establishment of tomato seedlings raised in the substrate enriched consortia of biocontrol agents...

(Contd. on page iv)

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— 47

PLANT SCIENCE

EFFECT OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN MULBERRY ON SILKWORM REARING AND COCOON PRODUCTION

K. S. Krishna, T. K. Narayanaswamy, T. V. Ramachandra Prasad and M. T. Sanjay

ESTABLISHMENT OF TOMATO SEEDLINGS RAISED IN THE SUBSTRATE ENRICHED CONSORTIA OF BIOCONTROL

AGENTS AND PGPRS — C. C. Maina, M. K. Shivaprakash and T. Sivasankari DeviSTABILITY ANALYSIS FOR NUMBER OF PRODUCTIVE TILLERS AND GRAIN YIELD OF FINGER MILLET

— M. S. Nagaraja, K. N. Krishnamurthy and JayaramegowdaROLE OF ATTRACTANTS ON INSECT POLLINATORS DIVERSITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

POLLINATION IN INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF BOTTLE GOURD, Lagenaria siceraria L.— C. D. Srikanth, G. C. Kuberappa and B. V. Shwetha

ENHANCEMENT OF SEED QUALITY THROUGH CHEMOPRIMING IN CUCUMBER

(Cucumis sativus L.) — K. J. Sowmya, Rame Gowda, K. Bhanuprakash,H. S. Yogeesha, T. B. Puttaraju and B. C. Channakeshava

LACTIC ACID BACTERIAL FERMENTATION OF TOMATO JUICE BLENDED WITH HONEY FOR VALUE

ADDITION — Pushpa Priya, K. B. Munishamanna and C. N. Divya ShreeGROWTH AND INSTABILITY ANALYSIS OF FINGER MILLET CROP IN KARNATAKA

— G. M. Divya, K. N. Krishnamurthy and D. M. Gowda

IMPACT OF NUTRITION COUNSELLING ON THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICES

OF POST-MENOPAUSAL WOMEN WITH ORTHOPAEDIC AILMENTS

— S. Shamshad Begum, J. Musthari Begum and M. V. Muniswamappa

GENETIC VARIABILITY AND INTER-RELATIONSHIP AMONG M3 AND F3M3 MUTANT OF TETRAPLOID

WHEAT (Triticum SP.) FOR YIELD AND QUALITY PARAMETERS

— G. Ramya, K. Madhusudan, P. E. Pradeep, I. K. Kalappanavar and V. Sujay

Vol. 47 (1) January - March 2013 ISSN-0047-8539

CONTENTS

PART I. RESEARCH PAPERS

MYSORE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

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Effect of Weed Management in Mulberry on Silkworm Rearing andCocoon Production

K. S. KRISHNA, T. K. NARAYANASWAMY, T. V. RAMACHANDRA PRASAD AND M. T. SANJAY

Department of Sericulture, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The effect of weed management practices in mulberry and its impact on silkworm growth and cocooncharacters were assessed during 2011-12. The pooled data of two crops revealed that the mature larval weightwas found to be significantly highest in Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha (31.97 g / 10 larvae) followed byIsoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kg a.i. / ha (31.70 g / 10 larvae), The cocoon weight was also found to be maximum inIsoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha (2.10 g), followed by Glyphosate (41 SL 8 ml / litre) (1.93 g). The unweededcontrol recorded lowest shell weight (0.18 g), whereas the highest in Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha (0.33 g)which was on par with Glyphosate 41 SL 8 ml / litre (0.33 g). The shell percentage was found to be maximum inIsoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha (18.67), as compared to all other herbicide treatments. The Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha recorded significantly highest filament length (849.44 m) per cocoon than all other herbicidetreatment. The filament weight was significantly higher in Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg (0.35 g) followed byIsoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kg (0.34 g). The Isoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kg recorded significantly highest raw silkpercentage (18.04) than all other herbicide treatment. Lowest renditta of 5.58 and 6.0 was recorded in Isoproturon70 WP 1.00 kg and 1.25 kg, respectively.

Mysore J. Agric, Sci., 47 (1) : 1-5, 2013

SERICULTURE is an agro-based cottage industry parexcellence. It is one of the most labour intensive sectorsof Indian economy comprising both agriculture andindustry. In its production process, sericulture makesa long chain of interdependent specialized operationswhich provide means of livelihood to a large sectionof population like silkworm seed producer, farmer-cum-rearer, reeler, twister, weaver, hand spinner of silkwaste, traders etc. Weed competition for nutrients ingeneral for nitrogen particular has been reported to bemost serious factor in limiting the crop yield. The weedcompetition in mulberry may cause considerable yieldlosses depending upon weed flora, density and durationof weed infestation and other related factors.Muniyappa (1990) reported 40 per cent loss in leafyield due to weed competition in mulberry and forobtaining satisfactory yield levels crop needed weedfree conditions for initial 30-45 days after planting. Anumber of commercial herbicide formulations wereused at CSRTI Mysore and have given good results incontrolling weeds in mulberry fields(Kashiviswanathan et al., 1978; Sikdar andKrishnaswami, 1980). Mulberry leaf forms the basicfood material for silkworm and bulk of the silkproduced in the world comes from mulberry silkworm.

The age-old practice of weed control in mulberrygardens such as hand weeding and digging is tedious,time consuming and expensive. The quantity andquality of cocoons depend to a greater extent on thequality of mulberry leaves fed to silkworm. To ensurequality growth of plants, control of weeds is important.In order to minimize the weeds present, study wasundertaken to evaluate the effective weed controlmeasures. The effective weed control methods areessential to obtain higher leaf yield in mulberry crop.The urge towards the scientific farming during recentyears emphasizes the need for chemical weed controlin mulberry crop. The information regarding integratedweed management is scanty. Besides, most of theherbicides were tried in higher doses as a pre or postemergence for maximum weed control withoutconsidering their effects on the safety to the crop andquality of leaf on silkworm rearing. For successfulharvest of cocoons not only the quantity but alsoquality of leaves is important.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted at theDepartment of Sericulture, University of Agricultural

Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra, Bangaloreduring 2011-12. Ten years old M5 mulberry varietyunder rainfed condition was utilized during September2011 to April 2012. The observations were recordedon two crops up to the beginning of April, 2012. Thesoil was red sandy loam having 6.1 pH, electricalconductivity of 0.07 dSm–1 and organic matter contentof 0.40 per cent. The available N, P2O5 and K2O were193.19, 35.18 and 148.17 kg/ha, respectively beforethe imposition of treatments.

