Experience and benefits derived from a dark tourism site visit:

the effect of demographics and enduring involvement

by

Eun Jung Kang

The thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at

The University of Queensland in August 2010

The School of Tourism

ii

Declaration by author

This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or

written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly

stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis.

I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical

assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial

advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis

is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree

candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for

the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have

clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award.

I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and,

subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available

for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968.

I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright

holder(s) of that material.

Statement of Contributions to Jointly Authored Works Contained in the Thesis

‗No jointly-authored works‘.

Statement of Contributions by Others to the Thesis as a Whole

‗No contributions by others.‘

Statement of Parts of the Thesis Submitted to Qualify for the Award of Another Degree

‗None.‘

Published Works by the Author Incorporated into the Thesis

‗None.‘

iii

Acknowledgements

The journey of my PhD is another turning point in my life. By taking this long journey, I have been

able to experience challenges, confusion, frustration, loneliness, and enjoyment, and thus truly find

myself, as well as increase my intellectual knowledge and level of understanding of people and the

world.

Now, at the end of my journey, I am very grateful to acknowledge all those who provided their

support and encouragement during every stage of my study. First of all, I am heartily grateful to my

principal supervisor, Dr. Noel Scott, whose encouragement, guidance, and support from the

beginning enabled me to develop an understanding of my subject. Most importantly, Dr. Noel

Scott‘s positive belief and trust significantly facilitated my faith in myself whenever confronted

with difficulties. I also sincerely acknowledge and give special thanks to my associated supervisors,

Professor Roy Ballantyne and Dr. Timothy Lee, for all their enthusiastic support and encouragement.

I am thankful also to Dr. Jan Packer for her wise advice and help with my study. Without their

combined support, I could have never completed this thesis.

I would like to express special thanks also to my family for their unconditional support and

encouragement; to my Korean friends in Australia: Daniel, Namyoun‘s family, Lin, Kyounghwa,

Hyejeong, and Deugjeom, also for their support and encouragement; to my special friends Anita,

Resa, and Angela for their encouragement and good advice on living in Australia; and to my PhD

peers who shared the joy and pain of PhD study together. In particular, I would also like to

recognise my PhD friends Ann, Siri, Kate, Emily, Vicky, In-sun, Eva, Sammy, Jie, Ping, and Jisook

for their good advice, encouragement, and friendship. Without their support and encouragement I

would have been unable to maintain my life in Australia.

In addition, I gratefully acknowledge the staff of the School of Tourism at The University of

Queensland for their support throughout my PhD study, and the management and staff of the April

3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island for their support during my data collection. I am heartily thankful to

the guides of the April 3rd

Peace Park for their encouragement, support, and special guidance during

this process. I also give special thanks to the visitors of the park who shared their special

experiences with me. Without their contribution I could not have collected data and reached this

stage of my PhD journey.

For all those who have supported me in my PhD journey, I offer my regards and blessings.

iv

Publications by the candidate relevant to the thesis but not

forming part of it

Kang, E. J., Scott, N., Lee, T., & Ballantyne, R. (2010). Effect of enduring involvement on the

benefits from a dark tourism experience. Paper presented at the CAUTHE 2010, Tasmania,

Australia.

v

Abstract

Dark tourism has been recognised as a distinctive tourism phenomenon of the twenty-first century,

with increasingly significant numbers of visitors and tourists going to dark tourism attractions and

sites, new dark tourism products and attractions emerging, and modern global communication

media generating interest in dark tourism attractions, while at the same time affecting the image of

destinations. The phenomenon of dark tourism has been examined in academia from the mid-1990s;

however, it remains one of the less developed areas of tourism and leisure research. Not surprisingly,

knowledge of the experiences of visitors and tourists at dark tourism attractions and sites is both

theoretically fragile and limited.

In redressing this omission in tourism and leisure research, this study examines the effect of

enduring involvement and socio-demographic variables on visitor experiences and benefits gained

at a contemporary dark tourism site. The focus of the study is the April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island,

South Korea, a site commemorating and memorialising one of the most destructive episodes in

modern Korean history. In doing so, the study developed a theoretical framework for understanding

visitor experiences at dark tourism sites, using a benefits-based approach along with the concept of

enduring involvement. This approach provides a framework for comprehending visitors‘ dark

tourism experiences by identifying reasons for visit, on-site experiences, and benefits gained from

these experiences. Enduring involvement is applied to investigate the effect of a visitor‘s ‗personal

connection‘ to the tragic event when it comes to their experiences at the site.

The April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island commemorates a violent political conflict, which began on

April 3rd

in 1948, and resulted in 30,000 of the inhabitants dead or missing. The park was

inaugurated in 2008 for the purposes of education, commemoration, and reconciliation within the

Jeju community, in which the family and relatives of both victims and perpetrators still live. The

research employs qualitative and quantitative research methods to explore visitor experiences. In its

qualitative component, 46 semi-structured interviews were conducted between September and

October 2008 in order to identify reasons for visit, the cognitive and affective on-site experiences of

visitors and the benefits gained from their visit. This data was utilised in the construction of a site-

specific questionnaire. In the quantitative component, self-administered questionnaires and face-to-

face interviews were conducted from June 23 to July 31, 2009. A total of 407 valid questionnaires,

out of 450 distributed, were utilised to test 16 hypotheses derived from the theoretical framework.

The results indicate that a benefits-based approach was effective in exploring visitors‘ dark tourism

vi

experiences. With this approach, a sense of obligation or personal duty was identified as one of the

key reasons for visiting the site. Emotional experiences were also found to be important, and likely

to lead to the visitors‘ benefits gained. However, results also indicate a benefits-based approach was

not effective for segmentation of visitors. In relation to enduring involvement, visitor experiences

and benefits gained from experiencing the site and its history were found to differ significantly

based on visitors‘ level of enduring involvement. High involvement visitors were more likely to

recall actual memories of the April 3rd

incident, as opposed to acquiring knowledge of it or related

issues at the site itself, in stark contrast with low involvement visitors. These differences in visitor

experiences and benefits gained were due therefore to visitors‘ prior knowledge of and familiarity

with the incident. The results of the study also indicate that high involvement visitors are more

likely to be elderly, to reside locally, to be connected to the incident, or to have higher levels of

education. Low involvement visitors on the other hand are more likely to be young, non-local, and

with generally lower levels of education.

The study concludes that an effective way of understanding dark tourism experiences from a

theoretical perspective is to apply both a benefits-based approach and the concept of enduring

involvement.

Keywords

Dark tourism, benefits, experience, involvement, thanatourism, visitor study

Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)

150606 Tourist Behaviour and Visitor Experience 100%

vii

Table of contents

Declaration by author ........................................................................................................................ ii

Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................ iii

Publications by the candidate relevant to the thesis but not forming part of it .......................... iv

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... v

Table of contents ............................................................................................................................... vii

List of figures ..................................................................................................................................... xi

List of tables ...................................................................................................................................... xii

List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................... xiv

Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background of the research ................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................ 4

1.4 Research problem and research questions ........................................................................... 6

1.5 Contributions of this study .................................................................................................. 7

1.6 Methodology........................................................................................................................ 9

1.7 Outline of the thesis ........................................................................................................... 10

1.8 Relevant key terms ............................................................................................................ 12

1.9 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................. 12

Chapter 2 – Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 14

2.2 Dark tourism ...................................................................................................................... 16

2.2.3.1 Media ................................................................................................................................................. 19

2.2.3.2 Tourism development and the commercialisation of sites ................................................................. 21

2.2.3.3 Interpretation ..................................................................................................................................... 22

2.2.4.1 Reasons for visiting dark tourism sites .............................................................................................. 24

2.2.4.2 Emotional experiences ....................................................................................................................... 28

2.2.1 Dark tourism studies ................................................................................................................ 16

2.2.2 Forms of dark tourism ............................................................................................................. 18

2.2.3 Characteristics of dark tourism ................................................................................................ 19

2.2.4 Dark tourism experiences ........................................................................................................ 23

viii

2.2.4.3 Tourist experiences and their connection to a site ............................................................................. 29

2.3 Experience ......................................................................................................................... 32

2.3.5.1 Hierarchical models of experiences ................................................................................................... 42

2.3.5.2 Flow ................................................................................................................................................... 43

2.3.5.3 Theory of planned behaviour ............................................................................................................. 44

2.3.5.4 Typological experience model ........................................................................................................... 45

2.3.5.5 Insider-outsider model ....................................................................................................................... 46

2.3.6.1 Definition and development of the benefits-based approach ............................................................. 48

2.3.6.2 A sequential hierarchy of demand ...................................................................................................... 49

2.2.6.3 Previous tourism and leisure studies related to benefits .................................................................... 52

2.4 Involvement ....................................................................................................................... 57

2.5 Conceptualising framework for this study ........................................................................ 64

2.6 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................. 68

Chapter 3 - Methodology ................................................................................................................. 70

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 70

3.2 The research case: the April 3rd

Peace Park, South Korea ................................................ 70

3.2.2.1 Definition of the April 3rd

incident ................................................................................................... 72

3.2.2.2. The April 3rd incident according to the exhibits of the Peace Memorial Hall ................................... 73

3.3 Research paradigm ............................................................................................................ 80

3.4 Research strategy ............................................................................................................... 82

3.5 Research design ................................................................................................................. 83

3.5.1.1 The exploratory study – semi-structured interviews .......................................................................... 84

3.5.1.2 Pilot survey ........................................................................................................................................ 87

2.3.1 Definition of experience .......................................................................................................... 32

2.3.2 Experiential elements .............................................................................................................. 34

2.3.3 Tourism as experience ............................................................................................................. 36

2.3.4 The value of experience........................................................................................................... 39

2.3.5 Models of consumer experiences ............................................................................................ 42

2.3.6 The benefits-based approach ................................................................................................... 48

2.4.1 Definition of involvement ....................................................................................................... 58

2.4.2 Development of involvement research .................................................................................... 59

2.4.3 Different types of involvement ................................................................................................ 60

2.4.4 Enduring involvement ............................................................................................................. 62

2.4.5 Previous studies of involvement .............................................................................................. 63

3.2.1 The location of the April 3rd

Peace Park .................................................................................. 71

3.2.2 The April 3rd

incident and the Peace Memorial Hall ............................................................... 72

3.2.3 Justifications for the April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall as a research site .................................. 77

3.5.1 Stage one: the exploratory study and pilot survey ................................................................... 84

ix

3.5.2.1 Questionnaire design ......................................................................................................................... 90

3.5.2.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................................................ 91

3.5.2.3 Data collection for the questionnaire survey ...................................................................................... 93

3.6 Method of analysis ............................................................................................................ 93

3.7 Research limitations .......................................................................................................... 97

3.8 Ethical issues ..................................................................................................................... 98

3.9 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................. 98

Chapter 4 – Research Findings ....................................................................................................... 99

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 99

4.2 The demographic profile of visitors .................................................................................. 99

4.3 The benefits-based approach ........................................................................................... 103

4.3.4.1 The differences between visitor experiences by demographic variables ......................................... 115

4.3.4.2 Summary: visitor experiences by demographic variables ................................................................ 118

4.3.4.3 The differences in visitor benefits gained by demographic variables .............................................. 119

4.3.4.4 Summary: visitor benefits gained by demographic variables .......................................................... 122

4.4 The effect of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach ................................. 122

4.4.1.1 Visitors‘ level of involvement and demographic variables .............................................................. 123

4.4.1.2 The relationship between visitor involvement and past experiences ............................................... 127

4.4.1.3 The source of involvement .............................................................................................................. 129

4.4.1.4 Enduring involvement and visitors‘ knowledge of the April 3rd

incident ........................................ 130

4.4.1.5 Summary: visitor enduring involvement ......................................................................................... 130

4.5 Summary and conclusions ............................................................................................... 133

Chapter 5 – Discussion of the Findings ........................................................................................ 135

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 135

5.2 The research problem and research questions ................................................................. 135

3.5.2 Stage two: questionnaire surveys ............................................................................................ 90

3.6.1 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................... 94

3.6.2 Validity and reliability ............................................................................................................. 96

4.2.1 Visitor demographic by age ................................................................................................... 100

4.2.2 Repeat visitors and visitors connected to the April 3rd

incident ............................................ 101

4.2.3 Summary of demographic visitor profiles ............................................................................. 102

4.3.1 Classifying reasons for visit, experiences, and benefits gained............................................. 103

4.3.2 The relationship between each level in a benefits-based approach ........................................ 111

4.3.3 The relationship between visitor experiences and benefits gained ......................................... 112

4.3.4 Visitor experiences and benefits gained by demographic variables ....................................... 114

4.4.1 Visitor‘s enduring involvement with the Jeju April 3rd

incident ............................................ 123

4.4.2 The effect of enduring involvement on visitor experiences and benefits .............................. 131

x

5.3 The benefits-based approach and dark tourism ............................................................... 136

5.3.1.1 The identification of four levels in a benefits-based approach ........................................................ 137

5.3.1.2 The effect of reasons for visit on visitor on-site experiences ........................................................... 144

5.3.1.3 The effect of visitor on-site experiences on benefits gained ............................................................ 145

5.3.1.4 Summary of the application of the benefit-based approach ............................................................. 147

5.3.2.1 Socio-demographic variables and differences in visitor experiences............................................... 148

5.3.2.2 Socio-demographic variables and differences in visitor benefits gained ....................................... 151

5.3.2.3 Summary: the effects of personal factors on experiences and benefits gained ................................ 153

5.4 The application of enduring involvement in a dark tourism context............................... 153

5.4.2.1 The effect of socio demographic variables on enduring involvement ........................................... 157

5.4.2.2 The effect of past experiences on enduring involvement ............................................................... 161

5.4.2.3 Summary of the application of enduring involvement ................................................................... 162

5.5 Summary and conclusions ............................................................................................... 163

Chapter 6 - Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 164

6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 164

6.2 Conclusions from the findings related to research questions .......................................... 164

6.3 Implications of the findings and further research issues ................................................. 169

6.4 Limitations of this research ............................................................................................. 175

6.5 Concluding comments ..................................................................................................... 175

References ....................................................................................................................................... 177

Appendices ...................................................................................................................................... 190

5.3.1 The application of a benefits-based approach to April 3rd

Peace Park experiences............... 137

5.3.2 The effect of personal factors on visitor experiences and benefits gained ............................ 148

5.4. 1 Enduring involvement and its effects on visitor experiences and benefits gained .............. 154

5.4.2 Visitor enduring involvement in a dark tourism context ....................................................... 157

6.2.1 A benefits-based approach and the April 3rd

Peace Park ....................................................... 164

6.2.2 The enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident ........................................................... 167

6.3.1 Theoretical implications ........................................................................................................ 169

6.3.2 Practical implications ............................................................................................................ 173

xi

List of figures

Figure 1.1: Conceptualising framework for this research .................................................................... 5

Figure 1.2: Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................................... 11

Figure 2.1: Outline of the literature review ........................................................................................ 15

Figure 2.2: A dark tourism spectrum proposed by Stone (2006) ....................................................... 19

Figure 2.3: Conceptualising framework for this research .................................................................. 65

Figure 3.1: Six key components of the research methodology .......................................................... 70

Figure 3.2: The location of the April 3rd

Peace Park and Jeju ........................................................... 71

Figure 3.3: Research process for the study ........................................................................................ 84

Figure 4.1: Outline of hypotheses for visitor experiences and benefits ........................................... 114

Figure 4.2: Outline of hypotheses for enduring involvement and visitor experiences .................... 122

Figure 5.1: Four levels of the benefits-based approach ................................................................... 137

Figure 5.2: The relationship between level 1 and level 3 ................................................................ 144

Figure 5.3: The relationship between level 3 and level 4 ................................................................ 146

Figure 5.4: Outline of the effects of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach ............. 154

Figure 5.5: The relationship between enduring involvement and visitor experiences ..................... 154

Figure 5.6: The relationship between enduring involvement and visitor benefits gained ............... 156

xii

List of tables

Table 2.1: Definitions of experience .................................................................................................. 33

Table 2.2: Comparison of quality of service (QOS) and quality of experience (QOE) ..................... 41

Table 2.3: A sequential hierarchy of demand ..................................................................................... 49

Table 3.1: The number of tourist to Jeju Island (1970-2008) ............................................................ 71

Table 3.2: Numbers of tourists to the April 3rd

Peace Park ................................................................ 72

Table 3.3: A chronology of the April 3rd

incident .............................................................................. 77

Table 3.4: Basic belief (Metaphysics) in alternative inquiry paradigms ............................................ 81

Table 3.5: Differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches .......................................... 83

Table 3.6: Demographic information of the exploratory interviewees .............................................. 86

Table 3.7: An example of the process of construction of the questionnaire ...................................... 88

Table 4.1: Differences in visitor age by origin ................................................................................. 100

Table 4.2: Differences in visitor ages by gender .............................................................................. 100

Table 4.3: Differences in level of visitor education by age .............................................................. 101

Table 4.4: First and repeat visit by place of origin ........................................................................... 102

Table 4.5: Relationships between visitors and victims or survivors ................................................ 102

Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics for reasons for visit to the site (level 1) ........................................ 104

Table 4.7: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of level 1 (reasons for visit) ......................... 105

Table 4.8: Descriptive statistics of visitor cognitive experiences (TAD) ......................................... 106

Table 4.9: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of cognitive experiences .............................. 106

Table 4.10: Descriptive information of visitor affective experience ................................................ 107

Table 4.11: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of visitor affective experience ................... 108

Table 4.12: Descriptive information of visitors‘ benefits gained ..................................................... 109

Table 4.13: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of visitor benefits gained ........................... 110

Table 4.14: Abbreviations of each dimension .................................................................................. 111

Table 4.15: Correlation test between reasons for visit and experiences .......................................... 112

Table 4.16: Correlation test between visitor experiences and benefits gained ................................ 113

Table 4.17: ANOVA for hypothesis 1 .............................................................................................. 115

Table 4.18: Independent t-test for hypothesis 2 ............................................................................... 116

Table 4.19: Independent t-test for hypothesis 3 ............................................................................... 117

Table 4.20: ANOVA for hypothesis 4 .............................................................................................. 118

Table 4.21: ANOVA for hypothesis 5 .............................................................................................. 119

Table 4.22: Independent t-test for hypothesis 6 ............................................................................... 120

Table 4.23: Independent t-test for hypothesis 7 ............................................................................... 121

xiii

Table 4.24: ANOVA for hypothesis 8 .............................................................................................. 121

Table 4.25: Level of enduring involvement by age.......................................................................... 124

Table 4.26: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 10 ................................................................. 124

Table 4.27: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 11 ................................................................. 125

Table 4.28: Level of involvement by visitor place of origin ............................................................ 125

Table 4.29: Level of involvement and education – visitors from outside of Jeju ............................ 127

Table 4.30: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 13A .............................................................. 127

Table 4.31: Level of involvement by repeat visit to the site ............................................................ 128

Table 4.32: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 13B .............................................................. 129

Table 4.33: Sources of involvement with the April 3rd

incident ...................................................... 129

Table 4.34: Relationship between involvement and visitor prior knowledge of the incident .......... 130

Table 4.35: Differences in visitor prior knowledge of the incident by involvement ....................... 130

Table 4.36: Correlation test between enduring involvement and cognitive experiences ................. 132

Table 4.37: Correlation test between enduring involvement and affective experiences .................. 132

Table 4.38: Correlation test between enduring involvement and four benefits ............................... 133

Table 5.1: Results from four hypotheses (H1-H4) ........................................................................... 148

Table 5.2: Results from four hypotheses related to benefits gained (H5-H8) .................................. 152

Table 5.3: The results of four hypotheses ........................................................................................ 158

xiv

List of Appendices

Appendix 1: The brochure of the April 3rd

Peace Park…………………………………………….191

Appendix 2: Interview Questions English Version………………………………………………...202

Appendix 3: Interview Questions Korean Version……………………………………………..….206

Appendix 4: Reliability of the result of the pilot survey……..……………………………………211

Appendix 5: Questionnaire English Version………………………………………………............214

Appendix 6: Questionnaire Korean Version……………………………………………………….220

Appendix 7: The number of visitor to the April 3rd

Peace Park………………………………….. 226

Appendix 8: Ethical clearance approval letter……………………………………………………..229

Appendix 9: Descriptive results for hypothesis 1,4,5,8 and one additional result…….………......230

1

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Within the academic literature of consumer behaviour and marketing, the idea of ‗consumer

experience‘ emerged as a key topic during the early 1980s, albeit one subsequently characterised by

problems of measuring subjective and emotional experiences (Havlena & Holbrook, 1986).

Not surprisingly, in the field of tourism research, experience has also become an important focus, in

recent years (e.g. Andereck, et al., 2006; Chen & Chen, 2010; Pearce & Kang, 2009) and

investigators have sought to highlight the practical and applied benefits of experience related tourist

attraction research. In particular, studies have been pursued which identify tourist needs and

motivations as well as the outcomes of visits, subsequently enabling managers to deliver improved

value (McIntosh, 1999; Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Indeed in the field of special interest tourism

researchers have highlighted that many tourists search for both novel and authentic, and quality

tourism experiences (Singh, 2004). Despite these developments in the study of consumer

experience, however, the fact remains that this field is one of the least understood in tourism

research, due above all to the inherently high degree of subjective, emotional, and context

dependent features which characterise it (Page & Connell, 2006).

Dark tourism may be considered a form of special interest tourism, and one characterised by tourists

drawn to attractions or sites associated with death, atrocity, disaster, or previous conflict (Ashworth

& Hartmann, 2005a; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Sharpley, 2009b; Stone, 2006; Tunbridge & Ashworth,

1996). As the number of people travelling to dark tourism attractions or sites has increased over the

past decade, tourism researchers have begun to explore tourist or visitor experiences of this type.

Among these studies, some have sought to understand the type of tourist or visitor attracted to dark

tourism attractions or sites; the impact of media and politics on tourist or visitor experiences; the

interpretation of dark tourism attractions or sites; and the difficulties of tourism development in

such attractions and sites (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a; Beech, 2009; Lennon & Foley, 2000;

Sharpley, 2009a, 2009b; Sharpley & Stone, 2009a; Stone & Sharpley, 2008; Walter, 2009). These

dark tourism studies provide evidence of the significance of dark tourism experiences, and the

differences of these from other types of tourism occurring in more pleasant, less disturbing

environments. In sum, these prior studies also highlight the necessity of developing a theoretical

approach to the dark tourism phenomenon (Sharpley, 2009b; Stone, 2006; Stone & Sharpley, 2008)

in order to improve on the limited, fragile nature of our current understanding of dark tourism

experiences, caused in part by their sensitive nature along with the wide scope of dark tourist

2

attractions and brevity of research in the field.

Within this investigative context, this research attempts to contribute to the foundations of an

important tourism research topic by conducting both theoretical and empirical research into tourist

experiences at a dark tourism site.

1.2 Background of the research

In recent years, it has been argued that changing socio-economic patterns have led to a move away

from mass or conventional tourism, to one of alternative or special interest tourism (Singh, 2004).

From this perspective, the perceived benefits of a tourist holiday have shifted from relaxation and

indulgence, toward opportunities for study, learning, and a greater experience of the world, with

travellers interested more in enriching their lives with experiences as opposed to being passive

consumers of entertainment and spectacle. As such, more contemporary tourists are depicted as

seeking interactive, high involvement experiences where the providers of such experiential services

are required to be knowledgeable, imaginative, and innovative entrepreneurs able to differentiate

their tourism products through new activities, trends, and experiences (Andereck, et al., 2006;

Gilmore & Pine, 2002a), thus gaining a competitive edge.

Among the different forms of special interest tourism, such as adventure, ecotourism, and cultural

heritage tourism, the search for experiences is dependent on an individual‘s needs and interests.

Adventure tourism generally appeals to people keen to pursue challenging and extraordinary

experiences (Bentley & Page, 2008; Pomfret, 2006; Trauer, 2006); ecotourism to those who have a

strong interest in the environment (Ayala, 1996; Mehmetoglu, 2007; Weaver & Lawton, 2007); and

cultural heritage tourism to people with an interest in history and nostalgia (Prentice & Andersen,

2007). Likewise, dark tourism is also recognised as a special interest form of tourism (Braithwaite

& Lee, 2006) appealing to those keen to visit sites or attractions associated with the dark side of

human nature, and often tied to death, atrocity, or tragic events of the past (Ashworth & Hartmann,

2005a; Lennon & Foley, 2000). Such tourism is also considered a part of cultural heritage tourism

more generally, and termed ‗dissonant heritage‘ (Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996), with examples

including Port Arthur in Tasmania, Australia, numerous historic battlefields around the world, and

slavery heritage sites (Dann & Seaton, 2001; Leopold, 2007).

Furthermore, in recent years dark tourism has been recognised as a distinctive and emergent tourism

phenomenon, given the significant numbers of visitors to related attractions and sites, as well as the

3

emergence of many new dark tourism attractions and products. In short, dark tourism attractions or

sites have become increasingly frequent stops on international tourism itineraries (Strange &

Kempa, 2003). For instance, the number of visitors to Auschwitz-Birkenau in Poland was

approximately 750,000 per year during the early 1990s (Young, 1993), while 2007 saw around 1.2

million visitors (Auschwitz-Birkenau, 2009). In addition, Pickard (2007) reports that a 37% growth

was shown in numbers of overseas visitors to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 2004 alone. Related sites such

as the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. now receive around 2 million visitors

per year (Lennon & Foley, 2000), with the USS Arizona Memorial also receiving 1.5 million

visitors each year (US National Park Service, 2009).

New dark tourism products and sites have emerged around the world in recent years, with some

related to recent, high profile disasters. Examples of such sites and memorials include the World

Trade Centre, Ground Zero site in New York; parts of New Orleans in the United States following

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Robbie, 2008); the site in Paris where Princess Diana and Dodi Fayed

perished in a car accident; and in the United Kingdom, the locations of serial killings in Soham

(Seaton, 2009). Sites under construction include one commemorating the catastrophic Indian Ocean

tsunami of December 2004 in the Khao Lak National Park, located in Thailand‘s Phangnga

province (Sharpley, 2009a); one for the 2008 China earthquake in the Chinese city of Chengdu,

Sichuan province; and another for the Haiti earthquake of early 2010. None of these were, or are,

being created by destination planners for the purpose of generating tourism revenue, however, most

will attract visitors curious to investigate and experience such sites of death and disaster in part

because they are widely publicised by the media (Seaton, 2009). The Ground Zero site in New York

is today one of the top five tourist attractions for visitors to the city indicating that managing dark

tourism sites or products is an important issue for their managers.

Not surprisingly, a number of researchers have begun to study these phenomena from a tourism

perspective (Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Seaton, 2009; Sharpley & Stone,

2009a; Stone & Sharpley, 2008), with several papers and books examining dark tourism sites

connected to death in one form or another (e.g. murder sites, death sites, battlefields, cemeteries,

mausoleums, churchyards, the former homes of dead celebrities). These highlight that visiting such

sites can play a significant part in a tourist‘s experiences, and in turn, that there will most probably

be anxiety about the development of these sites as tourist attractions (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b;

Ryan, 2007; Sharpley & Stone, 2009b; Wilson, 2008). These two concomitant aspects of dark

tourism have indeed lead to concerns about the morality of commodifying death, disaster, and

atrocity (Lennon & Foley, 2000; Seaton, 2009), and to what extent it is in fact acceptable to ‗market‘

a tragic event; who should deal with destination images created by the media; to what extent tourist

4

and visitor expectations created by the media can in fact be met; and how managers of dark tourism

sites can effectively communicate the ‗message‘ of the site to tourist and visitors.

In order to embrace such issues, this research focuses on the perspective of ‗benefit‘ for both dark

tourism experience providers at the attractions or destinations, and consumers of dark tourism sites

and experiences (i.e. tourists or visitors). From the perspective of the experience providers, the

results may help managers include beneficial experiences of tourists into a core product.

Furthermore, since many dark tourism attractions or sites are established to commemorate, educate,

or even reconcile communities and/or peoples, it is important such attractions or sites are able to

confirm these objectives have been realised, importantly through examining the final outcome of

visits from the perspective of tourists or visitors.

The theoretical framework developed for this research to examine visitor experiences at dark

tourism sites can now be outlined below.

1.3 Theoretical framework

This thesis is concerned with the theoretical and empirical examination of dark tourism experiences

from the perspective of tourists or visitors, and the role played by personal factors when it comes to

tourist/visitor experiences at dark tourism attractions and sites. As such, it remains necessary to

examine two key concepts – namely experiences and enduring involvement – along with their

related theories to identify an appropriate model for understanding dark tourism experiences.

In the literature of tourism and leisure, five core models of consumer experience have been

identified by Prentice, Witt and Hamer (1998): the hierarchical model, flow model, planned

behaviour model, typological model, and insider-outsider model. In the hierarchical model, a

benefit chain of causality model (Driver, Tinsley, & Manfredo, 1991; Manning, 1999) was derived

from the recreational leisure literature and the work, in particular, of Driver, Brown, Stankey and

Gregoire (1987), Driver, Tinsley and Manfredo (1991), Manning (1999), and others. This model has

been applied to understanding tourist benefits derived from experiences at attractions, in particular

in heritage park and museum settings (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh & Prentice, 1999;

Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998). It allows for the

evaluation of overall tourist experiences at an attraction by examining a tourist‘s reasons for visiting

the attraction, their on-site experiences, and the benefits realised through their visit. In this respect,

it can help identify a tourist‘s ultimate goal in the consumption of tourism products. In turn, this

5

model is appropriate for examining and evaluating overall tourist or visitor psychological

experiences at dark tourism attractions or sites by focusing on the components of benefit and

experiences, with a benefit chain of causality consisting of four levels, as presented in Figure 1.1

below.

In addition, one of the significant characteristics of dark tourism attractions or sites is that two

distinct types of visitors can be recognised and delineated based on their ‗connection‘ to the site.

These two types have been found to have distinct on-site experiences at Holocaust related sites in

particular (Beech, 2000, 2001). The concept of involvement has been employed in this study in

order to gauge the role played by ‗personal connection‘ to a tragic site or attraction. This concept of

involvement has personal relevance as a key feature (Celsi & Olson, 1988; Laaksonen, 1994), and

has been extensively applied in the area of consumer behaviour, tourism, and leisure research

following its development in social judgement theory by Sherif and his colleagues (Sherif & Cantril,

1947; Sherif & Hovland, 1961). In tourism and leisure research in turn, it has been employed to

study leisure and recreational behaviours inexplicable through a focus on socio-demographic

variables.

On the basis of these two theories, the theoretical framework developed for and underpinning this

investigation is depicted in Figure 1.1, which further includes three core research questions

elaborated upon in the following section.

Figure 1.1: Conceptualising framework for this research

R1 R2

R3 Past experiences Enduring involvement

Socio-demographics

Level 1+2

Activities: various reasons for visiting dark tourism attractions

Settings: a dark tourism site or attraction

Level 3

Perceived experience derived from engagement in activities

Perceived outcome of activities through interacting with settings

(e.g., learning and emotional experiences)

Level 4

Ultimate outcomes from experiences

6

1.4 Research problem and research questions

Three research questions were formulated to address the core research problem underpinning this

dissertation: namely, ‗what is the effect of personal factors on visitor experiences to dark tourism

sites, and the benefits gained through such a visit?’ These research questions can be summarised as

follows.

Research question one (R1): ‗What are the tourist or visitor ultimate outcomes of dark tourism site

visitation, and how do these differ by socio-demographic variables?’

At its core, this question is concerned with examining the beneficial experiences gained by visitors

from dark tourism consumption, based on a benefits-based approach (Driver, Tinsley, & Manfredo,

1991; Manning, 1999). It provides an overall empirical understanding of dark tourism experiences

from a visitor‘s perspective, as has been utilised and examined in other types of tourism attractions

(Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000; Shin, Jaakson, & Kim, 2001). The benefits-

based approach to dark tourism experiences examines the effects of differences in the reasons for

visiting dark tourism attractions or sites, on-site experiences, and the effect of these visitor

experiences on benefits received. The chain of relationships in experiences may provide insights

into dark tourism experiences, and help identify the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism

(McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998).

This research question also encompasses the effects of socio-demographic variables on visitor

experiences, and the benefits gained from dark tourism consumption. Four socio-demographic

variables – age, gender, place of origin, and level of education – were included, and eight

hypotheses formulated to examine their effect on visitor experiences and the benefits gained (see

Section 2.5 and Chapter 4). This allows for further identification of differences in visitor beneficial

experiences due to tourist or visitor characteristics.

Research question two (R2): ‗What is the effect of enduring involvement on dark tourism

experiences?’

This question aims to consider and discover the interaction between a benefits-based approach and

enduring involvement in the context of dark tourism experiences. Enduring involvement here is

used to conceptualise the intensity of a visitor‘s ‗personal connection‘ to a tragic event, as

represented by a site (Laaksonen, 1994; Zaichkowsky, 1985). Research question 2 will be examined

via two hypotheses, as further discussed in Chapter 4.

7

Research question three (R3): ‗What are the effects of socio-demographic variables and past

experiences on enduring involvement?’

The third research question guiding this investigation focuses on the effect of socio-demographic

variables on enduring involvement. Six hypotheses examine the relationship between a visitor‘s

connection to a tragic event and their socio-demographic characteristics based on a number of key

variables.

The core research problem of this inquiry, and the three key research questions developed to

investigate it in turn, provide a means of exploring the phenomenon of dark tourism from a

theoretical perspective, while enabling a consistent empirical examination to be implemented also.

In addition, the analysis associated with each research question provides evidence in sum for the

significance of tourist or visitor experiences at dark tourism attractions and sites. By implementing

theoretically based empirical research to this end, this study provides a unique contribution to the

field of tourism and leisure study, as adumbrated in the following section.

1.5 Contributions of this study

This research contributes to the theoretical advancement of tourism and leisure study in general, and

in particular, to the contemporary investigation of dark tourism.

To begin with, the research confirms that a benefits-based approach is appropriate for gaining key

insights into dark tourism (McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). In accordance with this

approach, the study identifies important reasons for visiting a particular dark tourism site, the

psychological experiences of visitors at the site, and the benefits gained from a dark tourism site

visit. It further explores the effects of reasons for visit on visitor on-site experiences, and the effect

of on-site experiences in terms of benefits gained (McIntosh, 1997). The findings of the study

provide evidence that a benefits-based approach remains an effective tool for an empirical

examination of dark tourism experiences.

Secondly, this research provides evidence that enduring involvement can also generate important

understandings, and ultimately differentiation when it comes to visitors‘ dark tourism experiences.

While a benefits-based approach is appropriate for understanding dark tourism experiences

(McIntosh, 1999), enduring involvement is useful when it comes to the segmentation of dark

8

tourists (Park, et al., 2002). Enduring involvement per se, however, is not an effective means to

understand the potential psychological dimensions of a dark tourism attraction. Hence the

application of these two theories together is synergistic in a dark tourism context.

Thirdly, this research provides evidence for the important component of obligation in certain dark

tourism experiences, and at certain dark tourism attractions and sites. In general, obligation has

been little used in the literature of tourism and leisure experiences, with only VFR (Visiting Friends

and Relatives) traveller studies referring to obligation as a key motivation for travel (Larsen, Urry,

& Axhausen, 2007). However, a sense of obligation or personal duty (Heath & Schneewind, 1996)

has in fact been identified as one of the main reasons for visiting certain tourist sites, as revealed in

a study of younger visitors to Auschwitz in Poland (Thurnell-Read, 2009). Furthermore, comfort

achieved by fulfilling this internal obligation was also identified as a key benefit for visitors, with

high involvement in the events defining visits to Auschwitz. In this important respect, obligation

remains one of the distinctive outcomes of dark tourism, with little if any presence in most other

forms of tourism.

This research also provides several practical contributions to the development, and effective

management of dark tourism resources for the purposes of tourism and visitation.

To begin with, it has the potential to contribute to the enhancement of visitors‘ experiences, by

contributing to the design and provision of adequate tourism services via the identification of visitor

needs along with reasons for visit. This study provides evidence for the effect of reasons for visit on

visitor on-site experiences at dark tourism attractions. In addition, it also provides the characteristics

of two distinct types of visitors – namely, high and low – gauged through a visitor‘s respective,

enduring involvement with a tragic event. The findings of the research in this regard provide a basic

foundation for enhancing dark tourism experiences at the attraction.

Secondly, the research also provides evidence that a benefits-based approach can be an effective

tool to ascertaining whether management objectives are indeed targeted to the provision of

opportunities enabling specific types of benefits. For instance, in the chosen research site of this

investigation – the April 3rd

Peace Park in South Korea – one of the main objectives was to provide

an educational service to those unaware of the April 3rd

incident. This study confirms that the April

3rd

Peace Park is successfully achieving its objectives, given visitors with no prior knowledge of the

incident reported greater knowledge of both the incident and connected events/issues. Indeed in sum,

the main benefit gained by visitors to the park was in the area of learning. In this respect, a benefits-

based approach is useful for dark tourism site managers to evaluate and assess their performance,

9

and more effectively manage and develop their tourism resources.

Thirdly, and in terms of achieving effective experiential learning at dark tourism attractions and

sites, this research provides evidence that visitors should acquire some background knowledge of

the theme of the site prior to their visit. By doing so, visitors are better able to acquire genuine

insights into the theme, issues and events associated with a dark tourism site.

Finally, this research provides the public with a clear understanding of the role and contribution of

dark tourism sites. Since many dark tourism sites are established and managed by governments and

involve the use of public funds (Lennon & Foley, 2000; Sharpley, 2009a), it remains essential for

management to demonstrate some positive contribution to the wider community. Implicitly, this

research supports the key role of dark tourism sites in providing psychological benefits and the

potential ultimately for reconciliation both within and between communities.

In summary, this section has described the key theoretical and practical contributions of this study,

subsequently expanded and elaborated upon in greater detail in Chapter 6. The following section

now provides a brief description of the methodology employed in this investigation.

1.6 Methodology

To address the core research problem of this thesis, this research adopts and employs a combined

qualitative/quantitative approach to investigation, founded broadly on a post-positivist research

paradigm (Blaikie, 2000).

To begin with, the qualitative research stage (Stage 1) of this study sought to develop a quantitative

data collection instrument (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This stage was conducted between

September and October 2008 at the chosen research site, namely the April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju

Island, South Korea. Forty-six semi-structured interviews, each around 20 minutes in length, were

conducted with visitors at the end of their visit to the Peace Memorial Hall within the park. A series

of questions about visitors‘ reasons and motivations for visiting the site; their on-site activities and

experiences; and the benefits gained from their visit, were all put to respondents. The data collected

from interviews was subsequently collated, analysed, and utilised in the construction of a

questionnaire, the key quantitative instrument employed in this research (Stage 2).

Prior to implementing Stage 2, a pilot survey was also conducted in order to confirm the reliability

and validity of the questionnaire. Finally, in Stage 2 an on-site self-administered survey was

10

conducted within the lounge area/lobby of the Peace Memorial Hall, between the 23rd

of June and

31st of July, 2009. In total, 407 of 450 distributed questionnaires were returned (90% response

rate), and subsequently analysed using SPSS and, in particular, t-tests, chi-square tests, correlations,

and factor analysis (Veal, 2005).

1.7 Outline of the thesis

The overall structure of this thesis is guided by the doctoral report recommendations of Perry

(1998). As such, this dissertation comprises six chapters, as illustrated in Figure 1.2, with this

introductory chapter serving firstly to provide an outline of the literature review, methodology,

research results, a discussion of the findings, and the study‘s conclusions.

Chapter Two provides a comprehensive literature review of the two core theoretical areas drawn

upon to build a conceptualising framework for this study, and comprises five sections. The first

section of this chapter (Section 2.1) outlines the chapter structure, while the second section (Section

2.2) describes the phenomenon of dark tourism, and includes the definition and distinctive

characteristics of dark tourism experiences. In Section 2.3 the concept of experiences is discussed,

and includes definitions; discussion of the tourism experience; five models to understand

experiences from the consumer perspective; and the benefits-based approach. Section 2.4 examines

the concept of involvement, and includes definitions and discussion of enduring involvement and

previous involvement studies. The final section of Chapter 2 (Section 2.5) outlines the

conceptualising framework for this study, and elaborates further on its three key research questions.

Chapter Three outlines the methodology employed in this thesis, and contains a detailed research

plan for the study to address and achieve its research aims. This chapter consists of nine sections

including its introduction and conclusion, and provides a detailed description of the chosen research

site, the April 3rd

Peace Park (section 3.2), and in turn the research paradigm (Section 3.3) and

research strategy (Section 3.4). In terms of research design (Section 3.5) it describes two stages to

the study: an exploratory study and pilot survey (Stage 1), and the final survey (Stage 2). The

method of analysis (Section 3.6), the limitations of the methodology (Section 3.7), and the ethical

issues (Section 3.8) are also addressed in this chapter.

Chapter Four presents and analyses the results and findings of the research over five sections. In

Section 4.2 the demographic profile of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park is provided, while Section

4.3 provides the results of the application of a benefits-based approach, including the relationship

11

between each level of the benefit chain of causality and the results derived from eight key

hypotheses. In turn, Section 4.4 provides the results of the remaining eight hypotheses.

Chapter Five discusses the findings and significance of the study via comparison with the results of

previous investigations. Following an introduction it restates the research aims and objectives

(Section 5.2) to ensure consistency in the discussion of findings. Section 5.3 in turn discusses the

application of a benefits-based approach, given the findings presented in Section 4.3. It identifies

characteristics of the four levels of a benefit chain of causality, and examines the relationships

between those levels and the effects of four socio-demographic variables on visitors‘ experiences.

Section 5.4 goes on to discuss the results presented in Section 4.3, which include the effect of

enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach, and in particular visitors‘ on-site experiences

(Level 3) and benefits gained (Level 4), and the effect of socio-demographic variables and past

experiences on enduring involvement.

Chapter Six concludes the thesis by summarising the key findings discussed in Chapter Five. Given

the study is a preliminary and exploratory investigation of dark tourism experiences with the aim of

establishing a theoretical framework and evaluating pertinent empirical research methods, it

provides the implications of the findings while also raising further issues within and beyond the

field of dark tourism research. Limitations of the research are then discussed, followed by

concluding comments.

Figure 1.2: Structure of the thesis

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2

Literature Reviews

Chapter 3

Methodology

Chapter 4

Results

Chapter 5

Discussion of the findings

Chapter 6

Conclusions

Link with chapter 2

12

1.8 Relevant key terms

Benefits is generally described as an improved condition synonymous with the idea of

utility in consumer economics (Driver, 1990). Specifically, benefits is defined as ‗the

advantageous outcomes which recreationalists and society realise from people participating

in recreational activities‘ (Brown, 1984, p. 235).

Dark tourism is the term described ‗the phenomena which encompass the presentation and

consumption (by visitors) of real and commodified death and disaster sites‘ (Foley &

Lennon, 1996, p. 198)

Experience in tourism is defined as ‗the subjective mental state felt by participants‘ (Otto &

Ritchie, 1996, p. 166), or the ‗mental, spiritual and physiological outcomes resulting from

on-site recreation engagements‘ (Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000, p. 37).

Enduring Involvement can be defined as an ‗unobservable state of motivation, arousal, or

interest toward a recreational activity or associated product ... evoked by particular stimulus

or situation and [with] drive properties … In other words, leisure involvement refers to how

we think about our leisure and recreation, and it affects our behaviour‘ (Havitz & Dimanche,

1997, p. 246).

Thanatourism is ‗travel to a location wholly, or partially, motivated by the desire for actual

or symbolic encounters with death, particularly, but not exclusively, violent death, which

may, to a varying degree be activated by the person-specific features of those whose deaths

are its focal objects‘ (Seaton, 1996, p. 240). The terms thanatourism and dark tourism are

often used interchangeably.

1.9 Summary and conclusions

This chapter, as the introduction to this study, provides an overall description of the research aims,

concerns, and instruments which define this thesis. It addressed the background of the research in

Section 1.2, providing a justification for the necessity of both theoretical and empirical work in the

field, followed by the study‘s theoretical framework (Section 1.3) and research questions (Section

1.4) which encompass its research aims and, importantly, the two key underpinning theories are

used to explore and investigate dark tourism experiences.

13

The contributions of the study, as discussed in Section 1.5, indicate the importance of this research

from both a theoretical and practical perspective. This was followed by an outline of the

methodology of the research (Section 1.6), along with an outline of the thesis structure (Section 1.7)

and definition of important terms featuring in this investigation (Section 1.8). In turn, the following

chapter now provides a comprehensive review of relevant theory and literature.

14

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Some heritage and cultural tourism attractions reflect golden eras of the past, while others evoke

death, disaster, or atrocity the result of human or natural catastrophes. While a substantial literature

exists examining visits to ‗pleasant‘ places and locales (Strange & Kempa, 2003), little has been

done to investigate tourism to sites of destruction and/or inhumanity. Beginning in the 1990s,

however, scholars began exploring the phenomenon of dark tourism as a distinct and emerging

tourist activity of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries (Rojek, 1997; Tunbridge &

Ashworth, 1996; Urry, 1990).

At the same time, the academic literature which has attempted to comprehend dark tourism

continues to be both theoretically limited and fragile (Lennon & Foley, 2000; Sharpley, 2009b;

Stone, 2006). Indeed dark tourism has for the most part been considered merely a form of cultural

heritage tourism more generally, and thus examined within cultural heritage tourism parameters

under a banner of ‗dissonant heritage‘ (Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996). Importantly, and as with all

other forms of cultural heritage tourism, dark tourism experiences are indeed defined at their core

by the beneficial aspects associated with this type of ‗leisure‘ activity (Beeho & Prentice, 1995;

McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993). However, while this may be a core feature of dark

tourism, the benefits gained may also differ significantly from those of visits to other cultural

heritage sites.

This potential difference in the particular benefits of dark tourism has yet to be explored, with few

studies focusing on visitors‘ experiences from a visitor‘s perspective. This remains a key omission

in tourism research therefore, with an understanding of dark tourism experiences and the benefits

gained further essential to the effective management of such sites, and to potentially enhancing the

value of such sites through better design and improved facilities. As has been substantiated, the

focus of this thesis lies therefore in comprehending dark tourism through the beneficial experiences

of visitors to a dark tourism site.

This chapter begins with a review of relevant literature in order to construct a theoretical framework

for this study. As shown in Figure 2.1, the chapter consists of five sections, which cover and

examine three key theoretical areas: the phenomenon of dark tourism, the concept of experiences,

and the concept of involvement. Section 2.2 examines the phenomenon of dark tourism by

15

exploring the definition, scope, and distinctive forms of dark tourism. In terms of tourist

experiences in visiting dark tourism sites, this section examines the reasons for visiting a site;

emotional experiences at the site; and the differences in visitor experiences according to their

particular connection to the site.

In order to identify the appropriate theoretical approach to examining tourist experiences at dark

tourism sites and attractions, Section 2.3 then goes on to review the concept of experience in the

wider academic literature, analysing the definitions and characteristics of ‗experience‘ in the fields

of consumer behaviour, marketing, education, environmental psychology, geography, and tourism

and leisure. This section also discusses how experience is conceptualised in the tourism and leisure

literature. Five different models of experience are identified, which investigate experience from a

visitor‘s perspective, with the benefits-based approach considered as appropriate to investigate

beneficial visitor experiences at dark tourism sites.

As several dark tourism studies report that a visitor‘s personal connection to a site affects their

emotional experience of the site, the concept of involvement is further introduced in Section 2.4

with the aim of comprehending, from a theoretical perspective, the role of visitor-site connection

and its influence on the tourist experience. Definitions, developments in research, and the various

types of involvement are examined to justify the application here of enduring involvement when

attempting to understand visitor experiences at dark tourism sites. On the basis of the review of

these three main areas, a theoretical framework is then constructed, as outlined in Section 2.5,

which leads in turn to identification of the key research questions of this thesis.

Figure 2.1: Outline of the literature review

Section 2.1: Introduction of the chapter

Section 2.2: Dark tourism phenomenon

Research trends, dark tourism characteristics and tourist experiences at dark tourism sites

Section 2.3: Experiences

General overview of experiences - definitions, characteristics

of experiences and experiences in tourism

Five models of consumer experiences

Hierarchical model of experiences Benefit-based approach

Section 2.4: Involvement

Involvement studies

Enduring involvement

Section 2.5: Conceptualising Framework

Building a conceptualising framework for visitor experiences at the dark tourism sites

Formulating research questions from the theoretical framework

16

2.2 Dark tourism

The term ‗dark tourism‘ was coined by Foley and Lennon (1996, p. 198) to describe the attraction

of visitors to tourism sites associated with death, disaster, and depravity. Other notable definitions

of dark tourism include ‗the act of travel to sites associated with death, suffering and the seemingly

macabre‘ (Stone, 2006, p. 146), and as ‗visitations to places where tragedies or historically

noteworthy death has occurred and that continue to impact our lives‘ (Tarlow, 2005, p. 48).

Scholars have further developed and applied alternative terminology in dealing with such travel and

visitation, including thanatourism (Seaton, 1996), black spot tourism (Rojek, 1993), atrocity

heritage tourism (Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996), and morbid tourism (Blom, 2000). Among these

terms, dark tourism remains the most widely applied in academic research (Sharpley, 2009b), and is

thus the term employed in this thesis.

While dark tourism has been examined from a tourism and leisure perspective since the mid-1990s,

it continues to be considered a valid research area within the wider study of tourism and leisure,

with a number of key dark tourism papers characterising its short academic history. The following

section of this chapter begins this literature review by examining research trends, the various forms

and characteristics associated with dark tourism, and the key issue of visitor experiences at dark

tourism attractions and sites.

2.2.1 Dark tourism studies

Scholars have applied a range of approaches when attempting to understand and comprehend the

phenomenon of dark tourism. An initial approach was based on identifying the key characteristics

of dark tourism sites (Strange & Kempa, 2003), which were subsequently categorised into four

distinct groups. Firstly, battle sites and death camps, such as holocaust locations in Europe, which

have literally and figuratively become associated with the collective memory of violence and

suffering (Braithwaite & Lee, 2006; Henderson, 2000; Seaton, 1999); secondly, the death sites of

celebrities (e.g. President John F. Kennedy or Mother Teresa) which have become secular or

religious tourism shrines (Blom, 2000; Foley & Lennon, 1996); thirdly, sites of extraordinary

disaster, such as the 9/11 World Trade Centre site in New York, or the New Orleans Hurricane

Katrina in 2005 or recent tsunami in South-East Asia, all of which have drawn curious visitors from

around the world; and lastly, prisons or other notorious sites of incarceration.

Each such type of dark tourism attraction or site can be seen to possess distinctive characteristics,

leading academic investigators to focus their research on one particular type. Recent papers, for

17

instance, have demonstrated a respective focus on specific ‗themes‘ such as battlefield tourism

(Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009; Ryan, 2007), prison tourism (Strange & Kempa, 2003; Wilson, 2008),

atrocity heritage (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b), slavery tourism (Dann & Seaton, 2001), and

genocide tourism (Beech, 2009).

Scholars have also attempted to understand dark tourism as a type of cultural or heritage tourism,

given dark tourism sites are often of great significance both culturally and historically (Ashworth,

1993; Dann & Seaton, 2001; Lowenthal, 1998; Seaton, 1999; Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996).

According to Wight and Lennon (2007) in fact, academic commentary upon and interest in dark

tourism may have its origins in the work of both Tunbridge and Ashworth (1996) and Lennon and

Foley (2000), and their research on the reluctance of destinations and cultural groups to confront

dissonant or inharmonious heritage.

Similarly, researchers have also viewed dark tourism as a type of personal historical visit; according

to Braithwaite and Lee (2006, p. 17); for instance, ‗a person‘s sense of history is the history of their

family and friends and may involve a number of places. Periods of trauma, particularly war

experiences, characterise most such histories‘. In exploring the location of a prison camp during

World War II in Sandakan, East Malaysia in turn, Braithwaite and Lee (2006) argued that tourism

can act as a mediator for reconciliation between former enemies. Another approach to dark tourism

is also associated with interpretation which is an essential component for visitor experiences in

attractions (Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008). Uzzell and Ballantyne (1998) argue that a ‗hot

interpretation‘ approach – involving subjective and emotional interpretation of the past – is essential

for the interpretation of dark tourism sites. Similarly, Wight and Lennon (2007) also describe

selective interpretation at dark tourism sites due to political influence.

Recently, some scholars have attempted to understand dark tourism from a perspective of

consumption (Stone, 2009c; Stone & Sharpley, 2008), focusing on the relationship between dark

tourism consumption and contemporary social responses to death and morality. The use of these

various approaches to understanding dark tourism may be due to the diverse range of sites which

fall under the term, each with differing characteristics, albeit all with the common defining feature

of being sites of death, horror, and tragedy. These various forms of dark tourism will now be

introduced, with both the diverse range of dark tourism sites and commonalities of such sites

discussed.

18

2.2.2 Forms of dark tourism

Dark tourism has been called ‗place-specific tourism‘ (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a, p. 4),

whereby an individual‘s experiences are highly dependent on the particular characteristics and

associations of a site. In turn, a visitor‘s experiences at the site of a former prison, for example, and

the associated reproductions of the way prisoners lived, the food they ate and so on, may differ from

a visitor‘s experiences at a former battlefield.

As such, several researchers have classified dark tourism sites according to their defining

characteristics. Smith (1998) developed two main classificatory categories: primary sites (for

example, holocaust camps or the sites of celebrity deaths); and secondary sites (for example, sites

commemorating tragedy and death). Similarly, Miles (2002) proposed a darker-lighter tourism

paradigm in which there remains a distinction between ‗dark‘ and ‗darker‘ tourism according to the

greater, or lesser extent of the macabre and the morose; for this researcher, dark tourism sites

remain ‗sites associated with death, disaster and depravity‘, while darker tourism sites are ‗the sites

of death, disaster and depravity‘ (Miles, 2002, p. 1175). In this way, the sites of the holocaust, for

example, can be divided into dark and darker tourism when it comes to their authenticity and scope

of interpretation. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. is associated

with death, and thus categorised a dark tourism site only, whereas the site of Auschwitz-Birkenau in

Poland possesses a unique location authenticity as a former concentration and extermination camp,

and thus site of darker tourism.

