Poe was also a m a s t e r of t h e psycholog ica l thril ler. M a n y of his charac ters

s h o w s y m p t o m s of p a r a n o i a a n d h a v e t o deal wi th obsess ions , n i g h t m a r e s a n d n e r v o u s disorders.

His analysis in William Wilson is an i n t r i g u i n g e x p l o r a t i o n of a split persona l i ty l o n g before Freud

studied the sub jec t .

Poetry He was also an inf luent ia l poet a n d literary crit ic . In his works o f l iterary t h e o r y h e out l ined

a series o f principles a n d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h he bel ieved h a d to be applied in t h e writ ing of poetry. He

be l ieved t h a t poet ry should be devoid of a n y message or mora l t e a c h i n g , its o n l y purpose b e i n g t o

give pleasure. He identi f ied t h e n e e d for a ' c o n d e n s e d ' style, a n d paid particular a t t e n t i o n t o imagery

a n d sound. He also under l ined the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e musica l e l e m e n t s in poetry w h e n he def ined it

as ' t h e r h y t h m i c c rea t ion o f beauty ' . T h e bes t e x a m p l e s o f this a p p r o a c h are The Raven ( 1 8 4 5 ) a n d

Annabel Lee ( 1 8 4 9 ) , a p o e m dedica ted t o his wife a n d inspired b y o n e o f h is favour i te t h e m e s , t h e

death of a beaut i ful w o m a n . His poetry a n d literary t h e o r y paved the way for symbol is t poe t ry a n d

inspired such French poets as R i m b a u d a n d Baudelaire.

Reputation Poe 's r e p u t a t i o n in A m e r i c a d u r i n g his l i f e t i m e was u n d e r m i n e d b y a c c u s a t i o n s o f

paedophi l ia , sadism, a l c o h o l i s m a n d drug addic t ion . It was t h e French poet Baudelaire, t h r o u g h his

exce l lent t ranslat ions , w h o encouraged apprec iat ion of his work in Europe. S ince that t ime, Poe has

b e e n g i v e n b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d c r i t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n h e d e s e r v e s . W r i t e r s s u c h as O s c a r W i l d e

( • M o d u l e F) a n d W.B. Yeats ( • M o d u l e G) have ident i f ied h i m as an i m p o r t a n t inf luence , h is work

h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e c o m p o s e r s R a c h n i a n i n o v a n d Debussy , a n d several f i l m s h a v e b e e n

based o n his stories. His work c o n t i n u e s to inspire artists in every field o f express ion.

TASK What events in Edgar Allan Poe's life most affected him as a writer? How did he contribute to the development of a new literary genre?

fields of vision

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