Ten treatments were arranged in a randomizedcomplete block design (RCBD) replicated three times.The treatments T1-Butachlor 50 EC 1.25 kg a.i. / ha –pre-emergence-3days after pruning (DAP); T2-Butachlor 50 EC 1.50 kg a.i. / ha – pre-emergence-3DAP ; T3-Metribuzin 70 WP 0.5 kg a.i. / ha – pre-emergence-3 DAP ; T4-Metribuzin 70 WP 0.70 kga.i./ha – pre-emergence-3 DAP ; T5-Isoproturon 70WP 1.00 kg ai/ha – pre-emergence-3 DAP ; T6-Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha – pre-emergence-3 DAP ; T7-Glyphosate 41SL (8 ml / litre)+20 g urea+2 drops of lime juice- post- emergence- 15- 20DAP ; T8-Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5 EC 50 g a.i./ ha- post-emergence- 20 DAP ; T9-Repeated hand weeding (20,40 & 60 DAP) (Farmers practice) and T10- UnweededControl. The gross and net plot sizes were 7.2 × 5.4m and 3.6 × 3.6 m with 90 × 90 cm spacing andcommon fertilizer dose of 300:120:120 kg / ha / yrwas adopted for taking up the crop. The observationson mature larval weight, cocoon weight, shell weight,shell percentage, filament length, filament weight, rawsilk percentage and renditta was recorded. Thesilkwormbreedwas PM × CSR2.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mature larval weight was found to besignificantly high with leaf fed from mulberry plotsapplied with Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i./ ha (31.97g / 10 larvae) than all other herbicides and repeatedhand weeding (28.6397 g / 10 larvae). The postemergence herbicide glyphosate significantly

improved the mature larval weight (30.3097 g / 10larvae), while other herbicide treatments showedhigher matured larval weight than repeated handweeding. The unweeded control recorded significantlylower mature larval weight (26.4897 g / 10 larvae)than all weed management practices (Table I). Theseresults are in confirmity with the findings ofMuniyappa and Shivakumar (1999). The cocoonweight was significantly higher in M5 mulberry appliedwith herbicide Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg (2.10 g / 10larvae) than all other herbicide treatment. The presentresults are in confirmity with Muniyappa andShivakumar (1999). The unweeded control recordedsignificantly lowest shell weight (0.18 g) as comparedto all other herbicide sprayed plots and repeated handweeding (0.31g), which were comparable to each other.

The shell percentage was found to be maximumin Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg (18.67) as compared toall other herbicide treatments, repeated hand weeding(15.87) and unweeded control (11.96). Repeated handweeding was inferior to Isoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kgbut comparable to all other herbicide treatments. Theunweeded control recorded the lowest shell percentageas compared to herbicide treatment and repeated handweeding (Table II). The increased silkworm rearingparameters viz., mature larval weight, cocoon weight,shell weight and shell percentage in Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha treated mulberry plots wasattributed to improved mulberry leaf qualityparameters due to efficient control of weeds. Thisresulted in better availability of plant nutrients andmoisture to the crop. Significantly highest filamentlength was recorded in Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kgper cocoon (849.44 m) than all other herbicidetreatment, repeated hand weeding (822.38 m) andunweeded control (704.81 m). The next best treatmentwas Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5 EC 50 g (832.88 m) whichrecorded significantly higher filament length than allother herbicide treatment and repeated hand weeding,but on par with Isoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kg(829.13 m). The unweeded control had recordedlowest filament length than other all herbicidetreatments and repeated hand weeding. The filament

2 K. S. KRISHNA et al.

TABLE I

Mature larval weight, cocoon weight and shell weight of PM × CSR2 as influenced by weedmanagement practices in M5 mulberry

T1 - Butachlor 50EC 1.25 kg-3DAP 30.07 26.50 28.28 1.70 1.69 1.70 0.26 0.25 0.25T2 - Butachlor 50EC 1.50 kg -3DAP 30.50 27.50 29.00 1.78 1.68 1.78 0.26 0.26 0.26T3 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.5 kg-3DAP 31.00 28.33 29.67 1.80 1.70 1.80 0.27 0.27 0.27T4 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.70 kg -3DAP 31.47 29.37 30.42 1.86 1.76 1.86 0.28 0.27 0.28T5 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.00 kg -3DAP 31.70 31.70 31.70 1.87 1.77 1.87 0.29 0.29 0.29T6 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg-3DAP 31.97 31.97 31.97 2.10 2.00 2.10 0.30 0.36 0.33T7 - Glyphosate 41SL8 ml / litre -15DAP 34.27 27.33 30.30 2.20 1.67 1.93 0.45 0.22 0.33T8 - Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5EC 32.93 25.43 29.18 2.07 1.61 1.84 0.40 0.20 0.30

50g-15DAPT9 - Repeated hand weeding 33.00 24.27 28.63 2.13 1.59 1.86 0.43 0.19 0.31

(20,40,60 DAP)T10- Unweeded control 29.13 23.83 26.48 1.65 1.30 1.48 0.20 0.15 0.18F Test * * * * * * * * *SEm± 0.25 0.26 0.18 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.04CD ( P= 0.05) 1.03 1.04 0.49 0.30 0.23 0.13 0.08 0.01 0.10

DAP- Days after pruning

Weed control treatments

Mature larval weight(g/10 larvae)

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

Shell weight(g/single cocoon)

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

TABLE II

Shell percentage, filament length (m) and filament weight (g) of PM × CSR2 as influenced by weedmanagement practices in M5 mulberry

T1 - Butachlor 50EC 1.25 kg-3DAP 14.74 13.74 14.74 782.63 762.63 782.63 0.28 0.27 0.27T2 - Butachlor 50EC 1.50 kg -3DAP 14.66 13.66 14.66 788.63 768.63 788.63 0.28 0.28 0.28T3 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.5 kg-3DAP 14.85 13.85 14.85 803.25 799.25 803.25 0.29 0.28 0.28T4 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.70 kg -3DAP 15.07 14.07 15.07 817.88 807.88 817.88 0.31 0.30 0.30T5 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.00 kg -3DAP 17.00 16.00 17.00 829.13 819.13 829.13 0.34 0.33 0.34T6 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg-3DAP 18.67 17.67 18.67 840.00 858.88 849.44 0.35 0.35 0.35T7 - Glyphosate 41SL8ml/litre -15DAP 20.57 12.92 16.74 866.20 761.25 813.73 0.40 0.24 0.32T8 - Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5EC 19.37 12.38 15.87 938.25 727.50 832.88 0.37 0.19 0.28

50g-15DAPT9 - Repeated hand weeding 20.01 11.74 15.87 945.75 699.00 822.38 0.38 0.17 0.28

(20,40,60 DAP)T10- Unweeded control 12.13 11.79 11.96 735.00 674.63 704.81 0.24 0.17 0.20F Test * * * * * * * * *SEm± 1.11 0.46 0.60 3.35 3.67 2.45 0.01 0.01 0.01CD ( P= 0.05) 4.51 1.86 1.67 13.64 14.92 6.79 0.05 0.05 0.02


Weed control treatmentsShell percentage

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

Cocoon weight(g/single cocoon)

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

Filament length (m)

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

Filament weight (g)

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

EFFECT OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN MULBERRY ON SILKWORM REARING AND COCOON PRODUCTION 3

weight was significantly higher in Isoproturon 70 WP1.00 kg (0.34 g) and 1.25 kg (0.35 g) as compared toall other herbicide treatments and repeated handweeding (0.28 g). Repeated hand weeding had filamentweight similar to Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5EC 50 g (0.28g), Butachlor 50EC 1.25 kg (0.27 g), Butachlor 50 EC1.50 kg (0.28 g) and Metribuzin 70 WP 0.5 kg (0.28g), but inferior to Glyphosate 41 SL (0.32 g),Isoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg, Isoproturon 70 WP 1.00kg and Metribuzin 70 WP 0.70 kg. The unweededcontrol (0.20 g) recorded the lowest filament weightper cocoon than all other weed management practices.