On the basis of the dark tourism paradigm of Miles (2002), Stone (2006) proposed a spectrum of

dark tourism supply which classifies sites according to their perceived features, and from these, the

degree or ‗shade‘ of darkness (darkest to lightest) with which they can be characterised (see Figure

2.2). This spectrum has seven types of ‗dark tourism suppliers‘, ranging from ‗Dark Fun Factories‘

as the lightest, to ‗Dark Camps of Genocide‘ as the darkest. A specific example of the lightest

suppliers would be ‗dungeon attractions‘, such as the Black Death or Jack the Ripper establishments

in the United Kingdom, or ‗planned ventures‘ such as Dracula Park in Romania. In contrast,

examples of the darkest sites include ‗genocide sites‘ in Rwanda, Cambodia, or Kosovo, as well as

‗holocaust sites‘ such as Auschwitz-Birkenau.

19

Figure 2.2: A dark tourism spectrum proposed by Stone (2006)

Despite the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism sites, however, it has also been recognised

that there remain similarities (in visitor type or motivation for example) in visitor experiences,

regardless of the type of site. The following section sets out those characteristics of dark tourism

which appear common to all sites and visitor experiences of such sites.

2.2.3 Characteristics of dark tourism

Dark tourism has several distinctive characteristics when compared with all other forms of tourism;

these include the impact of the media on tourist experience; moral issues in the development of dark

tourism sites; and the ramifications of these when it comes to commercial activities and

interpretation of the site. Each of these characteristics can be outlined as follows.

2.2.3.1 Media

Several studies have described the impact of the media on tourist experiences of dark tourism

attractions or sites. Lennon and Foley (2000) argue that the media plays a major role in generating

Site of death and

suffering

Higher political

influence & ideology

Education orientation

Historic centric

(conservation/commemorative)

Perceived authentic

product interpretation

Location authenticity

Shorter time-scale from

the event

Supply

(Non-purposefulness)

Lower tourism

infrastructure

Site associated of

death and suffering

Higher political

influence & ideology

Environment orientation

Heritage centric

(commercial/romanticism)

Perceived inauthentic

product interpretation

Non-location authenticity

Longer time-scale from

the event

Supply

(Purposefulness)

Higher tourism

infrastructure

Darkest Darker Dark Light Lighter Lightest

20

initial interest in such sites, and shaping perception of the events associated with such sites. Blom

(2000) argues that the media creates images or symbols by focusing on and describing the tragic

events, regions, places, or phenomena associated with a site, which as images or symbols

subsequently affect visitor experiences. Key examples of these include the assassination of John F.

Kennedy in 1963, or more recent events such as the destruction of the World Trade Centre in 2001

or the Haiti earthquake of 2010, all of which captured significant attention worldwide and continue

to be of interest to many (Foley & Lennon, 1996; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Stone, 2009a; Walter,

2009).

In turn, an individual may already have formed a perception of the events at such sites from news or

other media coverage, and may want to confirm or explore these perceptions through actual

visitation to the site of events. In this respect, an individual‘s perception of the site or events directly

influences their experience of the site, which may in turn make it more difficult for the site itself to

manage its representation. The work of Strange and Kempa (2003) effectively demonstrated the

impact of the media on dark tourism experiences by examining visitor experiences in two different

prison museums: Alcatraz in the United States, and Robben Island in South Africa. These

investigators found that while Hollywood movies such as The Rock, The Birdman of Alcatraz, or

Escape from Alcatraz have continuously stimulated desires to visit Alcatraz, the image of a

notorious and cruel prison created obstacles for site management to provide visitors with the

education and interpretation of the ‗real‘ Alcatraz.

On the other hand, in some cases a medium such as film can also enhance visitor experiences, and

effectively assist with the exhibition and interpretation of events. To illustrate this, Lennon and

Foley (2000) discussed the movie Titanic and its relation to the actual sinking of the ship in 1912.

The sinking of the Titanic was reported worldwide by news media at the time, and subsequently

presented in movie form in cinemas in 1958 and 1997, both based on survivors‘ stories. With

advances in marine technology the Titanic could, by the late twentieth century, also be located and

artefacts from it salvaged. The interpretation and exhibition of the Titanic disaster in this way has

been significantly influenced by technology.

Hence while only a small number of papers have discussed the role of the media in influencing

visitor perceptions of dark tourism sites, it remains clear that the media, and particularly film can

stimulate an initial interest in visitation to a site, and thus positively affect visitor experiences. In

addition, the media has also contributed to the development of tourist destinations in other ways, as

addressed in the following section.

21

2.2.3.2 Tourism development and the commercialisation of sites

It remains apparent that the number of visitors to dark tourism sites has been steadily increasing, a

product partly it seems of the constant recreation of events through film, television, and text, all of

which remind and develop an interest in the darker episodes of human history (Dann, 2005; Lennon

& Foley, 2000; Rojek, 1993). However, making such sites engaging or ‗entertaining‘, and thus

‗commercialising‘ them in some way, is for many unacceptable (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a).

Hence one of the controversial issues related to dark tourism is that of commercialisation or

commodification which can at times accompany the educational aspects of a visit (Lennon & Foley,

2000; Seaton, 2009; Stone, 2009a). Importantly, this commodification may be considered as

comprising three core issues: financial transactions in relation to a site; stakeholders and economic

benefits derived from the commercialisation of sites; and the impact of commodification on the sites

themselves (Seaton, 2009).

In dark tourism or thananatourism, the reason given for the existence of certain sites is purely

educational and as a memorial to past events; in turn, tourism activities may not be acceptable

inside or outside of the site (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a). Nevertheless, commercial activities

related to tourism – such as retailing souvenirs, restaurants, and accommodation – could feasibly

occur in the vicinity of such sites (Seaton, 2009; Sharpley & Stone, 2009a). For instance, the

holocaust sites at Auschwitz in Poland do not allow any economic activities related to tourism,

given the purpose of the site is largely for the education of visitors. However, commercial activities

related to tourism can be seen outside of the camp itself, and in the immediate vicinity (just outside

of the main entrance to Auschwitz I for instance), in the form of a range of private retail units

including fast food stands, booksellers, postcard sellers, film stores and so on (Lennon & Foley,

2000). Essentially, such economic activity is triggered by and a response to increases in the number

of visitors to this important dark tourism site. Furthermore, and in contrast, some sites can it seems

accept tourism activities inside of the sites themselves in order to generate funds to maintain the site,

and to provide improved facilities for visitors. These sites charge an admission fee, and often

include a shop providing a range of souvenirs. Examples of these include Checkpoint Charlie in

Berlin, the museums of Gandhi and Martin Luther King, as well as Tiananmen Square in Beijing

(Lennon & Foley, 2000).

Dark tourism may also be considered a form of special interest tourism (Braithwaite & Lee, 2006;

Lennon & Foley, 2000; Light, 2000), appearing to attract particularly strong interest among more

educated, and often affluent segments of the tourism market (Braithwaite & Lee, 2006). However,

the number of people travelling to dark tourism sites remains relatively small compared with that of

22

other alternative forms of tourism, such as ecotourism or cultural tourism for example. Lennon and

Foley (2000) point out that for a significant number of people, visiting a site is not the sole or main

reason for their trip. In turn, it remains difficult to create a lucrative niche market of dark tourists

who can be targeted by carriers and package holiday companies. Lennon and Foley (2000) further

suggest that regardless of geographical factors, only large cities may have a sufficient tourism

demand base to allow this particular niche market to be developed. However, this may also depend

upon the scale of tragedy involved; for instance, Auschwitz is located in a small town in regional

Poland, however, is well visited. In this respect, dark tourism sites are marketable if they are

notorious; if the perpetrators of the death and suffering associated with the site were especially cruel;

if the historic regime was manifestly unjust; or if those who suffered were famous (Tunbridge &

Ashworth, 1996, pp. 104-105). Furthermore, Strange and Kempa (2003) note that if the presentation

and public commemoration of previous destructive events has a long history, its growth as a

commercialised attraction in recent decades is also more notable. Former sites of incarceration in

turn – given these were to some extent state-sanctioned centres of punishment, pain and privation –

are among the most popular.

2.2.3.3 Interpretation

Interpretation is defined as ‗a set of information–focused communication activities, designed to

facilitate a rewarding visitor experience‘ (Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008, p. 239), and has been

discussed as the primary means of communication between a site and its visitors (Sharpley & Stone,

2009a; Wight & Lennon, 2007). Importantly, interpretation plays a crucial role in sites or attractions

which reflect terrible events, given that without interpretation such sites may be meaningless to

visitors (Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008). In other words, effective interpretation of such sites

remains essential to enhance visitor experiences, and fulfil the need for understanding and meaning

(Sharpley & Stone, 2009a).

It has also been claimed that interpretation in such sites should employ the notion of ‗hot

interpretation‘ as proposed by Uzzell (1989), which focuses on the emotional or affective dimension,

or ‗hot cognition‘ of human beings leading to a subjective or emotional interpretation of the past.

This is because war and conflict tend to be emotional subjects which elicit strong emotional

responses. Furthermore, according to Uzzell and Ballantyne (1998), the function of hot

interpretation is twofold. The first concerns the touristic function of hot interpretation, whereby the

interpretation can convey the meaning and significance of the heritage of people, places, events, and

artefacts to tourists. The second reflects a community development function where the

23

interpretation can be used proactively and politically; this latter was relayed in detail in Ballantyne

and Uzzell (1993), who focused on the role of hot interpretation in facilitating community healing

in post-apartheid South Africa. In short, while South Africa emerges from the trauma of its racial

past, a hot interpretation approach to District Six in Cape Town can be a useful vehicle to promoting

community reconciliation given the forced removals which arose from the Group Areas Act, 1950.

The significance of the events in the area of District Six means the interpretation must acknowledge

and deal with the strong emotions which surround it (Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008; Uzzell &

Ballantyne, 1998). Likewise, in other dark tourism sites such as the site of Checkpoint Charlie in

Berlin, the significance and reality of the stories of the area and its people emotionally affects

visitors and in turn their experiences.

Dark tourism sites also use selective interpretation, which can be defined as ‗the process of creating

multiple constructions of the past whereby history is never an objective recall of the past, but it

rather a selective interpretation, based on the way which we view ourselves in the present‘(Wight &

Lennon, 2007, p. 527). The concept of selective interpretation recognises that interpretation is often

based on the political and cultural agendas of the host destinations and managers. Wight and

Lennon (2007) illustrate also the influence of political power on interpretation, and its effect on

visitor experiences, examining two cases in Lithuania; the Vilna Gaon Lithuanian State Jewish

Museum (VGM), and the Museum of Genocide Victims (MGB). These authors reveal that while

both museums represent similar levels of tragic events, the interpretation of the events differs

significantly in key ways, including, for instance, the use of the word ‗genocide‘ itself. While this

term is often found in the MGB it is hardly ever used in the VGM, given some of the local

population of Lithuania were indeed perpetrators of anti-Semitic murder and cruelty, whilst in the

case of MGB, victims were taken from across the entire population.

Adopting a selective and hot interpretation approach therefore enables dark tourism sites and

attractions to deliver information about a tragic event effectively, and enhance in turn a visitor‘s

experiences. The effect of interpretation on visitor experiences at dark tourism sites can now be

discussed as follows.

2.2.4 Dark tourism experiences

As with other types of special interest tourism, dark tourism provides a special experience for

tourists and visitors which are, in general, both educational and emotional, and in sites such as ones

tied intimately to war, also therapeutic (Braithwaite & Lee, 2006). Importantly, a tourist or visitor‘s

24

experiences can be strongly affected by their reasons and motivations for visiting; their personal

characteristics; and in particular, by their connection to the site or event. The following discusses

some of the key reasons for visiting dark tourism sites, the educational and emotional experiences a

visitor obtains, and the differences in visitor experiences based on a visitor‘s connection to a

particular site.

2.2.4.1 Reasons for visiting dark tourism sites

There are a number of reasons for travelling to dark tourism sites, which most simply can include

curiosity, education, survivor guilt, remembrance, nostalgia, empathy, and horror (Ashworth &

Hartmann, 2005a; Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009; Garwood, 1996; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Miles, 2002;

Smith, 1996). However, theoretical and empirical research investigating visitor motivations for

travelling to dark tourism sites remains limited. For Ashworth and Hartmann (2005a), there are

three core reasons for visiting destinations of tragedy and atrocity – curiosity, empathy, and horror –

whereas other studies suggest additional reasons, including education, remembrance, nostalgia, and

survivor‘s guilt (Garwood, 1996; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Marcuse, 2005; Miles, 2002; Smith, 1996).

Each of these can best be discussed separately as follows.

Curiosity

Many tourists are interested in the unusual and the unique, whether this be a natural phenomenon

(e.g. Niagara Falls), an artistic or historical structure (e.g. the pyramids in Egypt), or spectacular

events (e.g. a royal wedding). Importantly, the reasons why tourists are attracted to dark tourism

sites derive, at least in part, from the same curiosity which motivates a visit to Niagara Falls.

Indeed Ashworth and Hartmann (2005a) argue that visiting dark tourism sites is an out-of-the-

ordinary experience, and thus attractive for its uniqueness and as a means of satisfying human

curiosity. The curiosity tourists have for a dark tourism experience may differ from travelling, for

instance, to a theme park or zoo, with Lennon and Foley (2000) noting that the intention to visit

dark tourism sites is not normally for entertainment, amusement, or enjoyment (even where a visit

is wholly touristic). The main reason is the experience of the unusual.

Empathy

One of the reasons for visiting dark tourism sites may be empathy, which is an acceptable way of

expressing a fascination with horror. Ashworth and Hartmann (2005a) note that empathy relies upon

the capacity of heritage consumers to identify with individual victims of the atrocity in question.

While this identification is assumed to be more with the victims in question, it could equally

25

conceivably be with perpetrators also. In many respects, the interpretation of dark tourism sites can

be difficult and sensitive, given the message of the site as forwarded by exhibition managers can at

times conflict with the understandings of visitors. For instance, site managers may justify a graphic

description as creating empathy with victims, or even helping prevent such events from recurring in

the future. Some visitors, however, may indeed be empathising with the perpetrators themselves,

and be stimulated to replicate the events (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a).

Horror

Horror is regarded as one of the key reasons for visiting dark tourism sites, and in particular, sites of

atrocity. Ashworth and Hartmann (2005a) note that there is a considerable amount of literature, folk

stories, and more recently film and television portrayals of scenes of horror which evoke emotions

of fear and fascination in consumers. Relating atrocity as heritage at a site is thus as entertaining as

any media depiction of a story, and for precisely the same reasons and with the same moral

overtones. Dann (2005) in turn has proposed several tourism products or cases as examples:

‗Murder Trails‘ found in many cities; visiting the haunts of ‗Jack the Ripper‘ or the ‗Boston

Strangler‘; or ‗Ghost Walks‘ around sites of execution, murder, and massacres as staple tourism

products in cities in both the ‗Old World‘ (e.g. York in England) and the new (e.g. St. John‘s,

Newfoundland, in North America).

Education

In much tourism literature it has been claimed that one of the main motivations for travel is the

gaining of knowledge, and the quest for authentic experiences (Cohen, 1988; MacCannell, 1973).

One of the core missions of cultural and heritage tourism in particular is to provide educational

opportunities to visitors through guided tours and interpretation. Similarly, individual visits to dark

tourism sites to gain knowledge, understanding, and educational opportunities, continue to have

intrinsic educational value (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a).

Moreover, a number of sites emphasise the visitors‘ educational expectations in terms of their

capacity to learn from past mistakes; for example, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

in Washington DC; sites related to the Second World War such as the USS Arizona Memorial in

Hawaii and the Bridge over the River Kwai; and the JFK museums in the United States (Henderson,

2000; Lennon & Foley, 2000). In turn, many dark tourism attractions or sites are considered

important destinations for school educational field trips, achieving education through experiential

learning (Marcuse, 2005). Around 30% of British schools undertake tours to battlefields in the

United Kingdom for example (Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009).

26

Nostalgia

Nostalgia can be broadly described as yearning for the past (Dann & Potter, 2001; Smith, 1996), or

as ‗a wistful mood that an object, a scene, a smell or a strain of music‘ evokes (Belk, 1990, p. 670).

Importantly, this remains one of the primary reasons for travelling to heritage parks (Walter, 2009).

In addition however, it has also been recognised as a reason for travelling to dark tourism sites,

although not perhaps a key or central motivation. In this respect Smith (1996) examined war

tourism sites and concluded that ‗old soldiers do go back to the battlefields, to revisit and remember

the days of their youth…one graying veteran summed it up well, ―those of us who have been in

combat share something very special…I simply have to be here, to honour those men‖‘ (pp. 260-

261). In a different sense, and in terms of the sites of plantation slavery in Barbados, Dann and

Potter (2001) note that tourists are ‗yeaning for a past that they can no longer find in their own

social settings. Unable to tolerate their present alienated condition and fearful of the future, they

seek solace in days gone by – a world where it was once possible to distinguish right from wrong,

and correspondingly, pleasure from pain‘ (p. 72).

Remembrance

Remembrance is a vital human activity connecting us to our past, with an important role to play in

shaping our future in turn; in short, the way we remember defines the way we are in the present

(Young, 1993). Remembrance helps people formulate an identity, allowing them to learn from past

mistakes, and to go forward with a clear vision of the future. Young (1993) notes that ‗as

individuals or societies, we need the past to construct and to anchor our identities and to nurture a

vision of the future‘ (p. 9).

In the context of dark tourism, remembrance and memory are considered key elements in the

importance of sites (Lennon & Foley, 2000; Walter, 2009; Young, 1993). Indeed a number of dark

tourism locations have been considered effectively ‗warehouses‘ for memories, with some

mandating remembrance in addition to education as a core aspect of their planning. In particular, for

several sites associated with the holocaust and WWII in Europe cities, commemoration and

remembrance as key reasons for their existence. Likewise, the idea for building the Beth

Hatefutsoth museum in Israel, as proposed by Dr. Goldmann, was for it to be primarily

commemorative thus creating ‗a living memorial of the Jewish Dispersion‘ (Golden, 1996, p. 227).

Several other sites such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C., and

the Holocaust Museum in Houston, were established on similar rationales.

27

In the literature, reverence is identified as a key feature of remembrance at many dark tourism sites.

For example, the USS Arizona Memorial was built as a site of remembrance to the Japanese attack

on Pearl Harbour, around one of the most powerful battleships of the time destroyed in the first

minutes of the attack. For the purposes of the memorial, visitors must first view an interpretive

film before being able to board skiffs to the memorial. Once there, ‗reverence is encouraged by staff

present upon the Memorial structure. Beach–style clothing is not permitted upon the Memorial.

The ship is clearly visible below the water and a viewing well enables visitors to drop flowers onto

the vessel‘s starboard side‘ (Lennon & Foley, 2000, p. 105).

Survivor’s guilt

One of the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism is the type of visitors such sites attract, which

include survivors and victim‘s families returning to the scene of death or disaster. Once again, these

types of visitors are particularly prevalent at sites associated with WWII and the Holocaust. For

many survivors of the horror of war, atrocity, and disaster it seems, returning to the scene is

cathartic and remains a way of unburdening themselves of guilt given their survival. In a study of

the Sandakan experience, Braithwaite and Lee (2006) note that some veterans of war have suffered

acute stress or trauma for prolonged periods, a condition called Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD). One of the diagnoses of PTSD is guilt about their own survival when others did not, or

about the behaviour required for survival. It appears that not only war veterans, but prisoners of war

(POWs) of the Japanese, and Holocaust victims and their families, experience this in particular.

Returning to the scene of death and atrocity can achieve a therapeutic effect by resolving grief; can

build understanding of how terrible things came to have happened; and can be an unselfconsciously

emotional experience (Braithwaite & Lee, 2006).

A study by Niederland (1981) proposed that the survivor syndrome is ‗the after-effects of brutal

persecution, methodical starvation and coercion, cruelty, torture, constant fear and helplessness, and

other types of traumatisation endured by surviving victims of the Nazi concentration camps‘ (p.

413). In describing the central and persistent component of the survivor syndrome in terms of

survivor guilt, Garwood (1996) noted that self-blame – defined as a defensive, omnipotent fantasy

underlying survivor guilt – was an inevitable psychic defence in the traumatic environment created

by the Nazis in particular. He proposed that healing can take place through creative reparation and

memorialisation to facilitate successful mourning; in this respect, survivors or victim‘s families can

gain therapeutic effects by revisiting the sites where survivors experienced torture, cruelty, fear, or

other types of traumatisation.

28

Such reasons for visiting dark tourism sites or attractions can in turn influence visitors‘ on-site

experiences. Dark tourism literature frequently refers to dark tourism experiences as both

educational and emotional in nature. Since many dark tourism attractions are established to convey

important messages to people, visitor experiences are often related to gain of knowledge of the past

event (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a; Henderson, 2000; Lennon & Foley, 2000). This type of

visitor experience can of course also be found in other cultural heritage or ecotourism attractions,

whilst not including many of the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism. For this research the

focus of visitors‘ dark touristic experiences will largely concern emotional experiences, as discussed

in the following section.

2.2.4.2 Emotional experiences

One of the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism is that sites offer highly emotional experiences

to visitors (Shackley, 2001). As Strange and Kempa (2003) reported for instance, ‗Robben Island

engenders strong, positive emotive responses among tourists, particularly those of respect and

admiration for prisoners who endured and overcame maltreatment‘ (p. 401). Miles (2002) also

argues that to be successful a dark tourism attraction needs to offer high emotional experiences

which engender empathy among visitors.

In general, the emotional experiences at dark tourism attractions and sites evoke negative emotions

among visitors, which can include fear, horror, sadness, depression, empathy, sympathy, feelings of

vengeance, and so on. Krakover (2005) reports that the most frequently selected emotion visitors

use to describe their feelings at the memorial site of Yad Vashen in Israel was ‗sadness (56.6%)‘,

followed by ‗thoughtfulness (50.6%)‘. Visitors also reported feeling ‗anger (43.4%)‘, ‗melancholy

(13.3%)‘ and ‗revenge (8.4%)‘. Marcuse (2005) also noted that the horror associated with Holocaust

experiences differs, for instance, from a short horror story presented in Disneyland, given the

former relates to real events almost wholly devoid of positive associations. In contrast, other dark

tourism sites, such as ‗dark fun factories‘ for example, can better be classified ‗lighter‘ shade dark

tourism according to Stone‘s (2006) conceptual taxonomy, with a focus on entertainment and

combination of both real and fictional death and the macabre. In this respect, the sense of shock,

horror, or fear in such attractions differs qualitatively from those evoked at Holocaust locations

(Stone, 2009b).

Visitors‘ emotional experiences are likely to be enhanced by interpretation, along with the

authenticity of the site visited. Interpretation at sites may include the exhibition of artefacts related

29

to events of the past, and a guide‘s explanation of the event. A guided tour is particularly effective

for reinforcing a visitor‘s emotional experiences, above all if the guide is a survivor of the tragic

events, or a relation of the victim or survivor (Shackley, 2001; Uzzell, 1989). Shackley (2001)

examined tourism in Robben Island, South Africa, and reported that despite the poor facilities in the

prison visitors generally exhibited high levels of satisfaction with their experience, above all for

specific items such as the ‗Cell Stories‘ exhibition that includes recorded voices and photographs to

recount the stories of particular inmates. She also noted that some of the guides in the prison were

former political prisoners recounting their own stories of prison life. This enhanced visitors‘

emotional experiences and generated an authentic ‗spirit of place‘ (p. 356).

The reinforcement of visitor experiences through authenticity is more effective than the exhibition

of artefacts at a site (Lennon & Foley, 2000); essentially, authenticity and the meaning associated

with a place are regarded as the essential elements in developing a dark tourism attraction (Miles,

2002). In comparing two Holocaust sites in turn – Auschwitz in Poland, and the United States

Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. – the former is relatively undeveloped in terms

of museum facilities and methods of representation, while the latter claims to be the epitome of

technological sophistication with respect to Holocaust memorialisation (Miles, 2002). However,

because of the atrocities committed there, Auschwitz has become a notorious, almost universal

symbol of crime and suffering, and thus potent vehicle for imparting historical knowledge while

commensurately engendering empathy between visitors and former victims. Auschwitz, therefore,

exhibits locational authenticity which evokes unparalleled emotion through both its location and its

name (Miles, 2002).

2.2.4.3 Tourist experiences and their connection to a site

In several dark tourism studies, tourist and visitor experiences have been shown to differ

significantly depending on their connection to, or alternately familiarity with a site or to the tragic

events associated with it.

Some dark tourism sites can indeed receive two quite different types of visitors: those with a strong

connection to the site or tragic events to which it relates (e.g. survivors, victim‘s families, relatives

or friends, or veterans); and secondly, those who travel to the site for the purposes of leisure.

Writing on the enigma of Holocaust sites as tourism attractions, Beech (2000) found that visitors to

the former concentration camp in Buchenwald, Germany are segmented into two groups: visitors

with some connection to the camp, that is survivors, relatives of inmates, or those who identify with

30

inmates in terms of their shared heritage, notably Jewish schoolchildren; and second general visitors

with no direct or indirect connection. The visitor experiences of those connected to the sites had

considerably more personal commitment, intention, and involvement than general visitors with no

direct or indirect connection (Beech, 2000; Lennon & Foley, 2000). Beech (2000) also pointed out

that although both types of visitors generally have learning experiences at the site, the commitment

to the camp between the two visitor types is different; in sum, while the general visitor may be

regarded as a leisure traveller, the visitor with some connection to the camp showed much higher

commitment to it and to the experience.

Significant differences in visitor experiences of former slavery heritage sites in the United Kingdom

were also found to align with visitor race. Beech (2001, p. 102) noted that ‗white Britons….are

visitors in unconscious denial, or to put it more bluntly, in a state of ignorance, while black Britons,

most born and brought up in Britain, who identify with the slaves and see them as part of their

heritage‘.

Similar findings were revealed in a study of the District Six Museum in Cape Town, South Africa.

Ballantyne (2003) examined visitor experiences in the museum and found significant differences

between international and domestic visitors in reasons for visiting, including expectations of the

visit, emotional experiences, and learning experiences. The initial interest of overseas visitors was

to acquire an understanding of the impact of apartheid on the lives of South African people, and

they expected to see artefacts, memorabilia, and photographs that would give them a deeper

understanding of what had happened in District Six. In contrast, the interest of domestic visitors

was to learn about the historical and cultural significance of the site, with the expectation also of

seeing personal artefacts such as clothing, household items, and furniture. In relation to emotional

experiences, international visitors were impressed by the displays, which they reported touched

them personally and enabled them to share some of the emotion associated with the history of

District Six, whereas domestic visitors did not report the same level of emotional impact as

international visitors though they did appreciate them. With regard to self-reported learning,

international visitors referred to a greater understanding of apartheid, while domestic visitors

reported that they had learned about the life, culture, and community spirit of District Six.

In terms of war-related attractions, Braithwaite and Lee (2006) explored visitor experiences in the

Sandakan camp site. Visitors to Sandakan included veterans of the conflict (in a military or civilian

capacity), friends or relatives of veterans, persons associated with similar experiences elsewhere, or

compatriots familiar with the story. Some of the visitors were also Japanese travellers and former

31

enemies of veterans. In this study, while visitors could be segmented into two groups – victim and

perpetrator – both had intimate connection to the site. Their purpose for visiting the site and their

experiences were similar, however, involving emotions, understanding, and forgiveness, and

ultimately a sense of reconciliation.

Such studies indicate that the purpose of a trip to a dark tourism site, the expectations of the visit,

the emotional and learning experiences, and the level of commitment to the dark tourism site or

event, can differ significantly depending on a visitor‘s connection to or familiarity with the site or

event it represents. However, not all dark tourism attractions have such clear demarcation in visitors

based on connection to a site. In some cases, such as prison tourism, many visitors do not have any

connection to a site, with Strange and Kempa (2003) noting that reasons for visiting such sites may

be derived more from a desire to experience the ‗dark side of human nature‘. The purpose of a

leisure trip to a former prison and visitor experiences of such a prison (e.g. Alcatraz) are in turn

highly dependent on visitors‘ perceived images derived from film and the media (e.g. The Rock).

As can be seen, in dark tourism consumption an individual‘s connection to a site greatly influences

their experience of the site, with such personal connection or relationship inviting incorporation of

the concept of involvement. Essentially, visitors who have a personal relation to a site or tragic

event may have higher levels of involvement than those who travel to the site for ‗leisure‘.

Similarly, a visitor who is directly connected to a site may have a closer personal relevance to the

site than those indirectly connected to the site. In this respect, personal connection to a site can be

measured through an involvement profile.

Prior to examining the concept of involvement, this section has sought to discuss the concept of

‗experience‘ in order to conceptualise tourist or visitor psychological experiences at dark tourism

sites. Since dark tourism has been studied from a tourism perspective for around a decade only, the

majority of dark tourism experiences relate to exploring the phenomenon of dark tourism, as

opposed to conducting empirical research of dark touristic experiences with a theoretical basis. In

turn, it remains necessary to review the concept of experience in order to identify an appropriate

theory of dark tourist experiences from tourists‘ perspective.

To achieve this, the following two sections discuss the concepts of experience and involvement as

they relate to understanding dark tourism experiences. This begins with a general overview of

experience, including the definitions of experience and experiential elements, and goes on to

provide several models of consumer experience. Previous applications of the model which will

32

feature at the core of this investigation are also discussed.

2.3 Experience

In the broadest terms, experience as a concept has been discussed in numerous academic studies.

Through a review of the literature, this section examines how experience is conceptualised in

general terms, and turn, in tourism literature in particular. To begin with, it addresses various

definitions of experience and experiential elements in wider academic studies, before examining

theoretical approaches to experience in specific tourism and leisure literature. Secondly, the value of

experience from perspective of experience providers and the consumer is examined together with

five models of experience from a tourist‘s perspective. Of these models, a hierarchical model – the

benefits-based approach – is adopted in order to understand visitor experiences at dark tourism sites,

and its application justified through an examination of particularly relevant literature in the fields of

tourism, leisure, and recreation.

2.3.1 Definition of experience

There are many definitions of experience in academic literature. Several philosophers for example

view experience as ‗the source of our knowledge of the world‘ (Fortier, 1999, p. 1). According to

the Oxford Dictionary (1995, p 404), experience can be defined as ‗the process of gaining

knowledge or skill over a period of time through seeing and doing things rather than through

studying, or an event or activity that affects one in some way‘.

Such definitions of experience, however, require further definition for research purposes given they

do not encompass key aspects of experience referred to in fields of experiential marketing,

consumer behaviour, environmental psychology, education, and tourism. In discussing experiential

marketing, Schmitt (1999, p. 57) defined experience as ‗a result of encountering, undergoing or

living through things. These experiences provide sensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioural, and

relational values that replace functional values‘. In the service literature, Gupta and Vajic (2000, p.

35) describe experience as ‗any sensation or knowledge acquisition resulting from a person‘s

participation in daily activities‘. In some tourism and leisure literature, experience has been

defined as ‗the subjective mental state felt by participants‘ (Otto & Ritchie, 1996, p. 166), or the

‗mental, spiritual and physiological outcomes resulting from on-site recreation engagements‘

(Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000, p. 37). Examination of various definitions of experience, as shown in

Table 2.1, indicates that experience is generally described as either mental, psychological, spiritual,

33

emotional, or learning outcomes the result of a person‘s participation in activities.

For the purpose of this study, experience refers to any outcome the result of a person‘s participation

in tourism or recreational activities at an attraction. These outcomes can be beneficial to an

individual and society in general.

Table 2.1: Definitions of experience

Experience Sources *Elements

E S L P

The process of gaining knowledge or skill over a period of time through

seeing and doing things rather than through studying

An event or activity that affects one in some way

Oxford English

Dictionary

Engaging in an experience involves progression over time, anticipation,

emotional involvement, a uniqueness that makes it stand out from the

ordinary, and it reaches some sort of completion.

(Dewey, 1963)

Tourism experience as the relationship between a person and a variety of

―centre‖ by illuminating that the meaning of the experience is derived from

a person‘s worldview, depending on whether the person adheres to a

―centre.‖

(Cohen, 1979a, p.

181)

Consumption experience must be viewed as an emergent property that

results from the inter-relationships and overlaps among person,

environment, thought, emotion, activity, and value.

(Dillon, 1986, p. 236)

An experience is a "takeaway" impression formed by people's encounters

with products, services, and businesses—a perception produced when

humans consolidate sensory information.

(Carbone & Haeckel,

1994, p. 9)

Experience: the aggregate and cumulative customer perception created

during the process of learning about, acquiring, using, maintaining, and

(sometimes) disposing of a product or service.

(Carbone & Haeckel,

1994, p. 18)

The 'experience' of leisure and tourism can be described as the subjective

mental state felt by participants.

(Otto & Ritchie,

1996, p. 166)

Experiences occur as a result of encountering, undergoing or living through

things. These experiences provide sensory, emotional, cognitive,

behavioural, and relational values that replace functional values.

(Schmitt, 1999, p. 57)

An experience is created when ―a company intentionally uses services as

the stage and goods as props, to engage individual customers in a way that

creates a memorable event.‖

(Pine & Gilmore,

1999, p. 98)

Experience can refer to any sensation or knowledge acquisition resulting

from a person‘s participation in daily activities.

(Gupta & Vajic, 2000,

p. 35)

Experience can be defined as ‗mental, spiritual and physiological

outcomes‘ resulting from on-site recreation engagements.

(Schänzel &

McIntosh, 2000, p.

37)

Experience is the outcome of participation in a set of activities within a

social context. (Smith, 2003, p. 233)

Service experience can be defined as the subjective personal reactions and

feelings that are felt by consumers when consuming or using a service.

(Chen & Chen, 2010,

p. 29)

* Experiential element: Emotion (E), Subjective (S), Learning (L), Person’s participation in activities or events (P)

Source: the production of this thesis (2010)

34

2.3.2 Experiential elements

As Table 2.1 shows, an analysis of definitions of experience identifies four common experiential

elements, revealed through the use of synonymous terms (although some definitions may include

more than four elements). These elements are emotion, subjectivity, learning, and personal

participation. In the definition of experience by Gupta and Vajic (2000, p. 35) for instance, four

experiential elements are predominant; namely, an ‗individual sensation‘ (emotional elements)

involving ‗knowledge acquisition‘ (learning elements), resulting from participating in activities

(personal participation), and differing from one another (subjectivity).

At its core, all experience is subjective and involves emotion, and is thus personal, in the sense that

it varies from one individual to another (Holbrook, 1999). These characteristics of experience have

been particularly emphasised by researchers interested in experiential marketing (Lofman, 1991;

Schmitt, 1999) and hedonic consumption (Addis & Holbrook, 2001; Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982).

In discussing experiential marketing, Schmitt (1999) has argued that consumers are both rational

and emotional beings, meaning that while consumers may engage in rational choice, they are just as

frequently driven by emotions given consumption involves the pursuit of fun, fantasy, and feelings

(Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). Such an experiential view has been applied in a number of ways,

including product development, advertising, and marketing strategies. For example, developing the

aesthetics of products (as in the case of luxury products) can be a kind of marketing strategy

concerned with consumer experience (Schmitt, 1999). Hedonic product-related experiences,

including entertainment or art in general, movies, books, plays, and television shows in particular,

are also all concerned with consumers‘ emotional and subjective responses.

Secondly, experiences require the involvement or participation of the individual given consumer

experience can be directly, or indirectly influenced by the physical and social environment. Several

geographical and environmental psychological studies have attempted to understand individuals‘

subjective and emotional experiences in the context of places, spaces, and landscapes (Li, 2000;

Relph, 1976; Tuan, 1977, 1989), and the physical and social context more generally (Bitner, 1992;

Gupta & Vajic, 2000; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994). Li (2000) further pointed out that the

experience of place, spaces, and landscape, whether pleasant or unpleasant, are the substance of

involvement in the world, and constitute the phenomenological basis of geographical consciousness

which arises from special and temporal bonds between people and places. This idea of geographical

consciousness can be seen in several studies, including the core studies of Tuan (1977, 1989)

concerned with the experience of space, place, surface phenomena, and the aesthetic experience of

nature and culture. Ralph (1976) also sought geographical patterns to the immediate experience of

35

human life.

In environmental psychology, experience can be an outcome of participation in a set of activities

within a physical and social context. For Gupta and Vajic (2000, p. 34) in turn, context when it

comes to experience remains ‗the physical settings and arrangements of product, the world of

objects and social actors and the rules and procedures for social interactions with other customers

and service facilities‘. In a service experience, consumers are simultaneously involved in a service

delivery process while they consume, and it is during this process that a consumer‘s experience is

influenced by the physical setting of the service establishment. Empirical research by Donovan and

Rossiter (1982) in turn documented an environment‘s ability to change consumer emotions, and

thereby affect behaviours which drive retail and service provider performance. Positive effects

encourage consumers to stay longer and interact more with other employees. Similarly, the study of

Wakefield and Blodgett (1994) lent further support for the importance of the ‗servicescape‘ (built

environment, or man-made physical surroundings); in short, when consumers perceive the

servicescape to be of high quality they experience a high level of excitement, and hence satisfaction.

Like the physical context, social context also plays a key role affecting consumer experience.

Indeed Gupta and Vajic (2000) argued that as experience emerges from an individual‘s participation

in daily practices and social activities, knowledge, preferences, and tastes are simultaneously

formed in social situations. In other words then, people‘s thinking and activities are shaped by

existing organisational practices, institutional norms, and the social organisation of work, at the

same time as their personal and social activities generate their experiences. As experience is context

dependent it therefore remains vital for the experience provider to design the setting (e.g. physical

environment, tool, or objects) to facilitate activities, and to train guides to familiarise customers

with rules and norms, to encourage social interaction, and to help customers find their way through

the environment (Gupta & Vajic, 2000).

The next experiential element is learning, something particularly emphasised by education

researchers. Experience is considered a foundation for and source of learning, with personal

learning experiences lending powerful lessons to the learning experience (Boud, Cohen, & Walker,

1993). In Dewey‘s work, experience included both ‗having‘ and ‗knowing‘, with ‗having‘ referring

to the immediacy of contact with the event of life, and knowing pointing to the interpretation of the

event (Dewey, 1958). An experience is a meaningful event in turn, and not merely ‗an observation,

a passive undergoing of something, but an active engagement with the environment, of which the

learner is an important part‘ (Boud, Cohen, & Walker, 1993, p. 6).

36

Dewey (1963) also argued in the context of progressive education that people can learn more by

experiences than by textbooks. This may refer to the importance of informal learning, which occurs

incidentally and unintentionally through exposure to one‘s environment and day-to-day experiences.

It is also characterised as unstructured and unsystematic (Packer, 2004). This type of learning can

be commonly seen in a leisure setting, where individuals learn through exposure and interaction in

the context created by a service provider (Gupta & Vajic, 2000). Hence experience in a leisure

setting can be regarded as a type of informal learning (Packer, 2004).

Experience can therefore be considered a complex of four experiential elements. Individuals may

learn, or have emotional and subjective responses simultaneously from interaction with an

environment or context. In this sense therefore, focusing on only one of the experiential elements

may not be appropriate to understanding consumer experience. Not surprisingly, several researchers

suggest other approaches to understanding complicated consumer experience (Addis & Holbrook,

2001; Holbrook, 1999; Schmitt, 1999). In turn, Schmitt (1999) notes that the ultimate goal of

experiential marketing is to create holistic experiences which integrate individual experiences to

create a holistic ‗gestalt‘. Such a holistic perspective in turn explains that product usage is closely

tied to the rest of a consumer‘s world; namely, to a person‘s feelings, to other products, to the

person‘s relationships, to their surrounding society, and to the consumer‘s whole life world

otherwise (Holbrook, 1999). Experience, therefore, depends not only on a single product, but also

its holistic interaction with various other products as part of a consumption system (Addis &

Holbrook, 2001). This holistic approach to experience is also apparent in tourism and leisure

literature, whereby tourism in itself is considered the experience per se (McIntosh, 1999; Quan &

Wang, 2004). In turn, the following section surmises consumer and tourist experiences in terms of

the conceptualisation of experience within tourism literature in particular.

2.3.3 Tourism as experience

Tourism is considered an experience across several streams of academic thought, however much the

types of experiences they characterise differ. Dunn Ross and Iso-Ahola (1991) asserted that tourism

is a social and psychological experience, while Quan and Wang (2004) viewed tourism as one of the

pioneer sectors in the experience economy, with the experience of attractions regarded as a part of

the total consumption of tourism products. Prentice, Witt and Claire (1998), in an examination of

the heritage tourism experience, further argued that the core product of heritage tourism is the

beneficial experience gained, which similarly may be the ultimate outcome of dark tourism also.

Other researchers also describe tourism as involving other types of experience, including the quest

37

for authentic experience (MacCannell, 1976), a superficial experience (the ‗tourist gaze‘) (Urry,

2002), or as a ‗flow‘ experience (Csikszentmihalyi & Crikszentmih, 1988).

These varying views of experience derive from the differing research approaches to tourist

experiences and the changing notions of tourist experience over the past five decades. Academic

interest in the tourist experience began ostensibly during the 1960s, with a key research issue

concerning the motivation or meanings participants assign to their experience in everyday life

(Uriely, 2005). The early conceptualisation of the tourist experience emphasised its differentiation

from everyday life; in turn, the quest for authenticity (MacCannell, 1976), for novelty and

strangeness (Cohen, 1979b), and the escape from everyday stressors (Redfoote, 1984) have all been

representative ways of describing tourist experience outcomes as opposed to experiences in

everyday life.

Such a conceptualisation of tourist experience, however, was challenged during the 1990s by

scholars attempting to introduce the perspective of postmodern tourism into tourism studies (Lash

& Urry, 1994; Urry, 1990). Lash and Urry (1994) in turn conceptualised ‗the end of tourism‘

whereby the distinction between the tourist experience and everyday life qualitatively decreases.

Urry (1990) previously argued that tourism experiences which include the enjoyment of gazing at

distant sights, and the pleasure of engaging in aspects of other cultures, were increasingly accessible

in various contexts in everyday life. For instance, attraction experiences can be enjoyed via video or

virtual reality displays within private homes. In addition, many tourist-related experiences have also

become available without the necessity of travel to separate destinations; visiting museums, theme

parks, or national parks near an individual‘s home are all examples of such newer tourist-related

experiences. Consequently, as Lash and Urry (1994) pointed out, people are tourists most of the

time, whether they are taking a vacation or conducting daily activities.

The subjective perspective has also emerged as a key recent research trend. Uriely (2005) argues

that the focus of tourist experience as a diverse phenomenon has shifted, from the displayed object

provided by the industry to the tourist subjective negotiation of meanings as a determinant of the

experience. This shift is evident in various studies, such as those dealing with authenticity, or the

emerging research area of heritage tourism. In turn, the meaning of an authentic experience has

changed from an objective notion of authentic experience, as exists in the literature (objective or

constructive authenticity), to that of an existential authenticity referring to a special state of being in

which one is true to oneself (Wang, 1999). The emerging research area of heritage tourism also

describes tourist experiences based on a tourist‘s perspective, such as which beneficial experiences

38

the tourist acquired from their heritage visit (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh, 1999; Prentice,

Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998).

The tourism and leisure literature is here considered to have applied three distinct theoretical and

empirical approaches to investigating tourism and leisure experiences: the definitional approach,

immediate conscious experience approach, and post-hoc satisfaction approach. Each of these

approaches can help researchers understand the subjective perspective of participants, however,

they also differ in the way they treat and conceptualise their perspective (Mannell & Iso-Ahola,

1987). As this study has adapted one of these approaches in particular, it remains necessary to

examine the different features of each to account for this selection.

In the context of definitional research, experience has been used to describe the meaning of leisure

and tourism activities and events. A number of leisure studies have employed definitional research

to understand the phenomenology, dimensionality, and characteristics of leisure pursuits, and the

risks represented by various activities (Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993; Unger & Kernan, 1983). For

example, in exploring high-risk consumption through skydiving, Celsi et al. (1993) found that the

meaning of skydiving to the participants included the feeling of communitas; that is ‗a sense of

camaraderie that occurs when individuals from various walks of life share a common bond of

experience‘, or special communication, or ‗phatic communion‘ (pp. 11-12). In tourism, scholars

have also sought to describe the symbolic or cognitive representation of travel (Otto & Ritchie,

1996), attempting to understand the act of travel in a psychological sense where the important

aspect of the tourism experiences is ‗the individual‘s cognition and feelings about the experience

being undertaken‘ (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991, p. 227).

Immediate conscious experience research focuses on the actual, on-site, real-time nature of the

experience, with conscious experience an experience of the present moment. From this approach,

the anatomy of the experience, its intensity, duration, memorability, and meaning are subjected to

scientific analysis (Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987). The ‗flow‘ is also recognised as the core of leisure

experience, and the central elements of flow experiences identified as the centring of attention, and

becoming totally involved in the activity at hand (Csikszentmihalyi & Crikszentmih, 1988; Mannell

& Iso-Ahola, 1987).

Post-hoc satisfaction research focuses on motivation, satisfaction, and the outcomes associated with

tourism experiences (Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987). The experience in this research stream is

generally explained by a two-dimensional theory of leisure motivation, based on two motivational

39

forces simultaneously influencing an individual‘s leisure and tourist behaviour (Iso-Ahola, 1982).

These two motivational forces are, firstly, to escape routine and stressful environments; and

secondly, to seek recreational opportunities for certain psychological rewards (Mannell & Iso-Ahola,

1987). This theory in the context of tourism means that the psychological benefits of the leisure

travel experience emanate from the interplay of escaping and seeking dimensions. Several tourism

studies, and in particular heritage or museum studies, have adopted this approach to investigate the

sociological and/or psychological benefits derived from experiences in heritage or museum settings

(Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993).

From this examination of the notion of tourist experience, and the various research approaches to its

study, tourism experience can be recognised as subjective, and accessible in various contexts of

everyday life (Uriely, 2005). As aforementioned, three approaches have been formulated over time

for investigating tourist experience, which differ in the ways they approach and conceptualise this

subjective tourist experience. Definitional approaches, based on phenomenology, focus on the act of

travel in a psychological sense, whereas immediate conscious experience concerns the present

moment of tourist experience, such as the actual, on-site, real-time nature of the experience. The

post-hoc satisfaction approach describes the overall evaluation of experience by comparing tourist

motivation with the actual experience of tourism sites; this latter has been used in cultural heritage

tourism experiences concerned with the beneficial experiences or otherwise of visitors.

This thesis also examines tourist or visitor experiences at dark tourism attraction and sites. Since the

dark tourism is a part of heritage tourism and involve negative emotional experiences, the outcomes

of the dark touristic experience are also considered as visitors‘ benefits gained as in heritage tourism

attractions. In turn, a post-hoc satisfaction approach is considered the most appropriate approach for

this study, although the outcome of tourist experiences is not ‗satisfaction‘. The ultimate outcomes

of tourist experience in this investigation are tourist benefits derived from actual experiences. As

tourist benefits are considered the value of consumer experiences, the following can now discuss

the value of experience from both the perspective of the experience provider, and perspective of the

consumer.

2.3.4 The value of experience

It remains evident that consumer experience plays an important role in the economic and social life

of the present. Pine and Gilmore (1999) assert that we are witnessing the emergence of an

‗experiences economy‘ in a number of places. From this point of view, experiences are considered a

40

part of a natural progression from commodities to goods to services, and then to experiences.

Essentially, such authors assert this is a new economic sector distinct from goods and services, and

characterised by memorable events derived from an interaction between the staged event and

individual‘s prior state of mind and being. Companies act as experience stagers to provide

experiences using goods and services which can enrich the sensation created within the consumers.

By charging admission fees to their customers, a company can gain economic value from the

provision of such experiences (Gilmore & Pine, 2002b; Pine & Gilmore, 1998, 1999).

The value derived by experience ‗stagers‘ (companies) differs in important ways from the value of

the experience of consumers. Consumer value refers to ‗the evaluation of some object by some

subject‘ (Holbrook, 1999, p. 5). In this instance, the subject is usually a consumer, and the object a

product such as a manufactured good, service, a holiday destination, or musical concert. What

consumers value is described as an experience, which means consumer value resides not in the

product purchased, nor in the brand chosen or in the object possessed, but rather in the consumer

experience(s) derived from it (Holbrook, 1999). Consumer value is also characterised as interactive

between a consumer and product; personal (varying across people); comparative (involving

preferences among objects); and situational (specific to the context) (Holbrook, 1999). In other

words, a consumer acquires an experience by being engaged in an event, where the value of the

experience further lingers in the memory of an individual. For example, parents spending time at a

theme park with their children can create special experiences by sharing special time with their

family, with the value of experiences further a part of their memory (Pine & Gilmore, 1998, 1999).

In relation to tourism and leisure, consumer value or perceived value is understood ‗as a construct

configured by two parts, one of benefits received (economic, social and/or relational) and another of

sacrifices made (price, time, effort, risk and convenience) by the customer‘ (Sánchez, et al., 2006, p.

395). Tourism and leisure literature focuses on consumer value, and particularly the benefits gained

from experience at particular settings as opposed to the sacrifices made. In turn, the psychological,

social, physical, and environmental benefits derived from recreation engagement have been

empirically examined in several key leisure studies (Ajzen, 1991; Driver, Tinsley, & Manfredo,

1991; Manning, 1999), and heritage tourism empirically investigated to determine the benefits

gained from heritage consumption and museum experiences (McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, 1993b,

1996; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998).

Otto and Richie (1996) have attempted to understand the value of the tourism experience by

evaluating the quality of tourism experiences compared with the quality of service experiences, as

41

can be seen in Table 2.2. These authors argue that the traditional evaluation paradigm is

incommensurable with the tourism service experiences given the subjective and emotional reaction

people experience when consuming a service. The quality of the experience should instead be

evaluated using a holistic approach, with the benefits of tourism experience being experiential,

hedonic, and symbolic.

Table 2.2: Comparison of quality of service (QOS) and quality of experience (QOE)

Framework QOS QOE

Measurement Objective Subjective

Evaluative Models Attribute-based Holistic/ Gestalt

Focus of Evaluation Company/ Service provider /

Service environment (External) Self (Internal)

Scope Specific General

Nature of Benefits Functional/Utilitarian Experiential/Hedonic/ Symbolic

Psychological representation Cognitive/Attitudinal Affective

Source: Otto & Ritchie (1996, p. 169)

In heritage tourism, the value of an experience is understood as a visitor‘s psychological benefits

and emotional reactions (McIntosh & Prentice, 1999) at the attraction (Beeho & Prentice, 1997;

Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998). Beeho and Prentice (1997) have demonstrated that delivering

beneficial experience to visitors via understanding, anticipating, and satisfying pertinent visitor

needs and wants, can be a key way of effectively developing tourist attractions. These researchers

found that the experiences gained by visitors from the heritage park in New Lanark were emotional

and thought provoking and, in the main, constituted an enjoyable educational experience. Similar

results were revealed in the study of Prentice et al. (1993), where visitors gained emotional

experiences and an insight into Rhondda Valley‘s history. These studies argue that the outcome of

experience at the attraction should be beneficial to consumers, and also imply that for the effective

management, creation, and development of core attractions management should understand and

anticipate consumer needs and wants from their experiences. These studies therefore examine

consumer experiences from a consumer‘s perspective.

In relation to dark tourism, the value of tourist or visitor experiences at attractions and sites has yet

to be examined empirically. At the same time, scholars have continued to argue that dark tourism

attractions and sites offer learning benefits, psychological healing and/or therapy for visitors, and

contribute to reconciliation between victims and perpetuators (Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009;

Ballantyne, 2003; Beech, 2000, 2009; Boyles, 2005; Braithwaite & Lee, 2006). In order to confirm

42

these potential benefits gained by visitors, it remains necessary to identify an appropriate model of

consumer experience to build a conceptualising framework of dark tourism experiences. The

following section will in turn discuss various models for understanding consumer experiences from

a consumer‘s perspective.

2.3.5 Models of consumer experiences

As discussed above, experience is considered a core product of tourism, with the beneficial

experiences gained a potentially ultimate goal for tourists at attractions and destinations. Prentice,

Witt and Hamer (1998) have identified five key models of consumer experience – hierarchical, flow,

planned behaviour, typological, and insider-outsider – all of which have been adopted in various

tourism and leisure research to explore experiences at an attraction or leisure setting from a

consumer’s perspective. The following describes the characteristics of each of these models in turn

and their application in tourism research.

2.3.5.1 Hierarchical models of experiences

A hierarchical model of experiences in tourism literature commonly refers to two distinct types of

model: the means-ends chain model, and the benefits-based approach. The former refers to

Gutman’s means-end chain model, developed from the application of the personal values

perspective applied in the marketing of consumer products (Gutman, 1982). This model is based on

the notion that the choice of products or services is dependent on the product or service’s physical

characteristics or attributes, which produce a desirable consequence or benefit and minimise

undesirable consequences or costs. The desirability or importance of different consequences is, in

turn, a function of personal value which consumers seek to achieve, and which form the underlying

preferences for a purchase decision (Gutman, 1982). In this respect, the three elements which

comprise the model (attributes, consequences or benefits, and personal values) are fundamentally

related to one another; the attributes (the means) are important for the consequences or benefits they

provide, and both ultimately important for personal values (the ends) which reinforce consumers’

preferences and choice behaviours (Gutman, 1982; Klenosky, et al., 1998).

This model has been applied in a tourism and leisure context in order to understand tourist

behaviours when it comes to destination choice (Klenosky, 2002); to museum and heritage visits

(McIntosh & Prentice, 1999); and to nature-based experiences (Klenosky, et al., 1998; Thyne, 2001).