The Isoproturon 70 WP 1.00 kg recordedsignificantly highest raw silk percentage (18.04) thanall other herbicides treatment and repeated handweeding (15.38), but similar to Isoproturon 70 WP

1.25 kg (16.69). The unweeded control (13.58)recorded the lowest raw silk percentage compared toother treatments (Table III). The Isoproturon 70 WP1.00 kg (5.58) and 1.25 kg (6.00) recorded the lowestrenditta followed by Glyphosate 41SL (6.27). TheMetribuzin 70 WP 0.70 kg (6.34) and 0.50 kg (6.45),Butachlor 50 EC 1.50 (6.45) and 1.25 kg (6.38) hadmore renditta than other pre and post emergentherbicide. The unweeded control recorded the highestrenditta (7.41) as compared to all weed managementpractices.

The M5 mulberry plots treated with theIsoproturon 70 WP 1.25 kg a.i. / ha had significantimpact on silkworm cocoon weight, shell weight, shellpercentage, filament length, filament weight, raw silkpercentage and renditta. All these results are in linewith findings of Muniyappa and Shivakumar (1999).

TABLE III

Raw silk percentage and renditta of PM × CSR2 as influenced by weed management practices in M5mulberry

Weed control treatments

T1 - Butachlor 50EC 1.25 kg-3DAP 15.70 14.70 15.70 6.38 6.30 6.38T2 - Butachlor 50EC 1.50 kg -3DAP 15.61 14.61 15.61 6.45 6.40 6.45

T3 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.5 kg-3DAP 15.60 14.60 15.60 6.45 6.35 6.45

T4 - Metribuzin 70WP 0.70 kg -3DAP 15.97 14.32 16.15 6.39 6.29 6.34T5 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.00 kg -3DAP 18.61 17.46 18.04 5.73 5.43 5.58

T6 - Isoproturon 70WP 1.25 kg-3DAP 16.69 15.69 16.69 6.20 6.00 6.00

T7 - Glyphosate 41SL 8 ml / litre -15DAP18.28 14.22 16.25 5.50 7.05 6.27T8 - Quizalofop-p-ethyl 5EC 17.91 11.78 14.84 5.59 8.51 7.05

50g-15DAP

T9 - Repeated hand weeding 17.86 11.90 15.38 5.61 8.18 6.40(20,40,60 DAP)

T10- Unweeded control 14.34 12.82 13.58 7.02 7.81 7.41F Test * * * * * *

SEm± 0.86 0.76 0.56 0.33 0.31 0.22

CD ( P= 0.05) 3.49 3.10 1.55 1.33 1.28 0.61


Raw silk percentage

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

Renditta

2011Kharif

2012Summer Pooled

4 K. S. KRISHNA et al.

With advancement of weed management practices inmulberry by herbicides favoured the silkworm growthand development and finally cocoon parameters andsilk quality parameters. It was also reported that noadverse effect of herbicides on the foliage of mulberryexcept Metribuzine and Atrazine which caused slightlytoxic symptoms at initial stages of crop growth andrecovery was observed at later growth stages.

REFERENCES

KASI VISWANATHAN, K., CHOWDHARY, P. C., VENKATARAMU, C.V. AND VERMA, R. S., 1978, Screening herbicides forweedcontrol in mulberry field. Indian J. Seric.,17: 15-22.

MUNIYAPPA, T.V., 1990, Agronomic investigations on theeffects of cultural and chemical methods of weedcontrol on mulberry growth, leaf yield, leaf quality,silkworms (Bombyx mori L.), cocoon yield and silkquality. Ph.D. Thesis Univ. Agri. Sci. Bangalore,pp. 286.

MUNIYAPPA, T. V. AND SHIVAKUMAR, H. R., 1999, Crop weedcompetition in mulberry, Proc. National seminar onTropical Sericulture. pp.45.

SIKDAR, A. K. AND KRISHNASWAMI, 1980, Control of weedsin irrigated mulberry gardens. Indian J. Agron.,25 (3): 382-386.

EFFECT OF WEED MANAGEMENT IN MULBERRY ON SILKWORM REARING AND COCOON PRODUCTION 5

(Received : September, 2012 Accepted : December, 2012)

Establishment of Tomato Seedlings Raised in the Substrate Enriched Consortia ofBiocontrol Agents and PGPRs

C. C. MAINA, M. K. SHIVAPRAKASH AND T. SIVASANKARI DEVI

Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The current study was taken up to study the establishment of tomato seedlings raised with the substrateenriched with consortia of biocontrol agents and PGPRs under field conditions. The substrate with a combinationof coirpith (65 %), soilrite (25 %) and pongamia cake (10 %) enriched with consortia of biocontrol agents andPGPRs was used to raise tomato seedlings which were transplanted into main field. The seedlings raised withconsortia Trichoderma harzianum, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Azotobacter chroococcum andBacillus megaterium showed cent per cent crop stand without any disease incidence, took less number of daysfor 50 per cent flowering (45.33 days), showed maximum plant growth and recorded highest yield (1.85 kg/plant).


TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) is the leadingvegetable crop worldwide. It contributes to a healthy,well-balanced diet. They are rich in minerals, vitamins,essential amino acids, sugars and dietary fibres andalso contain vitamin B and C, iron and phosphorus.Damping off caused by Pythium sp. and Phytophthorasp. is an important disease of tomato at early stagescausing important losses in nurseries where youngsusceptible transplants are produced. These fungi canaffect seed germination and cause basal rot ofseedlings. If not prevented, the disease causeseconomic losses due to plant mortality, soil infestationwith pathogens and delays in crop production. Hence,prevention of diseases at the seedling stage isextremely important. Synthetic chemical fungicideshave long been used to reduce the incidence of plantdiseases. However, they are costly, can have negativeeffects on the environment, and may induce pathogenresistance.

Consequently, biological control withmicroorganisms offers an attractive alternative topesticides for the management of plant diseaseswithout any negative impact on environment (Wanget al., 1999). These biological control agents colonizerhizosphere and provide protection against various soilborne fungal pathogens and leave no toxic residues asopposed to chemicals (Tewari and Mukhopadhyay,2001). Trichoderma sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillussp. are the most commonly used biocontrol agents

(BCAs) selected for their disease-suppressiveproperties and have been studied on a variety ofvegetable species and other crops (Bennett, 1997).

Another important group of microorganisms areplant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) whichinclude nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilizers andphosphate mobilizers viz., Azotobacter sp., Bacillussp. and Arbuscular mychorrhizae that actively colonizeplant roots and increases plant growth and yield.Several research reports indicated that combinedinoculation of biocontrol agents with beneficialmicroorganisms result in better growth of seedlingsin nursery stage of vegetable crop. The presentinvestigation was taken up to evaluate theestablishment of tomato seedlings raised with themicrobial consortia enriched substrate under fieldconditions.


Collection and maintenance of biocontrol agentsand PGPRs : Cultures of biocontrol agents andPGPR’s viz., Trichoderma harzianum., Azotobacterchroococcum, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis,and Pseudomonas fluorescens obtained from culturecollection and National Bureau of AgriculturallyImportant Insects (NBAII), Bangalore were grown forseven days at room temperature on potato dextroseagar and nutrient agar slants, respectively and

subsequently stored at 50C in a refrigerator andmaintained by sub-culturing once in a month. Oneset of all cultures were preserved in mineral oil to serveas stock culture.

Evaluation of compatibility of BCAs withPGPR : The compatibility was tested by dual cultureplating on PDA. Five mm disc of fungal biocontrolagents were inoculated near the periphery of PDA plateand bacterial biocontrol agent was streaked at thecentre of the plate. The plates inoculated with onlyone antagonistic culture served as control. Theinoculated plates incubated at 28 ± 10 C for five days.Each treatment was replicated thrice after incubationperiod. Observations were recorded on growth offungal and bacterial bioagents in the treatment platesand their growth was compared with the control platesand compatibility between the organisms was assessed.

The compatibility was tested by dual cultureplating on NA, by streaking one of the bacterialbiocontrol agents near the periphery of NA plate andother bacterial biocontrol agent was streakedperpendicular (T shape) to each other. In another NAplate, two bacterial biocontrol agents were streakedparallel, the plates inoculated with antagonistic culturealone served as control. The inoculated platesincubated at 28 ± 1°C for 5 days. Each treatment wasreplicated thrice after incubation period. Observationswere recorded on growth of bacterial bioagents in thetreatment plates and their growth was compared withthe control plates and compatibility between theorganisms was assessed.

Enrichment of substrate for green housestudies : Six and a half kilograms of coirpith compostwas mixed with 2.5 kilograms of Soilrite (25 %) andamended with one kilogram of pongamia cake(10 %) and was autoclaved two times at three daysinterval at 15 psi for 60 minutes in autoclavablepolybags and filled into large polythene bags. Fungaland biocontrol agents and PGPR’s viz., P. fluoroscens(5 x104 cfu / ml), B. subtilis (6 × 106 cfu / ml), A.chroococcum (8 ×103 cfu / ml), B. megaterium (5 ×105 cfu / ml) and T. harzianum (7 × 105 cfu / ml) weremixed with the substrate at the rate of 100 mlindividually and in combinations, and the substratewas manually mixed and the polybags were covered

properly and were incubated for three weeks beforetaking up the sowing. The substrate was regularlymixed for proper aeration and multiplication of theconsortia. Mass multiplied sand based inoculum ofGlomus intraradices with a spore intensity of 2000spores/g procured from Mychorrhiza lab ofDepartment of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS,GKVK, Bangalore was added to the substrate at therate of 100 g per tray at the time of sowing.

Preparation of seedling trays and sowing : Thetrays with fifty cups each with thirty gram capacitywere used to raise the seedlings of tomato, chilli andbrinjal in the glasshouse. Seedling trays were washedwith water and surface sterilized with two per centformalin. The trays were labelled and then, enrichedsubstrate was filled to the trays and the sowing wastaken up. At the time of filling up of the trays, 100 gof sand based G. intraradices inoculum (2000 spores/g) was added at the rate of 100 g per tray for treatmentswith mychorrhizae. Three replications weremaintained for each treatment. The trays were watereddaily and the seedlings were transplanted into mainfield after 25 days of sowing. The treatments taken upwere as follows:

T1 - Gi + Az + Bm + PfT2 - Gi + Az + Bm + BsT3 - Gi + Az + Bm +ThT4 - Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + BsT5 - Gi + Az + Bm + Pf +ThT6 - Gi + Az + Bm + Bs +ThT7 - Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs + ThT8 - Uninoculated control

In each treatment, five plants were randomlyselected and tagged for recording various plant growthand yield parameter. Plant stand was recorded after30 days of transplanting and was calculated usingformula 100 × Number of established seedlings /Number of seedlings transplanted, Per cent diseaseincidence was calculated as 100 × number of diseasedseedlings / number of seedlings transplanted, yield andyield parameters like number of fruits per plant,average weight of the fruit (g), fruit weight per plant(g) was recorded. The data was subjected to RCBDanalysis.

ESTABLISHMENT OF TOMATO SEEDLINGS RAISED IN THE SUBSTRATE ENRICHED CONSORTIA OF BIOCONTROL AGENTS 7


The treatments Gi + Az + Bm + Th, Gi + Az +Bm + Pf + Th and Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs + Threcorded 100 per cent crop stand in the field. Nodisease incidence was observed in the treatments inthese treatments. The plants in treatment Gi + Az +Bm + Pf + Bs + Th and Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Th(45.33 days) took less number of days for 50 per centflowering which were on par with each other(Table I). The data obtained proves that the consortiaof PGPRs and biocontrol agents enhanced theestablishment of seedlings in the field by reducing thedisease incidence and also leading to faster flowering

which could be attributed to out-competing ofpathogens by physical displacement and synthesis ofantibiotics and substances like auxins, gibberellins,cytokinins etc.

The treatment Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs + Thshowed significantly highest plant height, number ofleaves and branches during the plant growth periodand also reported the maximum plant biomass (TableII). The result obtained shows that the treatments withPGPRs and biocontrol agents have efficiency inincreasing the plant growth in terms of height, numberof leaves and branches which could be due to effectivefunctioning of biocontrol agents and PGPRs in termsof antagonistic ability, P solubilization, Nitrogenfixation and production of growth promotingsubstances like IAA and GA.

A significantly highest number of fruits wererecorded in the treatment Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs +Th (42.25). The average weight of the fruit (54.00 g)and highest fruit weight per plant (1.85 kg) wasrecorded in this treatment (Table III). The fieldevaluation of the microbial consortia for their efficacywith respect to biocontrol activity and plant growthpromoting activities under field conditions shows thatGi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs + Th and Gi + Az + Bm + Pf+ Th showed better establishment in the field, and alsoenhanced growth of the seedlings so as the yield.