43

McIntosh and Thyne (2005) argue that the use of the means-ends chain model in tourism has

benefits as a conceptual model for understanding the meanings tourists or hosts associate with

purchasing, consuming, or experiencing tourism products and services, and the personal values

which underlie their behaviour.

The other hierarchical model of experience derives from recreational leisure literature, as utilised in

the work of Driver, Brown, Stankey and Gregoire (1987), Driver, Tinsley and Manfredo (1991),

Manning (1999), and others. This hierarchical model for outdoor recreation comprises four levels

linked in sequences, which are: the demand for a particular leisure ‘activity’ (Level 1); the particular

recreational ‘setting’ (environmental, social and managerial settings) in which activities are

undertaken (Level 2); the ‘experience’ (Level 3) gained from undertaking these activities in that

setting; and lastly, the ultimate ‘benefit’ (Level 4) which flows from the satisfying experiences

(Driver, Brown, & Peterson, 1991b; Manning, 1999). Since this model assumes experiences are

facilitated by activities and settings, management should focus not only on Level 3 experiences, but

also earlier levels of the hierarchy in order to understand visitor experiences (Manning, 1999).

Tourism researchers have applied this model to segment tourists and understand visitor experiences

at heritage parks and museums (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh & Prentice, 1999; Prentice,

Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998). Further discussion later in this

thesis will include the application of the model to a leisure and tourism context.

2.3.5.2 Flow

Csikszentmihalyi (1975) conceptualises flow as an optimal experience which defines a mental state

of extremely rewarding concentration, and which emerges in the space between frustration and

boredom (Csikszentmihalyi & Crikszentmih, 1988). Due to its ‘state of mind’ perspective, this

model has received considerable attention in leisure and recreation studies (Csikszentmihalyi &

Kleiber, 1991; Ellis & Voelkl, 1994; Kleiber, Larson, & Csikszentmihalyi, 1986). In these studies,

flow is characterised as a state of engagement involving a loss of the sense of time passing, a lack of

self-consciousness, a dominance of intrinsic rewards, intense participant involvement, deep

concentration, and a transcendence of the sense of self. This flow is experienced only when an

individual’s participation in an activity is voluntary; in short, participants feel in harmony with their

environment, and their skills match the challenges presented (Csikszentmihalyi & Kleiber, 1991).

44

In a tourism context, this model has been applied to investigate tourist emotional experiences and

satisfaction while participating in activities at an attraction. Vitterso et al (2000) have argued that

the flow model is able to demonstrate the meaningful and differentiated pattern of affective

responses to tourism attractions, where the overall assessment of satisfaction does not show

distinctive results. For instance, a study by Pomfret (2006) investigated mountaineering adventure

tourists in terms of the concept of motivation and flow; a tourist generates a feeling of flow when

extremely engaged in mountaineering, and the feeling of flow is inextricably linked with the

motivation to mountaineer and corresponds to a locus of control, challenge, and risk motivational

dimensions, goal completion, and the motive of mastery.

2.3.5.3 Theory of planned behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour derives from Ajzen and Fishbein’s conception of reasoned action,

whereby a person’s actual behaviour in performing a particular action is directly guided by his or

her behavioural intentions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). The theory

of planned behaviour presented by Ajzen (1991) postulates a set of relations among attitudes toward

behaviour, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and behavioural intentions. An attitude

refers to the degree to which the person has favourable or unfavourable evaluations of the behaviour;

the subject norm is the perceived social pressure to perform the behaviour; and control is the

perceived ability to engage in the behaviour in question (Ajzen, 1991). In this theory, an

individual’s strong intention to perform an action is driven by favourable attitudes and subjective

norms toward a behaviour, and greater, perceived personal control. It also suggests that the strong

intention to engage in an action or achieve a behavioural goal can predict the individual’s behaviour

successfully.

The theory of planned behaviour has been applied to a number of studies in leisure, recreation and

tourism research to explain individuals’ pursuit of a particular behavioural goal, and visitors’

behaviour related to interpretation program design (Ballantyne & Hughes, 2006; Ham & Krumpe,

1996) and the choice of leisure activity (Ajzen & Driver, 1992). Several recent studies in tourism

have explained tourist behavioural intention based on the theory of planned behaviour. For instance,

Sparks (2007) employed the theory of planned behaviour to predict tourist intentions to choose a

wine-based vacation, while Lam and Hsu (2006) applied the theory to examine behavioural

intention in more generally choosing a travel destination. Ballantyne and Hughes (2006) have also

applied the theory to design, and tested the perceived effectiveness of warning signs related to bird

feeding in recreational areas.

45

2.3.5.4 Typological experience model

Typological approaches to experiences are to be found in some of the earliest academic approaches

to tourism, which demonstrate that tourists do not constitute a single ‘type’. Various people travel

for varying reasons, and the experiences they have mean different things to them (1979a). Both

Cohen (1979a) and Smith (1977) proposed a classification of tourists according to the experiences

they conceived of.

For example, in a phenomenological approach to tourist experiences Cohen (1979a) developed a

typology of five modes of tourist experience, which ranged from the quest for mere pleasure to the

search for meaningful experiences. He referred to five core types of experiences: recreational,

diversionary, experiential, experimental, and existential. Firstly, the recreational mode is the type of

experience compatible with the enjoyable relief provided by various forms of mass entertainment,

such as cinema, television, sporting events, and so on. Individuals engage in these type of

experiences because they restore their physical and mental powers, and endow them with a general

sense of wellbeing. Secondly, the diversionary mode refers to those alienated from the goals and

values of their everyday existence; in short, people attempt to escape from the boredom of everyday

life by pursuing ‘meaningless’ pleasure through superficial leisure activities. Thirdly, the

experiential mode refers to the type of experiences, and is compatible with MacCannell’s (1973)

notion of a quest for authenticity, thus involving modern notions of authenticity which exist

elsewhere. People are motivated to travel for authentic experiences, and enjoy observing the

‘authentic’ life of others without any attempt to be converted to or even engage in this life.

Fourthly, the experimental mode refers to those who do experiment with the authentic life of others,

as part of their pursuit for an alternative to the centre of their own culture. This type of tourist is in

search of meaning through travel by experiencing the authentic life of others and participating in it.

The final existential model of experience refers to travellers already committed to an ‘elective

centre’ which is culturally and geographically external to their own society. This type of experience

is exemplified by a Western tourist visiting an Indian ashram (a shrine) which holds meaning for

them, or an emigrant who wishes to trace their spiritual roots while visiting their country of origin

(Cohen, 1979a).

Smith’s typology may be considered an expansion of Cohen’s experiential model in terms of what is

consumed, and consists of seven different types of tourists: explorers, elite tourists, off-beat tourists,

unusual tourists, incipient mass tourism, mass tourism, and charter tourists. Smith discusses the

46

characteristics of each of these different types of tourists; for instance, explorers in Smith’s

typology are compared to anthropologists who quest for discovery and new knowledge in a

‘shrinking’ planet. Alternately, elite tourists differ from explorers by touring only.

2.3.5.5 Insider-outsider model

The insider-outsider approach has also been employed in the context of tourism and leisure

experiences, and in particular, in geographical research concerning endearment to place. Both Tuan

(1974) and Relph (1976) consider insiders as natives, while outsiders are tourists unable to gain the

meaning or awareness of symbolism. Tuan (1974) notes that an understanding of place is essentially

the feeling of insiders (natives), whose attitude toward place is complex. In contrast, an outsider’s

evaluation of environment is essentially aesthetic, and derives from merely seeing place rather than

having wider ranging experiences. The distinction between insider and outsider may also be found

in Relph’s analysis of the meaning of place; according to Relph (1976), the outsider, or traveller,

views place from a distance, while the insider experiences a place as being both surrounded by and

a part of it.

However, as social relations have increasingly become separated from local context, the barrier of

‘insiderness’ between tourists and residents has reduced (Urry, 1995). According to Prentice (1993b)

in fact, many residents of a place are unlikely to be existential insiders, with heightened population

mobility removing many people from their place of upbringing. He also notes that residents of this

kind may be incidental outsiders or behavioural insiders. In this sense, the concept of

‘insiderness/outsiderness’ can be viewed as much as an imaginative bonding as a spatial one, where

tourists can in turn seek meanings of a place (Prentice, 1996). In turn, this model has been

employed to investigate the relationship between symbolic meanings of recreational settings and

visitor behaviour. Indeed Williams et al. (1992) and others have found that the meaning of place

affects visitor behaviours in terms of the type of trip and leisure activities they pursue at sites.

The application of the above five models in the context of leisure, recreation, and tourism is

dependent on the types of consumer experiences a researcher focuses upon. The hierarchical model

has been used to understand tourist benefits derived from their experience of attractions, and in

particular, in heritage park and museum settings. This model evaluates overall visitor experiences at

an attraction and identifies the tourist‘s ultimate goal in consuming the tourism product. Flow has

also been used to understand a tourist‘s immediate conscious experience through concentrating on

47

the change in tourist emotions while participating in activities on site (Csikszentmihalyi &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Vitterso, et al., 2000). By examining consumers‘ affective responses, the

flow can provide a causal relationship between consumer emotion and satisfaction while

experiencing attractions. However, as the flow focuses on the emotional experiences of individuals,

learning or other experiences cannot be adequately explained using this model.

The theory of planned behaviour is essentially a predictive tool in terms of the type of experiences

tourists may seek. As such, this perspective has been applied to understanding and interpreting

tourist behaviour in this particular light (Ballantyne & Hughes, 2006; Ham & Krumpe, 1996).

However, as this research focuses on visitor experiences, and the ultimate outcomes of experiences

at an attraction as opposed to predicting individual intentions in terms of their behaviours, the

application of this theory requires no further discussion here. Cohen‘s typology approach (five

modes of tourist experiences) has also been applied to discuss backpacking experiences in terms of

travel patterns and backpacker behaviours (Uriely, Yonay, & Simchai, 2002). However, in other

cases, only one or two modes of tourist experience in the typology are applicable to comprehending

visitor experiences in heritage parks. Prentice, Witt and Hamer (1998) further argue that only

recreational, experiential, or experimental modes are applicable to understanding visitor experiences

in the Rhondda heritage park. Finally, as the insider-outsider model is concerned largely with

geography and the endearment to place, this model may not be applicable to understanding tourist

experiences in certain tourism contexts such as dark tourism. Understanding the meaning of place in

dark tourism may significantly differ depending on a visitor‘s connection to the tragic events which

occurred at the site, as opposed to other geographical specificities of the site in question.

By reviewing the application of each of these models in leisure, recreation, and tourism research, it

becomes apparent that the hierarchical model of recreation demand is the most appropriate to

research concerned with dark tourism and the benefits of site visits in particular. In turn, the

benefits-based approach will be adopted and utilised here to conceptualise tourist experiences given

the particular qualities of dark tourism. Indeed the sensitive nature of dark tourism and broad scope

of dark tourism attractions provides scholars with few theoretical approaches to fully comprehend

dark tourism experiences. This has resulted ultimately in the theoretically limited and fragile nature

of dark tourism literature.

As has been discussed, recent years has seen a number of scholars attempt to classify dark tourism

attractions according to the features of attractions (Lennon & Foley, 2000; Miles, 2002; Seaton,

1996; Sharpley, 2009b; Stone, 2006), with the aim of building a theoretical basis for examining dark

48

tourism experiences. This can assist in examining tourist activities and behaviours at such

attractions, however, cannot provide an insight into dark tourism experiences. Hence the following

section will now discuss the benefits-based approach by examining the application of this model in

leisure, recreation, and tourism research in particular.

2.3.6 The benefits-based approach

This section of the literature review will outline definitions of, and the development of the benefits-

based approach and sequential hierarchy of demand. It will also examine how the benefits-based

approach has been employed in the context of leisure, recreation and tourism research.

2.3.6.1 Definition and development of the benefits-based approach

The term ‗benefit‘ in leisure and recreation research has generally been used to describe an

improved condition synonymous with the idea of utility in consumer economics (Driver, 1990).

Specifically, a benefit is defined as ‗the advantageous outcomes which recreationalists and society

realise from people participating in recreational activities‘ (Brown, 1984, p. 235). Benefits in a

tourism context are regarded as experiential or psychological outcomes the product of participating

in particular activities, such as visiting museums or particular tourist attractions (Samdahl, 1991;

Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996). For this study, benefit can also be defined as ‗the outcomes of

experience which are perceived as important by consumers themselves‘ (McIntosh, 1999, p. 46). In

sum, this study will focus on the actual benefits gained by visitors, which can ultimately assist

management in dark tourism sites to tailor site facilities and experiences to the specific desires of

tourists.

The scientific study of benefits began in leisure and recreation research of the early 1980s, driven

by management concerns about effective amenity resource management of recreation sites (Driver,

et al., 1987; Manning, 1999). These studies identified variety benefits in a recreational context, and

in particular, in North America (Driver, 1990; Driver, et al., 1987; Manfredo, Driver, & Brown,

1983), based on a behavioural approach which is goal-directed and aims at some need or

satisfaction (Manning, 1999). These studies were based on expectancy theory as developed in social

psychology, which suggested that people engage in activities in specific settings to realise

psychological outcomes which are known, expected, and valued (Manning, 1999). In this respect,

people select and consume certain products or services to fulfil their needs or attain certain goals or

benefits (Ajzen, 1991; Gutman, 1982; Manning, 1999).

49

As in recreational leisure studies, early tourism literature had a concern with operationalising

findings based on visitor ratings of desired amenities and activities (Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996).

While such operationalisation of benefits remains in use, during the 1990s some tourism researchers

(Iso-Ahola, 1982; Pearce & Caltabiano, 1983) further conceptualised the tangible attributes of

destinations as merely conduits with the potential to facilitate desired psychological benefit

outcomes (Samdahl, 1991; Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996). This conceptual shift away from the

operationalisation of benefits toward experiential and psychological benefits is consistent with the

evolution of definitions across the spectrum of leisure subfields (Samdahl, 1991). In turn, the

experiential benefit derived from experiences has been applied in recent tourism studies, and in

particular in understanding cultural heritage experiences (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh &

Prentice, 1999; Prentice, 1993a; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998).

2.3.6.2 A sequential hierarchy of demand

The benefit-based approach is grounded in motivation to the recreation, in particular, the

hierarchical model of recreation demand, based on North American theories of recreation (Manning,

1999). This model, sometimes called the Manning-Hass Demand Hierarchy or Benefit Chain of

Causality, contains four levels of recreation demand – activities, settings, experiences, and benefits

– which are said to be sequentially or hierarchically linked, as shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: A sequential hierarchy of demand

Level of

hierarchy of demand Example 1: Recreation (Manning)

Example 2: Heritage consumption

(Prentice)

Level 1: Activities Wilderness hiking Visiting heritage attractions (e.g. castles and

other historical monuments)

Level 2: Settings

(a) Environmental

setting

(b) Social setting

(c) Managerial setting

Rugged terrain

Few people

No restrictions

Interesting and pleasurable viewing

A place for a family day out

Educational

Level 3: Experiences Risk taking/ Challenge/ Physical exercise Relaxing

Educational/informational

Level 4: Benefits

(a) Personal

(b) Societal

Enhanced self-esteem

Increased commitment to conservation

Increased knowledge

Source: Beeho and Prentice (1997, p. 77)

Level 1: Activities

Level 1 of the hierarchy refers to activities which represent the actual demand for specific activities,

50

and is also considered from the perspective of visitor perception of satisfaction, and the specific

motives for visiting an attraction (Beeho & Prentice, 1995). The literature focusing on consumer

behaviour has advocated that most activities are need-specific, and that people participate in certain

activities to fulfil their needs or attain certain goals (e.g. Ajzen, 1991; Gutman, 1982; Manning,

1999). In this sense, activities are defined as a variety of motivations for participating in certain

activities, and visitors‘ perceptions of satisfaction with the activities undertaken. Prentice, Witt, and

Hamer (1993) describe activities as motivations in coming to the Rhondda Heritage Park in the

United Kingdom – that is, an interest in coal mining, interest in local history, a family outing,

sightseeing, day out, to visit the exhibition, to show someone the area, and learning about the past.

Similarly, McIntosh (1997) defined activities as ‗the activity of visiting exhibits at each site and the

length of time spent visiting‘ (p. 99), exploring the motivation for visiting heritage parks and then

examining the motivation for visiting exhibits at the park through qualitative research. In relation to

dark tourism, activities are considered as the motivations or reasons for visiting dark tourism

attractions, as with other cultural heritage attractions. These reasons can be curiosity, empathy,

education, remembrance, horror, survivor‘s guilt, and nostalgia.

Level 2: Settings

Level 2 of the hierarchy is called settings, which consist of environmental, social, and managerial

settings (Manning, 1999), and refer to the various contexts where activities take place (Manfredo,

Driver, & Brown, 1983) and visitors‘ expectations of the settings for the activity being pursued

(Beeho & Prentice, 1995). McIntosh (1997) further defined this as ‗visitors‘ perceptions of the

settings (that is, the degree of enjoyment ascribed by tourists to on-site media or exhibits), the

characteristics and expectations which visitors bring with them to the setting, and the characteristics

of the interpretive setting itself‘ (p. 118).

Settings in the model consist of three key parts: environmental (e.g. topography, water, wildlife, fish,

meadows); social (e.g. number of others, type of others); and managerial settings (e.g. fee systems,

permits, facilities) (Manning, 1999). The description of each setting in recreation tourism studies is

different from those in heritage and museum contexts, as shown in Table 2.3. As experiences are

dependent on setting, the attributes of each setting is influenced by visitor experiences. In particular,

in terms of heritage consumption, interpretive faculties and authenticity are essentially important

elements enriching visitors‘ experiences of sites, stirring the imagination and stimulating personal

emotions as well as educating and informing visitors (McIntosh, 1997, 1999; McIntosh & Prentice,

1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998).

51

In terms of dark tourism, as discussed in the previous section, a tourist or visitor‘s perception of a

dark tourism attraction or site is frequently created by the media. The image of the settings created

by the media is sometimes contrasted with actual settings, with Robben Island and Alcatraz

examples of this (Strange & Kempa, 2003). In regard to dark tourism settings, interpretation and

authenticity are essential components in the reinforcement of tourist experiences. Some dark

tourism attractions or sites are required to adopt selective interpretation due to political influence,

with ‗hot interpretation‘ approaches also employed in order to enhance tourist or visitor experiences

at attractions and sites (Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008; Uzzell & Ballantyne, 1998; Wight & Lennon,

2007).

Level 3: Experiences

Level 3, experiences, can be understood in terms of ‗what a visitor‘s ‗consume‘ when undertaking a

particular activity in a certain setting, including thoughts, feelings, reactions, motivations,

satisfactions and desired psychological outcomes‘ (Beeho & Prentice, 1995, p. 233). Since activities

are setting dependent, experiences are determined by the interaction between visitors‘ activities and

the settings of the attractions themselves. In heritage park experiences, Prentice, Witt and Hammer

(1993) identified eight dimensions of experience through semi-structured interviews in the Rhondda

Heritage Park (industrial heritage) in the United Kingdom. Those dimensions were: an impression

of danger, a feeling of sadness, a sense of past achievements, nostalgia, visitors‘ appreciation of the

quality of life today, the present-day lack of jobs in Rhondda Park, a sense of pride, and feelings of

sympathy. Of these dimensions, the impression of danger and sadness were ranked highest in terms

of frequency, with both experienced strongly during visits. McIntosh (1997) further identified 27

dimensions of experiences by dividing tourist reported experiences into categories including

thoughts (16 dimensions) and emotions (11 dimensions).

In terms of dark tourism, while the typical dimension of experiences has not been identified, these

dimensions may be related to learning and negative emotional experiences. Since experience is

context dependent, the dimensions of experience also differ by setting. In this respect, an

exploratory study is required to identify experience dimensions at attractions.

Level 4: Benefits

Level 4 of the hierarchy is benefits, which focus on the ultimate benefits, psychological or societal,

people feel they gain from satisfying experiences and participating in certain leisure activities

(Beeho & Prentice, 1995). Various types of benefits suggested in leisure and recreation literature

include self-actualisation, self-identify, learning benefits, mood benefits, introspection (e.g. spiritual

52

and personal values), skill development benefits, family bonding, sharing similar values with

friends and others, and community satisfaction (Driver, Brown, & Peterson, 1991a).

Of these benefits, Prentice, Witt and Hammer (1993, 1998) identified six benefits (e.g. mood

benefits, learning benefits, spending time together with family or friends, benefits of insight into

Rhondda‘s past and the pride of Rhondda‘s communities) by exploring tourist experiences in a

heritage park. They also reported that the high-ranked benefits derived from tourist experiences in

heritage parks were attributed to learning and mood benefits. Similarly, McIntosh (1999) identified

eleven dimensions of benefits by exploring visitor experiences in heritage parks also; these benefits

were similar to those associated with the Rhondda Park experiences, however, added other benefits

including nostalgia, sharing values with other people, and the enjoyment of a pleasant environment.

In a dark tourism context, few studies have discussed the benefits gained by visitors. Braithwaite

and Lee (2006) suggested several benefits gained from war attractions, including increasing

intercultural understanding, sharing with and learning from those with similar family experiences,

resolving grief, and experiencing an unselfconsciously emotional experience. The fulfilment of

visitors‘ self imposed-duty can be another potential benefit gained by visitors. Thurnell-Read (2009)

identified that personal obligation was one of young traveller‘s motivation to the Auschwitz in

Poland. This type of obligation is regarded as the ‗internal obligation‘ which obligation arises from

self (Heath & Schneewind, 1996, p. 62). Beech (2000) also found that the visitor who was

connected to the site was likely to have personal commitment to the camp of Buchenwald. In this

respect, one of potential benefit of dark tourism experience for visitors who are connected to the site

can be a comfort from fulfilling their internal obligation.

These four levels of demand are sequentially linked, as Manning (1999) has previously described.

Activities (Level 1) are undertaken in particular settings (Level 2), to gain experiences (Level 3)

that are regard as beneficial (Level 4). However, not all outputs actually gained may be beneficial to

an individual or to society in general. Indeed Beeho and Prentice (1997) advocate that as experience

(e.g. psychological outcomes) are facilitated by activities and settings, understanding visitor

experiences requires a focus not only on Level 3 (demand), but also earlier levels of the hierarchy.

In this respect, the benefit-based approach has been utilised to evaluate overall individual‘s

experiences in leisure and recreation settings, which will be discussed in the following section.

2.2.6.3 Previous tourism and leisure studies related to benefits

The benefits-based approach has been applied to various tourism and leisure studies focusing on

53

benefits-based management at recreation sites (Bruns, et al., 1994; Driver, Tinsley, & Manfredo,

1991; Lee & Driver, 1999; Manfredo, Driver, & Brown, 1983); secondly, in terms of the influence

of site setting on an individual‘s benefits sought (Shin, Jaakson, & Kim, 2001); thirdly,

segmentation of tourists based on benefits sought (Frochot, 2005; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998;

Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996); and lastly, promotion or product development in heritage tourism

(Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, &

Hamer, 1993).

To begin with then, the benefits-based approach has been adopted by recreation leisure managers in

order to better understand the value or outcomes people derive from on-site recreation engagement;

in turn, management can achieve targeted objectives in the provision of opportunity for specific

types of benefits (Driver, 1990). This benefits-based management is an extension of traditional

leisure management approaches, activity-based management (ABM), and experience–based

management (EBM) (Lee & Driver, 1999). Activity-based management (ABM) concerns the

provision of recreational opportunities, appropriate information at sites, and the protection of

resources and facilities. This approach, however, fails to consider participant‘s satisfaction levels

and the value participants gain from using initial products facilitated by managers (Bruns, et al.,

1994; Lee & Driver, 1999).

Experience-based management (EBM) measures the likelihood of specific types of experience

opportunities by comprehending the relationship between the valued psychological outcomes of

recreational activities, and the types of settings which facilitate those outcomes (Manfredo, Driver,

& Brown, 1983). The focus of EBM then is to realise that the activity opportunities provided by

managers are affected by the setting attributes (e.g. interpretation), and effectively used by

participants to produce their own subjective recreational experiences (Manfredo, Driver, & Brown,

1983). In this respect, the EBM can describe the immediate benefits of on-site experiences, but

cannot explain the individual‘s longer lasting benefits or potential benefits from recreation

engagement. Benefits-based management (BBM), as the logical extension of EBM, encompasses

not only immediate on-site experiences but also beneficial experiences or outcomes which are

longer lasting and, potentially, spatially divorced from the sites themselves (e.g. in people‘s

memories of a tourist experience) (Driver, Brown, & Peterson, 1991b).

The hierarchy of benefits can be demonstrated in a framework of benefit chain causality (Bruns, et

al., 1994), which helps to identify not only immediate hedonic benefits, but also benefits which may

have been realised but not expected, along with potentially longer term benefits also. Some tourism

54

heritage studies have adopted the benefit chain of causality to identify values gained from heritage

consumption (McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998); these suggest that heritage

consumption is something more than immediate hedonic experiences (e.g. Wickens, 1994), and that

consumers can gain immediate benefits and potentially longer lasting benefits from heritage visits.

Similarly, in this research, the consumption of dark tourism is not discussed as providing hedonic

experience or enjoyment, however individuals may gain psychological benefits (e.g. psychological

healing) and sociological benefits (e.g. strengthening of family relationships) by visiting dark

tourism sites.

In a benefits-based approach it has been acknowledged that the attributes in a recreation setting can

influence an individual‘s experiences, which can in turn affect the benefits of recreationists.

Recreation site management needs therefore to understand the relationship between attributes in a

setting and individual benefit outcomes, in order to achieve high quality recreational experiences

which provide the desired benefits to visitors (Stein & Lee, 1995). Several studies have discussed

the linkages between visitor recreation experiences and setting attributes; for example, Shin and

Jaakson (1997) surveyed wilderness visitors in Ontario, Canada; Stein and Lee (1995) studied

visitors to a developed wilderness area in western Colorado in the United States; and Yuan and

McEwen (1989) studied campers in western Kentucky in the United States. These studies all

demonstrated that visitor preferences for recreation experiences, and the settings of these activities,

are intimately and inextricably related.

In another study focusing on Sorak-san in South Korea, Shin, Jaakson and Kim (2001) investigated

the relationship between the characteristics of a setting and recreation experience, as well as the

linkages between site attributes and the benefits derived from those experiences. Their investigation

found that the social attributes of a recreation setting are closely related to visitors‘ beneficial

experiences. Similarly, the social context of the setting has further been recognised as an essential

element enhancing, for example, the experiences of children visiting a museum, and in particular,

scientific museums and outdoor parks such as zoos (Falk & Dierking, 1992). Moreover, as Lakota

(1975) observed, adult visitors to a museum usually select a hall or exhibit based on their familiarity

with the subject matter, while children focus on the level of interaction with their parents or staff or

volunteers who work with groups.

Several tourism studies, and in particular those concerned with heritage tourism, report that the

physical setting of sites influences tourist experiences (Bonn, et al., 2007; De Rojas & Camarero;

Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993), along with the benefits derived from those experiences (Beeho &

55

Prentice, 1997; McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). However, such studies have not

discussed the link between the social attributes of sites and visitor experiences, along with the

benefits obtained from the consumption of heritage, which is notable given visitors‘ experiences

might indeed be affected by perceived social context.

A benefits-based approach has also been adopted for market segmentation, which identifies market

segments using causal as opposed to descriptive factors, and which has been extensively employed

in tourism research in the past two decades (Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996). The strength of benefit

segmentation is that it ‗predicts behaviour better than personality and lifestyles, volumetric,

demographic, or geographical measures, which merely describe behaviour without explaining it‘

(Loker & Perdue, 1992, p. 30). A number of tourism studies have demonstrated benefit

segmentation in turn as a viable and useful tool of segmentation (Frochot, 2005; Gitelson &

Kerstetter, 1990; Kastenholz, Davis, & Paul, 1999; Loker & Perdue, 1992; Molera & Pilar

Albaladejo, 2007; Sarigöllü & Huang, 2005). For example, Gitelson and Kerstetter (1990) applied

benefit segmentation for destination marketing purposes, which divided the visitor market in

Northern Carolina in the United States into four categories: relaxation, explorer, excitement, and

social. It also suggested that benefit segmentation should be used by marketers for their promotional

strategy (e.g. target market advertising), and in the design of new tourism products to better reflect

the needs of each segment.

Tian, Crompton and Witt (1996) also adopted benefit segmentation in terms museum visitors to the

Galveston Historical Foundation (GHF) in the United States, which found five main benefits to

visitors: socialisation/bonding, relaxation, social recognition, self-esteem, and educational

entertainment. In a study by Kasternholz, Davis and Paul (1999), rural tourists in Portugal was

segmented to four groups by benefits sought. Frochot (2005) further selected rural tourists in two

Scottish locations, and formed four distinct segments according to tourist benefits sought. This

study provided different profiles for each segment in terms of activities engaged in, behavioural and

socio-demographic characteristics. Molera, Pilar and Albaladejo (2007) also segmented rural

tourists in Spain into five distinct groups, and provided profiles of each segment with respect to

demographic and travel-related features. Sarigöllü and Huang (2005) also identified four benefit

segments of Latin American tourists and provided the profiles of each segment, which included

their travel behaviour, demographics, expectations about infrastructure, local environment, and

services, and visitor personality and interests.

All such studies have ascertained a distinct relationship between benefits sought and other travel

56

behavioural or socio-demographic characteristics. In this way, researchers such as Gitelson and

Kerstetter (1990), for instance, noted that each segment differed in terms of age, education, family

income, and gender, while Jamrozy and Uysal (1994) found that national origin affected the types

of benefits sought when travelling. Family life cycle has further been identified as a predictor of the

type of benefits sought while on vacation (Lawson, 1991). In this way, travel behaviour variables

such as prior experience or actual experience and social group have been found to influence benefits

sought (Heyward, 1987), with variables such as gender, level of education, and employment status

all found to affect benefits sought (Pennington-Gray & Kerstetter, 2001).

In turn, and in the context of this investigation, tourists who visit dark tourism sites may be

segmented according to benefits sought, along with socio-demographic variables such as age,

education, employment status, and income; psychological variables such as level of tourist

involvement; and travel behaviour such as past experience. Once again, segmenting tourists and

profiling such segments is useful for the management of dark tourism sites to manage resources

effectively, and to deliver a high quality experience to tourists while also assisting tourists to gain

insight into dark tourism sites.

The benefits-based approach has been used in the context of heritage tourism in terms of ASEB grid

analysis and tourist segmentation by benefit sought (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh & Prentice,

1999; Prentice, 1993a; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). These in turn provide site management with

opportunities to create effective promotional strategies for consumers, and to develop tourism

products by identifying consumer needs, experiences, and the benefits gained from heritage

consumption. The ASEB (Activities, Settings, Experiences, and Benefits) grid analysis is a joint

derivative of a focused SWOT analysis, and the levels of the sequential demand hierarchy, which is

specifically designed to aid consumer-led organisation (Beeho & Prentice, 1995). Such analysis can

identify and focus specifically on the experiences and benefits gained by tourists from visiting

attractions (Beeho & Prentice, 1997), with a focus on visitor experiences as enhanced through

products offered, and how these in turn are consumed by individual tourists. By applying the ASEB

grid analysis to New Lanark World Heritage Village for instance, Beeho and Prentice (1997) found

that the experiences gained by visitors were emotional and thought provoking, and constituted an

enjoyable educational experience. The main benefit gained by tourists then was the learning

benefits derived from their experiences.

Furthermore, Prentice, Witt and Hamer (1998) found that the four levels of the benefit chain of

causality remain a useful means of conceptualising heritage park visits, which focus not only on

57

experience but also on consumers‘ interpretation of why such experiences may indeed be beneficial.

Their study identified five distinct segments according to benefits sought, with each of these

segments profiled; each of the five groups of tourists had different experiences, with each seeking

different benefits from the same product (the Rhondda Heritage Park). The findings of this study

facilitated better product development and promotion, revealing furthermore that socio-

demographics are irrelevant in understanding tourist experiences in heritage parks, although they

may be important when deciding the distribution channel of advertisements or other promotions.

In another study, McIntosh (1999) adopted the benefit chain of causality to understand visitor

experiences in heritage parks, with a focus on ‗insightful experiences‘ related to affective, reflective,

and cognitive processes. In this context, McIntosh (1999) defined insightfulness as ‗the end state of

personal insight gained from heritage visiting‘ (p. 58), and used the concept to describe the unique

psychological outcomes or benefits gained from visitors‘ subjective experiences of the heritage

context. This researcher suggested that insightfulness is appropriate to describing the core

enjoyment and value attained through heritage consumption, encompassing experiential and

interactive components rather than focusing on factual learning outputs (McIntosh, 1997, 1999).

Through the review of previous studies, and in particular, those concerned with heritage tourism, it

becomes apparent that a benefits-based approach may be most appropriate for understanding dark

tourism visitation. By adopting such an approach, tourist experiences and the benefits gained by

consuming dark tourism can be identified, and tourists segmented according to benefits sought.

This process can help management enrich tourist experiences through more effective resource

management, and evaluate whether exhibits, interpretations, and other social context variables at a

site are effectively facilitating quality services, along with management intentions.

In a dark tourism context, tourist and visitor experiences can be found to significantly differ based

on an individual‘s connection to, or familiarity with a site, or with the tragic events a site represents.

In turn, the benefits gained from experiences can also differ. As such, and in order to properly

comprehend the effect of personal factors on experiences, the concept of involvement is applied in

this study, as elaborated upon in the following section.

2.4 Involvement

Involvement is a widely applied concept in consumer behaviour literature (Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003),

and has been previously employed in leisure and tourism research in the past two decades to

58

comprehend consumer leisure behaviour. Essentially it has been examined from three key

perspectives: product-centred, subject-centred, and response-centred orientations (Finn, 1983).

Whilst all three orientations contribute to knowledge, a subject-centred perspective will be adopted

in this study to provide a framework for understanding the influence of involvement on tourist

experiences in the context of dark tourism.

This section can now examine how involvement is conceptualised in fields of leisure, recreation,

and tourism research by discussing the definition of involvement; the development of involvement

research; the various types of involvement identified; enduring involvement; and the operation of

this construct in leisure and tourism research.

2.4.1 Definition of involvement

A number of definitions of involvement have been proposed in the context of consumer behaviour

research (see Laaksonen, 1994), with most conceptualising involvement in terms of personal

relevance (Laaksonen, 1994; Zaichkowsky, 1985). Celsi and Olson (1988) have noted that

perceived personal relevance is the key feature of involvement, that ‗a consumer‘s level of

involvement with an object, situation, or action is determined by the degree to which they perceive

that concept to be personally relevant‘ (p. 211). Perceived personal relevance therefore is

represented by the perceived linkage between an individual‘s self knowledge (e.g. needs, values,

and goals) and their product knowledge (e.g. attributes or benefits). To the extent that ‗product

characteristics are associated with personal values and goals, a consumer will experience strong

feelings of personal relevance or involvement with the product‘ (Celsi & Olson, 1988, p. 211).

In the context of leisure and tourism research, perceived personal relevance is also an essential

characteristic of involvement. For McIntyre (1989), involvement can be defined as an individual‘s

personal connection to an activity, as distinct from participation or specialisation. Similarly, Willey,

Shaw and Havitz (2000) viewed involvement as attachment with a high degree of personal

relevance to a specific activity. At the same time, several other definitions have considered

involvement to be a psychological state; for instance, Selin and Howard (1988) proposed an ego

involvement variable as an explanation for people‘s attachments to leisure pursuits, defining this as

a ‗state of identification existing between an individual and a recreational activity, at one point in

time, characterised by some level of enjoyment and self being achieved through the activity‘ (p.

237). Manfredo (1989) also defined involvement as ‗the degree of interest in the product and the

affective response associated with it‘ (pp. 30-31).

59

However, Havitz and Dimanche (1990) have argued that such definitions of involvement are not

appropriate for theoretical and empirical leisure research, and thus borrowed instead a key construct

applied in consumer behaviour research. In turn they defined involvement as an ‗unobservable state

of motivation, arousal, or interest toward a recreational activity or associated product...evoked by [a]

particular stimulus or situation and [with] drive properties…leisure involvement refers to how we

think about our leisure and recreation, and it affects our behaviour‘ (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997, p.

246). In a similar way, involvement in the context of dark tourism can be used to refer to how

individuals think about dark tourism sites and/or the events which occurred at such sites, and the

ways this affects their behaviour and experiences.

2.4.2 Development of involvement research

The origin of involvement research in consumer behaviour can be traced to the early work of Sherif

and Cantril (1947), along with the social judgement theory developed by Sherif and his colleagues

(e.g. Sherif & Cantril, 1947; Sherif & Hovland, 1961). Since the work of Sherif and Cantril (1947)

and the development of social judgment theory, involvement has been subjected to extensive

definitional, conceptual, theoretical, and empirical examination (Rodgers & Schneider, 1993).

Essentially, social judgement theory states that an individual deals with attitude, its organisation,

and change and judgemental processes (Laaksonen, 1994). The central concept in this theory is ego-

involvement, which affects the probability of attitudinal change resulting from persuasive

information (Laaksonen, 1994). In studies of involvement guided by social judgement theory,

consumer styles of usage and consumption of a product can be revealed.

Since the late 1970s, the concept of involvement has received intensive, rapidly emerging attention

in consumer behaviour research, with the number of involvement studies increasing notably in the

1980s, and the specific application of the concept also diversifying into areas of information

processing, brand choice, and product evaluation (Laaksonen, 1994). With the diversity of

application and definitions of involvement, there remains no basic common agreement on the

concept, although there do exist common characteristics to all conceptions including personal

relevance (Zaichkowsky, 1985), and its association with a motivational state activated by stimulus,

situation, or a decision task (Mittal & Lee, 1989). For these reasons, researchers have focused on

developing a valid measure of the concept and its effect on specific aspects of consumer behaviour,

as opposed to concerning themselves with definition analysis (Laaksonen, 1994).

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In relation to leisure, recreation, and tourism research, involvement was first applied to recreation

behaviour by Bryan (Bryan, 1977). Since then, a number of leisure and recreation studies have

applied the psychological variable of involvement to clarify leisure and recreation behaviour

(Havitz & Dimanche, 1990), given researchers realised that demographic variables alone cannot

explain leisure behaviour. Most involvement research in leisure and recreation studies in turn have

focused on the relationship between causality of involvement and related variables (Hwang, Lee, &

Chen, 2005), and can be divided into two main fields: firstly, the application of involvement study

to leisure management; and secondly, the investigation of involvement and leisure behaviour

characteristics. Along with other assorted areas, the first field has included the following research

areas in particular: tourist marketing segmentation (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1993;

Fesenmaier & Johnson, 1989; Freysinger & Ray, 1994); the influence of involvement on price

(McCarville, 1991; McCarville, Crompton, & Sell, 1993); and tourist service quality and

satisfaction (Green & Chalip, 1997, 1998; Suh, et al., 1997). The second field on the other hand has

included research areas such as tourist commitment (Buchanan, 1985; Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998; Kim,

Scott, & Crompton, 1997); tourist loyalty (Backman & Crompton, 1991); leisure activity

purchasing decisions (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Zalatan, 1998); and gender differences in leisure

activities (Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000).

Such involvement studies have proposed various types of involvement which differ in terms of their

characteristics and application. The following section will now address various types of

involvement, their key characteristics and their application.

2.4.3 Different types of involvement

As has been discussed, personal relevance can be recognised as central to the concept of

involvement, though there remain distinct types of involvement as outlined in the literature,

including: product involvement (product category and brand selection) (Peter & Olson, 1987;

Zaichkowsky, 1985); enduring involvement and situational involvement (Houston & Rothschild,

1978); emotional involvement and rational involvement (Vaughn, 1980); personal involvement

(Havitz & Dimanche, 1990); and meaningful involvement (Haras, Bunting, & Witt, 2006). Each of

these involvements can originate from perceived personal relevance based on an observed relation

of an object, situation, or communication with the needs, values, and interests of an individual

(Claeys & Abeele, 2001).

To begin with therefore, product involvement refers to the personal relevance of a product to the

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needs and values of the consumer, which can influence the consumer product purchase decision in

turn, along with information search behaviours (Zaichkowsky, 1985). Such product involvement

can be distinguished from purchase involvement, in that while the former can be regarded as

interest taken in processing and using a product, the latter remains interest taken only in a brand

selection task (Peter & Olson, 1987). This distinction parallels Houston and Rothschild‘s (1978)

enduring/situational involvement dichotomy. As an illustration, an individual may generally have a

low enduring level of involvement with wine, however, when placed in a situation of selecting wine

for someone such as an important dinner guest, their level of involvement increases substantially

due to the importance (and risk) associated with such a specific purchase decision (Belk 1981).

The dimension of time can also be one of the aspects used to distinguish enduring/situational

involvement (Claeys & Abeele, 2001). Essentially, enduring involvement is the result of a long-term

perceived relevance which exists across situations, and on an ongoing basis. In contrast,

situational involvement is used when personal, relevant knowledge, such as goals and values, can

only be temporarily activated due to the peculiarities of a situation (Claeys & Abeele, 2001).

Furthermore, another distinction involves the use of the term emotional involvement as opposed to

rational involvement (Vaughn, 1980); some product purchases, such as buying a fine dinner in a

reputable restaurant for example, involve higher levels of emotion than, say, buying an item of

utility.

In this way, personal involvement as proposed by Havitz and Dimanche (1990) is more concerned

with the sign value of a product or activity. For example, if a person is looking to buy a new

exercise outfit or new car, their choice of product may best fit their personality. In short, the

purchased product is a signifier standing for much more than intended utilitarian use. Meaningful

involvement has been applied to leisure and recreation experiences also, as for instance in the study

of Haras, Bunting and Witt (2006). If the participating leisure or recreation experience is personally

meaningful to an individual, the participant will also experience a feeling of personal satisfaction.

Situational, meaningful, and enduring involvement have been generally applied in the context of

leisure, recreation, and tourism study to understand leisure behaviour and experiences. Situation and

meaningful involvement has been applied to examining on-site leisure experiences, which describe

how situational elements affect an individual‘s leisure experiences (Haras, Bunting, & Witt, 2006;

Havitz & Mannell, 2005). In contrast, enduring involvement has been applied to examining

involvement in general recreational and leisure contexts (Selin & Howard, 1988); in understanding

the personal meaning of risk recreation participation (McIntyre, 1992; Schuett, 1993); and in other

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tourism settings (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1991, 1993; Jamrozy, Backman, & Backman,

1996). For the purposes of this study, involvement is potentially enduring in nature, as opposed to

transitional or situational (Selin & Howard, 1988), and thus the application of enduring involvement

here remains most appropriate.

2.4.4 Enduring involvement

In the context of consumer behaviour, enduring involvement derives from ‗the perception that the

product is related to centrally held values, those defining one‘s singularity, and identity, one‘s ego‘

(Laurent & Kapferer, 1985, p. 42). This may not be directly applicable in the context of leisure and

tourism, however, where the involvement focus is on an individual‘s activities or experiences, as

opposed to the relationship between product and ego. Consequently, this has in fact been modified

in leisure and tourism studies to focus on the personal meaning or affective attachment an

individual has for an activity (McIntyre, 1989); continuing interest and enthusiasm, rather than

hedonic outcomes or environmental contingencies (Green & Chalip, 1997); and as an attachment of

a high degree of personal relevance to a specific activity (Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000). For the

purposes of this study also, enduring involvement is viewed as the personal significance a dark

tourism site or former catastrophic event has for an individual.

Enduring involvement has been extensively studied in leisure, recreation, and tourism research over

the past two decades. Such studies in particular have been concerned with the operationalisation of

the construct, and the relationship between involvement and consumer behaviour in the context of

recreation and tourism. Havitz and Dimanche (1997, 1999) for instance examined a range of

literature to argue for a multifaceted approach to measuring involvement in leisure and recreation

activities. These authors proposed three different dimensions to the construct, namely: attraction, or

the importance and pleasure associated with an activity; centrality, or the value of an activity

relative to other domains of life; and self-expression, or the expression of one‘s identity through

engagement in an activity. These dimensions have been applied in turn in various studies examining

involvement in specific recreational activities (Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998; Kyle, et al., 2004; Kyle &

Mowen, 2005; McIntyre, 1989; Park, et al., 2002; Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000).

In addition, other studies have also adopted Laurent and Kaferer‘s (1985) Consumer Involvement

Profile (CIP) for measuring involvement, which consists of five distinct dimensions:

importance/interest, pleasure, sign, risk probability, and risk consequence. CIP has been used for

understanding the influence of involvement in information search behaviour, and in the decision

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making process (Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003; Havitz & Mannell, 2005; Hwang, Lee, & Chen, 2005;

Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998; Jamrozy, Backman, & Backman, 1996; Kerstetter & Kovich, 1997; Kim,

Scott, & Crompton, 1997; Mittal & Lee, 1989; Park, 1996). Only a few studies have adopted

Zaichkowsky‘s (1985) Personal Involvement Inventory (PII), which is a uni-dimensional semantic

differential scale comprising 20 pairs of bipolar adjectival items.

2.4.5 Previous studies of involvement

Through using one of these scales, leisure and tourism studies have examined the influence of

involvement on participants‘ behaviour in terms of information search behaviours, and both

frequency and participation in recreational activities. Importantly, there is no consistent result on

the relationship between involvement and socio-demographic variables. On the one hand, several

studies have reported that level of involvement does correlate to gender; studies revealing the

relationship between gender and involvement include Schuett‘s (1993) research on adventure

recreationists, and Bloch‘s (1993) research on involvement and adornment. However, other

researchers have found no relationship between enduring involvement and other demographic

variables such as income, age, or level of education (Havitz, Dimanche, & Bogle, 1994; Kerstetter

& Kovich, 1997; Madrigal, Havitz, & Howard, 1992; Park, 1996). Park et al. (2002) have also

reported that in segmenting casino gamblers with involvement, no significant differences among

clusters were found in terms of the six demographic and socio-economic variables of gender,

marital status, age, residence, education, and income.

Involvement is positively related to consumer information search behaviours. On this issue Bloch,

Sherrell and Ridgway (1986) found a strong positive relationship between enduring involvement

and on-going information searching. And in the context of tennis and tennis equipment, Celsi and

Olson (1988) also found a positive relationship between enduring involvement and the proportion

of thoughts about the activity and product, along with the number of activity and product inferences

made by the respondent. These researchers also reported that people are more likely to pay greater

attention to incoming information about something holding personal relevance and high personal

importance. Venkatraman (1988) further reported that enduring involvement levels positively relate

to innovative behaviour and information-seeking among moviegoers, while Jamrozy, Backman and

Backman (1996) also revealed that highly involved, nature-oriented tourists are more likely to be

receptive to information concerning a tourism product or destination, and may also disseminate

information more willingly. Kim, Scott, and Crompton (1997) likewise reported that as the level of

involvement increases a tourist is more likely to pay attention to incoming information about a

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destination, given high involvement indicates (approximately) personal relevance and importance.

Involvement is also positively related to frequency and future intention to participate in a

recreational activity. In bird watching recreational pursuits for example, Kim, Scott and Crompton

(1997) reported that involvement can predict a person‘s intention to go bird watching and attend

future bird watching festivals. Likewise, the positive relationship between enduring involvement

and frequency of participation in an activity has also been found among moviegoers; in short, those

highly involved with the cinema are more likely to attend than those with low involvement

(Venkatraman, 1988). Park (1996) also found that adult fitness participant levels of involvement

positively influence both the intensity and frequency of participation; however, length of

participation was not found to relate to level of involvement.

Involvement influences other consumer behaviours also, such as participating in different activities,

spending money, and so forth. Bloch (1993) explored adornment-related recreation and found that

women with high levels of adornment involvement exhibited high levels of perceived competence

in the area, spent more money in this activity, and spent more time per day related to the activity

than those less involved. Park et al. (2002) also segmented tourists according to their involvement

in gambling activities, with four different groups identified: a low gambling involvement group; a

high centrality gambling involvement group; a high enjoyment gambling involvement; and a high

self-expression gambling group.

Such studies indicate that enduring involvement with an object (a product or an activity) is related

to consumer behaviour, along with frequency of and future intention to participate in activities, in

related information search behaviour, and in other related behaviours. Involvement can also

influence consumer experiences, including the benefits obtained from visiting a tourism attraction.

Hence, in the following section, conceptualising framework for the study, the enduring involvement

is applied to investigate the effect of a visitor‘s personal connection with the tragic event on visitor

experiences and benefits gained.

2.5 Conceptualising framework for this study

Through the preceding critical review of literature in areas of experience, dark tourism, and

involvement, a theoretical framework for understanding dark tourism consumption has been

developed. This conceptualising framework is based on theory, and comprises four levels of a

benefits-based approach and the concept of enduring involvement. In turn, this framework has a

65

focus on tourist and visitor on–site experiences and the benefits gained, along with the effect of

personal factors on such experiences and acquired benefits. Personal factors relevant include socio-

demographic variables such as age, gender, origin, and level of education, as well as enduring

involvement.

On the basis of this framework, three main research questions have been formulated as illustrated in

Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Conceptualising framework for this research

Research question one (R1):

What are the tourist or visitor ultimate outcomes of dark tourism site visitation, and how do these

differ by socio-demographic variables?

This research question is divided into two distinct questions: firstly, the application of a benefits-

based approach; and secondly, the effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor experiences, and

the benefits gained from dark tourism consumption. The first question aims to gain insights into

dark tourism experiences by identifying the dimensions of four levels in a benefits-based approach;

in doing so the study aims to evaluate overall dark tourism experiences from pre-experiences at the

site (reasons for visiting a dark tourism attraction), on-site experiences, and post-visit experiences

(outcome of experiences deemed benefits).

R1 R2

R3 Past experiences Enduring involvement

Socio-demographics

Level 1+2

Activities: various reasons for visiting dark tourism attractions

Settings: a dark tourism site or attraction

Level 3

Perceived experience derived from engagement in activities

Perceived outcome of activities through interacting with settings

(e.g. learning and emotional experiences)

Level 4

Ultimate outcomes from experiences

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The second question concerns which tourist or visitor on-site experiences, along with the benefits

gained from dark tourism consumption, can be affected by socio-demographic variables, assuming

that experience and the value of experience are subjective (Holbrook, 1999). The relevant literature

in tourism and leisure research report that there is no relationship between level of education

attained and benefits sought (Gitelson & Kerstetter, 1990), with employment status the only

significant demographic variable related to benefits sought in a study of university educated women

travelling for pleasure (Pennington-Gray & Kerstetter, 2001).

In the context of dark tourism, however, socio-demographic variables including level of education,

age, gender, and place of origin, may affect visitor experiences along with benefits gained. To

begin with, as with ecotourism dark tourism may appeal to highly educated people (Braithwaite &

Lee, 2006), hence level of education may be related to visitors‘ understanding of the site and the

insights gained into former events. As an example, the US Holocaust Memorial Museum survey

reported that visitors with a collage degree or higher tend to spend longer in the museum than other

visitors, and more often three times longer at around three and a half hours as opposed to one and a

half (Lennon & Foley, 2000). In this respect, a visitor‘s experiences and benefits gained from a dark

tourism site visit may well be affected by their level of education.

Secondly, the age of the visitor may also affect the types of experiences and benefits gained from

dark tourism site visits, whereby an individual‘s knowledge and experience of certain dark tourism

themes (e.g. war, political conflict, culture, etc.) plays a role in their level of understanding of the

site and/or tragic events to which it relates. The elderly may be more experienced and

knowledgeable about war or battle for instance than a younger person; in this sense, age can

influence visitors‘ experiences at a site and the benefits gained from their experiences.

Gender may also affect tourists or visitors‘ dark tourism consumption. For instance, male visitors

may be more familiar with certain themes such as war and combat, and may have detailed

knowledge of such themes (Goldstein, 2001). In turn, their knowledge and understanding can affect

their experiences at attractions or sites associated with war. Lastly, visitors‘ experiences may also

be affected by a visitor‘s place of origin; some visitors for instance may be local residents familiar

with the theme of a dark tourism site, while others may be non-local and potentially unfamiliar by

comparison (see Section 2.2.4).

In order to examine the effect of socio-demographics on visitor on-site experiences and the benefits

gained, eight hypotheses were formulated and examined in Chapter 4.

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Research question two (R2):

What is the effect of enduring involvement on dark tourism experiences?

This research question focuses on how intensity of involvement affects visitors‘ experiences, along

with the benefits gained from dark tourism consumption. For the purposes of this study,

involvement refers to how individuals think about dark tourism sites or past tragic events at such

sites. In short, an individual‘s perceived involvement may be affected by their level of prior

knowledge of, or familiarity with the site or theme the site represents. As an example, in the USS

Arizona memorial in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, a visitor may have a strong personal association to the

site if the person themself, a family member, or other relatives or friends participated in or were

killed in the attack. A visitor may also have a level of personal involvement in the site because the

person or people they knew participated in or were killed in other WWII battles. Some visitors may

also have some involvement due to an interest in war, film, novels, advertisements, or history.

Hence familiarity with, or prior knowledge of a site or the theme it represents may produce a higher

level of perceived involvement, which can affect in turn a visitor‘s experiences and the benefits

gained from a dark tourism site visit.

As such, two hypotheses were formulated in relation to this research question, examined in details

in Chapter 4 (Section 4.4).

Research question three (R3):

What are the effects of socio-demographic variables and past experiences on enduring involvement?

Research question three has a focus on the effect of socio-demographic variables on enduring

involvement. As discussed in the previous section, there is no consistent relationship between

demographic variables and involvement in leisure and tourism. However, in the context of dark

tourism involvement may be closely related to age, gender, level of education attained, and travel

distance (or place of origin). To begin with, several scholars have argued that the perception of a

dark event can be affected by the passing of time, which may remove the degree of perceived horror

of the event and reduce it to a compelling story from the past (also known as dissonant heritage)

(Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996). Such ‗chronological distance‘ was proposed by Lennon and Foley

(2000, p. 12), along with the dark and darker paradigm (Miles, 2002) and dark tourism spectrum

(Stone, 2006), and refers to the way a tragic event that may be transported in live memory by

survivors or witnesses are considered as darker than any other event that have descended into the

distant past.