Similar results have also been obtained by variousworks that have been carried out with the use of PGPRsand biocontol agents. Rudresh et al., (2004) concludedthat the growth of chickpea could be increased withcombined inoculation of biocontrol agent Trichodermasp. and beneficial organisms like Phosphoroussolubilizer and nitrogen fixer. Srivastava et al. (2010)reported the use of consortium of arbuscularmycorrhizal fungus, fluorescent Pseudomonas andTrichoderma harzianum formulation for themanagement of tomato wilt and found thatcombination of all three bioagents significantlyreduced disease in field, and enhanced the growthand yield of tomato.

Plant growth benefits due to the addition of PGPRwhich include increase in germination rates, rootgrowth, shoot and root weights and yield has been

TABLE I

Effect of consortia of PGPRs and biocontrolagents on establishment of tomato seedlings

under field condition

Treatments

T1 83.60(66.08)c 16.70(24.11)b 50.33d

T2 92.33(73.89)b 8.30(16.73)c 50.66e

T3 100.00(89.96)a 0.00(0.00)d 51.33f

T4 83.30(65.85)c 16.70(24.110b 48.66c

T5 100.00(89.96)a 0.00(0.00)d 45.33a

T6 92.66(74.25)b 8.30(16.73)c 46.00b

T7 100.00(89.96)a 0.00(0.000)d 45.33a

T8 75.00(59.97)d 25.00(29.98)a 55.00g

CD at 5% 7.20 0.827 0.299

Per centcrop stand

Per centdisease

incidence

Days takenfor

50 per centflowering

Treatment details:T1 - Gi + Az + Bm + Pf T2-Gi + Az + Bm + BsT3- Gi + Az + Bm + Th T4- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + BsT5- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Th T6-Gi + Az + Bm + Bs +ThT7- Gi+Az +Bm+Pf +Bs+Th T8-Uninoculated control

* Gi- Glomus intraradices, Az- Azotobacter chroococcum,Bm- Bacillus megaterium, Pf-Pseudomonas fluorescens,Bs- Bacillus subtilis, Th-Trichoderma harzianum

8 C. C. MAINA et al.

* Mean value with the same superscript (s) do notdiffer significantly (P=0.05).

** Figures in the parentheses are aresine-transformedvalues

TABLE II

Effect of consortia of PGPRs and biocontrol agents on growth of tomato seedlingsunder field condition

T1 59.23d 68.56f 95.25g 84.45d 121.05f 234.78g 2.33c 11.00a 15.33b

T2 55.66f 71.23e 104.55f 80.23e 132.52e 248.23g 2.33c 10.33b 12.66d

T3 56.23ef 66.52g 105.85e 77.54f 120.56f 256.14e 3.66b 9.33c 13.66c

T4 56.45e 76.89d 112.25d 100.56c 165.21d 268.78d 3.66b. 8.00d 12.33e

T5 60.85c 78.52c 115.40c 110.21b 176.18c 289.45c 4.00a 10.00b 15.33b

T6 62.44b 90.21b 119.20b 99.85c 189.54b 302.89b 3.66b 11.33a 13.33c

T7 64.21a 96.52a 125.55a 121.23a 205.12a 356.45a 4.00a 11.66a 16.66a

T8 40.23g 55.23h 86.45h 66.25g 112.45g 225.56h 2.33c 7.66e 12.66d

CD at 5% 0.647 1.121 1.317 1.72 2.86 3.75 0.0744 0.132 0.220

Treatments

Treatment details:T1 -Gi + Az + Bm + Pf T2-Gi + Az + Bm + Bs T3- Gi + Az + Bm + ThT4- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs T5-Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Th T6-Gi + Az + Bm + Bs +ThT7- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs+Th T8-Uninoculated control* Gi- Glomus intraradices, Az- Azotobacter chroococcum, Bm- Bacillus megaterium,Pf-Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bs- Bacillus subtilis, Th-Trichoderma harzianum* Mean values with the same superscript (s) do not differ significantly (P=0.05)

Growth of seedlings in field

Plant height (cm)

30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT

Number of leaves


Number of branches


TABLE III

Effect of consortia of PGPRs and biocontrol agents on biomass and yield of tomatounder field condition

T1 32.00f 37.65d 40.66d 1.50cd

T2 33.26e 32.45f 44.60c 1.47cd

T3 35.64d 35.40e 40.00e 1.40d

T4 39.66c 38.85c 50.12b 1.72b

T5 42.63b 41.56b 50.00b 1.79ab

T6 40.23c 31.25g 53.81a 1.55c

T7 46.23a 42.25a 54.00a 1.85a

T8 23.20g 28.30h 38.00g 0.96e

CD at 5% 0.63 0.487 0.24 0.50

Treatments

Treatment details:T1 -Gi + Az + Bm + Pf T2-Gi + Az + Bm + Bs T3- Gi + Az + Bm + ThT4- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs T5-Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Th T6-Gi + Az + Bm + Bs +ThT7- Gi + Az + Bm + Pf + Bs+Th T8-Uninoculated control* Gi- Glomus intraradices, Az- Azotobacter chroococcum, Bm- Bacillus megaterium,Pf-Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bs- Bacillus subtilis, Th-Trichoderma harzianum* Mean values with the same superscript(s) do not differ significantly (P=0.05)

Plantbiomass (g)

Number offruits per plant

Average weightof the fruit (g)

Fruit weightper plant (kg)

ESTABLISHMENT OF TOMATO SEEDLINGS RAISED IN THE SUBSTRATE ENRICHED CONSORTIA OF BIOCONTROL AGENTS 9

reported by Lucy et al. (2004). Biocontrol agents exertdisease suppression by different modes of actionincluding competition, direct parasitism, antibiosis andinduction of plant resistance mechanism (Whipps,2001). None of these mechanisms are necessarilymutually exclusive and frequently several modes ofaction are exhibited by a single biocontrol agent. Ourresults confirm that the microbial consortia enhancedthe quality of the tomato seedlings which in turndecided their establishment in the main field, aftertransplantation and in turn improved the yield andreduced the loses due to diseases in an ecofriendlymanner.

REFERENCES

BENNETT, M. A., 1997, Biological seed treatments forimproved corn germination and emergence. Proc.51stAnnual ASTA Corn & Sorghum Res. Conf. 51:200-211.

LUCY, M., REED, E. AND GLICK, B. R., 2004, Application offree living plant growth promoting rhizobacteria.Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 86: 1-25.

RUDRESH, D. L.,SHIVAPRAKASH, M. K. AND PRASAD, R. D.,2004, Effect of combined application of Rhizobium,phosphate solubilizing bacterium and Trichodermaspp. on growth, nutrient uptake and yield of chickpea(Cicer aritenium L.). Appl. Soil. Ecol., 28: 139-146.

SRIVASTAVA, A. K. AND SINGH, R. K., 2000, Extent of lysis ofRhizoctonia solani cell wall preparation by differenthyperparasites. J. Mycopathol. Res., 38: 129-131.

TEWARI, A. K. AND MUKHOPADHYAY, A. N., 2001, Testing ofdifferent formulation of Gliocladium virens againstchickpea wilt-complex, Indian Phytopath., 54:64-71.

WANG, S. L., YIEH, T. C. AND SHIH, I. L., 1999, Productionof antifungal compounds by Pseudomonasaeruginosa K-187 using shrimp and crab shell powderas a carbon source. Enzyme Microbiol. Technol., 25:142-148.

WHIPPS, J. M., 2001, Microbial interactions and biocontrolin the rhizosphere. J. Exp.Bot. 52: 487–511.

10 C. C. MAINA et al.

(Received : October, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Stability Analysis for Number of Productive Tillers and Grain Yield of Finger Millet

M. S. NAGARAJA, K. N. KRISHNAMURTHY AND JAYARAMEGOWDA

Department of Agricultural Statistics, Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Agriculture,UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Ten promising finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) genotypes were evaluated over nine locationsfor three years 2006, 2007 and 2008. The stability parameters were computed for traits like number of productivetillers and grain yield. The Eberhart and Russell model (1966) was used to study the stability parameters. Thepooled two-way analysis of variance revealed that the mean sum of squares (MSS) due to genotype × environment(G × E) interaction was highly significant for both number of productive tillers and grain yield indicating thepresence of variability both among the genotypes and environments. Stability of genotypes was predicted onmean yield and the comparative value of stability parameters. Over the years arid locations for number of productivetillers, the genotypes OEB211, VR888, OEB57, PR202, VL333 and HR 374 were specially adapted to favourableenvironment, whereas, genotypes GPU65 and GPU66 were specially adapted to unfavourable environment. Forgrain yield, the genotypes VR888, OEB57 and HR374 were specially adapted to favourable environment. Incontrast, the genotypes GPU65, GPU66, OEB265, OEB211 and VL333 were specially adapted to unfavourableenvironment.


FINGER MILLET or ragi is the important millet crop grownin the world. It is prominently ranking 4th in importanceafter sorghum, pearl millet and foxtail millet. It islargely grown in old world countries especially inAfrica, South Asia extending as far as China. Thenative home of finger millet is Africa especially in thehigh lands of Ethiopia and Uganda. The nearest relativeof cultivated finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.,Gaertn.) is supposed to be Eleusine coracanasub-species Africana (Kennedy-O’Byrne, 1957).

The antiquity of finger millet cultivation in Indiadates back to 3000 BC. It is widely grown in Indiafrom Kanyakumari in South to Uttarakhand andHimachal Pradesh in the North and Gujarat in the Westto Manipur in East. The crop is known by differentregional names such as Ragi (in Karnataka), Ragalu(in Andhra Pradesh), Nagli (in Gujarat), Mahua (inOrissa), Nachni (in Maharashtra), Mandua (in UttarPradesh and other Northern states), Kapai (in TamilNadu) and Mandiya (in Chattisgarh). Finger milletcultivation in India is often confined to specificregions, yet considered important not only for the foodgrain but also for the stover which is a valuable animalfeed (Singh and Schiere, 1995).

There has been a general decline in area undervarious millets in the country. This is true for fingermillet also. The finger millet area which was around

2.06 million hectares during 1970s has gradually comedown to 1.3 million hectares during 2009-10.However, the production has remained high andmaintained around 1.9 million tonnes mainly becauseof significant raise in productivity from 1040 kg / haduring 1970s to around 1489 kg / ha during 2009-10(Anon., 2009). The important finger millet growingstates are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Chattisgarh,Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra and Gujarat. It is largely grown as rainfedcrop during the kharif season. However, a very smallproportion of area (5-10%) receives irrigationespecially in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh.

In Karnataka, finger millet occupies an area of1.02 million hectares with a production of 1.875million tonnes (Anon., 2009). Its cultivation isconcentrated mostly in the districts of Bangalore,Kolar, Tumkur, Chitradurga, Hassan, Mysore andMandya.

Finger millet genotypes show wide fluctuationin their yield ability when grown in differentenvironments. The capacity of a crop to perform wellover a range of environmental conditions, stability inproductivity, therefore, is a major and importantconsideration for the plant breeder. Study ofphenotypic stability parameters is useful to identify

genotypes suitable for low, marginal, average and highyielding environments. A number of statistical toolsare available to estimate stability parameters withvarying degree of efficiency and limitations. Realizingthe importance and need for such a comprehensivestudy in finger millet, the present investigation wasundertaken involving finger millet genotypes for itsstability with respect to number of productive tillersand grain yield.


To assure the stability of genotypes, linearregression could be regarded as a measure of responseof a particular genotype and deviation from regressionshould be considered as a better measure of stability(Jatasra and Paroda 1979; Becker, 1981).Shanthakumar (2000) in his study on 5 traits for 18finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) genotypes hasrevealed that the genotypes KM225, PPR2614, MR16and PR202 were stable for grain yield. However, theless stable entries GPU34, MRI2, EC50-90, PS 110and GPU32 had higher mean grain yields. TheEberhart and Russell (1966) proposed a model toanalyze genotype x environment interaction,adaptability and stability performance of genotypes.A genotype is considered as stable if it possesses highor low mean performance in relation to genotype mean(depending on the characters), non-significance ofregression coefficient (bi) and non-significance ofdeviation from regression (S2di).

The material for this study was collected from amultilocational trial under Project Co-ordinating Unit(Small Millets). All India Coordinated Small MilletsImprovement Project, University of AgriculturalSciences, GKVK, Bangalore during the kharif seasonsof 2006, 2007 and 2008.The original experimental setup included 10 genotypes of finger millet tried in 9locations (Ll, Vizianagaram : L2, Jagadalpur : L3,Ranchi : L4, Bangalore : L5, Mandya : L4, Kolhapur: L7, Berhampur : L8 Coimbatore and L9 Waghai) allover India under the co-ordinated scheme. Theexperimental design employed was a randomizedcomplete block design (RCBD) with three replicationsin each location.

(1) Eberhart and Russell Model :

Yij = μi + ßi Ij + δij

Where,

Yij: Mean of the ith genotype at the jth environment(i = 1. ... 10, j = 1. ..... 9)

μ i : The mean of ith genotype over all theenvironments

ßl: The regression coefficient that measures theresponse of ith genotype to varyingenvironment

Ij: jth environmental index obtained by subtractingthe regression of the jth genotype grand meanfrom the mean of all genotypes at j th

environment.

Sj: The deviation from regression of the ith

genotype of jth environment.