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Such notions have also been applied in the classification of dark tourism attractions according to

degree of perceived darkness. Conversely, in the consumption of dark tourism, the perceived

darkness of a tragic event or site can be considered ‗darker‘ or ‗darkest‘ for those who may have

lived with the memory of a tragic event, such as survivors or witnesses or their friends or relatives.

These may experience a high level of enduring involvement with a tragic event or site when

compared to other visitors. Moreover, and depending on the timing of the tragic event, there may

also be generational differences in the degree of perceived darkness. For example, a Korean who

experienced the Korean War in the 1950s may have high a level of involvement with this conflict,

while second or third generation Koreans may feel less involved. In this respect, the level of

enduring involvement with a site or the theme the site represents can differ by age.

As with some other demographic variables, gender, level of education attained, and origin (local

and non-local), may further influence the intensity of involvement at a site or dark event, given

these may also be related to familiarity with, or level of knowledge attained about an event.

Moreover, a visitor‘s previous experiences in other dark tourism sites or attraction may also create

familiarity with the setting or theme the site represents; in this respect, these too can influence a

visitor‘s enduring involvement.

In order to investigate research question three (R3), six hypotheses were formulated and examined,

as presented in Chapter 4. Four hypotheses examine the differences in visitors‘ enduring

involvement based on four socio-demographic variables: age, gender, origin, and level of education

attained. The other two hypotheses examine differences in enduring involvement between first

and repeat visitors, and between visitors with similar experiences at other dark tourism site and first

time visitors to such a site.

2.6 Summary and conclusions

This chapter has developed a critical review of three key theoretical areas, and postulated a

conceptualising framework to guide and underpin this investigation.

Firstly, the dark tourism phenomenon was described in terms of its distinctive characteristics, with

various forms of dark tourism and visitor experiences identified and distinguished between.

Secondly, the chapter then examined the concept of experiences, and identified five models applied

to understanding experiences from a visitor‘s perspective in order to comprehend beneficial

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experiences gained from dark tourism site visits. From this the concept of involvement was

examined, including its definition, development, various types of involvement, and particularly

enduring involvement. To conclude, the chapter presented a theoretical framework with three

research questions identified, which subsequently guide its selection of an appropriate methodology

as discussed in the next chapter of this thesis.

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Chapter 3 - Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The previous chapter reviewed and critiqued relevant theory to build a conceptualising framework,

and ultimately the theoretical basis for this investigation of visitor experiences at a dark tourism site.

In turn, this chapter outlines the study‘s research methodology, and explains the study‘s research

design developed to examine and explore this research agenda.

The research methodology of this investigation comprises six main sections – research paradigm,

research strategy, research design, data analysis methods, research limitations, and ethical issues –

as shown in Figure 3.1. It provides appropriate grounds for the research design adopted, thus

explaining and justifying the research methodology most appropriate for this inquiry. Before

discussing the research methodology, this chapter firstly describes its chosen research case – the

April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island in South Korea – and the key reasons for its selection.

Figure 3.1: Six key components of the research methodology

3.2 The research case: the April 3rd

Peace Park, South Korea

Prior to discussing the methodological considerations and approach of this inquiry, it remains

necessary to provide an overview of the case study upon which it focuses – namely the April 3rd

Research paradigm

Research strategy

Research design

Method of data analysis

Research limitations

Ethical issues

Statistical analysis

Validity and reliability

Two stages of research method

An exploratory and pilot survey

Questionnaire surveys

Quantitative methodology

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Peace Park in South Korea. This section therefore addresses the location of the April 3rd

Peace Park,

the April 3rd

incident and Peace Memorial Hall, and the justification for this site as an appropriate

site for dark tourism research.

3.2.1 The location of the April 3rd

Peace Park

The April 3rd

Peace Park is located on Jeju Island, the most southerly region of South Korea around

one hour by air from the capital Seoul (as shown in Figure 3.2). Jeju Island is today a well known

tourist destination in South Korea, with a significant number of tourists visiting the island each year,

as illustrated in Table 3.1. Since Jeju Island was registered as ‗the World Peace Island‘ by the South

Korean government in 2005, every endeavour has been made to create the image of this place as

one of peace. The April 3rd

Peace Park plays an important role in this image by presenting the dark

side of the island‘s contemporary history to visitors (Jeju special self-governing province, 2009).

Figure 3.2: The location of the April 3rd

Peace Park and Jeju

Source: Jeju special self-government province (2009)

Table 3.1: The number of tourist to Jeju Island (1970-2008)

1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

No. of tourists 245,000 260,000 2,992,000 4,110,000 5,822,000

Source: Jeju special self-government province (2010)

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The site of the park itself occupies a mountainous area of the island, around a 30 to 40 minute car

drive from Jeju International Airport (Jeju April 3 Peace Park, 2009). While public transport is

available it is also infrequent, and takes around one and a half hours for visitors to travel to the site.

Hence the majority of tourists and visitors usually drive their own vehicles or rent a car, or

alternately take a taxi to visit the site. In spite of this inconvenience, around 270,000 people have

visited the park since its opening on 28th

March, 2008, as shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Numbers of tourists to the April 3rd

Peace Park

28/Mar/2008 ~ 31/Dec/2008 Jan/2009 ~ Dec/2009 Jan/2010~Feb/2010

No. of visitor 123,382 136,798 9,654

Source: management of the April 3rd

Peace Park

3.2.2 The April 3rd

incident and the Peace Memorial Hall

This section firstly provides a description of the April 3rd

incident, and is based on a brief summary

of the official government report ‗Jeju 4·3 sageon Jinsangjosabogoseo’, which translates as ‗The

truth investigation report of the Jeju April 3rd

incident‘. This report was published by the National

Committee for Investigation of the Truth in December, 2003; the report is based on twelve books

about the incident, and includes newspaper cuttings, government documents, US and Korean

military reports, private organisation documents, North Korean newspapers, and survivor‘s

testimonies (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008). This report has been recognised as the definitive text

for interpretation of the incident, and is thus used for official descriptions of the incident not only in

the April 3rd

Peace Park itself, but also at other smaller memorial sites around the island.

The following also provides a description of the incident as shown in seven exhibition halls of the

April 3rd

Peace Memorial, and is based on the concluding section of Jeju 4·3 sageon

Jinsangjosabogoseo and exhibition contents at the site (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008).

3.2.2.1 Definition of the April 3rd

incident

The Jeju incident was a series of tragic events, including massacres, which occurred on Jeju Island

between March 1st, 1947 and September 21, 1954, a period of seven years and seven months (Jeju

April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 107). The term the April 3rd

incident is officially used in Jeju 4·3

sageon Jinsangjosabogoseo to refer to the incident, given April 3rd

, 1948 was recorded as the date

73

the main conflict began between the Jeju South Labour Party and government of South Korea.

While it is the officially used term, it also remains a tentative and disputed one given the Jeju

incident as a political and ideological conflict is still controversial in Korea. Some people in the

Korean Conservative Party still in fact describe the Jeju incident as a ‗riot by communists‘, while

papers published by the Ministry of National Defence also referred to it in the same terms (Kang,

2004). Other people, such as Jeju islanders, define the incident as an ‗uprising by Jeju citizens‘ (H.

Park, 2008), or as a ‗Cheju-do rebellion‘ (i.e. Jeju Island rebellion) (Merrill, 1980).

The exhibitions of the Peace Memorial Hall explicitly note, however, that the name ‗April 3rd

incident‘ is tentative, and may well be changed at a later date. When visitors enter the first

exhibition hall they face an uninscribed tombstone, which provides them with a task to be

conducted as they look around the other exhibition halls (Jeju April 3 Peace Park, 2009; Jeju April

3rd Committee, 2008). The task is to identify the visitor‘s own definition of the Jeju incident upon

completing their visit, ostensibly because site management do not want to be seen to be advocating

a final or conclusive definition of these contested events.

3.2.2.2. The April 3rd incident according to the exhibits of the Peace Memorial Hall

The April 3rd

incident is here described in chorological order (to aid comprehension of the

incidents), with a summary further illustrating these in Table 3.3. The main description of the April

3rd

incident begins in the 2nd

exhibition hall of the Peace Memorial Hall (see Appendix 1).

2nd

exhibition hall: Independence and disappointment (1945 ~ 1948)

The Korean peninsula is currently divided into North and South Korea, the result of an agreement

between three countries – the United States, the United Kingdom, and the former Soviet Union –

during a conference held in December, 1945, in Moscow. The agreement included a five years

trusteeship for each part of Korea, with North Korea being under Russian trusteeship, and South

Korea under that of the United States (Porter, 1984). As a result, Jeju Island, as a part of South

Korea, was under United States rule following its liberation from Japan.

After the Pacific War ended in August, 1945, around 60,000 Jeju islanders who had lived in Japan,

China, and other places returned to the island. This caused a number of key problems, including

insufficient food supplies, outbreaks of cholera, which killed hundreds of people, and social

problems between some Jeju islanders – considered to be anti-Japanese – and police who had

74

served under Japanese colonial rule and then been redeployed by the United States military

government (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 104).

Under these worsening circumstances six innocent people were killed by police on March 1st, 1947,

subsequently a trigger to the April 3rd

incident itself. Since there was no official apology made by

police for these killings, the Jeju government party (the South Labour party) organised a strike on

March 10th

. Around 95% of people on Jeju Island (or 41,211 people across 116 organisations)

employed by government and private companies as well as organisations participated in the strike.

The US military government sent a team under Colonel Casteel to examine the strike, which

concluded it was conducted at the instigation of the South Labour party, and had exploited popular

feelings against the police. He also reported that around 70% of Jeju islanders were supporters of

the left wing, and that there was a need for more police to control the strike. As a result, 421

additional policemen were sent to Jeju Island, which made a total of 751 active policemen; these

subsequently participated in the arrest of around 2,500 Jeju islanders identified as leaders of the

strike. Some of those arrested were in fact innocent, but were tortured and murdered during their

incarceration.

3rd

exhibition hall: Armed uprising and rejection to division (March 1947 ~ October 1948)

Due to police harassment, around 350 armed civilians in various groups invaded 12 police stations

on 3rd

April, 1948, at 2:00 am. This civilian group argued that their attack was directed at the police

with the aim of establishing a separate government for South Korea. This was the first main armed

conflict between citizens and police on the island. During the same period, many Jeju islanders

disagreed with the establishment of separate governments in South and North Korea, which led

them to boycott the May 10th

, 1948 election in South Korea. The islanders effectively moved to the

central mountainous areas to avoid voting. As a result, the US military government declared a re-

election given the previous election did not represent a majority vote, and sent Commander Brown

to conduct military actions in Jeju. As he stated, ‗I am not interested in the cause of the uprising. My

mission is to crackdown only‘ (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 233); in turn he undertook

extremely severe military action against Jeju residents involved in the boycott of the election and/or

in the strikes.

The armed civilian group who participated in the April 3rd

invasion of police stations, boycotted the

election, or undertook strikes consisted of around 350 people, and certainly less than 500 over the

whole period of the incident. These people stayed in mountainous areas and frequently attacked

police. In turn, and in order to capture this group of residents, the government undertook actions in

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October, 1948 (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 107).

4th

exhibition hall: Destruction and massacre (October 1948 ~ July 1950)

According to a report of April 1st, 1949 (in Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 235), the 9th military

regiment based on Jeju Island at the time adopted a program of mass slaughter from October 17th

,

1948, based on the assumption that all villagers near the mountainous areas were supporters of the

guerrillas (i.e. the civil armed group). Commander Yochan Song proclaimed that all people who

lived near the central Mt. Hallasan area must move to within 5 km of the shore. After this

declaration, a mass slaughter began of those who had not heard of the declaration, or who did not

believe the declaration and hesitated to leave their homes or farms given it was harvest season. The

result of this program was that around 80% of a total of 30,000 victims of the April 3rd

incident

were killed in the six months between October 1948 and March 1949. Around 33% of the 30,000

were further identified as elderly, children, or women (Han, 2003; Heo, 2003; Jeju April 3rd

Committee, 2008; Seo, 2003).

After the six month period of massacres, Commander Jaeheung Yu adopted a persuasion strategy,

ostensibly to save the lives of villagers; however, when villagers came down from the mountains

they were in fact imprisoned and then killed before or during the Korean War of 1950. The number

killed is not known exactly; however, it is known that 1,660 people were killed at JeJu airport, and

around 2,500 killed in July 1950 alone (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008, p. 243).

5th

exhibition hall: Aftermath and truth-finding efforts (1950s ~ Present)

Around 84 villages in the mountainous areas vanished during the April 3rd

incident, and only seven

were reconstructed following the incident. The government subsequently practiced a policy of

involvement (guilt by association) system until 1981 in order to control the survivors or families of

relatives of victims. In this system, those who were survivors or related to people killed by the

military during the incident were indicated as communists and disadvantaged in terms of job

prospects and promotion, educational opportunities, and employment in or benefiting from public

services.

The truth-finding movement of the April 3rd

incident was begun from outside Korea (Jeju April 3rd

Committee, 2008, pp. 254-260), the timeline as follows:

1960 ~ 1970s: 'The Cheju-do (Jeju island) Rebellion’ was published by Dr. John Merrill in

1975. It was his Masters and PhD thesis at Harvard University in the United States. Also a

novel called ‘Hwasando’ describing the incident was published in Japan. Those residents

76

who had migrated from Jeju to Japan during or after the incident also participated in the

truth-finding movement during this period.

1980s: A movement also began inside of Korea, and in particular at Jeju National University.

Several university students who participated in the movement were arrested by police in

1986. After this the movement was extended to include other organisations on Jeju Island.

1990s: The movement by Jeju islanders continued; however, the government attempted to

control it until 1997. For example, the producers of the documentary film ‗Red Hunter‘

(related to the April 3rd

incident) were arrested by police in 1997. The turning point for the

movement occurred in 1998, which was the 50th

anniversary of the incident. The national

government changed from right wing to left wing in the elections of December 18, 1997.

Dae-jung Kim from the left wing was elected as president of South Korea and was a

supporter of the movement; thereafter the official truth-finding by the government began

and continued until 2003 under the auspices of the April 3rd

Special Act.

2000s: After the official investigation of the incident in 2003, the government admitted the

incident was caused by its own errors and insufficiencies, with the majority of victims

declared innocent. In October of the same year, the President of Korea, Moo-hyun Roh,

made an official apology to survivors and victims‘ family members and relatives, and Jeju

islanders more generally, for what the government did during the incident. The government

declared it would create Jeju as ‗the World Peace Island‘ in 2005. The April 3rd

Peace Park

was subsequently opened on the 28th

March, 2008 for the purpose of reconciling the Jeju

community by remembering and commemorating innocent victims who perished during the

Jeju incident.

6th

exhibition hall

This hall contains the memoranda of visitors on completing their visit. Many have left written notes

about their feelings surrounding the April 3rd

incident.

Special exhibition hall: Darangshi cave (in 1992)

This exhibition hall presents the 1992 findings to do with the Darangshi cave, in which the remains

of eleven innocent villagers suffocated to death by police or military personnel have been excavated.

The cave exhibition shows villagers‘ everyday living conditions. It also provides insight into the

horror and atrocity of the April 3rd

incident.

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Table 3.3: A chronology of the April 3rd

incident

Peace Memorial Hall Year Main events or contents

2nd

exhibition hall:

Independence and

disappointment

1945 ~ 1948

The last stage of World War II and liberation from Japanese rule

The agreement from the three party conference and South Korea

under USA trusteeship

Shooting of civilians on March 1st , 1947 by police

Conflicts between Jeju citizens and police employed by the US

3rd

exhibition hall: Armed uprising and

rejection to division

Mar. 1947 ~

Oct.1948

The April 3rd

uprising by armed civilian groups

Rejection of the establishment of the South Korean government

by Jeju Islanders

4th

exhibition hall:

Destruction and massacre

Oct. 1948 ~

Sep. 1954

Massacres over six months (Oct. 1948 ~ Mar. 1949)

Villagers imprisoned and killed before and during the Korean

War

5th

exhibition hall:

Aftermath and truth-finding

efforts

1954~2007

84 villages in mountain areas destroyed

Involvement system or guilt by association system

Truth-finding movement in Japan

The government crackdown on people who participated in the

truth-finding movement (until 1997).

6th

exhibition hall Present Visitors write memos on completing their visit

Special exhibition hall:

Darangshi cave Reproduction of the scene found in Darangshi cave in 1992

The above brief chronology has served to introduce the April 3rd

incident, considered today the most

tragic recorded event in Korea‘s recent history. The actual sequence of events is complicated, and is

in fact not yet fully known.

As also outlined, the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall consists of seven linked exhibition halls which

present the events of the incident in chronological order (see Appendix1). The following now

provides reasons for the selection of the Peace Memorial Hall as the case study site.

3.2.3 Justifications for the April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall as a research site

Prior to choosing the case study in this investigation, this researcher identified three key criteria in

selecting an appropriate study site. These research criteria were firstly the relevance to the research

topic; the accessibility of sites in terms of data collection; and lastly, the financial feasibility of sites

for data collection. Each of these criteria can be discussed in greater detail as follows.

1. Appropriate for the application of the theoretical framework of this research.

The site should be able to be classified within the theme of dark tourism, and receive two

different categories of tourists and visitors; those connected to the site, and those who do

78

not have any connection with the site. For this criterion, prison tourism (e.g. Alcatraz in

USA, Pentridge in Melbourne, or Pudu in Kuala Lumpur) and the death sites of famous

individuals (e.g. Mother Teresa or President Kennedy, or Elvis Presley/Graceland) would

not be appropriate, given these would not attract sufficient number of visitors connected to

the site.

2. Accessibility to the site for data collection

The site should be accessible for data collection. Some potential sites are difficult to gain

research access to due to the surrounding political climate (such as the killing fields in

Cambodia). Similarly, Henderson (2000) suggests that collecting data from dark tourism

attractions in Vietnam is difficult due to a lack of support from the attraction management

and government. Hence dark tourism sites in Vietnam and in Cambodia would not be viable

sites for research.

The research uses a survey as the main data collection instrument, and thus the chosen site

needs to have adequate numbers of tourists, estimated as more than 1,000 per month.

Therefore, potential sites which receive small numbers of visitors were eliminated.

3. Financial affordability and time for travelling for data collection

Since the researcher is a PhD student at The University of Queensland, Australia, the

budget and time for data collection was limited. In this respect, some dark tourism sites

which require a long journey from Australia and high expenses during data collection were

deemed inappropriate. Potential sites in South Africa (e.g. Robben Island), or the Goree-

Almadies Memorial and Museum in Ghana, were eliminated for these reasons.

In the light of the above criteria, the April 3rd

Peace Park was selected as most appropriate in

applying and operationalising the theoretical framework of this research. First of all, the park

constitutes a dark tourism site, although it is a memorial hall and not an authentic site of massacre

in itself. Scholars agree that while the US Holocaust site or District Six Museum are memorial sites

(Miles, 2002), these are also dark tourism sites because of the tragic event the site presents.

Similarly, the park currently presents only one main theme as one of the darkest events in Korea‘s

modern history. Since the April 3rd

incident includes a number of massacres which occurred in the

mountains of Jeju over six months, it remained difficult for authorities to identify the actual site

where a massacre occurred. Moreover, some of the massacre sites are not known given the Jeju

incident was not discussed in public for almost 50 years, and the subsequent economic development

79

of Jeju, along with political influence, has led to the destruction of massacre sites. In this respect,

the Peace Memorial Hall is considered the most representative site of the April 3rd

incident on the

island although it was built only two years ago. The location of the park is also near the mountains,

appropriate given its purpose is importantly to commemorate the destroyed villages and massacres

which occurred in mountainous areas of the island. The park has also been identified as an actual

site of a massacre, according to a survivor‘s testimony; a mother and her daughter were shot dead

by military forces as they were passing through the location of the April 3rd

Peace Park on the way

to a village. One of the park statues commemorates this mother and daughter found dead in a snow

covered field at the site (see Appendix 1).

Secondly, the site receives two distinct types of visitors; visitors who are connected to the incident,

and general leisure travellers. The park has a memorial plaza and memorial tablet shrine which

commemorates the victims of the incident, with currently only some 20,000 victims‘ names

recorded given a large number of the victims‘ remains have not been found. Hence the park is

considered the most appropriate place for those who need to commemorate the victims, with many

victims‘ family and relatives, along with survivors and witnesses of the incident, making frequent

visits to the site for this purpose.

Thirdly, site interpretation is well developed at the site, and sufficient to provide visitors with an

opportunity to engage with the April 3rd

incident. According to Moscardo and Ballantyne (2008),

setting remains the foundation of effective interpretation, with important factors including good

physical orientation; information to assist in planning a visit; sufficient programmes to ensure

visitor comfort and safety; and strategies to manage and alleviate crowding and congestion.

Considering these factors, the site at Jeju Island can be recognised as appropriate as it offers

excellent experiences for visitors. Since the site was constructed two years ago, it has also

maintained a good physical condition in terms of a clean atmosphere, resting areas, signs, an

equipped information centre, guide services, and ease of movement between the exhibition halls.

However, the site does not provide food and drink facilities, with the exception of two drink

vending machines. Other facilities at the site include viewing theatres for several films including

filmed survivor testimonies, the outbreak of the April 3rd

incident, and an authentic documentary on

the incident. The theatre also presents animation films which help visitors to understand the April

3rd

incident. The reproduction of the Darangshi cave and prison settings, along with several

artworks, further capture visitors‘ attention and enable them to engage with the April 3rd

incident

emotionally.

80

Fourthly, the site was accessible for data collection and able to provide the required sample for the

research; the site receives an average of 12,000 visitors per month, a sufficient number to allow

collection of the sample required (see Table 2.2). Moreover, since the researcher is Korean, data

collection was affordable, and also offered some advantages in terms of understanding visitors‘

experiences at the site by communicating in Korean. That said, while the site is suitable for

collecting visitor data, like most such sites it requires sensitivity in asking questions related to dark

tourism.

Finally, as the author of this thesis is Korean and lives on Jeju Island, the expenses of food and

accommodation are minimised by choice of this site. In addition, the author‘s knowledge of the

Korean language and the local context allows the data to be effectively analysed.

Given these reasons, the April 3rd

Peace Park was identified as an appropriate site for the

application of the theoretical framework. The following section addresses the research methodology

by outlining the paradigm guiding the research, its research methods, sampling and data collection

methods, and data analysis techniques.

3.3 Research paradigm

This section outlines the methodological paradigm guiding this investigation. A paradigm in this

sense can broadly be definable as ‗a basic set of beliefs that guides action, whether of the everyday

garden variety or action taken in connection with a disciplined inquiry‘ (Guba, 1990, p. 17). In

developing this it remains central to maintain consistency between a conceptualising framework,

and the approach adopted for data collection and analysis of findings (Jennings, 2001). In doing

so however, a paradigm provides a researcher with a set of philosophical assumptions about the

research which guides them in their selection of tools, instruments, participants, and methods

subsequently employed in the study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

The present study has adopted postpostivism following a review of key three investigative

paradigms – positivism, constructivism, and postpostivism – and based on three levels of

philosophical science, as described in Table 3.4.

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Table 3.4: Basic belief (Metaphysics) in alternative inquiry paradigms

Item Positivism Postpositivism Constructivism

Ontology Naïve realism- ‗real‘

reality but apprehendable

Critical realism- ‗real‘ reality but

only imperfectly and

probabilistically apprehendable

Relativism –local and

specific constructed

realities

Epistemology Dualist/objectivist;

findings true

Modified dualist/ objectivist;

critical tradition/community;

findings probably true

Transactional /

subjectivist/ created

findings

Methodology

Experimental/

manipulative; verification

of hypotheses; chiefly

quantitative methods

Modified experimental/

manipulative; critical multiplism;

falsification of hypotheses; may

include qualitative methods

Hermeneutical /

dialectical

Source: Lincoln and Guba (2000, p. 165)

Essentially, postpositivism arose out of a dissatisfaction with aspects of the positivist stance, and is

thus characterised as a modified version of positivism (Guba, 1990; Ponterotto, 2005). In an

ontological sense, the postpositivist paradigm is called criticism realism, aiming to be critical about

the world given a human‘s imperfect multisensory and intellectual mechanisms cannot perceive that

a real world, driven by real natural causes, does actually exist. Hence researchers cannot fully

apprehend reality, and thus need to be critical about their world (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). In an

epistemological sense, postpositivism is modified objectivity therefore, where objectivity remains

as a regulatory ideal but can only be approximated in research. In this respect, researchers cannot

be absolutely excluded as influencing the outcome (Guba, 1990). Moreover, and in relation to

methodology, the postpositivist paradigm focuses on critical multiplism in which researchers can

never entirely attain objectivity, and need to rely on many different sources of data, theories, and

methods.

In this way the paradigm remains similar to positivism, in that it serves as the primary foundation

and anchor for quantitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 2000), however, differs importantly also by

embracing qualitative research methods if a researcher chooses ethnographic, case study, or

phenomenological methods. It also differs in that the view of theory which positivism stresses is

theory verification, whilst postpositivism focuses on theory falsification (Guba, 1990). On the basis

of the work of Karl Popper (1959), Guba and Lincoln (1994) provide an illustration of the

distinction between verification and falsification: ‗whereas a million white swans can never

establish, with complete confidence, the proposition that all swans are white, one black swan can

completely falsify it‘ (p. 104).

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There are several key reasons for adopting a postpositivist paradigm in this research. First of all,

this investigation aims to examine visitors‘ dark tourism experiences by applying a benefits-based

approach and enduring involvement. These are applicable to evaluating visitor experience in

leisure and recreational settings within a pleasurable environment, however, as this inquiry applies

theory in a dark tourism context, a setting which provides a possibility of theory falsification

because of the characteristics of dark tourism differed from other leisure settings with pleasant

environments. In this respect, this research was not able to follow a positivist paradigm, and has

adopted instead a modified version of positivism.

Next, a number of previous tourism experience studies have also adopted a postpositivist paradigm

in order to examine individual subjective and context dependent experiences (Beeho & Prentice,

1995, 1997; Hayllar & Griffin, 2005; Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer,

1998). These studies were conducted with initial qualitative research, and then developed and tested

theory to come to terms with tourist experiences. A similar requirement was needed for this study,

which depended on gathering initial information about visitor subjective experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park in order to examine the application of a benefits-based approach and enduring

involvement to their experiences. In this respect, both positivist and constructivist paradigms were

not appropriate, with a postpositivist paradigm offering both qualitative and quantitative research

methods to approaching dark tourism experiences. Such a paradigm supports both qualitative and

quantitative research methods therefore, as outlined in the following section.

3.4 Research strategy

Two different and distinct approaches – the quantitative and qualitative one – are commonly used to

provide answers to research questions (Blaikie, 2000), with the distinctive characteristics of each of

these illustrated in Table 3.5. As can be seen, quantitative research methods are characterised by a

deductive approach; by an objective relationship between the researcher and the participants; by a

structured, systemic, and replicable research design; by a random sampling method; by a statistical

analysis of the data in numerical form; and by findings from the sample which may be generalised

to a wider study population (Jennings, 2001; Neuman, 2006; Punch, 1998; Sarantakos, 2005; Veal,

2005). Qualitative approaches on the other hand are associated with a holistic-inductive paradigm

(Jennings, 2001), and characterised by an inductive approach; by a subjective relationship between

the researcher and the participants; by an unstructured research design in order to respond to the

field setting; by the representation of data in textural units; and by findings represented in narrative

form (Jennings, 2001; Neuman, 2006; Punch, 1998; Sarantakos, 2005; Veal, 2005).

83

Table 3.5: Differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches

Quantitative Qualitative

Research approach Deductive Inductive

Ontological view Causal relationships Multiple realities

Nature of truth Hypothesis testing Grounded in the real world

Epistemological view Objective Subjective

Researcher situatedness Etic (outsider) Emic (insider)

Research design Structured; Systematic; Replicable

Unstructured; Emergent; Study specific

Research focus Variables Themes

Participant selection Random Non-random

Representation of data Numeric Textual

Analysis Statistical analyses Themes, motifs

Representation of findings Statistical tables and graphs Narrative

Voice of the researcher Third person, passive First person, active

Reflection of the real world Representative Slice of life

Source: Jennings (2001, p. 132)

Essentially, this research has adopted a qualitative approach in order to develop a quantitative data

collection tool (Miles & Huberman, 1994), following procedures used in previous studies to

understand tourist experiences (Li, 2000; McIntosh, 1997, 1999; McIntosh & Prentice, 1999; Mo,

Howard, & Havitz, 1993; Otto & Ritchie, 1996; Poria, Butler, & Airey, 2003). An initial qualitative

exploratory study enabled the researcher to gather sufficient information about visitors‘ reasons for

visit, their on-site experiences, and the benefits gained from their April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall

visit. This information was applied to the construction of a survey questionnaire in turn, used for the

main data collection at the site. By using a quantitative research method, the researcher was able to

apply a benefits-based approach to examining dark tourism experiences, and the effect of enduring

involvement on visitors‘ beneficial experiences. Furthermore, a quantitative approach helped the

researcher use a structured, systemic, and replicable research design, as described in the following

section.

3.5 Research design

This research into dark tourism experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park in South Korea was achieved

by implementing two stages of investigation, as follows.

Stage one: An exploratory study and pilot test were conducted in order to construct the

84

questionnaire. The exploratory survey was firstly employed to gather information about visitors‘

reasons for visit, their experiences, and the benefits gained. This helped define the dimensions of

the four levels of a benefits-based approach. The pilot test was conducted to gauge the reliability

and validity of variables in the questionnaire (e.g. visitor reasons for visit, on-site experiences,

benefits, and involvement) before embarking on the main data collection exercise.

Stage two: an on-site, self-administered questionnaire survey was used to examine visitor

experiences at the site using a benefits-based approach and enduring involvement.

The process of the research can be illustrated in Figure 3.3, with the details of the process addressed

further in the following section including a description of each stage, sampling method and size,

and data collection methods at each stage.

Figure 3.3: Research process for the study

3.5.1 Stage one: the exploratory study and pilot survey

This section describes in detail the exploratory study and pilot survey used in the early stages of this

investigation. It includes details of the process of interviewing, sampling, data collection methods,

data analysis, and the pilot survey.

3.5.1.1 The exploratory study – semi-structured interviews

This research initially adopted semi-structured interviewing for its exploratory data collection, as

effectively demonstrated in previous investigations focusing on tourist experiences at heritage parks

(McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). In order to implement the interviews, the

Stage two: Survey

Stage one:

An Exploratory study and

Pilot survey

On-site self-administered

questionnaire survey

Sample size: 450

Convenience sampling

Semi-structured interviews

Sample size: 46

Purposive sampling

Pilot survey

Sample size: 60

Convenience sampling

85

researcher prepared a set of questions exploring the reasons for visiting the site, visitor on-site

experiences, and benefits gained from the site visit (see Appendix 2). Utilising the principle of

‗laddering‘ as advocated in marketing, this turned on ‗a tailored interviewing format using primarily

a series of directed probes, typified by the ‗why is that important to you?‘ questions, with the

express goal of determining sets of linkages between the key perspective elements across the range

of attributes (A), consequences (C), and value (V)‘ (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988, p. 12). With this

interview process researchers are able to gather rich, quality data, as well as define context-specific

and inductive profiles of individuals‘ thoughts and emotions, of value to a subsequent questionnaire.

Semi-structured interview questions

The interview questions for this research were adapted from the questionnaires McIntosh (1999)

employed to explore visitor experiences in heritage parks. The interview questions comprised three

main parts: an introduction to the interviewees, including purpose of the interview, ten main

interview questions, and lastly interviewees‘ demographic information (see Appendix 2).

The interview topics in this study included:

Reasons for visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park;

Visitors‘ memorable or emotional experiences;

Length of stay at the Peace Memorial Hall;

What visitors gained from their exposure to the April 3rd

incident;

Sources of information about the April 3rd

incident and the April 3rd

Peace Park;

The level of visitors‘ perceived involvement with the April 3rd

incident;

Intentions or otherwise to visit the site again;

Intentions or otherwise to recommend the site to others; and

Other comments about visitors‘ experiences at the site.

Using these questions, the researcher conducted interviews with respondents by applying the

following sampling method.

Sampling method and data collection for the semi-structured interview

The researcher conducted 15 to 20 minute, one-on-one, semi-structured interviews during one

month from the middle of September to October, 2008. The researcher interviewed 46 visitors

willing to share their experiences on completion of their visit to the Peace Memorial Hall. The

sample size for the semi-structured interviews in this study was greater than previous investigations,

which typically used 40 exploratory interviews to identify visitor experiences, benefits, and

86

motivations in a heritage park context (McIntosh, 1997). This was because of the present

researcher’s intention to gather as much data as possible from interviews within the one month

allotted for this task.

The exploratory study also employed a purposive sampling method for the semi-structured

interviews; this is one of four different non-probability sampling techniques, namely convenience

sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and expert sampling (Jennings, 2001). In

purposive sampling, researchers use ‘their knowledge to determine who or what study units are the

most appropriate for inclusion in the study based on the potential study units’ knowledge base or

closeness of fit to criteria associated with the study’s focus’ (Jennings, 2001, p. 139). The

application of purposive sampling in this study was to examine the intensity of enduring

involvement among visitors, which might be dependent on a visitor’s connection to, or familiarity

with the tragic event. Hence this researcher categorised visitors in three different groups: visitors

who had some connection to the April 3rd

incident (1st group); Jeju Islanders with no connection to

the incident (2nd

group); and non-Jeju islanders with no connection to the incident (3rd

group) (see

Table 3.6).

The researcher conducted 13 interviews with participants of the 1st group, 20 interviews with those

of the 2nd

group, and 13 interviews with respondents in the 3rd

group. In addition, the questionnaire

also collected data on each interviewee’s age, gender, and level of education in order to facilitate

detailed analysis of these dark tourism visitors’ experiences.

Table 3.6: Demographic information of the exploratory interviewees

Category 1

st group*

(N=13)

2nd

group**

(N=20)

3rd

group***

(N=13)

Gender Male 5 13 9 Female 8 7 4

Age

20~29 1 1 2

30~39 4 7 4 40~49 4 7 4 50~59 0 4 2 over 60 4 1 1

Education

level

High school or lower education 4 5 3 College 1 1 0 University 6 11 3 Higher than university 2 3 7

*1st group: visitors with a connection to the April 3

rd incident

** 2nd

group: Jeju islanders with no connection to the April 3rd

incident

***3rd

group: non-Jeju islanders with no connection to the April 3rd

incident

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In conducting the semi-structured interviews, interviewees were first informed of the purpose of the

interview, and also asked whether the interview could be recorded. Only one interviewee rejected to

a recording of his interview, and in this case note taking was used instead. The information

collected from the interviews was utilised for the construction of a questionnaire; prior to

implementing the questionnaire; however, a pilot survey was conducted as follows.

3.5.1.2 Pilot survey

This study undertook several pre-test and pilot surveys in order to construct a reliable and robust

questionnaire examining visitors’ experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park. A pre-test was applied to

ensure respondents understood the questions and provided appropriate responses (Finn, Elliott-

White, & Walton, 2000). The aim of this was to specify relevant dimensions of visitor benefits and

experiences derived from the initial exploratory study (Churchill, 1979). The pilot survey was then

used to assess the reliability and validity of benefits gained, reasons for visit, and visitor

experiences. The internal consistency of the construct was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, and

construct validity assessed using four pilot surveys.

Pre-test

The questionnaire for the pre-test was completed at the beginning of March, 2009, and consisted of

eight pages and ten different types of questions. These were:

Reasons for visit – 14 items (3 point likert scale)

Activities – 9 items (dichotomy questions)

On-site experiences – 18 items about ‘thought’ (3 point likert scale)

On-site experiences – 14 items about ‘emotions’ (3 point likert scale)

Benefits gained – 17 items (3 point likert scale)

Attitude change – 8 items (3 point likert scale)

Satisfaction – 10 items (5 point likert scale)

Recommendation – 6 items (dichotomy questions)

Involvement – 13 items (the modification of Personal Involvement Inventory (PII))

The main structure of the questionnaire was based on McIntosh’s (1997) research, which used four

levels of a benefits-based approach to examine visitors’ experiences at a heritage park. This

research applied a 3 point likert scale in constructing questions about reasons for visit, on-site

experiences, and benefits gained. However, a 3 point likert scale was not effective in clarifying

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visitors’ answers to the questions asked in this research; for example, in the question to do with

reasons for visit, the majority of visitors in the pre-test selected the answer ‘important’, however, the

differences in importance among different visitors’ reasons for visit were not obvious. Hence in the

final questionnaire responses were designed using a 5 point likert scale.

The main contents of the questionnaire were derived from analysis of the exploratory study, as

detailed in Table 3.7. Since the interviews were conducted in Korean, the data (contents for the

reason for visit) in Table 3.7 is a version translated from Korean into English by the researcher.

Table 3.7: An example of the process of construction of the questionnaire

Interviewee

Age/

gender/

origin

Contents for the reasons for visit

Questionnaire contents

(the scale of reasons for

visit)

P1 21/F/ Local I visited the site because of university course program and

also would like to know what the April 3rd

incident was

Educational program

Learn about the April 3rd

incident

P2 62/M/Local

I have to come to the site as a Jeju islander

I have to know what the exhibitions of the Peace Memorial

Hall

Obligation

Curiosity about the

Peace Memorial Hall

P6 30/M/Local

I am interested in Korean history, and my grandfather was

a victim of the incident, and thus I have to be interested in

the incident. Although my grandfather was a victim or not,

this is not really important reasons for visiting the site.

However, I felt a strong sense of obligation to visit this

place.

Interested in Korean

history

I have to know the

incident

I felt a strong sense of

obligation to visit this

place

P13 42/F/Local I do not have special reason for visit the site… I would like

to spend a meaningful day out with my family.

Spend a meaningful day

out with family

P45 48/F/Local

I visited this place as a part of educational program, I am

also interested in the incident because I am currently work

at the museum in Jeju and tourists or visitors frequently

asked me about the April 3rd

incident. Thus, I have to learn

the incident personally.

Participation in

educational program

Learn about the incident

P5 25/M/Non-

local I am interested in the April 3

rd incident, so I came here. Learn about the incident

P8

Middle of

40s/ F/

Non-local

I know the incident a little bit, so I heard the April 3rd

Peace Park was opened, …I would like to gather more

information about the incident and thus visit this place.

Although learning the incident is not important for my Job

carrier, I would like to know the incident further and

clearly from a historical perspective.

Learn about the incident

P3 48/F. Non-

Local

I am interested in Korean history, in particular the dark

side of Korean history. Thus I came to know it.

Interested in Korean

history

P4 52/M/Non-

Local

I am interested in ideological conflict which caused the

division of North and South Korea. It is painful for all

Korean.

Interested in ideological

conflict

P27 33/M/non-

local

I am interested in Korean contemporary history. I like to

visit the museums and exhibition halls.

Interested in Korean

history

As aforementioned, the initial validity of the questionnaire was examined in a pre-test conducted

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during March, 2009; this process enabled the researcher to confirm whether respondents understood

the questions, and to evaluate whether their responses were relevant and provided a basis for

revising the questionnaire used in the pilot survey.

Pilot survey

Pilot surveys were administrated from April to May, 2009. The first pilot survey involved 60

interviewees, with the other three pilot surveys involving 25 interviewees each (see Appendix 2).

These pilot studies provided the researcher with several benefits. Firstly, each helped the researcher

gain a better understanding of the respondents frame of reference, relevant to the questionnaire and

question content (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001). Using feedback from the pilot survey, the researcher

was able to identify variables in the questionnaire (e.g. visitors’ reason for visit, experiences,

activities, benefits gained, and involvement), as expressed in visitors’ own words. Secondly, the

internal consistency of the construct was able to be assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, and the

validity of scales, reasons for visit, on-site experiences, and benefits gained could all be assessed by

determining whether the measures behaved as expected (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000) (see

Appendix 4). The Cronbach’s alpha of all scale was around 0.7, and thus adequate for use in the

questionnaire (Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002).

In terms of enduring involvement, the pilot survey helped the researcher identify an appropriate

measure of involvement for use in a dark tourism context. Enduring involvement is most commonly

measured using Laurent and Kapferer‘s (1985) Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP), and

Zaichkowsky‘s (1985) Personal Involvement Inventory (PII) in consumer behaviour studies. The

former, CIP, is a multifaceted scale with five different dimensions: importance/interest, pleasure,

sign, risk probability, and risk consequence; the latter, PII, is a unidimensional semantic differential

scale comprising 20 pairs of bipolar adjective items. In the field of tourism, leisure and recreation

research, a modification of CIP is used to measure leisure and recreation enduring involvement,

given its tested high validity and reliability (Gross & Brown, 2006; Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003; Havitz

& Dimanche, 1997; Jamrozy, Backman, & Backman, 1996). However, CIP is not appropriate in a

dark tourism context, given the particular characteristics of this form of travel and visitation;

namely its concern with the darker side of human nature, and focus on providing learning and

negative emotional experiences as opposed to hedonic or pleasurable experiences.

As such, a modification of PII was employed to measure involvement. This involved selecting 13

out of 20 items from PII, with response categories coded from one (e.g. extremely important) to

seven (e.g. extremely unimportant) (Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997). This scale proved a highly

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reliable measure of involvement with the April 3rd

Peace Park given its internal consistency was

above 0.9. The validity of the measure, however, was not adequate for this study, as respondents

often misunderstood or did not provide an answer to the question (see Appendix 4). Hence the

researcher adopted another measure for involvement based on a study by Green and Chalip (1997),

which was previously used to measure sport involvement. This is a 10-point likert scale consisting

of three dimensions: importance, interest, and frequent thinking (e.g. how often do you think about

the incident?). The Cronbach’s alpha was above 0.8, and visitors were easily able to understand the

meaning of the questions and respond to them.

In addition, the pilot survey provided the researcher with some important tips useful during

administration of the survey. For example, it provided information about the length of time

visitors generally spent completing the questionnaire, and also, that a hot drink helped minimise any

tension visitors felt whilst completing the questionnaire. On this point, the researcher also decided

more generally to offer coffee or tea to interviewees during administration of the survey. Lastly, the

researcher also decided to avoid distributing the questionnaire to group travellers, given these did

not have sufficient time to comfortably complete the questionnaire.

Hence the pilot survey enabled the researcher to improve the design, measurement, and

administration of the questionnaire, and thus reduce bias and possible errors. The pilot survey of the

research was also important in enhancing construct and internal validity (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001).

3.5.2 Stage two: questionnaire surveys

To examine the effect of personal factors, including enduring involvement on visitors‘ beneficial

experiences in a dark tourism context, this research conducted a questionnaire survey with a large

number of interviewees selected from the target population. The following section details the

questionnaire survey process of this study, including questionnaire design, sampling, and data

collection methods.

3.5.2.1 Questionnaire design

The most important consideration this researcher had during construction of the questionnaire was

the linkage between survey questions and research questions (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000;

Veal, 2005). The questions in the survey were employed to measure or obtain information on key

concepts within the research (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000), and the questionnaire as a

whole based on the results of the semi-structured interviews, and previous studies as points of

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reference (McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998).

The questionnaire design took into account the need for appropriate presentation and the time

needed for respondents to comfortably complete the questionnaire. In relation to presentation,

attention was paid to the order, number, and appropriate space between questions. In addition, the

introduction to the questionnaire explained the purpose of the research, and guaranteed

confidentiality in terms of responses. It also requested respondent‘s voluntary participation (Finn,

Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000; Veal, 2005). Respondents completed the questionnaire in 15 to 20

minutes.

The questionnaire comprised ten key areas as follows (also see Appendix 5):

Visitor behaviours at the site: number of visits to the site, and length of stay

Reasons for visit to the site

Activities in the April 3rd

Peace Park

Experiences: memorable experiences, thoughts, and feelings while wandering the site

Benefits gained from the experience of the site and the events it memorialises

Satisfaction of experiences

Previous experiences at other dark tourism sites

Enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident

Prior knowledge of the April 3rd

incident, and

Demographic information.

The above questions were constructed using a combination of dichotomy and category questions,

scale questions (likert-style), and open-ended questions. The open-ended questions were used to

gather additional information regarding satisfaction and experiences at the memorial. To assist the

respondent to understand the survey, jargon, ambiguity, and leading questions were avoided.

3.5.2.2 Sampling

It remains necessary to select a sample population as providing the questionnaire to a whole

population is normally impossible (Mitra & Lankford, 1999), impractical, time consuming, and too

expensive (Lynn, 2002; Veal, 2005). Sampling is defined as ‗the process of selecting subgroups

from a population of elements such as people, object or events‘ (Sproull, 1995, p. 109), and should

provide an accurate reflection of a population. However, it is often difficult to determine to what

extent the findings from a sample can be generalised (Bouma & Ling, 2004).

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Sample size

One of the main tasks when conducting questionnaire surveys is to determine sample size and type;

it remains important for researchers to determine sample size given it affects the production of

accurate results for the research. The conventional rule for a sample size is a 5% or 10% sample of

the population (Veal, 2005). Researchers, however, suggests that as there is no statistical rationale

for using an arbitrarily selected percentage of the population, the sample size should be determined

using three criteria: the required level of precision for the results; the level of detail in the proposed

analysis; and available budget (Sproull, 1995; Veal, 2005).

In consideration of these criteria, along with previous studies, the target sample size of this project

was chosen to be 400 for the questionnaire survey. This sample size was not 5% to 10% of the

population at the site, which was approximately 123,382 visitors in 2008 (see Table 3.2). However,

it was greater than 10% of the population who visited the site during the data collection period (see

Appendix 7). Moreover, previous studies have also used approximately 400 samples; for example,

Otto and Ritchie (1996) used a sample size of 339 to examine service experiences in hotels, airlines

and tours, and attractions. Prentice, Witt and Hamer (1998) selected 403 respondents to investigate

tourist experiences in the Rhondda Heritage Park, while McIntosh (1997) had 1,200 respondents in

three attractions, and thus 400 respondents at each location. As with previous studies, the researcher

distributed 450 questionnaire surveys to visitors who completed their visit to the April 3rd Peace

Park in order to achieve the target sample size of around 400 (actually 407 completed

questionnaires were collected).

Sample methods

It was necessary to compare two generic types of sampling – probability and non-probability

sampling – in order to determine the appropriate sampling method for this project. Random

sampling can be defined as ‘a sample design where units are selected by some probability

mechanism, allowing no scope for the influence of subjectivity’ (Lynn, 2002, p. 189). In other

words, every unit has an equal selection probability, and thus can avoid the biases in sample

selection and be representative of a population (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000; Lynn, 2002;

Sproull, 1995). In spite of these advantages, however, this method is not frequently used by

researchers due to the difficulties in construction of a sampling frame reflecting the target

population. The construction of a sampling frame and sample selection can be time consuming, or

may need extra effort in order to produce more reliable and representative data for the population

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(Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000). On the other hand, non-probability sampling does not

provide an equal chance of selection to each person in the study population, however, has frequently

been used by researchers (Jennings, 2001). This procedure may not accurately represent the

population due to possible bias in the selection of a sample, hence researchers using this method

should be aware of these limitations when drawing their conclusions (Bouma & Ling, 2004).

In total there are four different types of non-probability sampling: systemic sampling, convenience

sampling, purposive sampling, and quota sampling (Sproull, 1995). Of these sampling methods,

convenience sampling was adopted for this research as the method most frequently used by

researchers. This sampling procedure involves choosing the units or people most conveniently

available (Bouma & Ling, 2004; Zikmund, 2003). It is cheaper than any other sampling method,

and it can also reduce the time needed for data collection. Because of the advantages of

convenience sampling, researchers are usually able to collect data effectively in a relatively short

period of time (Sarantakos, 2005).

3.5.2.3 Data collection for the questionnaire survey

This research employed self-administered questionnaires, which enabled the researcher to access a

large number of target participants in a short period of time, further allowing respondents to

complete the questionnaire at their own pace. Self-administered questionnaires, however, often have

a low response rate if researchers are not present, or a suitable time is not arranged for collection of

the completed questionnaire (Jennings, 2001; Saunders, et al., 2000). For this reason, this researcher

remained present while administering the questionnaires.

The questionnaire survey was conducted in the lounge area of the Peace Memorial Hall lobby from

the 23rd

of June to 31st of July, 2009. The on-site survey was given to target participants over 18

years of age on completion of their visit, and allowed respondents to fill out the questionnaire easily

by recalling their experiences at the site. The questionnaire was distributed to respondents who

consented to participate in the questionnaire after the purposes of the survey was explained. For

effective data collection face-to-face interviews were used along with self-administered

questionnaires for the elderly, or respondents who requested explanation of the questionnaire.

3.6 Method of analysis

Since the project employed quantitative research methods, the data was analysed using the

94

computerised SPSS program (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). The SPSS program was

able to perform the necessary statistical calculations such as frequencies, chi-square tests,

correlations, exploratory factor analysis, and T-tests. The following will address statistical analysis

in this study and validity and reliability of data obtained from the survey.

3.6.1 Statistical analysis

The SPSS program provides a number of tests to analyse the three main research questions and 16

hypotheses derived from the conceptualising framework of the research. Prior to exploring the

hypotheses it was necessary to establish the profile of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park based on

their socio-demographic variables. This was then analysed using frequencies and cross-tabulation

tests in the SPSS program (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000).

Prior to testing the hypotheses, it was necessary to identify the dimensions of reasons for visit, on-

sites experiences, and benefits gained from the experience. This was achieved by exploratory factor

analysis, which enabled a reduction in the number of variables to a few interpretable dimensions

(Zikmund, 2003). The researcher was able to reduce the 12 items concerning reasons for visit to

three dimensions; 13 items of ‘thought about’ (cognitive experiences) to three dimensions; 13 items

of ‘felt’ (affective experiences) to three dimensions; and 17 items of benefits gained to four

dimensions. These dimensions were utilised to test the proposed 10 hypotheses and thus examine

the differences and relationships between variables.

In terms of involvement, a 10 point likert scale was utilised to measure three dimensions (i.e.,

importance/interest/frequently think about) of a visitor’s enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident. Scores on each of the three items was accumulated in order to create one total score, which

ranged from 3 as the lowest involvement to 30 as the highest. The total scores were then categorised

into three groups – a low, moderate, and high involvement group – in order to examine the

relationship between age, educational levels, gender, and involvement. The low involvement group

ranged from a 1 to 10 score, and the moderate group from 11 to 20. The high involvement group

ranged from 21 to 30.

On the basis of the dimensions identified from exploratory factor analysis, the research adopted the

bivariate analysis (e.g. correlation coefficients) rather than multivariate analyses (e.g. multiple

regression analysis). It was utilised to test the proposed hypotheses that concerned the relationships

and differences between two variables rather than make predictions the score of dependent variables

(De Vaus, 2001). Since the research could not assume the relationships or differences between two

95

variables; for example, the relationship between on-site experiences and benefits gained, it would

be appropriate to examine those relationships prior to the examination of how strongly two

variables were associated using multiple regression tests.

The research examined the relationship among four levels in a benefits-based approach using

Pearson’s correlations. This was used for ordinal variables to determine relationships between

scores (Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002). The correlation results for Spearman’s and Pearson’s can

be measured by means of a correlation coefficient ranging from -1 (a perfect negative relationship)

through to 0 (no relationship) to +1 (a perfect positive relationship). The size of the correlation

coefficient generally indicates the strength of the relationship; for example, r<0.3 is a weak

relationship, whilst r>0.5 is a strong one (Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002). However, this size of

coefficient is affected by the sample size and the coefficient 0.3 might be regarded as relatively

strong in social science because most outcomes have many causes and two variables are not likely

to be very strongly related (De Vaus, 2001). With this test, the study could then ascertain the

relationship between reasons for visit and a visitor‘s on-site experiences, and between visitor on-site

experiences and benefits gained. The test was also applied to examine the effect of enduring

involvement on visitor on-site experiences, and benefits gained from the April 3rd

incident

experiences.

However, it was not able to examine the effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor

experiences, benefits gained, and enduring involvement, because the socio-demographic variables

were not ordinal variables. As a result, the research adopted the chi-square test (χ2), independent

sample t-test, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. The Chi-square test (χ2) t examines

the association between variables (Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002), and was adopted to test the

relationship between enduring involvement and socio-demographic variables (hypothesis 9, 11, 12

and 13). The independent sample t-test was adopted to examine the difference in experiences,

benefits gained, and enduring involvement according to gender and origin of visitors (hypothesis 2,

3, 6,7, 9,10, and 13A) (Veal, 2005). In this case, independent variables were gender and origin of

visitors (local and non-local visitor), while dependent variables were identified as experiences,

benefits gained, and enduring involvement. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to

examine differences between more than two means (Veal, 2005), and was adopted to test hypothesis

1, 4, 5, and 8. With this test, the researcher could examine the differences in experiences and

benefits gained according to age and education level.

The above four types of test were able to produce reliable and valuable results for the project.

96

However, those results should be derived from reliable and valuable data, which is discussed in the

following section.

3.6.2 Validity and reliability

The criteria of validity and reliability are frequently used as part of the research evaluation process.

Validity refers to the meaningfulness of the data, and is related to credibility and transferability; in

short, it refers to whether a research instrument measures the information it is intended to

(Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002). In turn, external validity refers to the extent to which the results of

the research can be generalised (Finn, Elliott-White, & Walton, 2000).

In addressing validity this researcher focused on the questionnaire design and data collection. To

achieve a well constructed questionnaire design, the researcher ensured individual questions

reflected the research questions by conducting pre-tests and several pilot surveys prior to

administering the main survey. Moreover, two experts from a Korean university participated in the

survey, and found that the questionnaire was well designed to examine visitor experiences at the

April 3rd

Peace Park.