Stability parameters : The mean (μi), theregression coefficient (bi) and mean square deviationfrom linear regression line (S2di) are the three stabilityparameters proposed by Eberhart and Russell (1966)in their stability model. These parameters werecomputed by using the following formula:

S2di (deviation from the =regression coefficient)

–Σδij

2

j

n – 2δe

2

r

A genotype is considered as stable if it possesseshigh or low mean performance in relation to genotypemean (depending on the characters), non-significanceof unit regression coefficient and non-significantdeviation from the regression. S2di is considered tohave the important measure of stability in theinterpretation of results.


Performance of genotypes in different locationsover years for number of productive tillers is presentedin Table I. It was observed that the genotypes VR888

12 M. S. NAGARAJA et al.

μi (mean) = bi(regression coefficient) =ΣYiIj j

Σl2j j

ΣYij j

n

TABLE I

Performance of genotypes in different locations over years for number of productive tilles

GPU65 2.09 4.33 1.49 1.38 4.11 2.42 2.73 2.21 2.59 2.60 39.54GPU66 2.11 4.22 1.49 1.62 4.11 2.56 2.87 2.46 2.81 2.69 35.74GPU67 2.27 5.11 1.60 1.39 3.56 2.29 3.80 2.66 3.22 2.88 40.76OEB265 2.43 5.33 1.38 1.57 3.89 2.00 3.01 1.98 2.79 2.71 46.19OEB211 2.65 3.51 1.96 1.57 4.00 2.81 3.24 2.38 3.21 2.81 27.34VR888 2.18 3.48 1.54 2.29 3.44 2.60 3.28 2.11 3.03 2.66 25.67OEB57 2.29 2.97 1.68 1.39 3.56 2.18 3.06 2.22 3.17 2.50 29.11PR202 2.49 3.08 1.41 1.76 3.78 3.00 3.16 1.81 3.27 2.64 30.80VL333 2.31 3.15 1.43 1.67 3.56 2.87 3.09 2.33 3.47 2.65 28.80HR374 2.93 3.48 1.61 1.74 3.89 2.43 3.29 2.75 3.51 2.85 27.93Mean 2.37 3.87 1.56 1.64 3.79 2.52 3.15 2.29 3.11 2.70CV (%) 11.00 21.77 10.91 16.39 6.52 12.56 9.18 12.67 9.65

Genotypes L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 Mean CV(%)

TABLE II

Performance of genotypes in different locations over years for grain yield (t / ha)

GPU65 1.34 2.29 1.38 1.26 1.07 1.12 2.12 1.18 2.05 1.54 31.05GPU66 1.47 2.11 1.48 1.52 1.42 1.27 1.97 1.11 2.21 1.62 23.76GPU67 1.94 1.94 1.60 1.78 1.35 1.59 2.18 1.19 2.20 1.75 20.02OEB265 1.47 1.97 1.31 1.44 1.36 1.12 2.24 1.00 1.94 1.54 27.19OEB211 1.20 1.82 1.48 1.33 1.33 1.37 2.22 1.19 2.09 1.56 24.81VR888 1.44 1.81 1.59 1.43 1.40 1.45 1.85 1.22 2.03 1.58 16.58OEB57 1.71 1.87 1.60 1.55 1.37 1.45 1.90 1.17 1.90 1.61 15.93PR202 1.46 1.70 1.29 1.60 1.40 1.81 1.94 1.30 1.92 1.60 15.90VL333 1.20 1.60 1.40 1.35 1.02 1.46 1.95 1.21 2.19 1.49 25.17HR374 1.25 1.67 1.42 1.43 1.12 1.42 1.97 1.28 2.03 1.51 20.97Mean 1.45 1.88 1.46 1.47 1.28 1.41 2.04 1.18 2.06 1.58CV (%) 16.02 11.16 7.90 10.24 11.86 14.72 6.96 7.16 5.63

Genotypes L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 Mean CV(%)

STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR NUMBER OF PRODUCTIVE TILLERS AND GRAIN YIELD OF FINGER MILLET 13

variability with respect to genotypes and years(X =3.87, CV=21.77 %).

The performance of genotypes in differentlocations over years for grain yield is presented inTable II. It was observed that the genotype PR202performed uniformly well over all the locations andyears ( X=1.60 t / ha, CV=15.90 %), whereas, GPU65showed greater variation in grain yield over alllocations and years ( X = 1.54 t / ha, CV=31.05 %).

performed uniformly well over all the locations andyears (X=2.66, CV=25.67 %), whereas, OEB 265showed greater variation in number of productivetillers over all locations and years (X=2.71,CV=46.19 %).

Among the locations, it was observed thatMandya (L5) showed uniform number of productivetillers over all the genotypes and years (X=3.79,CV=6.52 %), whereas, Jagdalpur (L2) showed greater

Among the locations, it was observed that Waghai(L9) showed uniform grain yield over all the genotypesand years ( =2.06 t / ha, CV=5.63 %), whereas,Vizianagaram (Ll) showed greater variability withrespect to genotypes and years ( =1.45t / ha,CV=16.02 %).

The pooled two-way analysis of variance carriedout over different locations and years are presented inTable III. High significant differences were observed

among both years as well as locations with respect togenotypes, environments and their interactions(G × E). This is in line with the study made by SharathBabu et al., 2008 on white ragi.

The stability model parameters to identify stablegenotypes across locations and years are presented inTable IV. The mean number of productive tillers /plant over 9 environments was 2.28. The maximum(2.85) and minimum (2.49) number of productivetillers / plant were observed in genotypes GPU67 andOEB57, respectively. None of the genotypes hadsignificant regression coefficient and deviation fromregression, except genotypes GPU67 and OEB265which had significant value for deviation fromregression. The genotypes GPU66, GPU67, OEB211and HR374 had mean values higher than the populationmean.

In case of grain yield, the mean yield over all the9 locations was 1.69 t / ha. The maximum (1.95 t / ha)and minimum (1.47 t / ha) of grain yield were observedfor the genotypes GPU67 and VL333, respectively.None of the genotypes had significant regressioncoefficient and deviation from regression, exceptgenotypes GPU67 and PR202 which had significantvalue for deviation from regression. The genotypesGPU66, GPU67, OEB265 and PR202 had mean valueshigher than the population

TABLE III

Pooled two-way analysis of variance over yearsand locations for number of productive tillers

and grain yield

Source

Genotypes(G) 9 3.78** 13.80**

Environments(E) 8 228.22** 111.80**

G × E 72 4.67 ** 8.00**

Error 180

Total 269

** Significant at 1% level

df

Significance of F ratio fordifferent plant characters

Number ofproductive

tillers

Grainyield

TABLE IV

Stability parameters of Eberhart and Russell model over years and locations for number ofproductive tillers and grain yield