For a more valuable and accurate survey outcome, the questionnaire survey interviewing was

conducted by the researcher herself, which reduced the bias which might occur while administering

a self-administered questionnaire survey. For instance, if respondents did not understand questions

in the survey, explanations were provided during the face-to-face interviews. In particular, face-to-

face interviews with some elderly local visitors were conducted in the local dialect. In addition,

only 407 out of the collected 450 questionnaires (90.4%) were utilised for the analysis. The

remainder of the questionnaires were not fully completed, or had double responses and were

excluded from data analysis.

Reliability refers to the degree of stability or consistency yielded by a scale, and is related to the

consistency of the result obtained from a measuring instrument in research project (Finn, Elliott-

White, & Walton, 2000; Henderson & Bialeschki, 2002). It is assessed by Cronbach’s alpha and, as

a general rule, if the reliability coefficient is more than 0.7 it is considered adequate (Finn, Elliott-

White, & Walton, 2000). This study was assessed for internal consistency by conducting a pilot

survey with alpha around or above 0.7 in the measure of reasons for visit, experiences (thought,

felt), benefits gained, and enduring involvement. The alpha from the main survey confirms that

three scales – experiences, benefits gained, and enduring involvement – were above 0.8, which

97

confirms the data was reliable to utilise for hypothesis testing. The measure of reasons for visit was

around 0.7 and thus considered adequate for testing.

3.7 Research limitations

This research had several limitations when it came to administering data collection. Firstly, the

majority of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park are Korean, with only a small number of visitors

from Japan or other countries (see Appendix 7). As the questionnaires in this study were written

only in Korean, and distributed only to Korean visitors, the results of the study in terms of visitor

benefits, experiences, and involvement was obtained from Korean visitors only. In turn,

generalisation of the results remains limited to Korean people and the particular site in question.

Secondly, the results of the study may be affected by the site‘s seasonal variation in visitor types

and numbers. This site normally receives a large number of local visitors during March and April

due to the anniversary of the April 3rd

incident, with visitors with connections to the April 3rd

incident frequently visiting during this period also. In contrast, the number of non-local visitors was

greater than that of local visitors during any other period; as the survey for the project was

conducted during June and July, 2009, the number of non-local visitors was greater than that of

local visitors. As such the researcher could not collect surveys from a large number of visitors with

connections to the incident, and thus the study cannot directly compare the level of enduring

involvement between those who had connections to the April 3rd

incident on the one hand and

leisure travellers on the other.

With regard to sample size, the small number of surveys was collected from visitors over 60 years

old. The findings of the study may be useful to have basic understanding of the elderly experience

at the April 3rd

experiences and enduring involvement. However, the small sample size of the

elderly cannot be sufficient to represent the elderly experiences at the dark tourism site.

Finally, the majority of surveys were collected from independent travellers as opposed to group

travellers, given independent travellers were flexible with their time, interested in learning about the

April 3rd

incident and enthusiastic in looking around the exhibition halls. However, group travellers

had limited time to look around the site, and in turn complete a survey, and were thus excluded.

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3.8 Ethical issues

There are a number of ethical issues that can arise in social scientific research given the human

focus of its inquiry; hence researchers have an onus to conduct research ethically.

The two basic ethical principles in social scientific data collection are voluntary participation in

research, and secondly, the avoidance of harm befalling participants (Babbie, 2004). The former

concerns receiving participant consent after participants have been provided with either oral or

written information about the research. This consideration also relates to participant rights, such as

the right to refuse to answer questions, and the right to withdraw from the research at any time

during its implementation (Babbie, 2004; Jennings, 2001; Veal, 2005). The avoidance of harm to

participants concerns the issue of confidentiality and privacy, which may arise in the use of the data

(Veal, 2005). To deal with the issue of privacy, researchers should ensure the confidentiality of any

data collected; in a questionnaire survey situation this can be achieved by collecting data

anonymously, while with qualitative research the research participant has the right to access the

research findings (Jennings, 2001; Veal, 2005).

These ethical issues are important for all parties involved in the research, in order to protect all

parties from harm. For these reasons, research organisations provide ethical guidelines for

researchers. In turn, this research received the approval and met the guidelines for data collection of

the School of Tourism at the University of Queensland, which implies consideration of and

adherence to three main ethical issues: receiving participant permission for the interview;

confidentiality; and the rights of minors (see Appendix 8). These guidelines were followed when

conducting the semi-structured interviews and main questionnaire survey. In addition, the study also

described on the cover of the questionnaire the purpose of the research, and strict confidentiality of

all data collected.

3.9 Summary and conclusions

This chapter has described the research paradigm and two stages of the research strategy,

comprising an exploratory study and pilot survey, along with the development of the questionnaire

survey. The data collected from the main questionnaire survey was analysed in order to address the

research questions. The limitations and ethical issues pertinent to this investigation were also

discussed and dealt with in this chapter.

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Chapter 4 – Research Findings

4.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present the findings of this investigation into visitor experiences of the

April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island, South Korea. The chapter comprises five main sections.

Following an introduction (section 4.1), the chapter presents the demographic profile of visitors

(section 4.2); the benefits-based approach (section 4.3); the effect of enduring involvement on a

benefits-based approach (section 4.4); and a summary of the chapter (section 4.5).

In more depth, section 4.2 will provide a demographic profile of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace

Memorial Hall, which has yet to be undertaken since the site opened in March, 2008. As this

research applies an extension of a benefits-based approach by including the concept of enduring

involvement, Section 4.3 will in turn present the findings of this as examined on three core levels;

namely, reasons for visit to the site, visitor experiences at the site, and benefits gained from the visit.

Section 4.3 also examines differences in visitors‘ on-site experiences and the benefits gained, based

on four demographic variables. From this, Section 4.4 then presents the findings derived from an

investigation of the relationship between visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident, four demographic variables, and previous experience. It also provides the results of an

examination of the relationship of enduring involvement in terms of visitor experiences, and

benefits gained from the visit. Section 4.5 provides a summary of, and conclusion to, the chapter.

4.2 The demographic profile of visitors

Since the April 3rd

Peace Park opened on 28th

March, 2008, visitor profiling has yet to be conducted.

For the purposes of this investigation, a demographic profile of visitors will firstly be presented in

order to identify the general characteristics and profile of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park.

A total of 407 valid questionnaires, out of 450 distributed, were utilised for this profile. This total

comprised 201 male and 206 female respondents. In terms of place of origin, 148 were Jeju Island

residents (36.4%), with the remainder (63.6%) originating in other provinces of South Korea. The

differences in terms of visitor demographic by age can be outlined as follows.

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4.2.1 Visitor demographic by age

The majority of adult visitors to the park were aged between 21 and 50 (77.4%), with 12.8% of

respondents aged between 51 and 60 years; 6.1% between 18 and 21 years; and 3.7% 60 years of

age or over (see Table 4.1). A significant difference lay in the number of Jeju residents (7.1%) in the

51 to 60 age group when compared to visitors from elsewhere. This indicates that local visitors aged

between 51 and 60 years are more likely to visit the April 3rd

Peace Park at that time of year.

Table 4.1: Differences in visitor age by origin

18-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Over 70 Total

Jeju

Count 11 42 30 31 29 4 1 148

% of Total 2.7% 10.3% 7.4% 7.6% 7.1% 1.0% 0.2% 36.4%

Outside of

Jeju

Count 14 94 60 58 23 9 1 259

% of Total 3.4% 23.1% 14.7% 14.3% 5.7% 2.2% 0.2% 63.6%

Total

Count 25 136 90 89 52 13 2 407

% of Total 6.1% 33.4% 22.1% 21.9% 12.8% 3.2% 0.5% 100.0%

Table 4.2 illustrates that male visitors over the age of 40 (n=87, 21.3%) were more likely to visit the

park compared with those of females of the same age group (n=69, 16.9 %), while the number of

female visitors aged between 18 and 40 (n= 137, 33.6%) were significantly greater than those of

male visitors in the same age group (n=114, 28.0%).

Table 4.2: Differences in visitor ages by gender

18-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Over 70 Total

Male Count 9 66 39 47 30 9 1 201

% of Total 2.2% 16.2% 9.6% 11.5% 7.4% 2.2% 0.2% 49.4%

Female Count 16 70 51 42 22 4 1 206

% of Total 3.9% 17.2% 12.5% 10.3% 5.4% 1.0% 0.2% 50.6%

Total Count 25 136 90 89 52 13 2 407

% of Total 6.1% 33.4% 22.1% 21.9% 12.8% 3.2% 0.5% 100.0%

Table 4.3 demonstrates that visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park were likely to have a high level of

education, with a total of 76.2% of respondents either holding a university degree or higher or

currently undertaking university study. Approximately 48.2% of respondents held a Bachelor‘s

degree or other higher education degree, with 28% of respondents currently university students.

Only 16.9% of respondents declared high or middle school as their highest level of education.

101

In examining education levels across age groups, a significant difference was found in the 51 to 60

years age group, where the proportion of lower and higher levels of education were similar at 6.1%

(n= 25) and 5.8% (n=24) respectively. In the 60 years and over age group, visitors were more likely

to have attained generally lower levels of education.

Table 4.3: Differences in level of visitor education by age

18-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Over 70 Total

None Count 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4

% of Total 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.5% 0.0% 1.0%

Middle

school

Count 0 0 1 0 11 6 0 18

% of Total 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 2.7% 1.5% 0.0% 4.4%

High school

Count 1 4 11 15 12 2 2 47

% of Total 0.2% 1.0% 2.7% 3.7% 2.9% 0.5% 0.5% 11.5%

College

Count 0 6 11 8 3 0 0 28

% of Total 0.0% 1.5% 2.7% 2.0% 0.7% 0.0% 0.0% 6.9%

University

student

Count 24 87 3 0 0 0 0 114

% of Total 5.9% 21.4% 0.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 28.0%

Bachelor

degree

Count 0 33 47 47 14 1 0 142

% of Total 0.0% 8.1% 11.5% 11.5% 3.4% 0.2% 0.0% 34.9%

Master

degree

Count 0 6 17 11 3 0 0 37

% of Total 0.0% 1.5% 4.2% 2.7% 0.7% 0.0% 0.0% 9.1%

PhD or

higher

Count 0 0 0 8 7 2 0 17

% of Total 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 2.0% 1.7% 0.5% 0.0% 4.2%

Total Count 25 136 90 89 52 13 2 407

% of Total 6.1% 33.4% 22.1% 21.9% 12.8% 3.2% 0.5% 100.0%

4.2.2 Repeat visitors and visitors connected to the April 3rd

incident

Some 11.3% of respondents were identified as repeat visitors (see Table 4.4). Of these, 19 of 46, or

4.7% of the total number of respondents, were visitors from other provinces of Korea, while 27

respondents or 6.6% of the total number were local residents who have visited the site previously.

Hence local visitors formed a higher proportion of repeat visitors to the park versus non-local

visitors. This may in part be due to the relative newness of the site, being only 15 months old at the

time of the survey, meaning Korean visitors from elsewhere remain less familiar with and aware of

the park and are thus less likely to have visited before.

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Table 4.4: First and repeat visit by place of origin

Jeju Outside of Jeju Total

First visit Count 121 240 361

% of Total 30.2% 58.5% 88.7%

Repeat visit Count 27 19 46

% of Total 6.6% 4.7% 11.3%

Total Count 148 259 407

% of Total 36.4% 63.6% 100.0%

One of the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism visitors in general is their connection to a site,

either in terms of its history or the history it represents or both. In terms of the April 3rd

incident

these could include survivors or the family, relatives, or friends of both victims and survivors. A

total of 37 respondents declared some connection to the Jeju incident, with nine of these having a

relationship to both victims and survivors.

Table 4.5 illustrates the type of relationship for the 37 ‗connected‘ respondents, indicating that third

generation (grandsons or granddaughters) were more likely to visit the park compared to sons or

daughters of victims. This may well have been a product of the period of data collection (June and

July, 2009), given many second generation relatives may be more likely to visit the site on the

incident‘s anniversary in April. Over 70% of respondents connected to victims were in fact

grandsons, granddaughters, and cousins. Such visitors were also more likely to be repeat visitors to

the park, with some 8 out of 37 respondents identified as repeat visitors.

Table 4.5: Relationships between visitors and victims or survivors

Categories

Relationship with Victims Relationship with Survivors

Frequency (n=24) Per cent Frequency (n=22) Per cent

Son 0 0.0 4 18.2

Daughter 3 12.5 3 13.6

Grandson 4 16.7 2 9.1

Granddaughter 4 16.7 6 27.3

Cousin 10 41.7 2 9.1

Friend 1 4.2 1 4.5

Others 2 8.3 4 18.2

4.2.3 Summary of demographic visitor profiles

The demographic profiles of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park reveals that the majority of visitors

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to the park are aged between 21 and 50 years. In terms of the age group 51 to 60, the findings also

show that local visitors are more likely to visit the park than visitors from outside Jeju Island at that

time of year. Visitors to the park had attained a relatively high level of education on average, with

more than 76% of respondents declaring a bachelor degree or higher educational qualification or

current study. However, among respondents over the age of 51, visitors were more likely to have

lower levels of educational attainment, with around half only having completed high school or

another lower educational qualification.

Furthermore, the park had a relatively high rate of repeat visitors (11.3%), with some repeat visitors

connected to the incident itself. Half of the repeat visitors were from outside Jeju Island, which

indicates that travel distance to the park may not be a major obstacle for those with a strong interest

in visiting the park.

4.3 The benefits-based approach

This research has applied a benefit chain of causality consisting of four levels: reasons for visit,

settings, experiences, and benefits obtained.

Level 1 consisted of reasons for visit to the April 3rd

Peace Park, while level 2 incorporated the

physical, social, and managerial setting of the site. Here level 2 (the settings) is regarded as a fixed

factor, and thus not examined. Level 3, or site experiences, concerned the outcomes of interaction

with the settings, along with two experiential elements: learning and emotional experiences. The

final level of benefits derived involved experiences. Of these four levels, this comprised an

additional three levels or dimensions within it (reasons for visit, experiences, and benefits gained),

and examined the relationship between these levels. Furthermore, this also sought to explore the

differences in visitor experiences and benefits gained according to four demographic variables (age,

gender, origin of visitor, and educational level) by testing eight hypotheses.

4.3.1 Classifying reasons for visit, experiences, and benefits gained

This section details the findings in terms of reasons for visit, experiences at the site, and benefits

gained from the site experience. Level 1, or reasons for visit to the site, was measured according to

12 items identified by the pilot study. Three different factors were extracted using exploratory factor

analysis. Level 3, experiences, were examined in terms of cognitive experience (thought about

deeply) and affective experience (strongly felt). Each of these experiences could be measured using

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13 items, and three factors were extracted. The final level, visitor benefits gained, was measured

using 17 items with four factors extracted.

Level 1: reasons for visit to the site

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 provide reasons for visit to the site, and give descriptive information along with

the three extracted factors. The four items with the highest means measuring reasons for visit were

R1 (M=4.29), R2 (M=3.69), R7 (M=3.66), and R9 (M=3.37). The two items in terms of reasons for

visit with the lowest means were R8 (M=1.63) and R5 (M=2.13) (see Table 4.6). The highest mean

indicated important reasons for visit for the majority of visitors, while the lowest mean indicated

important reasons for visit for the minority group.

Table 4.7 provides the results of an exploratory factor analysis, giving three extracted factors for

reasons for visit to the site. These factors were labeled as ‗learning and obligation‘, ‗social reasons

and curiosity‘, and ‗educational program‘. These factors combined accounted for 48.2% of the total

explained variance. The most important factor remained ‗learning and obligation‘, generating 24.7%

of the total explained variance. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy

and Bartlett‘s test of sphericity indicates that the 13 items were adequate for factor analysis (KMO

= 0.745; Bartlett‘s test, p<.000). The reliability of two out of three factors was also tested using

Cronbach‘s alpha, given the rest factor – education program – comprised one item. The reliability

of learning and obligation, and social reasons and curiosity, were 0.73 and 0.58 respectively, which

constituted an adequate level.

Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics for reasons for visit to the site (level 1)

Item Description Mean SD N

R1 To learn something about the Jeju April 3rd incident 4.29 .970 407

R2 Interested in Korean contemporary history 3.69 1.118 407

R3 Interested in ideological conflict in general 2.96 1.279 407

R4 To participate in an educational program provided by community

group, school or organization 2.35 1.603 407

R5 Brought by friends and relatives 2.13 1.517 407

R6 Brought friends and relatives 2.19 1.531 407

R7 Felt obligation to understand the Jeju April 3rd incident as a Jeju

resident / Korean 3.66 1.312 407

R8 Personal or family involvement in the Jeju April 3rd incident 1.63 1.237 407

R9 To commemorate victims of the Jeju April 3rd incident 3.37 1.299 407

R10 Wanted to teach my children the Jeju April 3rd

incident 2.44 1.598 407

R11 To fulfil curiosity about the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Park 3.07 1.332 407

R12 To have meaningful day out with family or friends 3.13 1.432 407

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Table 4.7: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of level 1 (reasons for visit)

Factors Factor

loading Eigenvalue

Explained

variance (%)

Cronbach’s

alpha

Factor 1: Learning and obligation 2.964 24.700 .725

Interested in Korean contemporary history .795

To learn something about the Jeju April 3rd incident .734

Interested in ideological conflict in general .636

Felt obligation to understand the Jeju April 3rd incident as a

Jeju resident / Korean .569

To commemorate victims of the Jeju April 3rd incident .569

Factor 2: Social reasons and curiosity 1.715 14.288 .576

To have meaningful day out with family or friends .789

To fulfil curiosity about the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Park .643

Brought friends and relatives .592

Factor 3: Educational program 1.103 9.191

To participate in an educational program provided by

community group, school or organization .770

KMO: .745 Bartlett‘s test of sphericity (p<0.05)

Total explained variance: 48.2%

Level 3: Cognitive experiences – ‘Thought About’

Cognitive experiences were measured using ‗thought about deeply’ (TAD) items, with Tables 4.8

and 4.9 illustrating the descriptive information and three factors extracted for cognitive experiences.

The five items of TAD with the highest means were: TA1 (M = 4.61), TA2 (M = 4.52), TA3 (M =

4.31), TA7 (M = 4.22), and TA5 (M = 3.97). The two items of TAD with the lowest means were:

TA10 (M = 2.61) and TA12 (M = 2.84) (see Table 4.8).

Table 4.9 shows the three extracted factors labelled ‗personal concern‘, ‗related issues‘, and ‗the

April 3rd

incident‘. These factors combined accounted for 60.2% of the total explained variance.

The most important factor was ‗personal concern‘, generating 36.5% of the total explained variance.

The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, and Bartlett‘s test of sphericity,

indicates that the 13 items were adequate for factor analysis (KMO = 0.837; Bartlett‘s test, p<.000).

The reliability of the three factors was also tested using Cronbach‘s alpha with all reliabilities found

to be satisfactory and ranging from 0.77 to 0.84.

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Table 4.8: Descriptive statistics of visitor cognitive experiences (TAD)

Item Description Mean SD N

TA1 Innocent victims of the Jeju April 3rd

incident 4.61 0.707 407

TA2 Those who suffer mental and physical injuries caused by the Jeju incident 4.52 0.755 407

TA3 Jeju islanders‘ hard life during the Jeju April 3rd incident 4.31 0.831 407

TA4 Comparisons between life then and now 3.47 1.213 407

TA5 Korean contemporary history interrupted by foreign countries 3.97 1.118 407

TA6 The issue of the ideological conflict 3.73 1.128 407

TA7 The issue of human rights 4.22 0.981 407

TA8 The importance of education 3.93 1.15 407

TA9 The guilt-by-association system 3.41 1.258 407

TA10 My memories of the Jeju April 3rd incident 2.61 1.501 407

TA11 Comparison between the exhibition contents and what I have known the Jeju

April 3rd incident 3.10 1.482 407

TA12 The impact of the Jeju incident on me personally 2.84 1.471 407

TA13 The hard lives of my ancestors 3.67 1.256 407

Table 4.9: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of cognitive experiences

Factors Factor

loading Eigenvalue

Explained

variance (%)

Cronbach’s

alpha

Factor 1: Personal concern 4.748 36.525 .841

The impact of the Jeju incident on me personally .836

My memories of the Jeju April 3rd incident .834

Comparison between the exhibition contents and what

I have known the Jeju April 3rd incident .833

Factor 2: Related issues 1.720 13.234 .769

The issue of the ideological conflict .803

The importance of education .724

The issue of human rights .695

Korean contemporary history interrupted by foreign

countries .626

The guilt-by-association system .541

Factor 3: The April 3rd

incident 1.355 10.423 .839

Those who suffer mental and physical injuries caused

by the Jeju incident .869

Innocent victims of the Jeju April 3rd

incident .852

Jeju islanders‘ hard life during the Jeju April 3rd

incident .784

KMO: .837

Bartlett‘s test of sphericity (p<0.05)

Total explained variance: 60.2%

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Level 3: Affective experiences

Tables 4.10 and 4.11, the results of affective experience, provide descriptive information for

affective experiences and the three extracted factors. The five items of affective experience with the

highest means were: E7 (M = 4.44), E1 (M = 4.39), E3 (M = 4.23), E2 (M = 4.20), and E8 (M =

4.19). The two items with the lowest means were: E13 (M = 3.05) and E12 (M = 3.46) (see Table

4.10).

As Table 4.11 reveals, the three factors extracted were labelled ‗emotions evoked by the April 3rd

incident‘, ‗emotions evoked by environment‘, and ‗emotions evoked by circumstance of Korea‘.

These factors combined accounted for 59.4% of the total explained variance. The most important

factor was ‗emotions evoked by the April 3rd

incident‘, generating 36.6% of the total explained

variance. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, and Bartlett‘s test of

sphericity, indicates that the 13 items were adequate for factor analysis (KMO = 0.829; Bartlett‘s

test, p<.000). The reliability of the three factors was also tested using Cronbach‘s alpha and all

reliabilities were found to be satisfactory, ranging from 0.726 to 0.842.

Table 4.10: Descriptive information of visitor affective experience

Item Description Mean SD N

E1 A sense of fear from the cruel nature of human which caused the tragic event

like the Jeju April 3rd

incident 4.39 0.850 407

E2 A sense of fear from the scene of slaughtering displayed in the exhibition halls 4.20 0.913 407

E3 Sorrow for the circumstance in which people had to fight each other 4.23 0.975 407

E4 Sorrow for Korea‘s current status as a divided nation 3.95 1.096 407

E5 Sorrow over Korea‘s being a weak nation 3.96 1.167 407

E6 Surprised at the miserable life of Jeju residents during the incident 4.11 0.969 407

E7 Sympathy for innocent people who were killed, injured or orphaned by the Jeju

April 3rd

incident 4.44 0.788 407

E8 Sympathy for people who had to live in caves or mountains to avoid arrest by

the rightist or the leftist 4.19 0.905 407

E9 Empathy with the painful lives of survivors who were injured mentally or

physically from the incident 4.16 0.908 407

E10 Appreciative of today‘s quality of life 3.60 1.269 407

E11 Appreciative of the peaceful state of the nation 3.38 1.261 407

E12 Depressed from the exhibition contents and theme 3.46 1.204 407

E13 Depressed from quiet atmosphere caused by the small number of visitors inside

the exhibition halls 3.05 1.372 407

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Table 4.11: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of visitor affective experience

Factors Factor

loading Eigenvalue

Explained

variance (%)

Cronbach’s

alpha

Factor 1: Emotions evoked by the April 3rd

incident 4.753 36.562 .842

Sympathy for innocent people who were killed, injured or

orphaned by the Jeju April 3rd

incident .807

Sympathy for people who had to live in caves or mountains to

avoid arrest by the rightist or the leftist .798

A sense of fear from the scene of slaughtering displayed in the

exhibition halls .704

Empathy with the painful lives of survivors who were injured

mentally or physically from the incident .679

A sense of fear from the cruel nature of human which caused

the tragic event like the Jeju April 3rd

incident .657

Surprised at the miserable life of Jeju residents during the

incident .621

Factor 2: Emotions evoked by environment 1.710 13.152 .726

Appreciative of the peaceful state of the nation .816

Appreciative of today‘s quality of life .780

Depressed from the exhibition contents and theme .668

Depressed from quiet atmosphere caused by the small

number of visitors inside the exhibition halls .596

Factor 3: Emotions evoked by the circumstance of Korea 1.265 9.729 .736

Sorrow for Korea‘s current status as a divided nation .849

Sorrow over Korea‘s being a weak nation .849

Sorrow for the circumstance in which people had to fight each

other .674

KMO: .829

Bartlett‘s test of sphericity (p<0.05)

Total explained variance: 59.4%

Level 4: Visitor benefits gained

Tables 4.12 and 4.13 provide the benefits gained, and give descriptive information and the four

extracted factors for benefits gained. The five items of benefits gained with the highest means were:

BG1 (M = 4.31), BG3 (M = 4.29), BG2 (M = 4.26), BG15 (M = 4.18), and BG16 (M = 4.13). The

two items for benefits gained with the lowest means were: BG10 (M = 2.27) and BG11 (M = 2.57)

(see Table 4.12).

The results of exploratory factor analysis are shown in Table 4.13, and give four extracted factors

for benefits gained. These factors were labelled ‗learning‘, ‗family bonding‘, ‗meaningfulness‘,

109

and ‗comfort from achieving internal obligation‘. These factors combined accounted for 63.4% of

the total explained variance. The most important factor was ‗learning‘, generating 35.5% of the total

explained variance. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, and Bartlett‘s

test of sphericity, indicates that the 13 items were adequate for factor analysis (KMO = 0.841;

Bartlett‘s test, p<.000). The reliability of the three factors was also tested using Cronbach‘s alpha

and all were found to be satisfactory, ranging from 0.748 to 0.848.

Table 4.12: Descriptive information of visitors’ benefits gained

Item Description Mean SD N

BG1 Realized how horrible the Jeju April 3rd incident was 4.31 1.007 407

BG2 Learnt that a large number of innocent people were killed during the

incident 4.26 1.056 407

BG3 Had a deep understanding how the incident had erupted 4.29 0.952 407

BG4 Changed my viewpoint regarding the Jeju April 3rd

incident 3.32 1.349 407

BG5 Learnt about Korean contemporary history 3.64 1.125 407

BG6 Understood the issues of ideological conflict and human rights 3.65 1.103 407

BG7 Carried out the obligation to visit the site as a Jeju islander/ Korean 3.84 1.177 407

BG8 Carried out the obligation to commemorate victims as a Jeju

islander/ Korean 3.84 1.165 407

BG9 Comfort from sharing the pain and sadness of the Jeju incident with

others 3.64 1.153 407

BG10 Relieved from my memory of the Jeju April 3rd

incident 2.27 1.313 407

BG11 Felt grateful that no victims are in my family 2.57 1.455 407

BG12 Understood the importance of family 3.25 1.389 407

BG13 Had an insight into the miserable life my ancestor used to have 3.67 1.209 407

BG14 Felt grateful that you are living now and not then 3.62 1.307 407

BG15 Realized the importance of peace in Jeju island 4.18 1.029 407

BG16 Had a meaningful day out 4.13 1.058 407

BG17 Had a meaningful time with family, relatives or friends 3.74 1.300 407

110

Table 4.13: Exploratory factor analysis and reliability of visitor benefits gained

Factors Factor

loading Eigenvalue

Explained

variance (%)

Cronbach’s

alpha

Factor 1: Learning 6.027 35.450 .838

Learnt that a large number of innocent people were killed

during the incident .855

Realized how horrible the Jeju April 3rd incident was .852

Had a deep understanding how the incident had erupted .796

Learnt about Korean contemporary history .617

Understood the issues of ideological conflict and human rights .565

Changed my viewpoint regarding the Jeju April 3rd

incident .551

Factor 2: Family bonding 2.093 12.312 .788

Understood the importance of family .804

Felt grateful that you are living now and not then .710

Felt grateful that no victims are in my family .708

Had an insight into the miserable life my ancestor used to have .636

Factor 3: Meaningfulness 1.366 7.608 .773

Had a meaningful day out .831

Had a meaningful time with family, relatives or friends .784

Realized the importance of peace in Jeju island .671

Factor 4: Comfort from achieving internal obligation 1.293 8.035 .748

Carried out the obligation to commemorate victims as a Jeju

islander/ Korean .824

Carried out the obligation to visit the site as a Jeju islander/

Korean .745

Comfort from sharing the pain and sadness of the Jeju incident

with others .639

Relieved from my memory of the Jeju April 3rd

incident .587

KMO: .841

Bartlett‘s test of sphericity (p<0.05)

Total explained variance: 63.406%

Summary of the findings from EFA of visitor experiences and benefits gained

Three factors were extracted for reasons for visit (level 1), six factors for visitors‘ experiences (level

3), and four factors for benefits gained (level 4), all using principle component analysis. The three

factors from level 1 were labelled learning and obligation, social reasons and curiosity, and

educational program. The six factors from experiences were labelled as the April 3rd

incident,

related issues, personal concerns, emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident, emotion evoked by the

environment, and the circumstance of Korea. Four factors from benefits gained were labelled

learning, family bonding, meaningfulness, and comfort from achieving internal obligation. For

greater convenience and brevity, abbreviations will be used for each factor, as shown in Table 4.14.

111

Table 4.14: Abbreviations of each dimension

Level Categories Factors Abbreviations

Level 1 Reasons for visit

Learning and obligation

Social reasons and curiosity

Educational program

RV1

RV2

RV3

Level 3 Cognitive experiences

The April 3rd

incident

Related issues

Personal concern

CA

CR

CP

Affective experiences

Emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident

Emotion evoked by environment

Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

EA

EE

EK

Level 4 Benefits gained

Learning

Family bonding

Meaningfulness

Comfort from achieving internal obligation

BL

BF

BM

BIO

4.3.2 The relationship between each level in a benefits-based approach

Since this research applies a benefit chain of causality to understanding dark tourism visitor

experiences, it remains important to examine how the factors for each level interrelate. As

mentioned earlier, settings (level 2) was a fixed factor, and hence this research examined the

relationship between visitor reasons for visit to the site (level 1) and their on-site experiences (level

3), as well as benefits gained from their experiences (level 4).

The results shown in Table 4.15 indicate that two factors for visitor reasons for visit (RV1 and RV3)

were significantly related to the six factors for experiences. However, the other reason for visit

factor, RV3, was not related to any visitor learning or emotional experiences factors (P>0.05).

Firstly, RV1 (learning and obligation) was significantly associated with six factors of learning and

emotional experiences: CA (r (405) = .359, p<0.01); CR (r (405) = .450, p<0.01), CP (r (405)

= .367, p<0.01); EA (r (405) = .368, p<0.01), EE (r (405) = .098, p<0.05); and EK (r (405) = .292,

p<0.01). This factor had a strong relationship with the related issues factor (CR), but a weak one

with the factor of emotion evoked by environment (EE).

Secondly, RV2 (social reasons and curiosity) was significantly associated with five factors for

experiences: CR (r (405) = .153, p<0.01), CP (r (405) = .195, p<0.01), EA (r (405) = .208, p<0.01),

EE (r (405) = .212, p<0.01), and EK (r (405) = .164, p<0.01). However, it was not significantly

related to CA (r (405) = .084, p>0.05). In addition, the strength of relationships between RV2 and

112

the four factors of experiences (CR, CP, EA and EK) were weaker than those between RV1 and the

same factors of experiences. However, the relationship between RV2 and EE was stronger than that

of RV1 and EE.

Table 4.15: Correlation test between reasons for visit and experiences

Level 1

Level 3: Experiences

Cognitive Affective

CA CR CP EA EE EK

RV1

Pearson Correlation .359** .450** .367** .368** .098* .292**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .048 .000

N 407 407 407 407 407 407

RV2

Pearson Correlation .084 .153** .195** .208** .212** .164**

Sig. (2-tailed) .091 .002 .000 .000 .000 .001

N 407 407 407 407 407 407

RV3

Pearson Correlation .084 -0.034 .048 .071 .027 -0.019

Sig. (2-tailed) .091 .497 .329 .150 .589 .700

N 407 407 407 407 407 407

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Summary: the relationship between each level of a benefits-based approach

Based on the above findings, learning and obligation (RV1) remains the core reason for visiting the

site and significantly influencing visitor on-site experiences. The factors social reasons and

curiosity (RV2) were found to have a generic effect on affective experiences, and two dimensions of

cognitive experiences (related issues (CR) and personal concern (CP)). However, the strength of

relationship between RV2 and on-site experiences was weaker than that between RV1 and

experiences. Educational program (RV3) found to have no significant affect on visitors‘ on-site

experiences.

4.3.3 The relationship between visitor experiences and benefits gained

The relationship between six factors for visitor experiences, and four factors for benefits gained,

was examined using Pearson‘s correlation. The results revealed in Table 4.16 indicate that visitor

experiences were significantly related to visitor benefits gained (p<0.05). CP (personal concern)

was significantly associated with three factors of benefits gained: namely family bonding (r (405)

= .107, p<0.05), meaningfulness (r (405) = .117, p<0.05), and comfort from achieving internal

obligation (r (405) = .411, p<0.01). However, it was not significantly related to learning benefit (r

(405) = .059, p>0.05).

113

CR (related issues) was significantly related to four benefits: learning (r (405) = .213, p<0.01),

family bonding (r (405) = .107, p<0.05), meaningfulness (r (405) = .285, p<0.01), and comfort from

achieving internal obligation (r (405) = .285, p<0.01). CA (the April 3rd

incident) was also

significantly associated with four benefits. A correlation of coefficient was r (405) = .279, p<0.01

for learning (BL), r (405) = .140, p<0.01 for family bonding (BF), r (405) = .280, p<0.01 for

meaningfulness (BM), and r (405) = .264, p<0.01 for comfort from achieving internal obligation

(BIO).

These results indicate that visitor affective experiences were significantly associated with the

benefits gained, and its relationships stronger than those between three factors of cognitive

experiences, and four factors of benefits gained. EA (emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident) was

significantly associated with BL (r (405) = .299, p<0.01), BF (r (405) = .299, p<0.01), BM (r (405)

= .391, p<0.01), and BIO (r (405) = .395, p<0.01). EE (emotion evoked by environment) was also

significantly related to BL (r (405) = .244, p<0.01), BF (r (405) = .541, p<0.01), BM (r (405) = .385,

p<0.01), and BIO (r (405) = .341, p<0.01). Finally, EK (emotions evoked by the circumstance of

Korea) was significantly associated with BL (r (405) = .326, p<0.01), BF (r (405) = .329, p<0.01),

BM (r (405) = .345, p<0.01), and BIO (r (405) = .292, p<0.01) (see table 4.16).

Table 4.16: Correlation test between visitor experiences and benefits gained

BL BF BM BIO

CP

Pearson Correlation .059 .107* .117* .411**

Sig. (2-tailed) .236 .031 .018 .000

N 407 407 407 407

Cognitive CR

Pearson Correlation .213** .107* .285** .285**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .032 .000 .000

N 407 407 407 407

CA

Pearson Correlation .279** .140** .280** .264**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .005 .000 .000

N 407 407 407 407

EA

Pearson Correlation .299** .274** .391** .395**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000

N 407 407 407 407

Affective EE

Pearson Correlation .244** .541** .385** .341**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000

N 407 407 407 407

EK

Pearson Correlation .326** .329** .345** .292**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000

N 407 407 407 407

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

114

Summary: the relationship between experiences and benefits gained

This study has found that cognitive experiences were significantly correlated with visitor benefits

gained. CP (personal concern) was significantly associated with three benefits (BF, BM and BIO).

Specifically, this had the strongest relationship with BIO, however, no significant relationship with

BL (learning benefit). CR and CA were also significantly related to the factors for benefits gained,

yet the strength of relationship with the benefit of BF was relatively weaker than those of the other

three benefits. Visitor affective experiences were found to have a generic effect on benefits gained.

The relationships between affective experiences and benefits gained were much stronger than those

between cognitive experiences and benefits gained. Specifically, EA was strongly related to the

benefits of BM and BIO, while EE had a much stronger relationship with BF and BM.

4.3.4 Visitor experiences and benefits gained by demographic variables

This section investigates the demographic differences according to six factors when it comes to

visitor experiences and four factors of visitor benefits gained. Eight hypotheses were utilised to

examine those differences, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Outline of hypotheses for visitor experiences and benefits

Hypothesis 5 ~9

Hypothesis 1~4

Effect of experiences

Demographic variables

Age, Gender, Origin, Education level

Visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls

Cognitive learning

Personal concern (LP)

Related issues (LR)

The April 3rd

incident (LA)

Emotions evoked by

The April 3rd

incident (EA)

Environment at the park (EE)

The circumstance of Korea (EK)

Visitor benefits gained from their experiences

Learning (BL)

Family bonding (BF)

Meaningfulness (BM)

Comfort from achieving internal obligation (BIO)

115

4.3.4.1 The differences between visitor experiences by demographic variables

Hypothesis 1:

H0: Visitor experiences are the same regardless of age.

H1: Visitor experiences differ by age.

The reported results of an ANOVA as shown in Table 4.17 reveal that three factors of visitor

experiences differ significantly by age (p<0.05). Hence personal concern (CP) (F (6,400) = 2.419),

the April 3rd

incident (CA) (F (6,400) = 2.444), and emotions evoked by the circumstance of Korea

(EK), all differed significantly by age (F (6,400) = 2.661). However, the other three factors of

visitor experiences did not differ significantly by age (p>0.05). These were related issues (CR) (F

(6,400) =1.856), emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident (EA) (F (6,400) =0.928), and emotion

evoked by environment (EE) (F (6,400) =1.381). Therefore, the alternative hypothesis was accepted

in the case of CP and CA, and EK.

Table 4.17: ANOVA for hypothesis 1

Visitor experiences Sum of Squares df MS F p

Personal concern (CP)

Between Groups 213.884 6 35.647 2.419 0.026

Within Groups 5894.731 400 14.737

Total 6108.614 406

Related issues (CR)

Between Groups 182.417 6 30.403 1.856 0.087

Within Groups 6553.976 400 16.385

Total 6736.393 406

The April 3rd incident

(CA)

Between Groups 57.412 6 9.569 2.444 0.025

Within Groups 1566.342 400 3.916

Total 1623.754 406

Emotion evoked by the

April 3rd incident (EA)

Between Groups 88.861 6 14.81 0.928 0.474

Within Groups 6380.883 400 15.952

Total 6469.744 406

Emotion evoked by

environment (EE)

Between Groups 118.163 6 19.694 1.381 0.221

Within Groups 5705.557 400 14.264

Total 5823.72 406

Emotion evoked by the

circumstance of Korea

(EK)

Between Groups 138.014 6 23.002 3.748 0.001

Within Groups 2454.866 400 6.137

Total 2592.88 406

116

Hypothesis 2:

H0: Male visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls match those of female visitors.

H1: Male visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls differ from those of female visitors.

The results of an independent t-test appear in Table 4.18, and indicate that male visitor experiences

were not significantly different to those of female visitors (p>0.05). Hence the null hypothesis was

accepted.

Table 4.18: Independent t-test for hypothesis 2

Visitor experiences Gender N Mean SD t df Sig.

(2-tailed)

Personal concern (CP) Male 201 8.63 3.777 0.380 405 0.704

Female 206 8.48 3.984

Related issues (CR) Male 201 19.30 3.962 0. 186 405 0.853

Female 206 19.22 4.188

The April 3rd incident (CA) Male 201 13.62 1.827 1.869 405 0.062

Female 206 13.25 2.144

Emotion evoked by the April

3rd incident (EA)

Male 201 25.24 4.006 -1.262 405 0.208

Female 206 25.74 3.973

Emotion evoked by

environment (EE)

Male 201 13.17 3.770 -1.699 405 0.09

Female 206 13.81 3.787

Emotion evoked by the

circumstance of Korea (EK)

Male 201 12.10 2.395 0.688 405 0.492

Female 206 11.93 2.653

Hypothesis 3:

H0: Local visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls are the same as the experiences of

visitors from other provinces of Korea.

H1: Local visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls differ from the experiences of visitors

from other provinces of Korea.

The results of an independent t-test, as shown in Table 4.19, illustrate that two factors of

experiences held statistically significant results. On average, the local visitor was significantly

higher in CP (M = 9.72, SD = 3.57) when compared to visitors from other provinces of Korea (M =

117

7.89, SD = 3.90), (t (405) = 4.691, p<0.05). The local visitor also had significantly stronger emotion

evoked by the environment (EE) (M = 14.32, SD = 3.48) than visitors from outside Jeju Island (M =

13.02, SD = 3.88), (t (405) = 3.369, p<0.05). The four other factors of experiences (CR, CA, EA,

and EK) were not statistically significant (p>0.05). Therefore, the alternative hypothesis was

accepted for two factors, CP and EE.

Table 4.19: Independent t-test for hypothesis 3

Visitor experiences Origin N Mean SD t df Sig.

(2-tailed)

Personal concern (CP) Jeju 148 9.72 3.574 4.691 405 0.000

Outside of Jeju 259 7.89 3.896

Related issues (CR) Jeju 148 19.30 4.359 0.163 405 0.871

Outside of Jeju 259 19.24 3.909

The April 3rd incident (CA) Jeju 148 13.39 1.988 -0.342 405 0.733

Outside of Jeju 259 13.46 2.01

Emotions evoked by the

April 3rd incident (EA)

Jeju 148 25.89 3.964 1.514 405 0.131

Outside of Jeju 259 25.27 3.998

Emotions evoked by

environment (EE)

Jeju 148 14.32 3.48 3.369 405 0.001

Outside of Jeju 259 13.02 3.88

Emotions evoked by the

circumstance of Korea (EK)

Jeju 148 12.20 2.32 1.079 405 0.281

Outside of Jeju 259 11.92 2.637

Hypothesis 4:

H0: Visitor experiences are the same regardless of a visitor‘s educational level.

H1: Visitor experiences differ between visitors by educational level.

The reported results of ANOVA can be seen in Table 4.20, and illustrate that three factors of visitor

experiences are statistically significant. CR (F (7, 399) = 2.182), CA (F (7, 399) = 3.173), and EE (F

(7, 399) = 4.086), were significantly different by visitor education level (p<0.05). However, CP (F

(7, 399) = 0.761), EA (F (7, 399) = 1.331), and EK (F (7, 399) =1.414) were not significantly

different by education level (p>0.05). As a result, the alternative hypothesis was accepted in terms

of three factors of experiences: CR, CA, and EE.

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Table 4.20: ANOVA for hypothesis 4

Visitor experiences

Sum of Squares df MS F p

Personal concern (CP)

Between Groups 80.512 7 11.502 0.761 0.620

Within Groups 6028.103 399 15.108

Total 6108.614 406

Related issues (CR)

Between Groups 248.373 7 35.482 2.182 0.035

Within Groups 6488.02 399 16.261

Total 6736.393 406

The April 3rd incident (CA)

Between Groups 85.611 7 12.23 3.173 0.003

Within Groups 1538.143 399 3.855 Total 1623.754 406

Emotions evoked by the

April 3rd incident (EA)

Between Groups 147.619 7 21.088 1.331 0.234

Within Groups 6322.125 399 15.845

Total 6469.744 406

Emotions evoked by

environment (EE)

Between Groups 389.587 7 55.655 4.086 0.000

Within Groups 5434.133 399 13.619 Total 5823.72 406

Emotions evoked by the

circumstance of Korea (EK)

Between Groups 62.77 7 8.967 1.414 0.198

Within Groups 2530.109 399 6.341

Total 2592.88 406

4.3.4.2 Summary: visitor experiences by demographic variables

Four hypotheses were utilised to examine the differences in visitor experiences according to age,

gender, place of origin (Jeju or non-Jeju resident), and level of education. Firstly, three factors of

visitor experiences (CP and CA, and EK) differ by age. The elderly were likely to have higher

averages in CP and CA when compared with young people, while middle-aged visitors or the

elderly were likely to have strong emotions about the circumstances of Korea (see Appendix 9).

Secondly, visitor experiences were not significantly different by gender. At the same time, visitor

experiences did differ significantly by origin of visitors; in short, local visitors were likely to be

higher in CP than visitors from other provinces of Korea, and also have stronger feelings about the

environment (EE) when compared with visitors from outside Jeju Island. The level of education of

visitors also influences their on-site experiences, with visitors holding or studying for a Bachelors

degree or higher educational qualification more likely to have CR and CA than those with lower

educational qualifications. Furthermore, those who had only completed high school or lower

education were more likely to be sensitive to the exhibition setting (EE) than visitors holding or

studying for a Bachelors Degree or higher educational qualification.

119

4.3.4.3 The differences in visitor benefits gained by demographic variables

Hypothesis 5:

H0: Visitor benefits gained from their experiences are the same regardless of age.

H1: Visitor benefits gained from their experiences differ by age.

The results of an ANOVA as Table 4.21 shows, indicate that visitor benefits gained from their

experiences at the April 3rd

incident exhibition halls did not significantly differ by age (p>0.05).

Hence the null hypothesis was accepted.

Table 4.21: ANOVA for hypothesis 5

Benefits

Sum of Squares df MD F p

Learning (BL)

Between Groups 291.561 6 48.593 2.030 0.061

Within Groups 9574.012 400 23.935

Total 9865.572 406

Family bonding (BF)

Between Groups 190.992 6 31.832 1.825 0.093

Within Groups 6975.348 400 17.438

Total 7166.339 406

Meaningfulness (BM)

Between Groups 48.069 6 8.012 1.004 0.422

Within Groups 3192.741 400 7.982

Total 3240.811 406

Comfort from

achieving internal

obligation (BIO)

Between Groups 93.611 6 15.602 1.184 0.314

Within Groups 5270.684 400 13.177

Total 5364.295 406

Hypothesis 6:

H0: Male visitor benefits gained from April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences are the same as those

of female visitors.

H1: Male visitor benefits gained from April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences differ from those of

female visitors.

From the results of an independent t-test shown in Table 4.22, visitor benefits gained from

experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls did not significantly differ by gender (p>0.05). Hence

the alternative hypothesis was rejected, and null hypothesis accepted. In sum there was no

difference in visitor benefits gained according to gender.

120

Table 4.22: Independent t-test for hypothesis 6

Benefits Gender N Mean SD t df Sig.

(2-tailed)

Learning (BL) Male 201 23.29 5.024

-0.77 405 0.442 Female 206 23.67 4.841

Family bonding (BF) Male 201 13.09 4.171

-0.111 405 0.912 Female 206 13.14 4.241

Meaningfulness (BM)

Male 201 11.91 2.873

-1.013 405 0.312 Female 206 12.19 2.778

Comfort from achieving

internal obligation (BIO)

Male 201 13.30 3.672 -1.613 405 0.108

Female 206 13.88 3.584

Hypothesis 7:

H0: Local visitor benefits gained from the April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences are the same as those

of visitors from other provinces of Korea.

H1: Local visitor benefits gained from the April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences differ from those of

visitors from other provinces of Korea.

The results of an independent t-test shown in Table 4.23 illustrate statistically significant results for

three factors of benefits gained (BF, BM, and BIO) (p<0.05). On average, local visitors were

significantly higher in the benefit of family bonding (M = 14.52, SD = 3.56) when compared with

visitors from other Korean provinces (M = 12.32, SD = 4.33), (t (405) = 5.25, p<0.05). In terms of

the benefit of meaningfulness, local visitor scores (M = 12.56, SD = 2.65) were also slightly higher

compared with visitors from outside Jeju Island (M = 11.76, SD = 2.88), (t (405) = 2.758, p<0.05).

Lastly, in relation to the benefit of comfort by achieving internal obligation local visitors (M= 15.14,

SD = 3.54) were significantly higher on average than visitors from outside Jeju Island (M= 12.71,

SD = 3.40), (t (405) = 6.828, p<0.05). In turn, the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it comes

to three factors of visitor benefits gained, albeit not the benefit of learning.

121

Table 4.23: Independent t-test for hypothesis 7

Benefits Origin N Mean SD t df Sig.

(2-tailed)

Learning (BL) Jeju 148 23.68 5.211 0.629 405 0.530

Outside of Jeju 259 23.36 4.767

Family bonding (BF) Jeju 148 14.52 3.560 5.254 405 0.000

Outside of Jeju 259 12.32 4.334

Meaningfulness (BM) Jeju 148 12.56 2.653 2.758 405 0.006

Outside of Jeju 259 11.76 2.884

Comfort from achieving

internal obligation (BIO)

Jeju 148 15.14 3.537 6.828 405 0.000

Outside of Jeju 259 12.71 3.394

Hypothesis 8:

H0: Visitor benefits gained from the April 3rd

incident experiences are the same regardless of a

visitor‘s level of education.

H1: Visitor benefits gained from the April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences differ by a visitor‘s level

of education.

The results of an ANOVA for this hypothesis, as revealed in Table 4.24, indicate that the benefits of

family bonding (F (7, 399) = 3.317, p<0.05) and meaningfulness (F (7, 399) = 2.773, p<0.05) differ

significantly according to educational level. However, the benefits of learning (F (7, 399) = 1.693,

p>0.05), and comfort from achieving internal obligation (F (7, 399) = 1.744, p>0.05), were not

significantly, statistically different by level of education. Therefore, the alternative hypothesis is

accepted in terms of the benefits of family bonding and meaningfulness. In contrast, the alternative

hypothesis is rejected in terms of the benefits of learning and comfort from achieving internal

obligation.

Table 4.24: ANOVA for hypothesis 8

Benefits

Sum of Squares df MD F p

Learning (BL)

Between Groups 284.593 7 40.656 1.693 0.109

Within Groups 9580.98 399 24.012

Total 9865.572 406

Family bonding (BF)

Between Groups 394.114 7 56.302 3.317 0.002

Within Groups 6772.225 399 16.973

Total 7166.339 406

Meaningfulness (BM)

Between Groups 150.347 7 21.478 2.773 0.008

Within Groups 3090.464 399 7.746

Total 3240.811 406

Comfort from achieving

internal obligation

(BIO)

Between Groups 159.256 7 22.751 1.744 0.097

Within Groups 5205.039 399 13.045

Total 5364.295 406

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4.3.4.4 Summary: visitor benefits gained by demographic variables

Four hypotheses were utilised to examine the differences in visitor benefits gained from the April

3rd

incident experience, according to age, gender, origin of visitor (Jeju resident or non-Jeju

resident), and educational level. The findings from hypothesis 5 and 6 indicate that there are no

statistically significant differences in visitor benefits gained by either age or gender. However,

visitor benefits gained differ significantly depending on origin of visitor; local visitors had higher

averages for three factors of benefits gained (BF, BM, and BIO) with the exception of BL. The

benefits gained were also significantly different based on level of education. In short, visitors who

whose highest qualification was high school or lower education were more likely to gain benefits of

family bonding and meaningfulness from their experiences, when compared with visitors holding or

undertaking Bachelor degree study or a higher degree.

4.4 The effect of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach

This section examines the relationship between visitors‘ enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident, and demographic variables, past experiences, and visitor experiences at the site and

benefits gained. This is achieved through findings related to eight hypotheses, as shown in Figure

4.2.

Figure 4.2: Outline of hypotheses for enduring involvement and visitor experiences

H9~12

H14

H15

Demographic variables Age, Gender, Origin, Education level

Past experiences (Repeat visit or similar experience at the

other dark tourism sites)

Enduring involvement with

the April 3rd

incident H13AB

Visitor experiences at the April 3rd

exhibition halls

Cognitive learning

Personal concern (CP)

Related issues (CR)

The April 3rd

incident (CA)

Emotions evoked by

The April 3rd

incident (EA)

Environment at the park (EE)

The circumstance of Korea (EK)

Visitor benefits gained from their experiences

Learning (BL)

Family bonding (BF)

Meaningfulness (BM)

Comfort from achieving internal obligation (BIO)

123

4.4.1 Visitor’s enduring involvement with the Jeju April 3rd

incident

This section investigates the relationship between a visitor‘s level of enduring involvement with the

April 3rd

incident, and demographic variables as well as past experiences. It also examines the

source of involvement, and the relationship between enduring involvement and visitor‘s knowledge

of the April 3rd

incident prior to visiting the site.

4.4.1.1 Visitors’ level of involvement and demographic variables

Four hypotheses were utilised to examine the effect of four demographic variables – age, gender,

place of origin, and educational level – on visitors‘ enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident.

These were examined Pearson‘s chi-square test and an independent t-test.

Hypothesis 9:

H0: There is no relationship between visitor levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and their age.

H1: There is a relationship between visitor levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and their age.

The results of the Pearson Chi-square test of independence shown in Table 4.25, indicates that the

relationship between visitor age and level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident was

significant at 5 % level (χ2

= 25.98, 12 DF). A total of 95 respondents (23.3%) were highly involved;

160 respondents (39.9%) were moderately involved; and 152 respondents (37.3%) had a low degree

of involving with the April 3rd

incident.

The elderly were likely to have higher involvement when compared with young visitors.

Approximately 38.5% of highly involved respondents were aged between 61 and 70 years, followed

by 34.6% of respondents aged between 51 and 60. Only 12% of respondents aged between 18 and

20 had high levels of involvement.

The middle age groups were likely to be moderately involved with the incident, whereby

approximately 46.1% of moderately involved respondents were aged between 41 and 50, followed

by 45.6% of respondents aged between 31 and 40. In terms of low involvement, this comprised

more than half the respondents aged between 61 and 70; around 45% of respondents aged between

21 and 30; and around 30% of respondents in the middle age groups. These results indicate that

124

visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident was affected by their age, and

thus the alternative hypothesis was accepted.

Table 4.25: Level of enduring involvement by age

Involvement 18-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Over 70 Total

High Count 3 26 21 20 18 5 2 95

% within Age 12.0% 19.1% 23.3% 22.5% 34.6% 38.5% 100.0% 23.3%

Moderate Count 13 49 41 41 15 1 0 160

% within Age 52.0% 36.0% 45.6% 46.1% 28.8% 7.7% 0.0% 39.3%

Low Count 9 61 28 28 19 7 0 152

% within Age 36.0% 44.9% 31.1% 31.5% 36.5% 53.8% 0.0% 37.3%

Total Count 25 136 90 89 52 13 2 407

% within Age 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

χ2

= 25.98, DF 12, significant at the 5% level

Hypothesis 10:

H0: Visitor levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd incident is the same between male and

female visitors.

H1: Male visitors have higher levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd incident when

compared with female visitors.

The results of an independent t-test for this hypothesis are illustrated in Table 4.26, and reveal that

the mean of male and female visitors‘ involvement with the incident was 4.78 and 4.44 respectively.

The t-value is t (405) = 1.30, p>0.05, which indicates that the mean difference of visitor

involvement by gender was not statistically significant. A further analysis was conducted using a

Chi-square test to examine the relationship between enduring involvement and gender. These results

also indicate that there was no significant relationship between two variables (χ2

= 3.5, 2 DF,

p>0.05). Even if there was a slight difference in the level of enduring involvement by gender, this

was insignificant at the 5% level.

Table 4.26: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 10

Gender N Mean SD t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Male 201 4.78 2.66 1.302 405 0.193

Female 206 4.44 2.62

125

Hypothesis 11:

H0: Levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd incident are the same with visitors from

Jeju Island as with visitors from outside the island.

H1: Visitors from Jeju Island have higher levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident when compared with visitors from outside the island.

The results of statistical tests illustrate that the average involvement of visitors from Jeju Island, as

opposed to visitors from outside the island, was 5.69 and 3.99 respectively, with a t-value of t (405)

= 6.57, p<0.05 (see Table 4.27). This indicates that Jeju visitors‘ level of involvement was

significantly higher than the level of involvement experienced by visitors from outside the island.

Table 4.27: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 11

Origin N Mean SD t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Jeju 148 5.69 2.44 6.565 405 0.000

Outside of Jeju 259 3.99 2.56

Further analysis with a Chi-square test indicated that the relationship between the origin of visitors

and level of involvement was significant, and at a 5% level (χ2

= 36.62, 2 DF) as shown in Table

4.28. Local visitors were more likely to have high or moderate levels of involvement with the April

3rd

incident when compared with non-local visitors. Approximately 34.5% of high involvement

respondents were from Jeju Island, compared with only 17% of respondents from outside the island.

In contrast, around half of the respondents (47.9%) with low involvement were from outside Jeju

Island, with only 18.9% of low involvement respondents from the island itself. These results

indicate that visitor levels of enduring involvement with the Jeju incident differed significantly by

place of origin.

Table 4.28: Level of involvement by visitor place of origin

Involvement Jeju Outside of Jeju Total

High Count 51 44 95

% within Origin 34.5% 17.0% 23.3%

Moderate Count 69 91 160

% within Origin 46.6% 35.1% 39.3%

Low Count 28 124 152

% within Origin 18.9% 47.9% 37.3%

Total Count 148 259 407

% within Origin 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

χ2

= 36.62, DF 2, significant at the 5% level

126

Hypothesis 12:

H0: There is no relationship between level of enduring involvement with the Jeju April 3rd incident,

and level of education of visitors.

H1: There is a relationship between level of enduring involvement with the Jeju April 3rd incident

and level of education of visitors.

The statistical results of a Chi-square test indicate that the relationship between a visitor‘s level of

education, and level of enduring involvement with the Jeju incident, was not significant (χ2

= 22.11,

14 DF) at the 5% level, where the value of p was 0.076 (p>0.05). In this case, the null hypothesis

was accepted.

However, given in the previous hypothesis place of origin was strongly correlated to a visitor‘s level

of enduring involvement. A further analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between

level of involvement and education according to place of origin. The result for visitors from Jeju

indicate that there is no significant statistical relationship between level of involvement and

education (χ2

= 18.75, 14 DF, p>0.05). However, the results for visitors from outside Jeju Island

indicate a statistically significant relationship between level of enduring involvement and education

at the 5% level (χ2

= 25.48, 14 DF) (see Table 4.29). In terms of education, visitors had a higher

education level, and thus a higher level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident. In the

high involvement group, the majority of respondents had completed college or higher education,

with only 9.1% of respondents reporting their highest educational level as high school or lower.

However, in the low involvement group, 63.6% and 100% respectively of respondents had

completed high school and middle school. This was compared with 27.6% and 42.9% respectively

of respondents who held a Master‘s or Doctoral degree. As a result, in the case of visitors from

outside Jeju Island, a visitor‘s level of involvement with the April 3rd

incident was related to their

level of education.

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Table 4.29: Level of involvement and education – visitors from outside of Jeju

None

Middle

school

High

school College

University

Student

Bachelor

degree

Master

degree PhD Total

High Count 0 0 2 3 9 19 6 5 44 % within Education

0.0% 0.0% 9.1% 25.0% 12.0% 19.4% 20.7% 35.7% 17.1%

Moderate Count 0 0 6 2 25 39 15 3 90

% within Education

0.0% 0.0% 27.3% 16.7% 33.3% 39.8% 51.7% 21.4% 34.9%

Low Count 2 6 14 7 41 40 8 6 124

% within

Education 100.0% 100.0% 63.6% 58.3% 54.7% 40.8% 27.6% 42.9% 48.1%

Total Count 2 6 22 12 75 98 29 14 258

% within Education

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

χ2 = 25.48, DF 14, p=0.03

4.4.1.2 The relationship between visitor involvement and past experiences

Two hypotheses were utilised to examine the effect of a visitor‘s past experience and visitor

enduring involvement. Here, visitors‘ previous experiences were examined in two ways: through

repeat visits to a site, and through similar experiences at other dark tourism sites. The results of

these two hypotheses are presented below.

Hypothesis 13A:

H0: Repeat visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident is the same as that of

first time visitors.

H1: Repeat visitors have higher levels of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident compared

to first time visitors to the park.

The results of an independent t-test as shown in Table 4.30 illustrate that the average level of repeat

visitor‘s enduring involvement, and that of first time visitors to the park, was 6.38 and 4.38

respectively (t (405) = - 4.957, p<0.05). This indicates that repeat visitors have significantly higher

enduring involvement compared with first time visitors.

Table 4.30: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 13A

Visit N Mean SD t df Sig. (2-tailed)

First visit 361 4.38 2.64 -4.957 405 0.000

Repeat visit 46 6.38 1.87

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Further analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between enduring involvement levels

and repeat visits using a Chi-square test. These results indicate that the relationship between repeat

visits and levels of involvement was significant at the 5% level (χ2

= 27.24, 2 DF). Repeat visitors

to the park were likely to be highly involved with the April 3rd

incident. Approximately half were

highly involved, 41.3% moderately involved, with 8.7% constituting a low involvement level. In

contrast, first time visitors to the site comprised 19.9% highly involved, 39.1% moderately involved,

and 41% with a low involvement level. In this respect, visitors‘ past April 3rd

incident experiences at

the site were likely to be related to a visitor‘s involvement with the Jeju incident (see Table 4.31).

Table 4.31: Level of involvement by repeat visit to the site

First visit Repeat visit Total

High Count 72 23 95

% within visit 19.9% 50.0% 23.3%

Moderate Count 141 19 160

% within visit 39.1% 41.3% 39.3%

Low Count 148 4 152

% within visit 41.0% 8.7% 37.3%

Total Count 361 46 407

% within visit 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

χ2

= 27.24, DF 2, significant at the 5% level

Hypothesis 13B:

H0: Visitors who had similar experiences at other dark tourism sites have the same level of enduring

involvement with the April 3rd

incident as visitors with no dark tourism experience.

H1: Visitors who had similar experiences at other dark tourism sites had higher levels of enduring

involvement with the April 3rd

incident compared to visitors with no dark tourism experience.

The results of an independent t-test shown in Table 4.32 illustrate that on average, visitors with

similar experiences at other dark tourism sites demonstrate slightly higher levels of enduring

involvement (M=4.98, SD = 2.43) compared with visitors with no prior experience (M=4.42, SD =

2.73) (t (405) = 1.993, p<0.05). Hence further analysis was conducted to examine the relationship

between visitors with similar experiences at other sites and enduring involvement; the results of this

additional analysis however were not significant (χ2

= 4.87, 2 DF, p >0.05).

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Table 4.32: Independent sample t-test for hypothesis 13B

Similar Experience N Mean SD t df Sig. (2-tailed)

YES 135 4.98 2.43 1.993 405 0.047

NO 272 4.42 2.73

4.4.1.3 The source of involvement

Source of involvement was measured through a visitor‘s main channels of information about the

April 3rd

incident. The five key channels identified were the media (32.3%), books (21.3%), history

class (15.9%), the internet (10.8%), and family and relatives (9.3%).

The preference for channels of information regarding the April 3rd

incident between local and non-

local respondents was significantly different. The four main channels for local visitors were the

media (42.2%), history class (23.1%), family and relatives (17.0%), and books (12.9%). In

contrast, the four main channels for non-local visitors were the media (26.9%), books (26.4%),

internet (15.7%), and history class (11.6%) (see Table 4.33).

Table 4.33: Sources of involvement with the April 3rd

incident

Source of involvement Jeju Outside of Jeju Total

Books (e.g. Novel, history books, etc) Count 19 64 83

% within Origin 12.9% 26.4% 21.3%

The history class at the school Count 34 28 62

% within Origin 23.1% 11.6% 15.9%

Family and relatives Count 25 11 36

% within Origin 17.0% 4.5% 9.3%

Media (e.g. Broadcast, newspaper, etc) Count 62 65 127

% within Origin 42.2% 26.9% 32.6%

Internet Count 4 38 42

% within Origin 2.7% 15.7% 10.8%

Travelling Count 0 13 13

% within Origin 0.0% 5.4% 3.3%

Friends Count 2 12 14

% within Origin 1.4% 5.0% 3.6%

others Count 1 11 12

% within Origin 0.7% 4.5% 3.1%

Total Count 147 242 389

% within Origin 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

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4.4.1.4 Enduring involvement and visitors’ knowledge of the April 3rd

incident

The results of a Pearson‘s correlation test indicate that visitors‘ knowledge of the April 3rd

incident

was significantly related to their level of enduring involvement r (407) = .73, p<0.01 (see Table

4.34). As the strength of the correlation between variables was above 0.7, this may be considered a

strong relationship.

Table 4.35 illustrates that respondents who knew of the incident before visiting the site consisted of

30.1% of high involvement, 49.7% of moderate involvement and 20.3% of low involvement

respondents. In contrast, the respondents who did not have any prior knowledge of the incident

were comprised with 3.3% of moderate involvement and 96.7% of low involvement respondents.

This indicates that the low involvement respondents‘ prior knowledge of the April 3rd

incident was

limited.

Table 4.34: Relationship between involvement and visitor prior knowledge of the incident

Knowledge of the April 3rd

incident

Involvement

Pearson Correlation .730**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.00

N 407

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.35: Differences in visitor prior knowledge of the incident by involvement

Involvement

Known the April 3rd

incident before visit to the site

Yes NO Total

High Count 95 0 95

% within Known 43 incident 30.1% 0.0% 23.3%

Moderate Count 157 3 160

% within Known 43 incident 49.7% 3.3% 39.3%

Low Count 64 88 152

% within Known 43 incident 20.3% 96.7% 37.3%

Total Count 316 91 407

% within Known 43 incident 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

4.4.1.5 Summary: visitor enduring involvement

This section has examined the relationship between four demographic variables and enduring

involvement and past experiences. First of all, visitors‘ enduring involvement was significantly

related to age, place of origin, and educational level. The elderly were more likely to be highly

131

involved than younger visitors, with local visitors also declaring higher levels of enduring

involvement than non-local ones. More highly educated people tended to have higher involvement

levels also, while visitors who had completed only high school or lower were more likely to have

lower levels of involvement. However, visitor involvement was not significantly related to gender,

with male visitors no more likely to have higher levels of enduring involvement than female visitors.

Secondly, the findings also reveal that past experiences are related to a visitor‘s enduring

involvement with the April 3rd

incident. Repeat visitors were likely to have high enduring

involvement with the incident; however, visitors who had similar experiences at other dark tourism

sites were not as likely to have a high level of enduring involvement. Nevertheless, a visitor with

similar experiences at other dark tourism sites was still more likely to have a higher level of

enduring involvement than visitors with no experience.

Thirdly, further analysis indicated that the preference for channels of information about the incident

differed between local and non-local visitors. Furthermore, enduring involvement was significantly

associated with visitors‘ prior knowledge of the April 3rd

incident, with the strength of the

relationship strong. All high involvement respondents and the majority of moderate involvement

respondents had prior knowledge of the incident. However, more than half the low involvement

respondents did not know anything about the incident prior to visiting the site.

4.4.2 The effect of enduring involvement on visitor experiences and benefits

Two hypotheses were used to examine the relationship between enduring involvement and visitor

experiences and benefits gained from the April 3rd

site visit.

Hypothesis 14

H0: There is no relationship between visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and their experience at the exhibition halls.

H1: There is a relationship between visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and their experience at the exhibition halls.

As Table 4.36 reveals, the results of a Pearson‘s correlation test indicate that visitors‘ levels of

enduring involvement with the incident were significantly associated with cognitive experience. A

correlation coefficient of each factor returned r (405) = .631, p<0.01 for CP, r (405) = .296, p<0.01

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for CR, and r (405) = .260, p<0.01 for CA. The strength of the correlation between involvement and

CA and CR were below 0.3, indicating weak relationships. However, the strength of the correlation

between enduring involvement and CP was above 0.5, thus indicating a strong relationship. The

results in Table 4.37 indicate that visitors‘ enduring involvement was significantly associated with

EA (r (405) = .280, p<0.01) and EK (r (405) = .121, p<0.05). However, the relationship between

enduring involvement and EE was not significant (r (405) = -0.027, p>0.05). The strength of the

correlations between variables was below 0.3, indicating weak relationships. With these results, it

was concluded that visitor experiences were significantly related to visitors‘ levels of enduring

involvement.

Table 4.36: Correlation test between enduring involvement and cognitive experiences

Personal concern (CP)

Related issues

(CR)

The April 3rd incident

(CA)

Involvement

Pearson Correlation .631** .296** .260**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 407 407 407

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.37: Correlation test between enduring involvement and affective experiences

Emotion evoked by the

April 3rd incident

(EA)

Emotion evoked

by environment

(EE)

Emotion evoked by the

circumstance of Korea

(EK)

Involvement

Pearson Correlation .280** -0.027 .121*

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .592 .014

N 407 407 407

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Hypothesis 15

H0: There is no relationship between visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and benefits gained from the April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences.

H1: There is a relationship between visitors‘ level of enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident and benefits gained from the April 3rd

exhibition hall experiences.

The result of a Pearson‘s correlation test for this hypothesis, as Table 4.38 shows, indicates that

visitor enduring involvement was only significantly associated with the benefits of comfort realised

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in achieving internal obligation (r (405) = .329, p<0.01). The other three factors of benefits gained

were not significantly related to visitors‘ enduring involvement (p>0.05). The strength of the

correlation between variables was above 0.3, indicating a moderate relationship.

Therefore the alternative hypothesis was accepted when it comes to the benefit of comfort obtained

from achieving internal obligation, while the null hypothesis was accepted for other benefits,

namely learning, family bonding, and meaningfulness.

Table 4.38: Correlation test between enduring involvement and four benefits

Learning

(BL)

Family bonding

(BF)

Meaningfulness

(BM)

Comfort from achieving

internal obligation (BIO)

Involvement

Pearson Correlation -0.048 -0.023 0.027 .329**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.33 0.643 0.59 .000

N 407 407 407 407

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Summary of the findings for hypotheses 14 and 15

Visitors‘ enduring involvement was found to have a generic relationship with cognitive experiences,

along with two factors of affective experiences. The strongest positive relationship was found to be

that between enduring involvement and CP (e.g. recollection of the memory of the incident). The

strength of the relationship between enduring involvement and affective experiences was relatively

weaker than that of involvement and cognitive experiences. Visitor enduring involvement was also

found to relate to only one factor of visitor benefits gained; namely the benefit of comfort from

achieving internal obligation (BIO). The other three factors, however, were not significantly related

to enduring involvement.

4.5 Summary and conclusions

This chapter has comprised three main sections in presenting the findings of this investigation: a

demographic profile, the application of a benefits-based approach, and the effect of enduring

involvement on a benefits-based approach.

In sum, the first section provided demographic profiles of visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park in

order to comprehend their key characteristics. The second section then presented the findings of the

application of a benefits-based approach, which included the relationships between each level of the

benefit chain of causality and the test results of eight hypotheses and further analysis. The final

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section then went on to provide the findings from a further eight hypotheses tested with additional

analysis. The findings presented in this chapter can now be discussed and evaluated in greater depth.

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Chapter 5 – Discussion of the Findings

5.1 Introduction

The previous chapter outlined the findings of this research, with consideration of each hypothesis in

turn in order to examine the application of a benefits-based approach, along with the concept of

enduring involvement, in terms of visitor experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju island,

South Korea.

In this chapter, these findings are interpreted in order to ascertain their significance, with reference

to the three core research questions which have concerned those findings. This chapter has a similar

structure therefore to the previous one, and comprises two main parts: firstly, a discussion of the

application of a benefits-based approach; and secondly, a detailed examination of enduring

involvement in relation specifically to dark tourism experiences.

The first part of this discussion, beginning with Section 5.3, ascertains whether a benefits-based

approach is indeed effective for understanding visitors‘ dark tourism experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park. This section identifies the dimensions of the four levels of a benefits-based approach,

before discussing the relationships between level 1 (reasons for visit) and level 3 (visitor

experiences), and between level 3 and level 4 (benefits gained). It also discusses the effect of socio-

demographic variables on a visitor‘s on-site experiences, and the benefits gained from the April 3rd

Peace Park visit.

The second part of the discussion, proceeding with Section 5.4, discusses the effect of the

psychological variable of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach, and in particular, on

visitors‘ on-site experiences (level 3) and benefits gained (level 4). This section also examines the

effect of socio-demographic variables and past experience on enduring involvement, with the aim of

identifying the characteristics of both high and low involvement visitors at the site.

5.2 The research problem and research questions

The research problem guiding this study, and its associated research questions, are reiterated below

in order to maintain consistency in the interpretation of research findings, as provided in Chapter 4.

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The key research problem of this investigation has been: What is the effect of personal factors on

visitor experiences and benefits gained from a dark tourism site visit?

This problem was examined along with three research questions, namely:

What are the tourist or visitor ultimate outcomes of dark tourism site visitation, and how

do these differ by socio-demographic variables?

What is the effect of enduring involvement on dark tourism experiences?

What are the effects of socio-demographic variables and past experiences on enduring

involvement?

These research questions were developed using a conceptualising framework which incorporated

key research elements, and which underpins this investigation of dark tourism at the April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island. The first initial focus of this study involved the application of a benefits-

based approach to dark tourism experiences, with the aim of evaluating visitors‘ psychological

experiences at the site. The second focus then turned to a consideration of enduring involvement,

in order to examine the impact of a ‗personal connection to previous tragic events‘ when it comes

to visitors‘ beneficial experiences. These were examined through 16 hypotheses, as set out in the

findings of the previous chapter. The findings of this investigation can now be discussed in detail

in terms of these hypotheses, and in relation to additional analysis conducted such as the

relationship between levels in a benefits-based approach.

5.3 The benefits-based approach and dark tourism

Visitor experiences at dark tourism sites are usually deemed beneficial experiences, as with

visitation to a diversity of cultural heritage tourism attractions (McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, &

Hamer, 1998). This section provides evidence for the core products of dark tourism attractions or

sites, and the beneficial experiences gained by visitors and tourists, by applying a benefit chain of

causality to visitation at the April 3rd

Peace Park. It comprises two parts in achieving this: the

application of a benefits-based approach; and secondly, the effect of socio-demographic variables

on such an approach.

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5.3.1 The application of a benefits-based approach to April 3rd

Peace Park

experiences

In this research, tourist and visitor experiences at the dark tourism site in question have been

empirically examined from a visitor‘s perspective using four levels of a benefits-based approach.

This approach enables the researcher to achieve three key things: identification of four levels in a

benefit chain of causality; the relationship between these four levels; and the effect of socio-

demographic variables on visitor on-site experiences and benefits gained. The dimensions of the

four levels identified in terms of April 3rd

Peace Park visitors is addressed in the following section,

and compared and contrasted with those identified in other cultural heritage tourism sites and wild

tourism attractions (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998;

Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000).

5.3.1.1 The identification of four levels in a benefits-based approach

The first stage of this research aimed to identify the dimensions of each level, along with the

significance of each. The dimensions of such a benefits-based approach applied in terms of the

April 3rd

incident consumption can be outlined as follows in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Four levels of the benefits-based approach

Level 4: visitor benefits gained from the April 3rd

experiences

Learning (BL)

Family bonding (BF)

Meaningfulness (BM)

Comfort from achieving internal obligation (BIO)

Level 3: visitor experiences at the Peace Memorial Hall

Learning experience

Personal concern (CP)

Related issues (CR)

The April 3rd

incident (CA)

Emotions evoked by

The April 3rd

incident (EA)

Environment at the park (EE)

The circumstance of Korea (EK)

Level 1 + 2: reasons for visit and settings

Level 1: reasons for visit to the park

Learning and obligation (RV1)

Social reasons and curiosity (RV2)

Educational program (RV3)

Level 2: the April 3rd

Peace Park

Peace Memorial Hall with seven

small exhibition halls

Outdoor settings

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Level 1: activities

The reason for visiting dark tourism sites and engaging in such activities have been considered

largely synonymous with those of other cultural heritage sites (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Prentice,

Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). This research identified 12 reasons for

visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park, subsequently classified into three core reasons: learning and

obligation (RV1), social reasons and curiosity (RV2), and educational enterprise (RV3) (see Table

4.7).

Some of these reasons were found to be similar, or closely related to the reasons for visiting cultural

heritage tourism attractions in general. For instance, learning was identified as a main reason for

visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park, as with many other dark tourism sites (Ashworth & Hartmann,

2005b; Ballantyne, 2003; Foley & Lennon, 1996; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Strange & Kempa, 2003);

other cultural heritage tourism attractions (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan,

1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998); and ecotourism attractions as well as museums (Falk

& Dierking, 1992; Golden, 1996; Packer, 2006; Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000). Social reasons (RV2)

have likewise been recognised in other studies as an important justification for visiting cultural

heritage tourism attractions (McIntosh, 1999; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993).

However, obligation has not been found to be a reason for visiting cultural heritage tourism

attractions, or other types of tourism attractions for that matter, which serves to confirm that dark

tourism experiences may also differ when compared with other forms of tourism. Obligation is

recognised as internal obligation, and derived from a personal desire as opposed to external forces

(Heath & Schneewind, 1996). The following findings from interviews with visitors support the

proposal that a core reason for visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park was internal obligation:

I have come to the site as a Jeju islander, and I need to know what the exhibitions in

the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall are all about (Male, 62 years old, local visitor).

I am interested in Korean history.... Whether my grandfather was a victim or not,

this is not really an important reason for visiting the site. I feel a strong sense of

obligation to visit this place (Male, 30 years old, local visitor).

As a Jeju islander I have to come here (Male, 69 years old, local visitor).

I would like to show to my children what the April 3rd

incident is about, they should

know about it (Male, late 30s, local visitors).

This type of obligation was also found to be a key motivation for young visitors to the site of

139

Auschwitz in Poland (Thurnell-Read, 2009). In turn, internal obligation may be considered one of

the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism visitation and experiences, in which a previous tragic

event can engender moral obligations in later generations to be familiar with the event and

commemorate its victims.

Level 2: Settings

Settings are regarded as the various contexts in which on-site activities take place. The main setting

of this research was the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall, which comprises seven small exhibition

rooms. The site adopts a hot interpretation approach similar to many other dark tourism sites

(Uzzell, 1989), utilising artefacts which engender emotional responses among visitors. Typical

examples of a hot approach to exhibition in the Peace Memorial Hall include the film of a

survivor‘s testimony; the photo of a mother waiting for her children, who were in fact killed during

the incident; photos of survivors of the April 3rd

incident; reproductions of the Darangshi cave at the

time of its excavations, including the remains of victims; and several artworks dealing with the

April 3rd

incident (see Appendix 1).

It seems that the site also adopts selective interpretation, as do many attractions dealing with

political conflict and war (Wight & Lennon, 2007). As a particularly destructive episode linked to

the political realities and ideological dogma of modern Korean history, the April 3rd

incident

remains a clearly contested event still today. In the first exhibition hall, the tombstone without

inscription provides evidence that the Jeju incident is highly ambiguous to many Koreans, with no

consensual definition of what occurred. A guide in the Peace Memorial Hall further commented that

the complete definition of the April 3rd

incident will not be fixed until North and South Korea are

reunited.

Importantly, this is because the incident is frequently interpreted in effectively dichotomous ways

depending on the dominant government party in power; while the incident was interpreted as a ‗riot

by communists‘ until the beginning of the 1990s, since then the dominant government party has

been left-wing, with the incident interpreted as an ‗uprising by Jeju citizens‘, and with admission

the incident was the result of government error (Jeju April 3rd Committee, 2008). For those who

support conservative politics in South Korea, however, the incident still it seems remains effectively

a riot caused by communists on the island. In turn, it might be expected that significant political

influence played a role during the construction of the exhibition halls, and there are several

examples indicating the use of selective interpretation due to such political influence. One typical

140

example is the size of the massacre scenes attributed to the armed civilian group, as opposed to

those of government military forces; the site presents only one small part of a massacre caused by

the armed civilian group, whilst the rest of the exhibition presents tragic scenes caused by

government military units. This may represent the intention of the dominant government party (the

left wing party) to strongly support the civilian side, and to emphasise that the people killed in the

Jeju incident were not communists but in fact innocent victims.

Furthermore, the site may also apply selective interpretation in an attempt to avoid or remove

potential conflict among people in the Jeju community today, where victims‘ and perpetrators‘

families and/or relatives both continue to live. Hence the site remains likely to emphasise that the

incident was a disaster caused by the government, and one involving all Jeju citizens (Ballantyne,

2003; Braithwaite & Lee, 2006; Sharpley & Stone, 2009a).

Level 3: Experiences

Visitors‘ on-site experiences at the Peace Memorial Hall are the outcomes also of interaction with

its settings (Beeho & Prentice, 1995; McIntosh, 1999), here examined using two experiential

elements: a cognitive or learning element (thought about deeply), and an affective or emotional

element (strong feelings from exhibitions).

Visitors‘ cognitive experiences were measured using 13 items, and classified according to three

dimensions; namely, personal concern (CP), related issues (CR), and the April 3rd

incident (CA)

(see Tables 4.8 to 4.11). Here CR and CA were conducted through informational (factual) learning

which visitors encountered in brochures or artefacts exhibited at the site (Roggenbuck, Loomis, &

Dagostino, 1991). However, CP was due to a recollection of visitors‘ memories of the incident,

and thus applied to visitors with prior knowledge of the April 3rd

incident before their visit. Visitors

frequently compared the exhibition contents with prior knowledge of the incident, gained from

sources including books, family members and relatives, films, or school history lessons. This type

of experience differs in turn from a simple acquisition of knowledge of the incident obtained by

reading labels on exhibits, and leads visitors to more in-depth thinking about the incident. This

argument was supported by the findings of interviews with visitors, as follows:

I thought I knew the April 3rd

incident well, but coming here and reading the contents,

I found new things I didn’t know before, and the viewpoint of the incident here is

different from what I’ve known...so I could understand the incident quickly because it

141

was exhibited well, and I could correct what I had misunderstood about the

incident… (Male, 38 years old, local visitor).

I had prior knowledge of the incident. I obtained this from books. I’m glad to have

accessed a lot of materials of the April 3rd

incident... Being here is an opportunity to

be closer to the truth of the incident (Male, 30 years old, local visitor).

The April 3rd

incident occurred when I was a 1st year student at primary school. At

that time my mother’s side of my family were killed…and while looking around this

site, I could imagine how my maternal grandfather died (Male, over 60, local

visitors).

Visitors‘ affective experiences were examined using 13 items, and also classified according to three

dimensions: emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident (EA), environment (EE), and the

circumstance of Korea (EK). EA involved negative emotions such as sympathy, a sense of fear, or

empathy engendered by the artefacts of the tragic event. EE was the emotional outcome of

interaction with the social or physical environment, such as depression caused by the exhibition

contents and themes, or by the small number of visitors inside the exhibition halls. EK concerned

the feelings engendered by the division of North and South Korea. These negative emotions, such

as a sense of fear, anger, revenge, sadness, empathy, and sympathy, are generally experienced in

other dark tourism sites which deal with severe political conflict or war (Krakover, 2005; Lennon &

Foley, 2000; Miles, 2002; Wight & Lennon, 2007). Furthermore, these emotional experiences were

in marked contrast to those engendered by horror stories in Disneyworld, for example, or by sad

movies or opera evoking empathy or sympathy in an audience (Marcuse, 2005; Miles, 2002).

Level 4: Benefits

Since the benefits of a visit derive from satisfactory experiences at a site (Beeho & Prentice, 1995;

McIntosh, 1999), it remains essential to firstly ascertain whether a site provides visitors with the

latter. Approximately 95.6% of respondents in this study reported they had had a satisfactory, or

more than satisfactory experience at the Peace Memorial Hall, with only 4.4% of respondents

reporting ‗neither‘ when answering this question. The participants in this study then can be

considered predominantly satisfied with their experience, in spite of the fact they felt negative

emotions whilst wandering the site. Such a result can be considered similar to the watching of sad

films or other performances, which engender negative emotions in an audience while still providing

satisfaction (Liljander & Strandvik, 1997). That said, such a result is also in contrast to consumer

satisfaction theories which suggest consumer and visitor satisfaction is the result of positive

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emotional experiences only (Bigne, Andreu, & Gnoth, 2005; De Rojas & Camarero, 2008; Oliver,

1997; Wirtz, Mattila, & Tan, 2000).

Four dimensions of benefits gained were identified in terms of consumption of the April 3rd

incident:

learning (BL), family bonding (BF), meaningfulness (BM), and comfort from achieving internal

obligation (BIO) (see Table 4.12). BL covered learning about the April 3rd

incident, Korean

contemporary history, and ideological conflict. This was a crucial benefit gained from the April 3rd

site, which along with many dark tourism attractions was established for the purposes of education

and remembrance of past tragic events (Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Walter,

2009). It is also considered a common and prominent benefit of other tourist attractions related to

cultural heritage and ecotourism (Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998; Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000).

In contrast to BL, other benefits identified in this research have not been discussed in tourism

literature previously, given dark tourism experiences have not been deemed beneficial ones as with

the experiences of cultural tourism more generally, or ecotourism (McIntosh & Prentice, 1999;

Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998; Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000). In addition, BF from the April

3rd

incident differs from the benefit of family bonding in leisure and recreation in term of its

defining characteristics. In short, BF in general leisure and recreation is considered the outcome of

participation in activities with family members, which comprises dimensions of family satisfaction,

family interaction, and family stability (Orthner & Mancini, 1991). In contrast, BF in this context

involved, in terms of general leisure travellers, the psychological benefits derived from strong

feelings of good fortune that none of their family had been victims of the incident; or alternately,

strong feelings and a deep understanding of visitors‘ grandparents and ancestor‘s lives if they had

been. The findings from the interviews provide evidence for the importance of BF for some visitors

to the site:

I didn’t expect anything...but I can understand it was a painful life for my

grandmother’s generation…. I thought that the April 3rd

incident wasn’t

relevant to me… (Female, 42 years old, local visitor).

I really appreciate my present life…if my father was a victim of the April 3rd

incident, I might not be here…I am really glad...there was no victims in my

family (Male, 53 years old, local visitor).

I didn’t experience the April 3rd

incident, and of course my son hasn’t

experienced the incident. However I came here and experienced the April 3rd

incident...and now understand how my grandfather and grandmother had

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difficulty living (Male, 38 years old, local visitor).

The benefit of meaningfulness (BM) is to some extent similar to the feeling of enjoyment or

pleasure derived from escaping daily life via leisure or recreation (Driver, Tinsley, & Manfredo,

1991). However, visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park were reluctant to use the term enjoyment or

pleasure to describe either their reason for visit, or the benefits derived from their experiences.

Instead, they used the term ‗meaningful‘ to describe their experiences, thus differentiating them

from an enjoyable or pleasurable day out. In this respect, BM in this study was indeed similar to the

benefits of ‗sharing time with family or friends or a good day out‘, as identified in the visitation of

cultural heritage parks (McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998). However, it remained

different from this also in terms of providing an opportunity for visitors to recognise the importance

of peace. Such a feeling might not be obtained from other tourism attractions, yet is common to

both war and political conflict sites. Several interviewees commented on this as follows:

I came here with my children and had a meaningful experience with them (Male, 38

years old, local visitor).

I realised the importance of peace on Jeju Island (Female, 42 years old, local

visitor).

Coming here is a meaningful experience for me…when I imagine Jeju, I can’t think

of the island as only a tourist destination…because it is a place with a painful

history (Male, 25 years old, non-local visitor).

The BIO confirms one of the most distinctive characteristics of dark tourism experiences, namely a

therapeutic effect or sense of psychological healing experienced by visitors. Previous literature has

referred to such a therapeutic effect of dark tourism for those suffering from survivor syndrome

and/or survivor guilt (Garwood, 1996; Hartmann, 2005; Niederland, 1981). However, this research

has provided evidence that visitors with a connection to victims or survivors are also likely to gain

comfort from carrying out a self-imposed duty (e.g. having to know the tragic event and visit the

site because an immediate relative died in the event), along with sharing their experiences with

others and reliving their memories of the event. Furthermore, the BIO was found not only for

visitors connected to the tragic incident, but also among general leisure travellers as will be

discussed later.

This section has identified four levels of a benefits-based approach, linked in sequence and derived

from experiences of visiting the April 3rd

site. In turn, the relationship between levels can now be

144

discussed. In addition, as level 2 (the settings) is fixed, the next section will also focus on the

relationships between reasons for visit (level 1), experiences (level 3), and benefits (level 4).

5.3.1.2 The effect of reasons for visit on visitor on-site experiences

As anticipated, visitors‘ reasons for visit (level 1) was found to have an effect on visitor on-site

experiences (level 3), as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: The relationship between level 1 and level 3

To begin with, and as with many other dark tourism attractions featuring learning and obligation

(RV1) (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b; Beech, 2000; Lennon & Foley, 2000), the main reason for

visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park was found to have a generic effect on visitor on-site experiences.

RV1 had a greater affect on cognitive experiences than affective experiences, which may be

comprehendible in that visitors whose purpose is learning are likely to have their cognitive

experiences at the site itself. Specifically, these visitors were more likely to have CR (e.g.

ideological conflict, or Korean contemporary history) than CA (e.g. thinking about innocent victims

or survivors of the incident) or CP (e.g. recollection of their memories of the incident). In relation to

RV1: Learning and obligation/ RV2: Social reasons and curiosity/ RV3: Education program

CP: Personal concern/ CR: Related issues/ CA: The April 3rd incident

EA: Emotion evoked by the April 3rd incident/ EE: Emotion evoked by environment/

EK: Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

* P<0.05 / **P<0.01 / NS: The relationship is not at the significant level.

Level 3: Visitor experiences

Relationship

CR

RV1CR: 0.45**

RV2CR: 0.15**

RV3CR: NS

CP RV1CP: 0.37**

RV2CP: 0.20**

RV3CP: NS

CA

RV1CA: 0.36**

RV2CA: NS

RV3CA: NS

EA RV1EA: 0.37**

RV2EA: 0.21**

RV3EA: NS

EE RV1EE: 0.10*

RV2EE: 0.21**

RV3EE: NS

EK RV1EK: 0.29**

RV2EK: 0.16**

RV3EK: NS

Level 1: Reasons for visit

RV1

RV2

RV3

145

affective experiences, these visitors were not sensitive to environment given it had a weaker

relationship with EE (e.g. depressed by the social environment settings). However, visitors were

likely to experience EA (e.g. sympathy or empathy for innocent victims or survivors of the incident)

and EK (e.g. sorrow for the division of North and South Korea) while wandering the exhibition

halls.

Social reasons (e.g. bringing their friends or relatives, a meaningful day out) and curiosity (RV2)

were the second key reasons for visit, and were found to affect visitor on-site experiences as with

other cultural heritage consumption (McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998). These

had a generic effect on visitors‘ affective experiences, along with two dimensions of their cognitive

experiences. Visitors with RV2 were not likely to have a strong interest in learning about the

incident or other issues, given it had no significant relationship with CA, and a weak positive

relationship with CR. It was also found that these visitors were likely to be sensitive to the

environment given the relationship with EE was stronger than with that of other experiential

dimensions.

The above two dimensions (RV1 and RV2) were considered voluntary reasons for visiting the site.

In contrast, RV3, a type of compulsory field trip program offered by schools or organisations, is a

common reason for visiting many dark tourism attractions (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b; Lennon

& Foley, 2000). As RV3 was not a voluntary reason for visit, however, it was found to have no

effect on visitor on-site experiences, as distinct from the effects of RV1 and RV2. This confirms that

a compulsory field trip program may not stimulate a visitor‘s interest in the incident, and thus

cannot necessarily generate effective visitor cognitive and emotional experiences.

5.3.1.3 The effect of visitor on-site experiences on benefits gained

Visitor experiences (level 3) at the Peace Memorial Hall have a significant effect on benefits gained

(level 4) from consumption of the April 3rd

incident, as Figure 5.3 reveals.

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Figure 5.3: The relationship between level 3 and level 4

What the above figure demonstrates is that in general, the strength of the relationship between

affective experiences and benefits gained is stronger than those of cognitive experiences and

benefits gained. This finding indicates that emotional experience facilitates insight into the incident.

Several scholars have argued for the importance of emotional experiences in the consumption of

dark tourism, and have encouraged the adoption of a hot interpretation approach and authenticity in

dark tourism settings (Ballantyne & Uzzell, 1993; Miles, 2002; Shackley, 2001; Sharpley & Stone,

2009a; Uzzell, 1989). However, such contributions have to this point not provided evidence of this,

whilst the findings of this research in addressing this omission, underline the importance of a hot

interpretation approach to enhancing visitors‘ emotional experiences and the benefits gained.

Visitors‘ affective experiences were found to have a greater impact on visitor benefits gained than

on learning. In particular, there was a strong relationship found with family bonding (BF),

meaningfulness (BM), and with comfort from achieving internal obligation (BIO), while only a

weak relationship found with learning (BL). Visitors‘ cognitive experiences were also found to have

an effect on four of the benefits gained, and in particular, a strong influence on BIO and BM

compared with BF. Of the three dimensions of cognitive experiences, CP did not have a

significant relationship with the benefit of learning (BL), however, a strong relationship with

comfort in achieving internal obligation (BIO). Recollection of their memories of the incident was

likely to be experienced by visitors with knowledge of the incident prior to visiting the site. It

CP: Personal concern/ CR: Related issues/ CA: The April 3rd incident

EA: Emotion evoked by the April 3rd incident/ EE: Emotion evoked by environment/

EK: Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

BL: Learning/ BF: Family bonding/ BM: Meaningfulness/ BIO: Comfort from achieving internal obligation

* p<0.05 / **p<0.01 / NS: The relationship is not at the significant level

Level 3: Visitor experiences

CP

CR

CA

EA

EE

EK

Level 4: Visitor benefits gained

Learning Emotion

BIO CPBIO: 0.41**

CRBIO: 0.29**

CABIO: 0.26**

EABIO: 0.40**

EEBIO: 0.34**

EKBIO: 0.29**

BF CPBF: 0.11*

CRBF: 0.11*

CABF: 0.14**

EABF: 0.27**

EEBF: 0.54**

EKBF: 0 33**

BL CPBL: NS

CRBL: 0.21**

CABL: 0.28**

EABL: 0.30**

EEBL: 0.24**

EKBL: 0.33**

BM CPBM: 0.12*

CRBM: 0.29**

CABM: 0.28**

EABM: 0.39**

EEBM: 0.39**

EKBM: 0.35 **

147

appears that those who had CP were not likely to gain learning benefits, and more likely to gain

BIO from their experiences. Furthermore, the findings from interviews support this argument, as

detailed below:

I already knew about the incident previously because I’m interested in it…here I

haven’t learnt or felt anything especially new (Male, middle 30s, local visitor).

I have to visit here, but I haven’t learnt anything special today (Male, 21 years old,

non-local visitor).

Today I have to come, and I felt how horrible this incident was...but I haven’t learnt

anything especially (Male, over 70 years old, local visitor).

5.3.1.4 Summary of the application of the benefit-based approach

This research has confirmed that experiencing the April 3rd

incident at the site was a beneficial

experience for visitors. The benefits-based approach enables the evaluation of overall visitor

experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall, in terms of reasons for visit, on-site experiences,

and the outcomes of these experiences. Three main reasons for visiting the site were identified,

namely learning and obligation (RV1), social reasons and curiosity (RV2), and as part of an

educational program (RV3). Of these dimensions, learning and obligation is considered as the

predominant reason for visiting the site, and thus it remains difficult to segment visitors according

to benefits sought. A sense of obligation or personal duty is therefore an important reason for

visiting dark tourism attractions or sites, as previous studies have revealed (Thurnell-Read, 2009);

this in turn must be considered one of the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism.

The dimensions of reason for visit, and in particular RV1 and RV2, were found to have a significant

effect on visitors‘ on-site experiences. However, educational programs offered by community group

and other organisations (RV3) were found to have no relationship to either cognitive or affective

experiences. Secondly, a visitor‘s cognitive and affective experiences were significantly related to

visitor benefits gained, and more specifically, visitors‘ affective experiences were more likely to

lead visitor to obtain benefits from experiencing the site. This is further evidence for the importance

of a hot interpretation approach in the Peace Memorial Hall, which assists visitors to experience the

April 3rd

incident emotionally.

Next, learning was identified as one of the main benefits gained from experiencing the April 3rd

site,

as has been found in other tourism settings (e.g. cultural heritage or ecotourism). However, the

148

benefits of family bonding (BF), meaningfulness (BM), and comfort from achieving internal

obligation (BIO), have not been reported in other tourism studies. These in turn provide evidence

for the distinctive characteristics of dark tourism.

5.3.2 The effect of personal factors on visitor experiences and benefits gained

The previous section indicates that a visitor‘s reasons for visit to a site have a significant effect on

their on-site experiences, which in turn influences the benefits gained from their visit. It also reveals

that affective or experiential dimensions are important in dark tourism, given these are more likely

to lead to benefits gained.

However, this study is unable to discuss differences in the strength of relationships between

dimensions of experiences and benefits gained, given these may result from personal differences.

This section therefore discusses the effect of personal factors on a site visit, and in particular, social

demographic variables on visitors‘ experiences at the April 3rd

site based on the testing of eight

hypotheses.

5.3.2.1 Socio-demographic variables and differences in visitor experiences

Table 5.1 below provides a summary of the test results relating to four hypotheses utilised to

examine the effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor experiences (see also Tables 4.17 to

4.20).

Table 5.1: Results from four hypotheses (H1-H4)

Level 3: experiences Age Gender Origin Education level

The April 3rd

incident (CA)

Related issues (CR)

Personal concern (CP)

Emotion evoked by the April 3rd

incident (EA)

Emotion evoked by environment (EE)

Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea (EK)

* means significant results, p<0.05

Visitor experiences at the Peace Memorial Hall were positively and significantly affected by socio-

149

demographic variables of age, place of origin, and educational level, but, not by gender. Similar

findings have been reported in other studies (Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998, p. 17) where age

and educational level have affected learning and emotional experiences, whilst gender has had a

minor effect on learning. And more specifically, other cultural heritage tourism studies have also

reported the effect of socio-demographic variables on experiences (McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt,

& Hamer, 1993, 1998), albeit not in the context of dark tourism to date.

Examining each variable in turn, visitors‘ age affected two dimensions of their cognitive

experiences, and one dimension of their affective experiences (see Table 4.17 and Appendix 9). The

elderly were more likely to have a ‗recollection of their memory of the incident or to have thought

deeply about the impact of incident on them‘ (CP), as opposed to ‗thoughts about ideological

conflict, Korean contemporary history or human rights‘ (CR), or ‗innocent victims or survivors of

the incident’ (CA). In contrast, young visitors were more likely to have CA as opposed to CR or CP.

Such differences result from a visitor‘s prior knowledge of the incident before visiting the site

(Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998, p. 17); indeed some elderly visitors were actual witnesses to

the incident, while other elderly and middle aged visitors had significant knowledge of the incident

before visiting. In such cases, elderly visitors‘ cognitive experiences were more likely to involve

recollection of, or comparison with their memories of the incident, rather than factual learning

(Roggenbuck, Loomis, & Dagostino, 1991). This argument was supported by a number of interview

findings:

...I could understand why I had to run away to the mountains or ocean...the

incident is still vivid in my memory (Male, 62 years old, local visitor).

...I witnessed the incident and my brother was taken by policemen...the contents of

the survivor’s testimony is a little bit different from what I knew (Male, over 70,

local visitor).

In contrast, most young visitors seemed to have insufficient knowledge of the incident before their

visit to the site, although some young visitors were found to have obtained knowledge beforehand

from books or at school. Hence the experiences of young people were based on acquiring

knowledge of the incident, thus leading them to think deeply about related issues (CR), or the April

3rd

incident (CA), rather than CP. This argument is further supported by findings from the

interviews:

First of all, as a student learning Korean history I’m ashamed to admit I have not

150

known about the incident...considering the scale of damage, the position of this

incident in Korean contemporary history.... In this place I have learnt a lot about

the incident.... (Male, 25 years old, university student, non-local visitor).

I learnt about the incident in history class, but here I have learned more...the

detailed content which I haven’t learnt in my class… here I can see in real

documents and films about the incident and with more explanation (Male, 20 to 30

years old, university student, local visitor).

In terms of affective experience, only emotions evoked by the circumstance of Korea (EK) are

affected by age. The average for EK was higher in the middle age groups compared with that of the

elderly or the young; this reflects a trend in the knowledge of Korea‘s past circumstances according

to age. In recent research on public opinions about the unification, or circumstances of Korea,

around 80% of middle age and older persons were found to be interested in the unification of North

and South, whereas only 55% of young people were interested (T. Park, 2008). This implies that

middle aged and older Koreans have stronger feelings than younger people when it comes to the

current circumstances of Korea. This was also confirmed in interviews with middle aged visitors, as

the following attests:

...the experience of ideology...the painful history comes from the liberation from the

Japanese colonial period and continued division into North and South Korea… (Male, 52

years old, local visitor).

...there should be no more victims of ideological conflict (Female, middle 40s, non-local

visitor).

Gender differences were not found to play a role in visitors‘ on-site experiences. Although the

contents of the April 3rd

incident (e.g. war, military forces, politics, etc.) may have been more

familiar to men than women, they appear to have had the same effect on women‘s cognitive and

affective experiences as they had on men‘s.

In contrast, a visitor‘s place of origin was found to have a greater effect on CP and EE, with local

visitors having higher averages of both dimensions of experiences. This seems to be the result of

familiarity, or level of prior knowledge about the tragic events associated with the site, or

connection to the incident (Beech, 2000, 2001; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Prentice, Guerin, &

McGugan, 1998). Local visitors had more frequent access to information about the April 3rd

incident – derived from local news, history classes in schools, or even from family and relatives –

151

hence local visitors were more familiar with the incident before visiting. Even young people from

the island below 20 years of age were familiar with the subject of the incident, though they did not

have in-depth knowledge of the incident prior to their visit. Furthermore, most elderly local visitors

knew about the incident and were either witnesses to, or connected in some way with, the events

themselves. In this way, local visitors‘ cognitive experiences were grounded on recollections and

comparison with these and the contents of the exhibition (CP), as opposed to thinking about

ideological conflicts or other issues (CR and CA). Non-local visitors on the other hand were

unfamiliar with the incident, with around 30% of these visitors declaring no prior knowledge of it

before their visit. In these cases, non-local visitor experiences tended to be about understanding the

April 3rd

incident (CA or CR) as opposed to CP.

In terms of affective experiences, local visitors seemed to be more sensitive to the overall setting

provided by the exhibition halls. These visitors were more likely to be depressed by the contents of

the exhibition, and the number of visitors inside the exhibition hall, when compared with non-local

visitors. Local visitors were also more likely to feel an appreciation for their current life, and the

peaceful state of the nation, when compared to non-local visitors.

Visitors‘ educational levels were found to have a large effect on three experiential dimensions: CA,

CR, and EE. It appears that visitors with higher educational qualifications were more likely to

have learning experiences, and be less sensitive to the environment, than visitors who had

completed only high school or a lower qualification.

In sum, this section has examined the effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor experiences

to the site. It postulates that since benefits (level 4) were strongly associated with on-site

experiences (level 3), the differences in visitors‘ experiences by age, origin, and level of education

can also influence benefits gained. The effect of socio-demographic variables on benefits will

now be discussed in the following section.

5.3.2.2 Socio-demographic variables and differences in visitor benefits gained

Table 5.2 provides a summary of the test results associated with four hypotheses utilised to examine

the effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor benefits gained (see also Tables 4.21 to 4.24).

152

Table 5.2: Results from four hypotheses related to benefits gained (H5-H8)

Level 4: Benefits Age Gender Origin Education level

Learning (BL)

Family bonding (BF)

Meaningfulness (BM)

Comfort from achieving internal

obligation (BIO)

* means significant results, p<0.05

Visitor benefits differed by place of origin and educational level (see Table 5.2), and were affected

by their reasons for visiting the site (see Appendix9). However, these were inconsistent with the

effects of social-demographic variables on benefits in terms of cultural heritage experiences. In the

latter, tourist benefits were affected by age, gender, educational level, and social class (McIntosh,

1997; Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993), however, tourists‘

reasons for visit to the attraction and perception of the setting were unrelated to benefits gained

(McIntosh, 1997).

In this study, the positive effects of place of origin on benefits gained may be the result of visitors‘

familiarity with, and/or connection to the tragic event, or their short travel distance to the site. As

discussed earlier, local visitors were found to be familiar with the April 3rd

incident, with some

actually connected to the incident itself. Local visitors then had a strong sense of obligation and/or

personal duty to learn about the incident, thus motivating their visit to the site (Thurnell-Read,

2009). In this respect, local visitors gained BIO and BF through their visit to the April 3rd

Peace

Park.

Indeed it seems local visitors associated a high degree of meaningfulness with their visit to the site,

which may be due to the particularly local nature of the attraction (Gross & Brown, 2006; Hwang,

Lee, & Chen, 2005). Local visitors were found to have high rates of social reasons for visiting the

site (RV2), to be more sensitive to the environment (EE), and to gain higher meaningfulness (BM)

from their visit compared with non-local visitors. Furthermore, social reasons for visit (RV2) were

found to have the strongest relationship with emotion evoked by the environment (EE) among all

six experiential dimensions (level 3), which in turn leads to the benefit of meaningfulness (BM)

(level 4) (see Appendix 9).

153

The effect of educational level on benefits gained, and in particular BF and BM, may result from

local visitors having lower educational qualifications on average. As has been discussed, these

visitors were likely to visit the site for social reasons and curiosity, and more likely to have

emotional experiences and gain benefits of family bonding (BF) and meaningfulness (BM) (see

Table 4.26 and Appendix 9).

5.3.2.3 Summary: the effects of personal factors on experiences and benefits gained

Visitors‘ on-site experiences at the Peace Memorial Hall, and the potential benefits gained, were

found to be affected by socio-demographic variables. Specifically, visitor on-site experiences were

affected by three out of four socio-demographic variables examined (e.g. age, origin, educational

level), with benefits gained were also influenced by visitors‘ place of origin. This study has also

revealed that there are common characteristics to visitors in particular age groups, to local visitors,

and to those with high educational qualifications. These included significant prior knowledge of,

familiarity with, or connection to the tragic events memorialised by the site.

In order to examine the effect of such common characteristics on visitors‘ on-site experiences, along

with benefits gained, the psychological variable of enduring involvement was considered. The

effect of enduring involvement on visitor experiences and benefits gained can now be discussed.

5.4 The application of enduring involvement in a dark tourism

context

As aforementioned, this section discusses the effects of common characteristics of visitors on their

experiences of the April 3rd

Peace Park, through the concept of enduring involvement. It will

provide evidence that enduring involvement is a crucial factor in understanding visitors‘ beneficial

experiences at the site.

The section comprises two parts: the first examining the effect of enduring involvement on

visitors‘ on-site experiences and benefits gained; and the second, the effect of socio-demographic

variables and past experiences on enduring involvement, as Figure 5.4 shows. The former details

evidence for the effect of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach, while the latter

provides reasons why visitors‘ dark tourism experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park differ by socio-

demographic variables.

154

Figure 5.4: Outline of the effects of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach

5.4. 1 Enduring involvement and its effects on visitor experiences and benefits

gained

As may be expected, visitors‘ enduring involvement with the tragic events dealt with at the site had

a great influence on their on-site experiences. This study found that enduring involvement had a

general effect on visitors‘ cognitive experiences and two dimensions of their affective experiences,

as Figure 5.5 shows. Enduring involvement had the strongest relationship with CP, while no

relationship was found with EE; only a weak relationship was identified with EK.

Figure 5.5: The relationship between enduring involvement and visitor experiences

EI

CP

CR

CA

EA

EE

EK

Level 3: experiences

.631**

.296**

.260**

.280**

.121*

EI: Enduring involvement CP: Personal concern/ CR: Related issues/ CA: The April 3rd incident

EA: Emotion evoked by the April 3rd incident/ EE: Emotion evoked by environment/

EK: Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

*p<0.05 / **p<0.01

Level 3: experiences

Cognitive experiences

Personal concern (CP)

Related issues (CR)

The April 3rd

incident (CA)

Emotions evoked by

The April 3rd

incident (EA)

Environment at the park (EE)

The circumstance of Korea (EK)

Level 4: benefits

Learning (BL)

Family bonding (BF)

Meaningfulness (BM)

Comfort from achieving internal

obligation (BIO)

Socio-demographic variables

Past experiences

Enduring involvement

155

Of the three dimensions of cognitive experience, the strong relationship between EI and CP

provides evidence that the level of enduring involvement is appropriate to segment visitors to the

site (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1993; Park, et al., 2002), and more effective in fact than the

prior suggestion that dark tourist segmentation should use connection to the site or tragic event (e.g.

survivors, victim‘s families, relatives or friends, or veterans) (Beech, 2000; Lennon & Foley, 2000).

It was notable that high enduring involvement visitors were more likely to have CP than low

involvement visitors. CP consisted of items indicating whether visitors recalled memories of the

tragic event, and how they compared these with what they had learnt about the incident from

exhibited contents. In order to have CP at the site, visitors needed to have at least an awareness of

the incident before their actual visit, given CP cannot be gained from simply reading exhibition

contents during the visit itself. In this respect, high enduring involvement visitors should hold

significant knowledge of the incident also, where CP can lead them to greater insights into the site

and the incident it memorialises. This study found a strong relationship between prior knowledge of

the incident and EI (see Table 4.34), in which all high involvement visitors had known of the

incident before their actual visit, while only 42.1% of low involvement visitors were found to have

knowledge beforehand (see Table 4.35).

In contrast to CP, EI was found to have less influence on visitors‘ affective experiences at the site.

It seems that high enduring visitors were unsurprised at the physical or social settings in the

exhibition halls, given their knowledge of the incident created some expectations about the site, thus

diminishing their degree of negative emotional experiences. In spite of their expectations and prior

knowledge of the incident, however, highly involved visitors also experienced negative emotions.

This may have been because the physical settings of the exhibition halls – which reproduce the

incident using modern technology and communication facilities – lead visitors to feel close to the

real incident by reducing its time and spatial distance to the present. Furthermore, some highly

involved visitors were identified as those with connection to the incident. For this group, the

incident may well remain effectively a ‗present event‘ in that it continuously influences their lives.

In this important respect, highly involved visitors may feel sympathy or empathy for victims or

survivors, and thus share the distress and painful experiences caused by the incident.

The effect of enduring involvement on visitor on-site experiences implies that visitors‘ enduring

involvement has a significant effect on benefits gained from the site (given benefits gained by

visitors were dependent on their on-site experiences, as identified in the previous section).

However, enduring involvement influenced only one dimension of benefits gained, BIO, with the

156

other three benefits not affected by visitor enduring involvement (see Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6: The relationship between enduring involvement and visitor benefits gained

It seems that highly involved visitors – both visitors with connection to the incident itself, and

general travellers with prior knowledge – were likely to have strong internal obligation motivating

them to travel to the site, and in turn, gain the benefit of comfort from carrying out their duty and

sharing their experiences with others. The following interview finding provides support for this:

When I first heard about the incident I didn’t know it was a Jeju Island event…so I felt I

had to know about it...so I have time today and came here to see it...now I feel

comfortable, I wonder why I didn’t come here earlier than today, next time I will bring

my niece and nephew with me (Female, 40s, local visitor).

However, such visitors did not feel they had gained other benefits, such as learning, meaningfulness,

or family bonding, from their experiences. It remains particularly notable that highly involved

visitors did not gain leaning benefits through factual learning, whereas low involvement visitors did.

This may be because the majority of high involvement visitors knew of the incident before their

actual visit, and hence their learning experiences were related to comparisons between their prior

knowledge of and/or memory of the incident, and the exhibition content itself (in other words,

versus acquiring new knowledge of the incident through factual learning at the site). The benefits of

family bonding and meaningfulness were benefits experienced by some low involvement visitors,

whilst high involvement visitors travelled to the site out of personal obligation or duty, and thus

were unable to view the experience as either a meaningful or pleasurable one in the context of daily

life.

Internal obligation has yet to be examined in tourism and leisure studies, given leisure and

EI

Level 4: benefits

BL

BF

BM

BIO

NS

NS

NS

.329**

EI: Enduring involvement

BL: Learning/ BF: Family bonding/ BM: Meaningfulness/

BIO: Comfort from achieving internal obligation

**P<0.01 / NS: The relationship is not at the significant level.

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recreation in general is considered pleasurable, entertaining, or an avenue for learning as opposed to

a product of personal duty etc. (Bigne, Andreu, & Gnoth, 2005; Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982;

Packer, 2006). In this research, visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park on Jeju Island can be recognised

as a personal duty for high enduring involvement visitors, and comparable in turn to the young

travellers to Auschwitz identified in other studies (Thurnell-Read, 2009). Internal obligation is

somewhat similar to personal commitment, as discussed in leisure and recreation studies in terms of

involving dedication and moral imperatives (Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997). In leisure and

recreation studies, enduring involvement is also closely related to personal commitment (Iwasaki &

Havitz, 1998; Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997). For example, visitors to the Buchenwald former

concentration camp in Germany with a connection to the site demonstrated high involvement and

high personal commitment while experiencing it (Beech, 2000). Hence it remains similarly

understandable that high involvement Korean visitors feel an internal obligation to travel to the

April 3rd

Peace Park, and a sense of comfort following their visit having carried out their personal

duty.

In examining the effects of enduring involvement on visitors‘ beneficial experiences, it has been

noted that high involvement visitors tend to have some connection to, or with the April 3rd

incident,

and thus have acquired greater prior knowledge than general leisure travellers to the site. However,

this is insufficient in wholly explaining the characteristics of those with high enduring involvement

with the April 3rd

incident. Hence the following section discusses the effect of socio-demographic

variables and past experiences on enduring involvement with the incident, in order to examine the

characteristics of high and low involvement visitors, and identify predictors of enduring

involvement based on demographic variables.

5.4.2 Visitor enduring involvement in a dark tourism context

This section consists of two parts dealing with the relationship between enduring involvement and

four socio-demographic variables, based on the testing of four hypotheses (see Tables 4.25 to 4.29),

along with the effects of past experience on enduring involvement (see Tables 4.30 and 4.32).

5.4.2.1 The effect of socio demographic variables on enduring involvement

Visitor enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident was found to significantly differ by visitors‘

age, place of origin, and level of education, however, not differ by gender as shown in Table 5.3.

This indicates that the relationship between socio-demographic variables and enduring involvement

is inconsistent, as has been determined in previous involvement studies (Bloch, 1993; Havitz,

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Dimanche, & Bogle, 1994; Kerstetter & Kovich, 1997; Madrigal, Havitz, & Howard, 1992; Park, et

al., 2002; Park, 1996; Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000).

Table 5.3: The results of four hypotheses

Age Gender Origin Education level

Enduring

Involvement

Significant

Not significant

The effect of socio-demographic variables on enduring involvement highlights several distinctive

characteristics when it comes to dark tourists (Lennon & Foley, 2000). First of all, the differences in

enduring involvement by age confirm one of the most prominent characteristics of dark tourism;

namely, that the passing of time can affect the perception of a dark tourism event (Lennon & Foley,

2000; Miles, 2002; Stone, 2006; Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996). The passing of time may remove

much of the horror and leave only a ‗compelling story‘ (Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996). In this sense

the concepts ‗chronological distance‘ (Lennon & Foley, 2000, p. 12), the dark and darker paradigm

(Miles, 2002), and the dark tourism spectrum (Stone, 2006) all indicate that the degree of shared or

perceived darkness of a tragic event and site change over time. These concepts also suggest that if

the tragic event is validated or explained by survivors or witnesses, the degree of the darkness of the

site can be considered ‗darker‘ than it may otherwise be perceived. This further indicates that recent

disaster sites can be categorised as ‗darker‘ when compared with older sites of disaster. Such

concepts have been applied to classify dark tourism attractions in order to understand visitors‘ dark

tourism experiences (Miles, 2002; Stone, 2006).

On the other hand, such concepts can also be applied to different types of understanding, in that the

degree of darkness visitors perceive may differ by visitor age if the tragic event is not a recent one,

yet some survivors or witnesses of the event are still alive. Examples of this include World War II,

the Holocaust, the Vietnam War, the Korean War, and so on. In these cases, the elderly who

experienced or witnessed the tragic event may have ‗darker‘ experiences given the event may still

be vivid in their memory, and thus such visitors may record high enduring involvement with the

event. For the second generation, largely middle-aged in years, the degree of perceived darkness

surrounding the event may be classified ‗dark‘ when compared with the previous group, given they

did not experience or witness the incident directly; such people may have moderate enduring

involvement with the event. Furthermore, the third generation may have a low enduring

involvement with the event in turn.

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The findings of this study may be applied to individuals as a measure of differences in enduring

involvement. The elderly in this investigation tended to have high tragic event involvement

compared with the young and middle-aged group, with around 35% of elderly respondents highly

involved with the incident, versus around 20% of young or middle aged respondents highly

involved. The middle-aged group tended to be more moderately involved with the incident, with

around 45% and 30% of respondents identified as having moderate or low involvement respectively.

More than half the respondents below 30 years of age were identified as having a low level of

involvement with the incident (see Table 4.25).

Secondly, the relationship between educational level and enduring involvement has proven

ambiguous in previous leisure and recreation studies (Havitz, Dimanche, & Bogle, 1994; Madrigal,

Havitz, & Howard, 1992), with education level negatively related to enduring involvement in the

fitness market (Havitz, Dimanche, & Bogle, 1994), whilst positively related to consumer

information search behaviours prior to travel (Madrigal, Havitz, & Howard, 1992). Similarly, the

hypothesis tests in this investigation reveal ambiguity. For instance, initial analysis found no

significant relationship between enduring involvement and respondents‘ level of education.

However, further analysis which excluded 148 local visitors, and examined only 259 non-local

visitors, provided a significant test result (see Table 4.29).

These two distinct results may be explained by the origin factor overpowering the effects of

educational level. Some local visitors were witnesses to the Jeju incident, hence highly involved,

but with low levels of education. In contrast, non-local visitors did not have any connection to the

April 3rd

incident; however, some of them were highly involved given they had acquired prior

knowledge of the incident before their visit. This latter group tended to be better educated and

possessed a strong interest in the event itself and related issues of political conflict, peace, human

rights and so on. In this respect, the results support the argument of Braithwaite and Lee (2006) in

that dark tourism attractions are generally more likely to appeal to the well educated.

Visitor origin was identified as a crucial element affecting enduring involvement among four socio-

demographic variables (see Table 4.28). The differences in enduring involvement between local and

non-local visitors may result from: the different meanings of the April 3rd

incident for local or non-

local visitors; familiarity with the incident; and physical distance to the attraction. Firstly, the

incident for local visitors can engender severely painful feelings, along with anger, sadness,

weakness, or even frustration. This is because most local people have some direct or indirect

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connection to the incident; for instance, some elderly locals are survivors or witnesses of the

incident, while the middle aged or young people are likely to be children, grandchildren, or relatives

of victims or survivors or witnesses of the incident. These people therefore have personal memories

of the incident, as illustrated in respective interviews with an elderly and young local visitor:

I was young...around four years old when the incident occurred...I did not know why I

had to run to the mountains or near to the sea...I can still remember my parents loudly

saying ‘they are coming now, we have to hide ourselves’...and then my mother carried

me on her back and ran... (Male, 62 years old).

I spent a little bit longer at the 3rd exhibition hall to know the ‘Orari fire incident’

because I lived in the village of the Orari for a long time, and want to know why this

happened in that area… (Male, 30s).

The traces of the April 3rd

incident are still extant around Jeju Island, with local people living with,

and being unable to remove and perhaps ignore them. For example, a local news report from August

2007 reported that around 100 bodies were exhumed nearby Jeju International Airport (Jeju April

3rd Committee, 2008). Moreover, the local people are familiar with the incident through local

broadcasts, history classes provided by schools, and/or families and relatives (see Table 4.32).

Since the government allowed people to discuss the incident in public from the 1990s, local news

media have reported about the incident, with both school history class and community educational

programs providing many opportunities for locals to learn about the incident. These community

efforts over the past 20 years have no doubt led to much greater familiarity with the incident among

local people, which leads in turn to a higher level of enduring involvement with the incident.

For these reasons, in this study the effect of place of origin on enduring involvement is the result of

differences in functional and cognitive distance to the tragic events in question. The functional

distance of local visitors is shorter than for non-local visitors, thus leading them to travel to the site

easily. Moreover, local visitors have a closer cognitive distance to the tragic event given some have

connections to the incident. These characteristics are similar to the concept of place attachment in

leisure and recreation studies, which consist of functional and emotional attachment and affect

when it comes to an individual‘s level of enduring involvement (Gross & Brown, 2006; Hwang, Lee,

& Chen, 2005; Kyle, et al., 2004; Williams, et al., 1992).

In contrast to origin, gender was the only variable which did not affect enduring involvement.

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However, it may be argued that there are some gender differences in the perception of the April 3rd

incident, given the number of male respondents with knowledge of the events before their visit was

slightly greater than that of female visitors. Approximately 161 out of 201 male respondents knew

something about the events prior to actual visitation (80.1%), compared with 155 out of 206 female

respondents (75.2%). In addition, the number of male visitors to the site was greater than female

visitors based on the observations of the researcher over a six month period.

5.4.2.2 The effect of past experiences on enduring involvement

In this study, past experiences were interpreted in two ways: either as similar experiences at other

dark tourism sites; or as repeat visits to the same site. The results from the two hypotheses

examining the relationship between past experiences and enduring involvement were inconsistent.

The former was found to have no significant relationship with enduring involvement, while the

latter demonstrated significant correlation to involvement (see Tables 4.29 to 4.31).

These inconsistent results cannot confirm the effect of past experiences on enduring involvement.

However, they do provide evidence that past experiences can lead people to be knowledgeable of,

or familiar with, the focus of attention (e.g. settings, products, or activity) (Bei & Widdows, 1999;

Bloch, 1993; Bloch, Sherrell, & Ridgway, 1986). Hence visitors‘ past experiences may produce two

different types of familiarity – namely familiarity with the attraction settings, or familiarity with the

tragic event. Either form of familiarity due to visitors‘ past experiences can affect their experiences

to some extent.

It remains notable that experiences at other dark tourism sites can lead visitors to be familiar with

an attraction setting concerned overtly with death, horror, and distress (Bei & Widdows, 1999;

Bloch, 1993; Bloch, Sherrell, & Ridgway, 1986; McIntyre & Pigram, 1992). The familiarity with

settings or objects can affect visitors‘ on-site experiences and benefits gained by enhancing their

level of understanding of the subject. However, it cannot produce a positive effect on enduring

involvement, given visitors‘ dark tourism experiences at one attraction cannot provide them with

knowledge of the details or events at another, and thus they will remain a low involvement visitor.

In contrast, repeat visits to a site can lead individuals to have a high level of familiarity with the

setting, as demonstrated in this study of the exhibition halls at the April 3rd

Peace Park. This leads

individuals to acquire knowledge of the incident, and potentially become a specialist on the topic

(McIntyre & Pigram, 1992). As a result, repeat visitors can develop high enduring involvement.

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Conversely, a high level of enduring involvement can lead a visitor to undertake repeat visits and

frequent visits to a site. Several involvement studies have found that enduring involvement is

positively related to an individual‘s frequency of participation in an activity, such as travel and the

purchase of products (Bloch, 1993; Havitz & Dimanche, 1999; McCarville, Crompton, & Sell, 1993;

Park, 1996; Venkatraman, 1988). Likewise, enduring involvement may be positively related to the

frequency of visit, and/or intensity of visit to a site.

Some repeat visitors were identified in this study; from the researcher‘s observation during March

to May 2008, visitors who were family members, relatives, or friends of victims or survivors, or

witnesses of the incident, were likely to visit the site on its anniversary or the anniversary of a

victim‘s death. This suggests that high levels of enduring involvement lead to repeat visitation in

leisure, recreation, and tourism contexts.

However, since the quantitative data for this study was only collected during June and July, 2008,

this distinctive characteristic of visitors was not revealed in the results. Instead, around 43% of

repeat visitors were travellers not connected to the site, yet were highly involved with the incident

(see Table 4.4). Considering the travel distance and cost for general visitors for a one or two day trip

from their home to the site (due to poor transportation to the site), this may lend support for the

proposition that highly involved people allocate more time and money to the object of their

involvement (e.g. activity or product), as has been found in previous studies (Bloch, 1993; Celsi &

Olson, 1988; Green & Chalip, 1998).

5.4.2.3 Summary of the application of enduring involvement

In this study, enduring involvement has been found to be a personal factor crucially influencing

visitors‘ on-site experiences and the benefits gained from their visit to the April 3rd

site. A visitor‘s

levels of enduring involvement strongly affected their cognitive and affective experiences. Enduring

involvement was strongly associated with the benefit of comfort obtained from achieving internal

obligation, and was also strongly related to visitors‘ prior knowledge of, and familiarity with the

incident. The level of enduring involvement with the incident was found to differ by age, origin, and

level of education. An elderly, local resident, or a highly educated visitor, was more likely to have a

high level of enduring involvement. However, gender was found to be unrelated to enduring

involvement. The effect of past experiences on enduring involvement provided inconsistent results

in terms of two hypotheses, yet this study concludes that past experiences can affect the level of

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enduring involvement and a visitor‘s experiences to some extent.

5.5 Summary and conclusions

This chapter has discussed two key sets of results: firstly, the application of a benefits-based

approach to visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park; and secondly, the effect of enduring involvement on

visitor experiences.

The study identified the dimensions of four levels of a benefit chain of causality, and examined the

relationships between those levels, along with the effect of four socio-demographic variables on

visitors‘ experiences. It also described the effect of enduring involvement on a benefits-based

approach, concerning in particular visitors‘ on-site experiences (level 3) and benefits gained (level

4), along with the effect of socio-demographic variables and past experiences on enduring

involvement. These findings provide a basis for a discussion of the significance of this research, as

provided in the following concluding chapter.

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Chapter 6 - Conclusion

6.1 Introduction

The key research problem concerning this thesis has been: ‗what is the effect of personal factors on

visitor experiences to dark tourism sites, and the benefits gained through such a visit?’ This was

investigated by examining three core research questions:

What are the tourist or visitor ultimate outcomes of dark tourism site visitation, and how do

these differ by socio-demographic variables?

What is the effect of enduring involvement on dark tourism experiences?

What are the effects of socio-demographic variables and past experiences on enduring

involvement?

In the previous chapter, the findings of the research on each of these issues were discussed. In this

chapter, this discussion will be concluded in Section 6.2, with implications for the advancement of

theory and further research areas considered in Section 6.3. The limitations of the research are

provided in Section 6.4, with concluding comments comprising Section 6.5.

6.2 Conclusions from the findings related to research questions

This section summarises the research findings as they relate to the three research questions. It

comprises two parts, which deal firstly with the application of a benefits-based approach, and

secondly, the concept of enduring involvement in terms of experiences at the April 3rd

incident site.

The following section provides an overall conclusion on research question one, with two further

sections addressing research questions two and three respectively.

6.2.1 A benefits-based approach and the April 3rd

Peace Park

As discussed in Section 5.3, this section summarises the findings and provides a conclusion for

research question one. It consists of three parts, dealing with the identification of reasons for visit,

on-site experiences, and benefits gained; the relationship between reasons for visit, experiences, and

benefits gained; and lastly, the effect of socio-demographic variables on experiences and benefits

gained. The first two parts relate to findings from the application of a benefit chain of causality to

the April 3rd

incident experiences, with the third summarising the findings from tests of the eight

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hypotheses.

Reasons for visit, on-site experiences and benefits gained

The core product offered by the April 3rd

Peace Park was found to be the beneficial experiences

gained by visitors, similar in this respect to other cultural heritage tourism attractions (Beeho &

Prentice, 1995, 1997; McIntosh, 1997, 1999; Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998; Prentice, Witt, &

Hamer, 1998; Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000). Reasons for visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park (level 1 of

the benefit chain of causality) were identified along three dimensions: learning and obligation;

social reasons and curiosity; and educational programs. The dimensions of learning, social reasons,

and curiosity have been identified by other authors as reasons for visiting heritage attractions

(McIntosh, 1997; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1993, 1998). However, a sense of obligation or personal

duty (internal obligation), as discussed in Section 5.3, has only been found in certain dark tourism

sites such as that of Auschwitz in Poland (Thurnell-Read, 2009), and some other sites related to

genocide (Beech, 2009) or war (Baldwin & Sharpley, 2009). These sites engender internal moral

obligations in individuals to acquire knowledge of the tragic event, and/or to commemorate the

victims of the event.

In relation to the settings (level 2), as in many dark tourism attractions or sites which use selective

interpretation and/or a hot interpretation approach (Ballantyne, 2003; Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008;

Uzzell & Ballantyne, 1998; Wight & Lennon, 2007), the April 3rd

Peace Park enhances visitors‘

emotional experiences at the site through both, furthermore promoting reconciliation in the Jeju

community by removing potential conflict between victims‘ and perpetrators‘ families and relatives.

In relation to visitor experiences (level 3), in general visitors had both learning and emotional

experiences at the Peace Memorial Hall while exploring its seven exhibition spaces. Learning

experiences included knowledge acquired about the April 3rd

incident itself, along with related

issues such as Korean contemporary history, ideological conflict, genocide, and human rights.

Emotional experiences were found to involve negative emotions including a sense of fear, sympathy,

empathy, sorrow, depression, and other negative emotions.

In terms of visitor benefits gained (level 4), four benefits obtained from visitors‘ April 3rd

incident

experiences were identified in this research: learning, family bonding, meaningfulness, and comfort

from achieving internal obligation. Learning benefits have been found in other leisure and

recreation settings, including parks, museums, and galleries (Packer, 2004, 2006; Roggenbuck,

Loomis, & Dagostino, 1991). The other three benefits, however, may not be gained from

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experiences at leisure and recreational settings featuring pleasant themes, given that in this context

they relate to negative emotional experiences and obligations, as discussed in Section 5.3.

The above four levels can be seen to relate to one another, as discussed through a benefits-based

approach. The results pertaining to these relationships can now be summarised in the following

section.

The relationship between reason for visit, experiences, and benefits gained

This research has examined two key relationships: one between reason for visit and on-site

experiences; and another between on-site experiences and benefits gained. In its examination of the

relationship between the first two variables, this investigation found that a visitor‘s reasons for

visiting the April 3rd

Peace Park were likely to affect their experiences at the site. However, one of

the reasons for visiting – namely the educational program (e.g. a compulsory field trip) offered by

schools or other organisation – was not found to have an effect on visitor learning and emotional

experiences at the site. In other words then, compulsory field trips do not provide a strong

opportunity for effective experiential learning in such contexts.

In examining the effect of on-site experiences (level 3) on benefits gained (level 4), visitor on-site

experiences were likely to affect benefits gained in the April 3rd

Peace Park. In particular, visitors

were likely to gain benefits from their affective experiences, as opposed to their cognitive

experiences, as discussed in Section 5.3.1. This supports the importance of emotional experiences in

dark tourism attractions or sites, which in turn supports a hot interpretation approach and the

importance of authenticity at dark tourism attractions and sites to reinforce emotional experiences

(Ballantyne & Uzzell, 1993; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Miles, 2002; Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008;

Uzzell, 1989).

The effect of socio-demographic variables on visitor on-site experiences and benefits gained

This section provides a summary of the findings related to hypotheses H1 to H8, examining how

visitors‘ on-site experiences were affected by age, place of origin, and educational level, and how

visitor benefits gained were influenced by place of origin and level of education. The experiences of

older and younger visitors were significantly different in terms of cognitive learning experiences at

the site. The majority of the elderly were likely to recall their memories of the incident, and

compare the exhibited contents with their background knowledge. In contrast, the majority of

younger visitors were likely to learn about the April 3rd

incident during their site visit. Similar

results were found when comparing local (Jeju islander) and non-local visitors. Local visitors were

167

likely to compare what they knew with the exhibition contents, or to recollect their memory of the

incidents on-site, whereas non-local visitors were not. Similarly, visitors with high levels of

education were more likely to have learnt about the April 3rd

incident and related issues in Korean

contemporary history, or in terms of ideological conflict or human rights, compared with visitors

who had completed only high school or a lower level of education.

On the basis of these results, it remains likely that the significant differences in visitor cognitive

experiences result from other personal factors, as opposed to the socio-demographic variables tested.

As a consequence, the psychological variable of enduring involvement was applied to investigate

differences in visitor experiences and benefits gained. The findings on the effect of enduring

involvement on experiences and benefits can now be summarised as follows.

6.2.2 The enduring involvement with the April 3rd

incident

This section discusses the results presented in Section 5.4, and concerns research questions two and

three. It comprises two parts: the effect of enduring involvement on visitor on-site experiences

and benefits gained (research question two); and secondly, the effect of socio-demographics and

past experiences on enduring involvement (research question three).

The effect of enduring involvement on benefits

The findings from hypotheses H14 and H15 indicate that enduring involvement can be an effective

tool for segmenting dark tourists. Both benefits sought and enduring involvement have been used as

a method for segmenting tourists and visitors in tourism, leisure, and recreational settings (Frochot,

2005; Frochot & Morrison, 2000; Park, et al., 2002; Sarigöllü & Huang, 2005). However, in a dark

tourism context the benefits sought by most visitors has been found to be ‗learning‘, with the

benefit gained by most visitors also identified as ‗learning‘ as Section 5.3 reveals. As a result,

benefits sought are not considered an effective segmentation method for visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park, as applies to tourists and visitors in general. However, low and high involvement is

regarded an effective segmentation tool for visitors to the April 3rd

Peace Park.

In the findings relating to two hypotheses (hypothesis 14 and 15), visitors‘ enduring involvement

was related to five out of six dimensions of visitor on-site experiences, and affects only one

dimension of benefits gained, namely comfort from achieving internal obligation. In the exhibition

hall, highly involved visitors were likely to recall their memories of the incident, or compare the

exhibition contents with their background knowledge of the events. In contrast, low involvement

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visitors were likely to gather information about the incident. This indicates that highly involved

visitors were more likely to have significant knowledge of the incident before the visit when

compared to low involvement visitors. This may in turn influence visitors‘ level of understanding

about the April 3rd

incident and other related issues.

In relation to benefits gained (H15), visitors with high involvement were likely to have an internal

obligation to visit, with the benefit of ‗comfort from achieving internal obligation‘ deemed the main

benefit gained. In other words then, visitors felt psychological comfort from carrying out their

internal obligation, or sharing their experience with others. This is a similar benefit to psychological

healing, and a therapeutic effect of dark tourism experiences previously discussed by some scholars

(Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b; Ballantyne & Uzzell, 1993; Braithwaite & Lee, 2006; Garwood,

1996; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Niederland, 1981).

The findings from two hypotheses therefore indicate that high involvement visitors were likely to

have prior knowledge of the event, and a high internal obligation to visit. In contrast, low

involvement visitors had limited knowledge of the incident before their visit, and were not likely to

feel internal obligation to visit. However, these findings did not indicate the characteristics of high

and low enduring involvement visitors; in order to examine these, the effect of socio-demographic

variables on enduring involvement was investigated using six hypotheses, with the findings

summarised in the following section.

The effect of socio-demographic variables and past experiences on enduring involvement

Enduring involvement was found to differ significantly by age, place of origin, education level, and

number of prior visits to the site (hypotheses 9 to 12, 13A and 13B). Visitors with high levels of

enduring involvement were more likely to:

be the elderly, local visitors (Jeju islanders), or visitors with high educational levels;

have acquired prior knowledge of the incident before their visit to the site; and

be familiar with the April 3rd

incident.

Visitors with low levels of enduring involvement were more likely to:

be young , non-local, and have only a high school or lower level of education;

have no or limited knowledge of the incident prior to their visit.

Enduring involvement was found to be strongly related to prior knowledge of, or familiarity with

the April 3rd

incident (see Table 4.34). Some non-local leisure travellers were categorised in the high

involvement group, though they did not seem to have any personal connection with the April 3rd

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incident. These travellers were knowledgeable and interested in learning about the incident, and

tended to have attained a high level of education. They were also likely to be repeat visitors, even

though visiting the site required much longer travel and more resources for them to reach it (see

Table 4.4).

Alternately, the high level of enduring involvement among local visitors may be related to their

familiarity with the April 3rd

incident as local residents. Since open discussion of the incident has

been permitted in public since the 1990s, and subsequently relayed in the media and via schools or

community or other organisations, local visitors have had access to information from a wide variety

of sources. In turn, local visitors were familiar with the incident even though, on average, they had

attained lower levels of education.

Familiarity with the incident was also related to visitors‘ past experiences (H13AB). The effect of

past experiences on enduring involvement was examined in two ways: by repeat visits to the site

(H13A), and in terms of similar experiences at other dark tourism attractions (H13B). A repeat

visit to the site provides familiarity with both the incident and settings of the site, while similar

experiences at other dark tourism sites provide familiarity with the settings. In such cases it was

found that familiarity with the settings based on similar experiences at other dark tourism sites, was

unrelated to visitors‘ level of enduring involvement (H13B).

6.3 Implications of the findings and further research issues

This thesis is considered to be a preliminary empirical study of dark tourism experiences, based

upon developed conceptual and theoretical foundations. Its findings have several theoretical and

practical implications in turn, which further suggest a number of additional research issues and

concerns for future investigation. The following can now address and detail the key implications of

this research and its findings.

6.3.1 Theoretical implications

As this research utilised two core theories to examine dark tourism experiences – a benefits-based

approach and enduring involvement – it remains essential to detail the significance of its findings to

each theoretical perspective in turn. The following discusses four theoretical aspects in achieving

this: the application of a benefits-based approach to dark tourism experience; the effect of enduring

involvement on a benefits-based approach; the application of enduring involvement in a dark

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tourism context; and methodological implications in terms of examination of dark tourism

experiences and enduring involvement.

The application of a benefits-based approach to dark tourism experiences

This research indicates that a benefits-based approach is an effective tool for understanding visitor

psychological experiences in tourism and leisure settings, and in particular dark tourism settings

which do not offer hedonic experiences to visitors. In this study, visitors‘ April 3rd

incident

experiences comprise three general stages: pre-experiences (reasons for visiting the site), on-site

experiences, and post-visit experiences (benefits gained from experiences).

In relation to pre-experiences (level 1: reasons for visit), this research identified ‗obligation‘ as a

motivation for travel specific to dark tourism attractions. In general, obligation is not considered a

motivation for travel among leisure travellers, though social obligation is sometimes a reason for

‗visiting friends and relatives‘ (VFR) travellers (Larsen, Urry, & Axhausen, 2007). As such, the

notion of obligation has not been extensively examined in tourism and leisure studies, with in some

cases the notion of commitment used instead (Gahwiler & Havitz, 1998; Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998;

Kyle & Mowen, 2005). However, in dark tourism internal obligations such as a personal duty or

sense of obligation appears one of the main reasons for travelling to dark tourism sites (Thurnell-

Read, 2009), with an effect furthermore on on-site experiences and benefits gained. At present the

notion of internal obligation has not been fully examined in relation to dark tourism experiences,

and is thus a recommendation for future research.

In relation to the effect of reasons for visit on subsequent experiences (level 1 and level 3), in

general, schools and educational establishments include dark tourism attractions or sites as part of a

compulsory field trip program. However, the effect of such trips on experiential learning or

emotional experiences is not discussed in the tourism or leisure literature, and in particular in a dark

tourism context. The findings of this research indicate that an educational program offered by a

school or educational establishment will not necessarily have a positive effect when it comes to on-

site experiences. A field trip may indeed at times engender interest in a tragic event, hence the

effects of compulsory field trips on experiential learning experiences at dark tourism attractions and

on post-experiences, remains a potentially important topic for future research.

In relation to post-experiences (level 4: benefits gained), this study ascertained that the April 3rd

experiences are characterised as beneficial to visitors, identifying four dimensions of benefits

gained. Of these, learning experiences are cited in other leisure and recreational settings also, while

171

other benefits such as family bonding, meaningfulness, and comfort from achieving internal

obligation, may also result from experiences at dark tourism sites. This may result from the

settings or theme an attraction provides, given tourist and visitor experiences are highly dependent

on context (Gupta & Vajic, 2000). In turn, the effect of settings on experiences and benefits gained

in other dark tourism attractions remains another valid topic for future research.

The effect of enduring involvement on a benefits-based approach

This research indicates that the application of a benefit chain of causality, along with the concept of

enduring involvement, is effective for understanding tourist experiences from a tourist‘s perspective

in the context of dark tourism. A benefit chain of causality per se is useful in the examination of

tourist and visitor psychological experiences in dark tourism settings, however, is not considered an

effective means for segmenting visitors according to benefits sought. This research found that the

benefit sought by most visitors was learning, though the level or detail of learning varied. Hence

visitors could not be classified by benefits sought in terms of their visit to the April 3rd

Peace Park.

In relation to enduring involvement, this can be used to segment visitors as demonstrated in other

leisure and recreation settings (Park, et al., 2002). Enduring involvement per se, however, is not

effective in the examination of visitor psychological experiences in dark tourism. Hence the

application in this research of these two theories together effectively enabled insights into dark

tourism experiences.

The application of enduring involvement in dark tourism studies

This research provides evidence for the effect of enduring involvement on dark tourism experiences.

Enduring involvement in this investigation has been used to examine a visitors‘ personal connection

with the tragic event in question. Visitors with high involvement included those with connections to

the April 3rd

incident, such as survivors, witnesses, or victims‘ or survivors‘ families or relatives,

and general leisure travellers with acquired knowledge prior to their visit. In contrast, visitors with

low involvement were likely to be leisure travellers with no, or limited knowledge of the incident.

This indicated that the level of prior knowledge is associated with the concept of enduring

involvement, which in turn has an effect on visitors‘ experiences at the attraction. However, this

research has not been able to thoroughly examine this area of the research, hence it remain a topic

for more in-depth consideration in the future.

In relation to socio-demographic variables, gender was not found to be related to enduring

involvement and dark tourism experiences. However, this researcher‘s observations over several

months at the April 3rd

Peace Park indicate that the number of male visitors to the attraction was

172

higher than that of female visitors. Hence there may well be certain differences between male and

female visitors in terms of their reasons for visit and/or their experiences, a topic once again for

closer scrutiny in future research.

Methodological implications

This thesis offers two methodological contributions to the investigation of dark tourism experiences.

First of all, the research empirically examined dark tourism experiences using a quantitative

approach as its core research methodology. Since experience is characterised as subjective

(Holbrook, 1999), cognitive, emotionally involved, and context dependent (Addis & Holbrook,

2001; Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Gupta & Vajic, 2000; Schmitt, 1999), the majority of dark tourism

studies have chosen qualitative approaches to understanding tourist and visitor experiences at the

attraction (Boyles, 2005; Braithwaite & Lee, 2006; Seaton, 1999; Seaton & Lennon, 2004; Slade,

2003; Strange & Kempa, 2003; Thurnell-Read, 2009). However, Kravover (2005) examined dark

tourism experiences using quantitative methodology, yet the sample size of their study, with only 82

respondents, was small. Hence in contrast to the majority of previous dark tourism research, this

study has conducted sizeable empirical testing using quantitative data collection techniques

designed to understand visitors‘ beneficial dark tourism experiences from their perspective.

The second methodological implication of this study relates to the measurement of enduring

involvement in a dark tourism context. Enduring involvement is commonly measured in consumer

behaviour studies by the Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP) of Laurent and Kapferer (1985), or

by Zaichkowsky‘s (1985) Personal Involvement Inventory (PII). In the field of leisure and

recreation research various measures of enduring involvement have been used, yet the most

common measure is a modification of CIP (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1993; Havitz &

Dimanche, 1997). The CIP, however, is not appropriate in a dark tourism context given it involves

hedonic and pleasure related items (Lennon & Foley, 2000). As visitor experiences at the April 3rd

Peace Park are rarely hedonic or pleasurable ones, the PII instrument was considered, yet found to

be ineffective as a measure of involvement because of the validity of the scale – a controversial

issue in leisure and recreation research (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Indeed visitors in this study

often misunderstood the involvement questions used in the PII, and did not provide responses in

some cases. Therefore, it remained necessary to apply another involvement measure in order to

examine involvement with the April 3rd

incident. In turn, this study applied a multifaceted scale

with three dimensions (e.g. importance, interest, and frequent thinking about) to measure enduring

involvement (Green & Chalip, 1997), which proved particularly appropriate when it comes to dark

tourism experiences given both its strong reliability and validity.

173

The above implications focus on the importance of the findings from a predominantly theoretical

and research based perspective. However, these findings are also important for destination or

attraction management, with the potential of providing practical benefit for dark tourism sites.

6.3.2 Practical implications

This research and its findings have several practical implications for destination planners and

attraction management.

First of all, the findings of the research can serve as a foundation for creating effective site design,

and for providing adequate tourism services to tourists and visitors by identifying their needs and

wants. Some of its findings in particular, including visitor reasons for visiting the April 3rd

Peace

Park, and the relationship between reasons for visit and on-site experiences, can provide attraction

management with an opportunity to improve tourism services at their site. As one example, this

study revealed that compulsory field trips offered by schools or organisations may be ineffective

when it comes to experiential learning. In such cases attraction management, along with schools

or educational establishments can work together to identify effective ways to enhance students‘

and/or visitors‘ experiential learning and emotional experiences.

On a directly related point, this research secondly provides concrete evidence on the importance of

the emotional components of dark tourism experiences. With scholars having argued for the

usefulness of a hot interpretation approach in dark tourism attractions and sites (Ballantyne, 1998;

Moscardo & Ballantyne, 2008; Uzzell & Ballantyne, 1998), this research strongly confirms such an

approach is an effective way of enhancing dark tourism experiences. Management should consider a

hot interpretation approach therefore when designing and interpreting the content of their attractions

or sites. If the physical settings are fixed, they may provide additional tourism services (e.g. guided

tours, role playing, or storytellers) which can enhance tourist and visitor experiences.

Thirdly, this research confirms that a benefits-based approach can be applicable to ascertaining

whether management objectives are explicitly targeted to the provision of opportunities for specific

types of benefits. For example, the April 3rd

Peace Park site in this research was established for the

purposes of education, commemoration, and reconciliation within the local Jeju community. In

particular, it provides educational services to visitors who have not heard of, or who have limited

knowledge of or misunderstand the April 3rd

incident. The findings of this study indicate that the

174

majority of visitors do learn about the April 3rd

incident and related issues (e.g. Korean

contemporary history, ideological issues), with some visitors even responding that they had changed

their whole viewpoint on the incident through their visit. Hence this study can confirm that the

management of the April 3rd

Peace Park is achieving one of their key objectives.

In relation to enduring involvement, the findings of this study also suggest that visitor experiential

learning and emotional experiences can be effective if visitors acquire a certain level of prior

knowledge before their site visit. This can be not only important in creating initial interest in the

topic, but integral to visitors acquiring a deep understanding of the subject through their visit.

Hence the study can recommend visitors become informed beforehand, which may be implemented

by effective attraction marketing programs. For instance, the site management can strongly

recommend tour operators or guides to educate the subject to their group travellers before their visit

to the site. With regard to individual travellers, the site management can provide useful information

to visitors using the distribution channels of the site information (e.g. tourist centres, media, travel

agent, internet, brochure, and so on). In such a case, visitors who are interested in visiting the site

can acquire their prior knowledge of the subject before their actual visit made.

This research also identified that there is significant differences in visitor on-site experiences and

benefits gained depending on the low or high enduring involvement visitors demonstrate. Hence

attraction management needs to consider effective programs or settings which can reduce or remove

such differences in the on-site benefits gained by some visitors versus others. For example, the

attraction management can create 10 or 20 minutes education program for visitors with low

enduring involvement before their on-site experiences. The management also recommend a guide

tour for visitors with low enduring involvement. Such types of programs can help the low

involvement visitor‘s understanding of the subject.

Finally, the research provides considerable evidence for the important role played by the April 3rd

Peace Park in terms of the local community and visitors alike. Since the site was established and

operated by the government, it remains important to understand to begin with the role of the site.

This research has helped identify its roles by applying a benefits-based approach, revealing that the

April 3rd

Peace Park offers visitors the opportunity to gain educational benefits, psychological

healing, and/or leisure and recreational benefits. It has also confirmed that the site supports

reconciliation within the Jeju community.

In this section, several theoretical and practical implications and contributions of the study and its

175

findings have been discussed, along with areas and topics for future research. The final limitations

of the research will now be addressed in the following section.

6.4 Limitations of this research

This study has several important limitations which include the potential with which its findings can

be generalised, its theoretical framework, the research case chosen, and the issue of Korean

nationalism.

First of all, as referred to in the criteria for selecting the case as detailed in Section 3.2, the

theoretical framework utilised in this study is applicable to dark tourism attractions or sites which

represent severe tragic events, and have two distinctive categories of visitors, defined by either their

high or low involvement. Other examples of these include war attractions related to World War II,

the Vietnam or Korean Wars, sites of severe political conflict, and so on. As the April 3rd

Peace Park

is tied intimately to ongoing political and, to some extent, ideological conflict, the events it deals

with are much less resolved or unambiguous when compared with similar dark tourism sites

elsewhere. In short, the site under investigation in this study has been strongly influenced by

politics in its interpretation up to the present.

Since the research examined a dark tourism site in South Korea, it inevitably encompasses strong

viewpoints evoking ideological conflict, nationalism, political conflicts, and a host of other

contentious issues and topics. These inevitably relate to the current division of North and South

Korea as a product partly of ideological conflict. In turn, the findings of this study may differ

significantly from other investigations where this may not be the case. For example, the dimension

of affective experiences, emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea, may be experienced by

Korean only. Thus, some findings revealed here must be limited in general to their Korean context.

However, some other findings revealed here can be applicable to dark tourism attractions or sites, in

particular the war attractions or the site associated with ideological or political conflicts.

6.5 Concluding comments

Since many disasters instigated both by human action and natural occurrence are unable to be

controlled or predicted, it remains essential we strive to learn as much as possible from past events

176

in order to prevent, or better deal with their recurrence in the future. In this respect, dark tourism

attractions and sites can play an important role for societies and countries to focus on this task.

However, in the effective development and management of dark tourism attractions and sites,

destination planners and management face numerous problems associated with the commodification

of tragic events. To better manage and deal with this and related issues, it remains essential to build

understanding of tourist and visitor experiences at dark tourism attractions.

This research has attempted to contribute to both these tasks by providing evidence that dark

tourism experiences can be beneficial for destinations and tourists as well as visitors, revealing the

important role played for instance by personal factors when it comes to dark tourism experiences.

The findings of this research may in turn aid management to create more effective sites and tourism

services by understanding the personal differences which often exist between visitors to their sites.

177

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190

Appendices

191

The following brochure of the April 3

rd Peace Park consists of six pages: a cover page, a description

of the April 3rd

incident, artworks exhibited in the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall, the seven

exhibition halls of the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall, and a map of the April 3rd

Peace Park and

some settings outside the park. The map of the park on page 5 depicts the data collection site.

Appendix 1: The brochure of the April 3rd

Peace Park

192

A description of the April 3rd

incident and characteristics of Peace Memorial Hall

What is the Jeju April 3 incident? is provided in chapter 3.

Characteristics of Peace Memorial Hall

Memorial Space:

Peace Memorial Hall is a space to commemorate and cherish the bloody slaughtered history of the Jeju people‘s

resistance by defying injustice for self-respect of the land of liberation. The hall as a memorial space of the people‘s

history tells its story from the people‘s resistance to national power, from a local historical perspective.

Archive Space:

Peace Memorial Hall records the historical truth. The truth is based on the fact, and the fact is identified with the

memories and testimonies of survivors, the records of victim‘s families, and 43 related historical documents. The

exhibits will present further facts discovered by constant excavation, collection, research, and evaluation. Peace

Memorial Hall aims to be an international archive, which will play a key role in recording, preserving, and studying

193

the history extended from the Jeju April 3. In addition, this will be a space to provide visitors with documents

linked to the history of genocide in the 20th

century and of Korean modern history followed the liberation.

Educational Space:

Peace Memorial Hall is an open place for everyone at anytime. To our younger generation, this is a universal place

where we can share the life‘s lessons through hardship and the life‘s pleasures beyond the dark and disastrous

history of the past. And this is an educational place to help visitors recognize April 3 as a matter for all of us not

only a Jeju history. Various programs are prepared for children to seniors to participate. In addition, by holding a

number of workshops, international conferences, and symposiums, the memorial hall will spread the values of

peace and human right and unification.

Memorial Hall of Korean Modern History:

Peace Memorial Hall is the only memorial Hall covering the overall Korean modern history (before and after

the liberation). As a functional place it helps visitors understand Korean history before and after liberation.

Memorial Hall to Liquidate the Past History, Genocide:

Genocide is one of the most significant historic phases of April 3. Entering to the 20th

century, genocide

happened widely. The memorial Hall exhibits the other important genocides in the world along with of the

Jeju people‘s genocide

Memorial Hall of Reconciliation and Mutual Benefit:

Peace Memorial Hall is a space of longing for reconciliation and Mutual Benefit through the truth-finding of

April 3. The memorial hall will play a role of milestone for the April 3 experienced generation as a space of

reconciliation and for the future generation as a space of mutual benefit.

Memorial Hall Based on Jeju Locality:

The exhibition is based on its locality and cultural identity. The site of April 3 exists on its locality, tradition,

and landscape.

194

The artworks exhibited in the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall

Title: A Dim Light

The Korean liberation suddenly came as Japan was defeated in the Pacific War on August 15, 1945. The literation

meant the end of colonization as well as a long war. Koreans took the streets with improvised Korean flags in their

hands and shouted and shouted hurrah, rejoicing in the happiness for the day. The family, in the painting

concentrating on drawing Korean flags with clumsy skill under the dim light, would rejoice in the same happiness

with the people on the streets.

Title: Firing to Demonstrators on 3.1 (March 1st)

The story of the film is about soldiers firing on demonstrators on March 1st, the detonator for the Jeju April 3

Uprising. Near the end of the demonstration, a child was kicked by a police horse, encouraging the angry crowd to

attack the mounted police. Then, the police started to fire. Showing innocent people collapsing under the hail of

bullets, the film tries to describe their mournful and deaths and rage at their being killed in that way. The picture

intends to have audience understand why the residents had to uprise, by drawing sympathy for them, and picturing

subsequent events of a general strike and a rising in arms by the people.

195

Title: Red Island

Jejudo province was wrongly prescribed as a ‗Red Island‘ with a manipulated view by the American army, in a

1947 statement. Jeju‘s image is of a pulverized island, from the distorted view of the army, which spies on the

movement of islanders‘ gathering or scattering, is shown on a square window played by randomly. In the window,

people are featured as red silhouettes. The instigated view leads the Island to be declared as a ‗Red Island‘; the

residents embodied in the shape of the island are shown as red features, with music reminiscent of stigmatization,

as it is scanned. The red silhouettes come back into the original colours after the scanned window passes, hinting

that they imply the contrast between the wrong stipulation and the real Jejudo.

Title: The Dawn of Jeju Uprising

It is late at night. However, on the other hand, it would be the space for emotion and symbolism. At first, it is the

static space with depressed emotional feeling, and then turns into energetic and dynamic mood. As time passes the

space is filled with abstract animations representing the uprising status and expressing the emotional feeling of the

characters. The film displays the emotional feelings and images of the characters at the dawn of the Uprising which

is symbolically drawn on Korean traditional paper; rather, it describes the event itself in detail.

Title: Peace of Mt. Hallasan

Water symbolizing the lake in an oreum (a parasitic volcanic cone) is displayed. The featured water in a stone

mortar looks like the water flowing in the river and the peace of oreum is symbolized by sky and cloud, reflected

on the surface of the water. When the wave dies down, clouds of the sky on the surface of the water quickly appear

on and off, indicating the flight of time. Peaceful and calm, though, it feels like watching false images, such as a

mirage.

Title: Islanders on 5.10 (Hiking Against Single Canidate)

It is a giant panoramic wall painting. In the painting, villagers are mounted in the objection of a single candidate. It

is peaceful scenery with tension sensed. It depicts various features: a family hiking the mountain, armed soldiers on

guard, people building mud huts, speech in the field, women and girls gathering bracken.

Title: History of Jeju’s Resistance

Jejudo‘s history of resistance dates back to the ‗Yangsu‘s Rebellion, ‗the first resistance by the people. It is caused

from a district governor dispatched by King Euijong of Goryeo after Tamra state (Jejudo) became a part of Goryeo.

The resistance continued until colonized by Japan. Jeju has gone through tough times facing suppression and

repression from central governments, as well as its expansionism into the world. The author classified his works of

Jeju‘s resistance history with five themes based on historical importance of the events.

Title: Burning Island

Burnt villages and killings during Jeju April 3 are expressed in the animation art work. It carries a variety of scenes

such as the driven-out villagers, burning island, and massacres of innocent residents. At the end, it shows the

symbolized images of tragedy through crows, great streaks of rain, and Jeju traditional songs. The use of charcoal

expresses a rough black and white monotone to develop unusual images.

Title: Death Island

The piece re-creates brutal killings of the people by the military and police during the Jeju April 3 in methods

learned from the Japanese during the colonial period. The re-creation was based on evidence collected from

documents and testimonies. The displayed sculptures are portrayed in groups by theme to include gunshot, haning,

beheading, suffocation, burial at sea, significance of unearthed skeletons, missing people, and symbolized special

images.

196

Title: The Missing (Islanders)

The missing people‘s is depiction of the consequences of unlawful ‗Preliminary Custodies‘ and ‗Massacres‘

committed by the regime of Lee Seung-man just before and after Korean war in 1950. Approximately 3,000

islanders are estimated to be missing, however, it was less than half of the estimation when the number was

officially announced. The difference indicates that the missing people are not only the victims but perpetrators, as

well. There are three chapters in the work. The beginning chapter expresses the incarceration of the preliminary

custody victims. The second part depicts the disastrous scene of mass killings and the perpetrators. The last chapter

is to tell us about the missing perpetrators. The holes punched on the steel plate represent the number of missing

Jeju people, 3,000. The wires passing through the holes symbolize the trajectory of bullets as they left the

offender‘s gunpoint and lodged in the bodies of the victims, meaning the connection between the perpetrators and

the victims.

Title: The Memory of Nettle Trees

‗The village destroyed through Jeju April 3 incident: its memory and time.‘ The symbolic nettle trees that have kept

the same place in the village represent the remembrance and the recovery from the uprising from the scenery of the

village remains. ‗Jariwat‘ is featured over other places. Lyrically expressing lamentation through the reminiscence

of the lost village as if the nettle trees stand there as a reminder of the time that has passed through. The survived

nettle trees at the entrance of the village and the symbolic images (Jariwat, Darangshi area, Gunuldong, etc)

symbolize the time of the lost village by zooming into the details of trees that have kept silent for such a long time

but still remembers the history. The last image of the nettle trees leads the time of survivors and the recovery to the

sad but beautiful epilogue. It is the present scene of the lost village and, at the same time, means the linking thread

for the reminders.

197

Seven exhibition halls of the April 3rd

Peace Memorial Halls

Jeju April 3 Peace Park

The First Hall: Prologue

The natural caves scattered around the hills on this volcanic island were used as refuge by the residents during the

entire period of the Jeju April 3. A long tunnel connected to the hall, which is used to create the image of a cave, is

the gateway to the journey to discover the history of the Jeju April 3. At the same time, it is the beginning of the

process to find the historical truth that has long been buried in the underworld. After passing the tunnel, a

tombstone is laid down under the dome, without an inscription, for the Jeju April 3 has yet to be clarified. When a

genuine resolution of the Jeju April 3 is made, the tomb will stand upright and be inscribed.

The Second Hall: The Independent and Disappointment

The hall is displayed in the order of ‗War Independence Autonomy – US military administration –Suppression‘.

After the independence of Korea from the Japanese, the Jeju people had been self-governing until the murder of 6

victims occurred on the commemorational ceremony of the 3.1 Independence Movement. The victims were killed

198

from gunshots fired by the police force. That act fuelled the conflict and confrontation military administration,

leading to the armed uprising by the islanders on April 3, 1948.

The Third Hall: Armed Uprising and Rejection to Division

The hall displays how the armed uprising began and its background at the dawn of April 3, 1948. The events are

rehearsed, focusing on the opposition to the 5.10(May 10th

) election with a single candidate from a single party,

which helps us understanding the historical circumstances of the time. Such opposition later became the direct

cause to adopt and exercise the scorched-earth operation by the government. In this space, exhibited are the central

parts that symbolize oreums and a wall painting of Yo-bae Kang, as it depicts the situation of the oreums at that

time.

The Fourth Hall: Destruction and Massacre

This hall describes the stories throughout the scorched-earth operation and the mass killings of innocent people and

the carnage of prisoners during Korean war. 80% of the 43 victims were scarified during the period. The walls of

the cylindrical white room are embossed with various sculptures wrapped with white dressings.

The Fifth Hall: Aftermaths and Truth-finding Efforts

The 5th

hall is separated by the themes of recovery, settlement, aftermaths, and truth-finding efforts, to show the

wounds and pains of the 43 uprising and the following process of recovery. The islanders relentlessly struggled

and requested for the truth to be told. Finally, in January 2000, the efforts harvested the enactment of the 43

Special Act. In this space, exhibited are various historic materials used to find the truth of the Jeju April 3.

The Sixth Hall: Epilogue

Jeju residents try to treat the historical wounds with the spirit of reconciliation and coexistence. This area makes

people rethink the values of human rights and peace through the painful memory of the Jeju April 3. At the passage

to the exit, the written impressions of visitors are displayed. Anyone who wishes to lead their impression is invited

to write for a display. This hall is a room of reincarnation coming out to the bright world after going through the

dark tunnel.

Darngshe Oreum (a parasitic volcanic cone)

It reconstructed the site of a cave discovered with 11 innocent villagers who were suffocated to death by a punitive

force. In this hall, people can feel the tensed living conditions in a refuge and the circumstances of the carnage at

that time. The display adopted a method of exposing the cave, as its centre is cut in a half, the inside recreates the

time discovery.

The Nettle Tree in Haewon

At the entrance to every village in Jeju, a big tree welcomes people passing the village. Each village has a pavilion

for the townspeople that is a center for community religion, surrounded by nettle trees. This hall is the pace to show

the sacred tree of Haewon, as well as, collective meetings of the villages.

199

The map of the April 3rd

Peace Park

Data collection site

200

Outside settings in the April 3rd

Peace Park

Major Sites of the Jeju April 3 Peace Park

Biseol: Piled Snow being Scattered by Strong Wind (Statue of a Mother and Her Daughter)

The work is motivated by Byun Byoung Saeng (Bogngyae-ri resident) and her daughter founded dead at this place

during April 3, with the message that this area within the Jeju April 3 Peace Park, was a tragic caused by the

military force. According to testimony, in the those days of the scorched-earth operation, Byun Byoung Saeng and

her young daughter were refugees with other villagers at the foot of Guchin oreum, in the southern part of the

current Peace Park. They were shot dead by the military force while passing through here on their way to the

village. Later other villagers found the mother and daughter dead on the piled snow field.

Memorial Tower

The Memorial Tower stands at the center of the volcanic crater shaped background representing Jeju‘s characterstic

dynamism and dignity. A modernized Bangsatop, the guardian pillar, is set encompassing the tower. The water in

201

the pond, in the middle of the crater, symbolizes of the purifying waste to cleanse Jeju‘s savage historical event.

Two sculptures of people in the center of the pond, express the willingness of human harmony to develop into

reconciliation and mutual benefit, thus overcoming the confrontation between perpetrators and victims.

Guichon: Retruning to Heaven

The image of innocent victims, during the April 3 incident, is expressed by 5 sets of clothing, worn by the dead.

These are set on the main road from the Memorial Tower to the Altar. The work represents innocent victims, an

adult man and woman, a young boy and girl, and a baby, telling us of the indiscriminate killing, even of little babies.

From the realistic and descriptive expressions, the artist tried to deliver the symbolic formative beauty and the

image of death through the display of Jeju traditional clothes of the dead.

Monument with the Victim’s Names

15,000 to 20,000 of victim‘s names and other brief information are inscribed on the monument such as gender, age,

and the date and place of death. This is not only the monument for cherishing the memory of the deceased but also

as a record of their death caused by the ravages of April 3.

Memorial Tablet shrine

14,000 tablets of 43 victims are enshrined here. This is a holy place for visitors to be able to console the spirits of

victims. Tablets are classified by region and village so that the visitors and bereaved families can conveniently

locate their family members. The memorial service takes place every April 3, and the place is crowed with

worshipers.

Memorial Plaza

Memorial Plaza consist of a large fan-shaped altar and Memorial square. Memorial Plaza was made to console and

commemorate the 43 victims. Every year, the April 3 memorial service takes place in this square, which can hold

several thousands of people. At the center of the fan-shaped altar is an entrance linked to Memorial Tablet Shrine.

After the memorial service, worshipers can easily visit there. On the stone mound shaped altar, there is an eternal

flame representing the souls of the victims. An arched tower symbolizes the immortality of the soul and the cycle of

life passed from generation to generation.

202

Topic: Understanding visitors‘ experiences and benefits derived from dark

tourism site visits

Purpose: The purpose of interview is to identify the motivations for visiting the site,

visitors‘ experiences and benefits gained from Jeju Aril 3rd

Memorial Hall

visits.

Participants: 40 site visitors who completed most of their visit to the site

Interviewer: Eun Jung Kang

Time length: 15~20 minutes

Tool: Tape recorder

Interviews: I am a research student at University of Queensland in Australia, and I am interested in

exploring visitor experiences at the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall. Would you mind helping

me by answering some questions?

If the respondent allows the interview, ask the next question.

Have you completed most of your visit to the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall?

YES

If the respondent replies NO, thank them and close the interview with polite manners. Also briefly explain the reason

for the closing interview.

If the respondent replies YES, ask them if they would be prepared to spend 15 minutes talking in some depth about

their visit to Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall. Explain that the questions have been designed to make the

respondent reflect upon their visit.

Appendix 2: Interview questions English version

Visiting dark tourism sites:

Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall

An in depth survey: September – October 2008

203

QUESTION 1:

Is it your first time to visit the site? YES / NO

(If the respondent replies NO, ask how many ?)

QUESTION 2:

Could you please explain how you learn about Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall?

TV or radio

Internet

Tourist information centre

Word of mouth (friends, relatives, teachers, others_________ )

Other: ________________________________

QUESTION 3:

Could you please explain to me why you decided to come here today? (….Why is that important to you?)

QUESTION 4:

i) Could you please tell me in a few words, what have you experienced at the Jeju April 3rd Peace

Memorial Hall? (Ask respondent the experiences they had at the site are what they expected before coming to the site. If not, ask them

what they expected.)

ii) Which aspect/ part of Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall did you find the most memorable? (….Why? in which ways it is memorable? How did it make you feel?)

iii) I would like you to think of the most powerful and emotional exhibit/ aspect of the site which

you visited today. Thinking of this exhibits /aspect, can you please tell me in a few words how you felt/ what

thoughts came to mind at that particular exhibits/ aspect of the site.

QUESTION 5:

i) Could you please tell me, how long have you spent looking around the site?

a) Under 30 minutes b) 30min. ~ 1h. c) 1h. ~ 1h and half

d) 1h. and half ~ 2h. e) 2h. ~ 2h and half f) 2h. and half ~ 3h.

g) Over 3h.

Showing a leaflet of Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall to a respondent, and then ask next question.

204

ii) Could you please tell me, in which exhibition hall you spent the longest time?

Exhibition Hall

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6

th Special

(why?... which aspects did the exhibition hall make you stay longer?)

QUESTION 6:

i) Have the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall provided you valuable experiences?

YES / NO

(If the respondent replies YES, ask what aspects/ parts of experiences they had are valuable. Why is it important for

them?)

ii) From your experiences at the Jeju April 3rd

Peace Memorial Hall, what have you gained from

coming here today? (…..why is it important to you that you gain…?)

QUESTION 7:

i) Before coming here, did you know the Jeju April 3rd

incident? YES / NO If the respondent replied YES, ask them from where and check whether they are connected to the site.

Books (e.g. Novels, text book, Journal etc)

Schools (including university)

Media (e.g. News, film, radio, etc)

Experienced the April 3rd

incident

Family members or relatives

Friends

Other _______________________________

ii) Could you please tell me, which level you feel you are involved with the April 3rd

incident?

QUESTION 8:

i) Have you visited any other sites or attractions like this in the past two years? YES/

NO …If YES, which site or attractions and how does it / compared to Jeju April 3

rd Peace Memorial Hall?

ii) Would you recommend this site to a friend or relative visiting the area?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Weakest

Strongest

205

YES – strongly, YES – possibly, NO

QUESTION 9:

Is there anything else which you would like to tell me about this site or your overall visit today?

QUESTION 10:

a) Respondent: MALE / FEMALE

b) Age group: 18-20 / 21-30 / 31-40 / 41-50/ 51-60 / 61-70/ Over 70

c) Ask respondent what is their present or last occupation:_________________________

d) Ask respondent what is the highest level of schooling that they have completed. (e.g. primary school, Junior high school, high school, college, university, postgraduate, etc)

____________________________________________________

e) Ask respondent where they come from.

Local resident (Jeju Island) _____________________

Outside (specify, the place they are from) _____________________

International ______________________

f) If the respondent replies they from outside of the island, asked them they had lived in Jeju Island

at any time previously.

_________________________________________

Thank respondent for their help and close interview.

206

제목: 제주 4·3평화기념관 방문객의 경험이해 목적: 읶터뷰를 통해 제주4·3평화기념관 방문객의 방문동기, 경험을

통핚 혜택조사연구

참가자: 기념관의 모든 것을 둘러본 방문객 40명

인터뷰: 강은정

시갂: 15~20분

기구: 보이스 리코더

읶터뷰: 저는 호주에 있는 퀸슬랜드 대학교에서 박사과정 학생입니다. 제 연구는 제주

4.3 평화기념관 방문객의 경험과 행동과 관렦하여 조사 중에 있습니다. 시갂이 있으시

다면, 협조 부탁드립니다.

오늘 제주 4.3 평화기념관에 있는 모든 젂시관을 둘러보셨습니까?

YES

문1) 제주 4.3 평화기념관에 처음으로 방문하셨습니까? 예/아니오

(만약 응답자가 “아니오”라고 대답하면, 몇번이나 방문했는지 묻는다.)

문2) 어디에서 제주 4.3 평화기념관에 대해 알게 되었습니까?

TV이나 라디오

읶터넷

관광객 방문정보

소문 (친구들, 친척들, 선생님, 기타 )

기타

Appendix 3: Interview questions Korean version

제주 4·3평화기념관 방문

인터뷰: 2008년 9-10월

207

문3) 이곳에 오신 동기가 무엇인지 말씀해 주시겠습니까?

(…그것이 왜 응답자님께 중요핚가요?)

문4-1) 제주 4.3 평화기념관에서 무엇을 경험하셨는지 말씀해 주시겠습니까?

(만약 방문자들이 경험이 방문젂에 기대했던 것읶지 확읶, 만약 그렇지 않다면, 무엇을 기대했는지 문의)

문4-2) 제주 4.3 평화기념관의 어떤부분 (어떤면)이 가장 기억에 남는가요?

(…..왜? 어떤면에서 그런지? 그것이 당싞 기분은 어떻게 만드나요? )

문4-3) 오늘 방문했던 전시관중에서 가장 강력하고 당신의 감정을 자극한 전시물은 무

엇입니까? (젂시물과 제주 4.3 평화기념관의 모든 특징들을 생각하시고 당싞의 생각과 느낌

을 말씀해 주십시요. )

문5-1) 제주 4.3 평화기념관에 얼마나 오랫동안 계셨습니까?

a) 30분미만 b) 30분 ~ 1시갂 c) 1시갂 ~ 1시갂 30분

d) 1시갂 30분 ~ 2시갂 e) 2시갂 이상

제주 4.3 평화기념관 안내서를 보여 죾 후,

문5-2) 어느 전시관에서 오랜 시갂을 보냈습니까?

1관 2관 3관 4관 5관 6관 특별젂시관

(왜?....젂시물의 무엇이 당싞을 그렇게 길게 머물게 만들었나요? )

208

문6-1) 제주 4.3 평화기념관이 당신에게 가치 있는 경험을 제공했나요? 예/아니오

(왜?....젂시물의 무엇이 당싞을 그렇게 길게 머물게 만들었나요? )

문6-2) 방문과 관련하여 가장 뜻깊은 부분은 무엇입니까?

문6-3) 이번 방문이 당신에게 어떤 영향을 주었다고 당신은 생각합니까?

(이번 방문으로 당싞이 변핚 것이 있나요? 있다면, 무엇이 어떻게?)

문6-4) 제주 4.3 평화기념관 경험에서, 무엇이 기억에 남을 것 같습니까?

(…그것이 왜 응답자님께 중요핚가요?)

문7-1) 이곳을 방문하기 전에, 당신은 제주 4.3 사건에 대해서 알고 계셨습니까?

예 / 아니오

(만약 응답자가 „예‟ 라고 대답하면, 어떻게 알게되었는지 문의하고, 그리고 그들 4.3사건과 연관성 여부

도 확읶)

책 (예, 소설, 교과서, 논문 및 저널, 역사책..)

학교 (대학교 포함)

방송매체 (예, 뉴스, 영화, 라디오, 기타)

4.3사건 경험자

가족들 또는 친척들

친구

기타_______________________________

209

문7-2) 당신은 제주 4.3 사건과 얼마나 연관되어 있습니까?

문8-1) 전시관을 둘러보는 동안 기분이 어떠하였습니까?

(…무엇이 당싞을 그렇게 만들었나요?)

문8-2) 오늘 여기로 온 것이 유쾌한 것이었나요?

(왜?/ 왜 그렇지 않은지?)

문8-3) 전반적으로 이 장소를 둘러보면서 당신의 느낀 감정이나 그 외의 경험에 대해

서 말씀해 주시겠습니까?

문9-1) 과거 2년 이내에 제주 4.3평화기념관과 비슷한 장소를 방문한 경험이 있으신가

요?

예/ 아니오

(만약 있다면, 어디읶지? 제주4.3 평화기념관과 비교하여 어떤지?)

문9-2) 이 장소를 친구나 친척들에게 추첚 하겠습니까?

예- 강력추첚, 예-가능하다면 추첚, 아니오

(왜?/ 왜 그렇지 않은지?)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

전혀 없음 많이 연관됨

210

문10) 통계관련 사항

a) 응답자: 남자 / 여자

b) 나이: 18-20 / 21-30 / 31-40 / 41-50/ 51-60 / 61-70/ 70세 이상

c) 응답자의 직업문의: _________________________

d) 응답자의 교육수준

(예, 초등학교, 중학교, 고등학교, 대학교, 대학원, 기타)

____________________________________________________

e) 응답자의 출신

제주도(Jeju Island) _____________________

제주도 이외지역 _____________________

국외 ______________________

f) 만약 응답자가 제주도 이외의 지역에서 왔다면, 과거 제주도에 거주여부 확인

_________________________________________

인터뷰에 협조해 주셔서 감사합니다.

211

The following results present the reliability of scales from the four pilot surveys.

Pilot survey 1

Sample size: 60

Table 1: The results of the internal consistency from pilot survey 1

Category No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Reliability

Reason for visit 12 items 0.5 Not reliable

Cognitive experiences (Thought about

deeply) 14 items 0.791 Reliable

Emotional experiences (Strongly felt) 12 items 0.723 Adequate

Benefits gained 15 items 0.840 Reliable

Involvement (the modification of PII) 13 adjective items 0.905 Very reliable

This survey found that the scale of experience (thought about deeply and strongly felt), benefits

gained, and involvement were reliable; however, reason for visit was not found reliable to use. In

terms of the measure of involvement, respondents had difficulty understanding the question.

Pilot survey 2

Sample size: 25

Table 2: The results of the internal consistency from pilot survey 2

Category No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Reliability

Reason for visit 12 items 0.784 Adequate

Cognitive experiences (Thought about

deeply) 13 items 0.888 Reliable

Emotional experiences (Strongly felt) 12 items 0.877 Reliable

Benefits gained 15 items 0.780 Reliable

Involvement 3 items 0.915 Very reliable

This survey revealed that four scales – reasons for visit, experience (thought about deeply and

strongly felt), benefits gained, and involvement – were reliable to use. However, respondents had

difficulty providing answers to the involvement question. Hence it was necessary to test another

measure for involvement in the third pilot survey.

Appendix 4: Reliability of the result of pilot survey

212

Pilot survey 3

Sample size: 26

Table 3: The results of the internal consistency from pilot survey 3

Category No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Reliability

Reason for visit 12 items 0.363 Not reliable

Cognitive experiences (Thought about

deeply) 13 items 0.759 Reliable

Emotional experiences (Strongly felt) 13 items 0.788 Reliable

Benefits gained 18 items 0.913 Reliable

Involvement 3 items 0.809 Very reliable

Involvement (the modification of PII) 12 items 0.907 Very reliable

In this survey, measures of experiences, benefits gained, and involvement were all found to be

reliable to use, while the scale of reasons for visit was not reliable.

Comparison of the results from the application of involvement measure

M 1: The measurement used by Green & Chalip (1997) – 3 items, and 10 point likert scale. M 2: Zaichkowsky‘s Personal Involvement Inventory (PII) – 12 items, 7 point bipolar likert

scale.

Table 4: The results of the involvement from pilot survey 3

Involvement M1 Frequency (n=26) M2 Frequency (n=26)

Missing 0 6

Low 7 1

Moderate 8 8

High 11 11

Table 4 demonstrates that the response rate from the measure of PII (M2) was low compared with

that of the other involvement scale (M1). Hence M1 was selected for use in the questionnaire.

213

Pilot survey 4

Sample size: 25

Table 5: The results of the internal consistency from pilot survey 4

Category No. of item Cronbach’s alpha Reliability

Reason for visit 12 items 0.679 Adequate

Cognitive experiences (Thought about

deeply) 13 items 0.679 Adequate

Emotional experiences (Strongly felt) 12 items 0.779 Reliable

Benefits gained 17 items 0.913 Reliable

Involvement 3 items 0.932 Very reliable

Table 5 demonstrates that the scales of reasons for visit, experiences, benefits gained, and

involvement were all reliable.

214

Dear visitor,

I am a research student interested in why people visit the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall. The purpose of this

research is to understand visitors’ experiences and the benefits they derive from visiting Jeju the April 3rd Peace

Memorial Hall. The surveys collected will remain anonymous with no data on individual responses published.

Participation in this survey is completely voluntary.

Have you completed most of your visit to the site? YES / NO

1. Is this your first visit to the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall?

① YES (Go to 3a) ② NO (Go to 2)

2. How many times have you visited the Jeju April 3rd Memorial Hall in the last year?

3a. Which reasons describe why you came here today? (Please rate each reason listed below on a scale from 5 indicating ‘Very important’ to 1 indicating ‘Not important’. Circle one number for each item)

Very Not Important Important

① To learn something about the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

② Interested in Korean contemporary history 5 4 3 2 1

③ Interested in ideological conflict in general 5 4 3 2 1

④ To participate in an educational program provided by community group, school or organization

5 4 3 2 1

⑤ Brought by friends and relatives 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ Brought friends and relatives 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ Felt obligation to understand the Jeju April 3rd incident as a Jeju resident / Korean

5 4 3 2 1

⑧ Personal or family involvement in the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ To commemorate victims of the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ Wanted to teach my children the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ To fulfill curiosity about the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Park 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ To have meaningful day out with family or friends 5 4 3 2 1

3b. Out of the above reasons, please write the number of the most important reason.

Appendix 5: Questionnaire English version

Visiting dark tourism sites:

Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall

Questionnaire survey: June - July 2009

215

4. Which of the following activities did you do in the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Park today? Please circle YES for the activities you have done, and NO for the activities that you have not done at the park.

① Watched the film before going to exhibition halls Yes No

② Participated in a guided tour Yes No

③ Looked at photos and read the explanation of each item in the exhibition halls Yes No

④ Watched films in the exhibition hall Yes No

⑤ Watched films of survivors’ testimony in the 4th exhibition hall Yes No

⑥ Visited the Darangshi cave Yes No

⑦ Visited the Memorial Tablet Shrine Yes No

⑧ Looked around the outdoor park Yes No

⑨ Wrote a memo on the wish wall mural Yes No

5a. Which of the following did you find the most memorable and emotional?

① Unnamed Monument ② The film of the outbreak of Jeju incident ③ The scenes of massacre

④ Survivor’s testimony ⑤ The scenes of vanished villages ⑥ Involvement system

⑦ Darangshi Cave ⑧ The scene of prison ⑨ Visitors memo

⑩ Others, please specify ( )

5b. Why did you find this memorable? What impact did it have on you?

6a. How long have you spent looking around the site?

① Under 30 minutes ② 30min.~1h. ③ 1h ~ 1h and half

④ 1h and half ~2 h. ⑤ 2h. ~2h and half ⑥ Over 2h.and half

6b. In which exhibition hall did you stay the longest time?

① 1st – Unnamed Monument ② 2nd – The independence and Disappointments

③ 3rd – Armed Uprising and Rejection to Division ④ 4th – Destruction and Massacre

⑤ 5th – Aftermaths and Truth-finding efforts ⑥ 6th – The wish wall mural (Visitor memos)

⑦ Special Hall – Darangshi cave

6c. What aspects of the exhibition hall made you stay longer?

216

7a. From what you have seen at the site today, please tell me if you thought about any of the following: (Please rate each thought listed below on a scale from 5 indicating ‘Thought deeply about’ to 1 indicating ‘Never thought about ’. Circle one number for each item) Thought Never

Deeply Thought

① Innocent victims of the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

② Those who suffer mental and physical injuries caused by the Jeju incident 5 4 3 2 1

③ Jeju islanders’ hard life during the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

④ Comparisons between life then and now 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ Korean contemporary history interrupted by foreign countries 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ The issue of the ideological conflict 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ The issue of human rights 5 4 3 2 1

⑧ The importance of education 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ The guilt-by-association system 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ My memories of the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ Comparison between the exhibition contents and what I have known the Jeju April 3rd incident

5 4 3 2 1

⑫ The impact of the Jeju incident on me personally 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ The hard lives of my ancestors 5 4 3 2 1

7b. Out of those above examples, please write the number which you thought about most deeply.

8a. While wandering around the site, Did you feel any of the following? (Please rate each feeling listed below on a scale from 5 indicating ‘Strongly felt’ to 1 indicating ‘Never felt ’. Circle one number for each item.)

Did you feel: Strongly Never

Felt Felt

① A sense of fear from the cruel nature of human which caused the tragic event like Jeju April 3rd incident

5 4 3 2 1

② A sense of fear from the scene of slaughtering displayed in the exhibition halls 5 4 3 2 1

③ Sorrow for the circumstance in which people had to fight each other 5 4 3 2 1

④ Sorrow for Korea’s current status as a divided nation 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ Sorrow over Korea’s being a weak nation 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ Surprised at the miserable life of Jeju residents during the incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ Sympathy for innocent people who were killed, injured or orphaned by the Jeju April 3rd incident

5 4 3 2 1

⑧ Sympathy for people who had to live in caves or mountains to avoid arrest by the rightist or the leftist

5 4 3 2 1

⑨ Empathy with the painful lives of survivors who were injured mentally or physically from the incident

5 4 3 2 1

⑩ Appreciative of today’s quality of life 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ Appreciative of the peaceful state of the nation 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ Depressed from the exhibition contents and theme 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ Depressed from quiet atmosphere caused by the small number of visitors inside the exhibition halls

5 4 3 2 1

8b. Out of things above, please write the number which you felt the strongest?__________________________

217

9a. From your visit today, which of the following do you think you have gained? Please rate each item listed below. ( 5= Very much 4=Rather much 3= Moderately 2= Slightly 1=Not at all) Circle one number for each item.

Do you feel you have:

① Realized how horrible the Jeju April 3rd incident was 5 4 3 2 1

② Learnt that a large number of innocent people were killed during the incident 5 4 3 2 1

③ Had a deep understanding how the incident had erupted 5 4 3 2 1

④ Changed my viewpoint regarding the Jeju April 3rd incident 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ Learnt about Korean contemporary history 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ Understood the issues of ideological conflict and human rights 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ Carried out the obligation to visit the site as a Jeju islander/ Korean 5 4 3 2 1

⑧ Carried out the obligation to commemorate victims as a Jeju islander/ Korean 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ Comfort from sharing the pain and sadness of the Jeju incident with others 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ Relieved from my memory of the Jeju April 3rd incident

⑪ Felt grateful that no victims are in my family 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ Understood the importance of family 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ Had an insight into the miserable life my ancestor used to have 5 4 3 2 1

⑭ Felt grateful that you are living now and not then 5 4 3 2 1

⑮ Realized the importance of peace in Jeju island 5 4 3 2 1

⑯ Had a meaningful day out 5 4 3 2 1

⑰ Had a meaningful time with family, relatives or friends 5 4 3 2 1

9b. Out of things above, please write the number which you felt was the most important thing you have gained from the visit? ____________________________________________________________________________________ 10a. Overall, how much do you think you were satisfied with your visit to the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall?

① Very Satisfied ② Satisfied ③ Neither ④ Dissatisfied ⑤ Very dissatisfied

10b. Was the experience you had today at the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Hall better or worse than you had expected?

① Very much better than I expected

② Better than I expected

③ As good as I expected

④ Not really as good as I expected

⑤ Far worse than I expected

10c. What made you satisfied /dissatisfied?

11. Would you recommend this site to a friend or relative visiting Jeju Island?

① Yes – Strongly ② Yes - Possibly ③ No – not really ④ No – definitely not

12. Have you visited any other sites or attractions like this in the past? ①YES ② NO

If YES, please write down the name of the site. ____________________________________________

218

13. On a scale 1-10, please indicate your opinions about the Jeju April 3rd incident from answering three questions below.

(a) How interested are you in the subject of the Jeju April 3rd incident?

Not interested at all

Extremely interested

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(b) How frequently do you find yourself thinking about the Jeju April 3rd incident?

Never, not at all

Very frequently

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(b) How much is the Jeju April 3rd incident important to you?

Not important at all

Extremely important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14a. Before visiting the Jeju April 3rd Peace Memorial Park, Did you know the Jeju April 3rd incident?

① YES (Go to 14b) ② NO (Go to 15) 14b. If you knew the Jeju April 3rd incident before visiting this place, which of the following statements did you know? Please circle YES for the statement you knew, and NO for the statement that you did not know.

I knew that :

① The Jeju April 3rd incident was erupted before Korean War in 1950. Yes No

② South labor party erupted the Jeju April 3rd uprising. Yes No

③ The number of victims of the Jeju April 3rd incident on the list is over 15,000. Yes No

④ Most people were victimized by government soldiers. Yes No

⑤ A large number of Jeju islanders moved to Japan in order to escape from the Jeju April 3rd incident.

Yes No

⑥ There was the official apology for the Jeju April 3rd incident from the president Yes No

For statistical purpose only:

15a. Respondent: ① Male ② Female

15b. Could you please indicate your age group:

① 18-20 years ② 21-30 years ③ 31-40 years ④ 41-50 years

⑤ 51-60 years ⑥ 61-70 years ⑦ Over 70 years

15c. How would you best describe your occupation? (Select only one)

① Self-employed ② Professional ③ Student ④ Tradesperson

⑤ Officer ⑥ Retail ⑦ Public Service ⑧ Manual/factory worker

⑨ Service ⑩ industry ⑪ Retired ⑫ Others ( )

219

15d. How would you best describe your highest educational qualification? (Select only one)

① None ② Middle school ③ High school ④ College

⑤ Bachelor degree ⑥ Master degree ⑦ PhD or higher

15e. Which area do you live in?

15f. Are you connected to the Jeju April 3rd incident?

① YES (Go to 15g) ② NO (Go to 15h) 15g. Would you please circle one of the groups below which you belong to?

Group Relationship

Survivor

① Son ② Daughter ③ Grandson ④ Granddaughter

⑤ Cousin ⑥ Friends ⑦ Others, please specify

( )

Victims

① Son ② Daughter ③ Grandson ④ Granddaughter

⑤ Cousin ⑥ Friends ⑦ Others, please specify

( )

15h. How did you know the Jeju April 3rd incident?

① Books (e.g Novels, History books) ② The history class at the school

③ Family and relatives ④ Media (e.g. Broadcast, Newspapers)

⑤ Internet ⑥ Friends

⑦ Others, please specify ( )

15i. Which of the following did you frequently use to get the information of the Jeju April 3rd incident?

① Books (e.g Novels, History books) ② The history class at the school

③ Family and relatives ④ Media (e.g. Broadcast, Newspapers)

⑤ Internet ⑥ Travelling

⑧ Friends ⑨ Others, please specify ( )

Thank you for your cooperation

220

안녕하십니까? 저는 대학에서 관광학을 젂공하는 박사과정 학생입니다. 저는 지금

제주4ㆍ3평화기념관을 방문하시는 방문객들의 방문동기와 경험 및 행동을 조사 중에

있습니다. 설문에 참여하싞 분들의 익명을 보장하며, 협조 부탁 드립니다.

오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관에 있는 모든 젂시관을 둘러보셨습니까? 예 / 아니오

1. 오늘 처음으로 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관을 방문하셨습니까?

③ 예 (3번 문항으로) ④ 아니오 (2번 문항으로)

2. 지난 핚해 동안 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관에 몇 번이나 방문하셨습니까?

3a 아래의 내용은 당싞이 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화공원을 방문핚 다양핚 이유들 입니다. 모든 항목의 해당번호에 O 를 표시해 주십시오. (5번은 가장 중요한 이유 이고, 1번은 전혀 중요하지 않은 이유입니다.)

가장 전혀 중요

중요 하지 않음

① 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대해 알기 위해서 5 4 3 2 1

② 핚국 현대사에 관심이 있어서 5 4 3 2 1

③ 이념 대립에 관심이 있어서 5 4 3 2 1

④ 모임과 교육연수 프로그램으로 방문 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ 친구나 친척들을 따라옴 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ 친구나 친척들을 데려옴 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ 제주도민/ 대핚민국 국민으로서 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대해 알아야 핚다는 의무감을 느꼈기 때문에

5 4 3 2 1

⑧ 개읶적 혹은 가족적으로 제주4ㆍ3사건과 관렦 때문에 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ 4ㆍ3사건에 희생된 분들을 추모하기 위해서 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ 자녀들에게 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대해 알려주기 위해 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관과 공원에 대핚 호기심을 충족하기 위해 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ 가족 또는 친구들과 뜻 깊은 하루를 보내기 위해 5 4 3 2 1

3b 위의 방문이유 중에서, 여기를 방문핚 가장 중요한 방문 이유 하나를 선택하여 번호로

적어 주십시오. __________________________________________________________

Appendix 6: Questionnaire Korean version

제주 4·3평화기념관 방문경험 설문조사

2009년 6월 - 7월

221

4. 아래의 내용은 젂시관과 공원 안에서 당싞이 핛 수 있는 모든 활동들입니다. 오늘 당싞이

핚 읷에는 ‘예’ 하지 않은 읷에는 ‘아니오’에 ○ 표시하여 주십시오.

① 젂시관 밖, 대강당에서 영상물 시청 예 아니오

② 해설사와 함께 젂시관 관람 예 아니오

③ 젂시된 사짂들과 내용들을 인음 예 아니오

④ 2~4 젂시관 내의 영상물 시청 예 아니오

⑤ 젂시관의 증읶들의 증얶 비디오 시청 예 아니오

⑥ 다랑쉬 굴 방문 예 아니오

⑦ 위폐 봉안소 방문 (젂시관 밖) 예 아니오

⑧ 야외 공원 둘러보기 (젂시관 밖) 예 아니오

⑨ 방문자 소원지 남기기 예 아니오

5a 오늘 젂시관을 둘러보면서 가장 기억에 남으면서 당신의 감정을 자극한 장면을 하나만 선택하여 주십시오.

① 백비 (1관 무기명 비) ② 3ㆍ1젃 발포사건 영상물 ③ 집단학살 장면

④ 증읶들 증얶 ⑤ 잃어버린 마을들의 장면 ⑥ 연좌제

⑦ 다랑쉬 굴 ⑧ 유치장 장면 (고문당해 죽은 학생과 노모)

⑨ 방문자 소원지

⑩ 기타 ( )

5b 위의 장면이 당신에게 미친 영향이 무엇읶지 갂단히 적어 주십시오.

6a 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관에 관람에 어느 정도 시갂이 걸렸습니까?

⑦ 30분 미만 ⑧ 30분 ~ 1시갂 ⑨ 1시갂 ~ 1시갂 30분

⑩ 1시갂 30분 ~ 2시갂 ⑪ 2시갂 ~ 2시갂 30분 ⑫ 2시갂 30분 이상

6b 어느 젂시관에서 가장 오랜 시갂을 머물렀습니까?

① 1관 – 백비 (젂시관 입구의 있는 비석) ② 2관 – 해방과 좌젃

③ 3관 – 무장봉기와 분단거부 ④ 4관 – 초토화와 학살

⑤ 5관 – 후유증과 짂상규명 운동 ⑥ 6관 – 방문객들의 관람소감문

⑦ 특별젂시관 (다랑쉬 굴)

6c 위의 장소에서 가장 오랜 시갂을 보낸 이유를 갂단히 적어 주십시오

222

7a 아래의 내용들은 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관 둘러보는 동안 당싞이 생각했던 것들입니다. 모든 내용에는 1~5번의 번호가 있으며, 5번은 가장 깊게 생각하다 이고, 1번은 전혀 깊게 생각하지 않다 입니다. 모든 내용의 해당번호에 ○표시해 주십시오.

가장 깊게

생각함

전혀 생각

하지 않음

① 4ㆍ3사건의 무고핚 희생자들 5 4 3 2 1

② 4ㆍ3사건으로 읶핚 정싞적 육체적으로 고통을 받는 사람들 5 4 3 2 1

③ 4ㆍ3사건 기갂 동안의 제주 사람들의 어려운 생활 5 4 3 2 1

④ 현재의 생활과 4ㆍ3사건 당시의 생활 비교 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ 외세의 갂섭을 받은 핚국의 현대사 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ 이념대립문제 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ 읶권문제 5 4 3 2 1

⑧ 교육의 중요성 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ 연좌제 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대핚 나의 기억을 더듬어 봄 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ 4ㆍ3사건의 젂시된 내용과 내가 알고 있는 내용 비교 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ 제주4ㆍ3사건이 내게 미친 영향 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ 내 조상들의 힘든 삶 5 4 3 2 1

7b 위의 내용들 중에서, 당싞이 오늘 가장 깊게 생각했던 내용 하나를 번호로 적어주십시오.

8a 아래의 내용은 당싞이 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관 방문을 하는 동안 느낀 점들 입니다.

모든 내용에는 1~5번의 번호가 있으며, 5번은 가장 강하게 느꼈다 이고, 1번은 전혀 강하게 느끼지 못했다 입니다. 모든 내용의 해당번호에 ○표시해 주십시오.

가장

강하게

느꼈다

전혀

느끼지

못했다

① 제주4ㆍ3사건과 같은 비극적읶 사건을 읷으킨 읶갂의 잔읶성에 대핚 두려움

5 4 3 2 1

② 다랑쉬 굴과 집단학살 장면에서의 두려움 5 4 3 2 1

③ 같은 국민끼리 서로 싸울 수 밖에 없었던 상황에 대핚 슬픔 5 4 3 2 1

④ 현재 분단된 나라에 대핚 아픔 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ 약소 국가의 비애 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ 4ㆍ3사건 당시 제주도민들의 비참핚 생활에 대핚 놀라움 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ 무고핚 희생자들의 아픔과 고통에 대핚 연민 5 4 3 2 1

⑧ 산과 동굴로 피난해서 생활했던 사람들에 대핚 연민 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ 현재 생졲자들의 정싞적 육체적 아픔에 대핚 공감 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ 현재의 생활의 질에 대핚 감사 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ 국가의 평화에 대핚 감사 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ 젂시된 내용과 주제로 읶핚 우울함 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ 젂시관 안에서의 적은 관람자 수로 읶해 우울함 5 4 3 2 1

8b 위의 느낀 내용 중에서, 당싞이 오늘 방문하는 동안 가장 강하게 느낀 내용 하나를 번호로

적어주십시오 ________________________________________________

223

9a 아래는 당싞이 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화공원 방문을 통해 „얻었다’라고 느끼는 것입니다. 모든

내용에 순위를 정하여 해당번호에 ○ 표시해 주십시오. (5 = 가장 많이 얻었다, 4=꽤

많이 얻었다, 3 =적당히 얻었다. 2=조금 얻었다. 1=전혀 얻지 못했다)

① 4ㆍ3사건에 얼마나 처참핚 사건읶지 알게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

② 4ㆍ3사건 때 많은 무고핚 희생자가 있음을 알게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

③ 4ㆍ3사건에 발생과정을 자세히 알게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

④ 4ㆍ3사건에 대핚 나의 견해가 변화 5 4 3 2 1

⑤ 핚국 현대사를 깊게 알게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

⑥ 이념사상과 읶권문제 대핚 이해 5 4 3 2 1

⑦ 제주도민/ 대핚민국 국민으로서 제주 4ㆍ3사건을 알아야 하는 의무를

이행함 5 4 3 2 1

⑧ 제주도민/ 대핚민국 국민으로서 제주 4ㆍ3사건 당시 희생자들을 추모해야

핚다는 의무를 이행함 5 4 3 2 1

⑨ 4ㆍ3사건에 아픔과 슬픔을 나눔으로 읶핚 위안 5 4 3 2 1

⑩ 4ㆍ3사건에 대핚 내 기억을 풀어 놓음으로 읶핚 편안함 5 4 3 2 1

⑪ 내 가족 중에 4ㆍ3사건 희생자가 없어서 다행이라 생각함 5 4 3 2 1

⑫ 우리 가족의 중요성을 재읶식하게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

⑬ 우리 조상들이 불행핚 삶을 살았음을 알게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

⑭ 우리세대가 행복핚 세대라는 것을 읶식하게 됨 5 4 3 2 1

⑮ 평화에 중요성에 대핚 깨달음 5 4 3 2 1

⑯ 뜻 깊은 경험으로 좋은 하루를 보냄 5 4 3 2 1

⑰ 가족, 친지 또는 친구와 함께 좋은 시갂을 보내게 되었음 5 4 3 2 1

9b 위의 내용 중에서, 오늘 가장 중요하게 얻었다라고 느끼는 내용 하나를 선택해 번호를

적어 주십시오._______________________________________________________

10a 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관 경험에 만족 하십니까?

① 아주 만족 ② 만족 ③ 그저 그렇다 ④ 불만족 ⑤ 아주 불만족

10b 오늘 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관에서의 경험이 기대보다 좋았습니까??

① 매우 기대 이상 ② 기대이상 ③ 기대만큼

④ 기대 이하 ⑤ 매우 기대 이하

10c 당싞이 오늘 만족 또는 불만족한 이유를 갂단히 적어 주십시오.

224

11. 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관을 친구와 친지 또는 다른 사람에게 추첚하고 싶습니까?

① 예- 강력하게 ② 예 - 가능하면 ③ 아니오-추첚하지

않음

④ 아니오 – 반드시

추첚하지 않음

12. 과거 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관과 같은 비슷핚 장소를 방문핚 적이 있습니까?

①예/ ② 아니오

만약 있다면, 어디읶가요?_________________________________________________________

13. 다음은 당싞과 제주4ㆍ3사건과의 연관성을 알아보기 위핚 질문들 입니다. 1~10

까지 번호 중 해당번호에 ○ 표시해 주십시오.

(a) 평소에 당싞은 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대해 얼마나 관심이 있습니까?

전혀 관심 없음 가장 관심 많음 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(b) 평소에 당싞은 얼마나 자주 제주 4ㆍ3사건에 대해 생각하십니까?

전혀 생각하지 않음 가장 많이 생각함 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(c) 평소에 제주 4ㆍ3사건은 당싞에게 얼마나 중요한 것입니까? 전혀 중요하지 않음 가장 중요함

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 14a 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관을 방문하기 전에, 4ㆍ3사건을 알고 있었습니까?

① 예 (14b번 문항으로) ② 아니오 (15번 문항으로)

14b 제주4ㆍ3평화기념관을 방문하기 전에, 당싞이 4ㆍ3사건을 알고 있었다면, 얼마나 알고

있었는지를 알아보고자 합니다. 아래의 내용에 당싞이 알고 있었던 내용은 ‘예’, 몰랐던 내용은 ‘아니오’에 ○ 표시하여 주십시오.

① 제주4ㆍ3사건이 핚국젂쟁 젂에 읷어났음을 알고 있었다. 예 아니오

② 남노당 제주도당이 4ㆍ3봉기를 읷으킨 것을 알고 있었다. 예 아니오

③ 제주4ㆍ3사건의 희생자가 1만 5첚명 이상읶 것을 알고 있었다 예 아니오

④ 많은 희생자가 굮경 토벌대에 의핚 것을 알고 있었다. 예 아니오

⑤ 제주4ㆍ3사건을 피해서 제주 주민들이 읷본으로 많이 건너 갂 것을 알고 있었다.

예 아니오

⑥ 제주4ㆍ3사건에 대핚 대통령의 공식적읶 사과에 대해 알고 있었다. 예 아니오

225

통계 분석을 위한 질문

15a 성별은? ① 남자 ② 여자 15b 나이는?

① 18-20세 ② 21-30세 ③ 31-40세 ④ 41-50세

⑤ 51-60세 ⑥ 61-70세 ⑦ 70세 이상

15c 직업은?

① 자영업 ② 젂문직 ③ 학생 ④ 무역업

⑤ 회사원 ⑥ 소매업 ⑦ 공무원 ⑧ 수공업/공장 귺무

⑨ 서비스업 ⑩ 제조업 ⑪ 은퇴 ⑫ 기타 ( )

15d 교육 수죾은?

① 없음 ② 중학교 졳 ③ 고등학교 졳 ④ 젂문대학 졳

⑤ 대학 재 ⑥ 대학 졳 ⑦ 석사 ⑧ 박사

15e 살고 있는 지방은?___________________________________ 15f 당싞은 제주 4ㆍ3사건과 관련이 있습니까?

① 예 - 관렦 있음 (15g항으로) ② 아니오 - 관렦 없음 (15h항으로)

15g 당싞이 제주 4ㆍ3사건과 관련 있음을 선택했다면, 아래의 어느 그룹에 해당되나요.

그룹 관계

제주4ㆍ3사건 경험자 ① 아들 ② 딸 ③ 손자 ④ 손녀

⑤ 조카 ⑥ 친구 ⑦ 기타 ( )

제주 4ㆍ3사건 희생자 ① 아들 ② 딸 ③ 손자 ④ 손녀

⑤ 조카 ⑥ 친구 ⑦ 기타 ( )

15h 당싞이 4ㆍ3사건과 관련이 없다면, 어떻게 제주 4ㆍ3사건에 대해 알게 되었나요?

① 책 (소설책, 자료집 등) ② 학교 역사 교육

③ 가족 및 친지 ④ 얶론 매체 (싞문 또는 방송 등)

⑤ 읶터넷 ⑥ 친구

⑦ 기타 ( )

15i 제주 4ㆍ3사건에 대핚 내용은 어디에서 주로 얻습니까?

① 책 (소설책, 역사책 등) ② 학교 역사 교육

③ 가족 및 친지 ④ 얶론 매체 (싞문 또는 방송 등)

⑤ 읶터넷 ⑥ 여행

⑦ 친구 ⑧ 기타 ( )

협조해 주셔서 대단히 감사합니다.

226

The number of visitors to the April 3rd Peace Park in 2008

Category Mar-May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total

Local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 3,660 1,339 904 1,556 1,464 1,629 4,793 3,220 18,565

Mid-high school students 1,608 194 59 121 111 124 186 148 2,551

Primary & below 724 318 225 503 470 327 298 319 3,184

Total 5,992 1,851 1,188 2,180 2,045 2,080 5,277 3,687 24,300

Group

Adult (above 18) 14,739 1,574 684 481 768 2,059 3,401 1,322 25,028

Mid-high school students 7,267 812 817 361 367 2,712 267 1,513 14,116

Primary & below 3,211 1,528 572 191 644 966 1,564 250 8,926

Total 25,217 3,914 2,073 1,033 1,779 5,737 5,232 3,085 48,070

Non -

local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 1,766 342 519 772 539 754 1,856 2,545 9,093

Mid-high school students 890 7 45 47 258 62 521 16 1,846

Primary & below 177 28 52 113 47 74 218 103 812

Total 2,833 377 616 932 844 890 2,595 2,664 11,751

Group

Adult (above 18) 6,787 1,105 504 955 473 1,069 3,126 4,228 18,247

Mid-high school students 5,572 3,118 306 342 1,406 4,272 985 1,558 17,559

Primary & below 757 97 1 100 253 646 212 110 2,176

Total 13,116 4,320 811 1,397 2,132 5,987 4,323 5,896 37,982

International 351 120 119 284 117 84 109 95 1,279

Total 47,509 10,582 4,807 5,826 6,917 14,778 17,536 15,427 123,382

Appendix7: The number of visitor to the April 3rd

Peace Park

227

The number of visitors to the April 3rd Peace Park in 2009

Category Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total

Local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 646 1,108 1,713 1,318 1,768 662 1,041 1,247 1,801 2,418 2,263 1,335 17,320

Mid-high school students 38 24 118 331 167 84 32 104 26 43 53 57 1,077

Primary and below 85 111 313 819 304 149 227 432 257 407 278 85 3,467

Total 769 1,243 2,144 2,468 2,239 895 1,300 1,783 2,084 2,868 2,594 1,477 21,864

Group

Adult (above 18) 155 90 1,108 14,999 2,724 355 436 161 343 1,436 448 300 22,555

Mid-high school students 25 200 499 3,354 824 701 88 134 50 619 46 1,157 7,697

Primary and below 25 53 216 4,351 1,048 852 127 165 10 133 335 272 7,587

Total 205 343 1,823 22,704 4,596 1,908 651 460 403 2,188 829 1,729 37,839

Non -

local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 537 1,416 1,902 906 1,147 829 1,148 1,766 1,870 2,238 3,057 2,496 19,312

Mid-high school students 26 14 37 12 30 194 86 182 29 17 32 33 692

Primary and below 104 243 176 173 146 65 192 363 150 278 311 187 2,388

Total 667 1,673 2,115 1,091 1,323 1,088 1,426 2,311 2,049 2,533 3,400 2,716 22,392

Group

Adult (above 18) 1,207 1,178 1,944 2,745 1,298 1,312 871 1,513 811 1,050 1,485 1,592 17,006

Mid-high school students 73 15 3,985 9,135 11,705 4,240 612 603 - 917 317 992 32,594

Primary and below 73 108 26 971 58 1,224 105 161 32 - 11 643 3,412

Total 1,353 1,301 5,955 12,851 13,061 6,776 1,588 2,277 843 1,967 1,813 3,227 53,012

International visitors 47 65 109 405 65 47 125 313 121 135 201 58 1,691

Total 3,041 4,625 12,146 39,519 21,284 10,714 5,090 7,144 5,500 9,691 8,837 9,207 136,798

228

The number of visitors to the April 3rd Peace Park in 2010

Category Jan. Feb. Total

Local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 505 651 1156

Mid-high school students 55 40 95

Primary and below 172 108 280

Total 732 799 1531

Group

Adult (above 18) 481 81 562

Mid-high school students 5 20 25

Primary and below 132 63 195

Total 618 164 782

Non-local

Individual

Adult (above 18) 1,605 1,919 3,524

Mid-high school students 143 82 225

Primary and below 257 272 529

Total 2,005 2,273 4,278

Group

Adult (above 18) 1,165 1,025 2,190

Mid-high school students 125 440 565

Primary and below 187 20 207

Total 1,477 1,485 2,962

International visitors 74 27 101

Total 4906 4748 9654

229

Dear Eun Jung Kang (Jenny)

I have examined your application for Ethical Clearance for your exploratory research for your wider study

entitled ‗Understanding visitors‘ experiences and benefits derived from a dark tourism visit‘.

As stated in your application:

You will undertake an exploratory survey with a total of 40 visitors, aged 18 years or older, using a

semi-structured interview distributed to visitors at the Jeju April 3rd

Memorial Hall in Korea.

This exploratory research will involve the following strategies to address ethical research issues:

You will seek written permission from the Management of Jeju April 3rd Memorial Hall in Korea to

undertake this research.

No potential informants under 18 will take part in this survey.

Participation on the survey will be taken as informed consent.

Permission will be sought from respondents to record the interview.

The purpose of the research will be explained to all potential respondents. The voluntary nature of the

task will be emphasised and they will be made aware that they can withdraw from the interview at any

time.

Participants will be guaranteed anonymity and that the data will be treated with confidentiality.

Any token of appreciation given to the respondents will be given after the interview and will not be used

as an incentive to get their participation.

Data will be stored on a password protected computer and a locked filing cabinet in the researcher‘s

office.

Written informed consent will be sought from any management staff interviewed as part of the

exploratory research.

Please note that with this type of research it will be very difficult to keep the identity of the management

staff confidential and therefore, I suggest that you will not be able to guarantee their

anonymity. Therefore, it is suggested that you send the informants any quotes that you want to use and

seek their prior approval. This strategy will overcome this potential ethical issue.

Apart from the above, there are no other ethical considerations that warrant further attention and that I give

you permission to proceed with your exploratory study. If you have any questions relating to this email and

ethical considerations, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Wishing you all the very best with your studies.

Lucy

Dr Lucy A. Sutherland

School of Tourism (Building 39A)

Faculty of Business, Economics and Law

The University of Queensland

St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia

Tel +61(0) 40 217 5221 (mobile), Tel +61 (07) 3346 7833 (St Lucia)

Email:L.Sutherland@uq.edu.au

Appendix 8: Ethical clearance approval letter

230

Hypothesis 1

Table 1: On-site experiences (cognitive experiences) by age

CP* CR** CA***

N Mean SD M SD M SD

18-20 years 25 8.68 3.93 18.52 3.73 13.48 1.42

21-30 years 136 7.79 3.84 18.62 3.62 13.34 1.77

31-40 years 90 8.72 3.53 19.74 4.25 13.57 2.10

41-50 years 89 8.60 4.03 19.99 4.32 13.55 2.10

51-60 years 52 9.87 3.71 19.60 3.88 13.62 1.98

61-70 years 13 8.92 4.86 17.54 5.64 11.54 3.10

Over 70 2 13.00 2.83 20.00 7.07 15.00 0.00

*CP: Personal concern / **CR: Related issues / ***CA: The April 3rd incident

Table 2: On-site experiences (Affective experiences) by age

EA* EE** EK***

N Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

18-20 years 25 25.84 2.39 13.80 3.20 11.44 2.50

21-30 years 136 25.32 3.69 13.30 3.55 11.36 2.34

31-40 years 90 25.47 4.24 12.69 4.21 12.07 2.62

41-50 years 89 26.04 4.31 14.04 3.86 12.83 2.57

51-60 years 52 25.38 4.15 14.12 3.80 12.48 2.39

61-70 years 13 23.46 4.70 14.00 3.22 12.23 2.24

Over 70 2 26.00 5.66 14.50 3.54 12.00 4.24

*EA: Emotion evoked by the April 3rd incident / ** EE: Emotion evoked by environment/

***EK: Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

Appendix 9: Descriptive results for hypothesis 1, 4, 5, 8 and one additional

result in terms of the benefit–based approach

231

Hypothesis 4

Table 3: On-site experiences (cognitive experiences) by education level

CP CR CA

N Mean SD M SD M SD

None 4 7.75 3.78 17.50 1.73 9.75 2.50

Middle school 18 10.06 4.37 17.22 4.78 12.67 2.77

High school 47 8.32 4.34 19.13 5.13 13.45 2.32

College 28 8.96 4.19 19.86 3.89 13.71 2.02

Current university Student 116 8.13 3.98 18.73 3.70 13.43 1.72

Bachelor degree 140 8.72 3.66 19.41 4.15 13.39 2.01

Master degree 37 8.78 3.11 20.97 2.84 14.14 1.29

PhD or higher 17 8.12 4.24 19.88 3.67 13.41 2.15

*CP: Personal concern / **CR: Related issues / ***CA: The April 3rd incident

Table 4: On-site experiences (affective experiences) by education level

EA EE EK

N Mean SD M SD M SD

None 4 20.75 4.86 13.50 1.73 10.50 1.73

Middle school 18 24.78 4.41 15.11 3.63 12.22 1.96

High school 47 25.68 4.39 15.04 3.19 12.64 2.42

College 28 25.86 4.86 14.25 4.27 12.46 2.49

Current university Student 116 25.81 3.17 13.52 3.35 11.53 2.39

Bachelor degree 140 25.17 4.16 13.21 3.86 12.07 2.54

Master degree 37 26.16 3.75 12.62 3.74 12.22 3.22

PhD or higher 17 25.35 4.51 10.29 4.83 12.12 2.37

*EA: Emotion evoked by the April 3rd incident / ** EE: Emotion evoked by environment/

***EK: Emotion evoked by the circumstance of Korea

232

Hypothesis 5

Table 5: Benefits gained by age

BL* BF** BM*** BIO***

N Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

18-20 years 25 23.88 3.81 14.08 3.48 12.60 2.33 14.40 2.99

21-30 years 136 24.22 4.29 12.96 4.18 12.40 2.52 13.45 3.52

31-40 years 90 23.07 4.83 12.19 4.21 11.72 2.89 13.09 3.41

41-50 years 89 23.15 5.25 13.42 4.63 11.91 3.04 13.61 3.94

51-60 years 52 23.60 5.67 14.13 3.96 11.96 3.30 14.44 3.98

61-70 years 13 19.69 6.73 13.77 2.28 11.08 2.57 13.15 3.48

Over 70 2 23.00 7.07 10.00 0.00 12.00 4.24 16.00 5.66

*BL: Learning / **BF: Family bonding/ ***BM: Meaningfulness/ **** BIO: Comfort from achieving internal obligation

Hypothesis 8

Table 6: Benefits gained by education level

BL BF BM BIO

N Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

None 4 23.00 1.41 12.75 2.50 9.75 3.78 14.25 2.06

Middle school 18 22.50 7.21 15.11 2.47 12.22 3.00 15.44 3.96

High school 47 23.87 4.92 14.53 3.82 12.49 2.69 13.49 3.88

College 28 24.43 5.08 14.32 4.27 12.14 3.15 13.93 4.05

Current university Student 116 24.26 4.34 13.41 4.05 12.54 2.28 13.89 3.39

Bachelor degree 140 22.88 5.03 12.51 4.45 11.85 2.89 13.34 3.67

Master degree 37 23.78 4.42 11.62 4.19 11.86 2.93 13.49 3.36

PhD or higher 17 20.94 5.63 11.53 3.64 9.82 3.78 11.53 3.52

*BL: Learning / **BF: Family bonding/ ***BM: Meaningfulness/ **** BIO: Comfort from achieving internal obligation

233

Additional result for the relationship among each level of benefit-based

approach

Table 7: Correlation test among reasons for visit, experiences and benefits gained

Level 1

Level 3: Experiences Level 4: Benefits gained

Cognitive Affective

TA TR TP EA EE EK BL BF BM BIO

RV1

Pearson Correlation

.359** .450** .367** .368** .098* .292** .176** .105* .182** .338**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.048 0.000 0.000 0.034 0.000 0.000 N 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407

RV2

Pearson

Correlation 0.084 .153** .195** .208** .212** .164** .140** .195** .282** .262**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.091 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 N 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407

RV3

Pearson Correlation

0.084 -0.034 0.048 0.071 0.027 -0.019 0.065 .098* 0.026 .110*

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.091 0.497 0.329 0.150 0.589 0.700 0.194 0.049 0.598 0.027

N 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407 407

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).