GPU65 2.60 1.19 0.07 1.62 1.33 0.04GPU66 2.69 1.12 0.04 1.78 1.11 0.06GPU67 2.85 1.26 0.16* 1.95 1.01 0.19*OEB265 2.68 1.34 0.21* 1.70 1.08 0.05OEB211 2.78 0.84 0.04 1.65 1.28 0.03VR888 2.68 0.81 0.04 1.63 0.86 -0.01OEB57 2.49 0.81 0.05 1.66 0.77 0.00PR202 2.63 0.88 0.11 1.94 0.57 0.71*VL333 2.65 0.85 0.06 1.47 1.08 0.01HR374 2.84 0.90 0.05 1.52 0.89 -0.01Mean 2.68 1.69

GenotypesMean bi S2di Mean bi S2di

No. of productive tillers Grain yield

14 M. S. NAGARAJA et al.

X

X

The adaptability of genotypes across differentenvironments is presented in Table V. None of thegenotypes were well adapted as well as poorly adaptedto all the environments for both the characters.However, it was observed that the genotypes OEB211,VR888, OEB57, PR202, VL333 and HR374 werespecially adapted to favourable environment, whereas,the genotypes GPU65 and GPU66 were speciallyadapted to unfavourable environment with respect tonumber of productive tillers.

TABLE V

Stable genotypes over years and locations fornumber of productive tillers and grain yield

Remarks

Well adapted to all – –environment

Poorly adapted to all – –environments

Specially adapted to OEB211,VR888, VR888, OEB57,favourable environment OEB57, PR202, HR374

VL333, HR374

Specially adapted to GPU65,GPU66 GPU65,GPU66unfavourable environment OEB265,OEB211

VL333

Number ofproductive

tillers

Grainyield

The genotypes VR888, OEB57 and HR374 werespecially adapted to favourable environment. On theother hand, the genotypes GPU65, GPU66, OEB265,OEB211 and VL333 are specially adapted tounfavourable environment with respect to grain yield.

According to the stability model proposed byEberhart and Russell on stability of finger milletgenotypes across all the environments and locations,the genotypes GPU67 and OEB265 showed highsignificant difference with respect to deviation fromtheir respective regressions for number of productivetillers, whereas, GPU67 and PR202 showed significantdifference with respect to deviation from theirrespective regressions for grain yield. Further, theadaptability of genotypes across different

environments classified 6 genotypes viz., OEB211,VR888, OEB57, PR202, VL333 and HR374 to numberof productive tillers based on their performance asspecially adapted to favourable environment. Incontrast, the genotypes GPU65 and GPU66 werespecially adapted to unfavourable environment. Forgrain yield, the genotypes VR888, OEB57 and HR374were specially adapted to favourable environment,whereas the genotypes GPU65, GPU66, OEB265,OEB211 and VL333 showed special adaptability tounfavourable environment. These genotypes can beutilized in breeding programmes to incorporatestability.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS, 2009, Annual Report, Directorate ofEconomics and Statistics, Government of Karnataka.

BECKER, H.C., 1981, Correlation among some statisticalmeasures of phenotypic stability, Euphytica, 30:835-840.

EBERHERT, S. A. AND RUSSELL, W. A., 1966, Stabilityparameters for comparing varieties. Crop Science,6: 36-40.

JATASRA, D. S. AND PARODA, R. S., 1979, Genotype ×environment interactions and environmental samplingin wheat, Crop Improvement, 6: 86-90.

KENNEDY-O’BYRNE, J., 1957, Notes on African grasses.XXIX. A new species of Eleusine from tropical andSouth Africa, Kew Bull, 11: 65-72.

SHANTHAKUMAR, G., 2000, Stability analysis for yield andyield influencing traits in finger millet (Eleusinecoracana). Indian J. Agril. Sci., 70 (7): 472-474.

SHARATHBABU, K. SONAD, SHANTHAKUMAR, G. AND SALIMATH

P. M., 2008, Genotype × environment interactioneffect on seed yield and its component characters inwhite ragi (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.),Karnataka J. Agril. Sci., 21 (2) : 190-193.

SINGH, K AND SCHIERE, J. B., 1995, Handbook for strawfeeding systems: Principles and applications withemphasis on Indian livestock production, ICARPublications, New Delhi, 449pp.

STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR NUMBER OF PRODUCTIVE TILLERS AND GRAIN YIELD OF FINGER MILLET 15

(Received : October, 2012 Accepted : December, 2012)

Role of Attractants on Insect Pollinators Diversity with Special Reference toPollination in Increasing the Productivity of Bottle Gourd, Lagenaria siceraria L.

C. D. SRIKANTH, G. C. KUBERAPPA AND B. V. SHWETHA

Department of Apiculture, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The investigation on role of attractants on insect pollinators diversity and in increasing the productivityof Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria L.) was carried out during 2012. Ten species of insect pollinators wererecorded before application of attractants, whereas, nineteen species of insect pollinators were recorded duringflowering after application of Citral-a and Citral-b. Among them, eight species belong to order Hymenoptera,five species to Diptera, three species to Lepidoptera and two species to Coleoptera and one species from Hemiptera.The role of attractant in pollination on quantitative and qualitative parameters such as fruit set, fruit weight, fruitvolume, fruit length, number of sound seeds, test weight, moisture, ash content, TSS and germination percentagewere maximum in open pollination with Citral-a and Citral-b compared to open pollination without attractantsand control.


BOTTLE GOURD, Lagenaria siceraria L. is one of theimportant cucurbit crops in India, grown both in rainyand summer season. It is originated in Africa and nowgrown in most parts of the world. Bottle gourd is alsoknown as Lauki, Kaddu, Doodhi, Ghiya, Kaddujatilao,Lau, Anapa or Sarakaya, Surakai, Dudhya Bhopla,Sorekayi, Halagumbla and Ghiakadu in differentlanguages in India. This vegetable comes in differentshapes, the most common being is bottle and roundshaped and hence, named as bottle gourd. This is apopular vegetable grown in Karnataka for cooking.Dried bottle gourds are used to make water bottle,bowls, musical instruments and decorative ornaments.It is commonly used for treating indigestion,constipation and diarrhoea. It also acts as cooling,calming and diuretic (Nempal Singh et al., 2004).Cucurbits including bottle gourd mainly depend oninsects for pollination, because the male and femalereproductive organs do not occur on the same flowerand pollen grains are large and sticky to be carried bywind. Hence, the mechanical transfer of pollen isessential to bear fruits / seeds, in addition to improvedfruit and seed quality (Free, 1970; McGregor, 1976).Bottle gourd is propagated exclusively through seeds.The flowers are best source of nectar and pollen. But,detailed information on role of attractants on insect

pollinators complex and in pollination on qualitativeand quantitative improvement of the crop is veryscanty, except preliminary study by Shrivastava andShrivastava (1991). Hence, the present investigationwas undertaken to know the role of attractants oninsect pollinators complex and also in increasingproductivity of bottle gourd.


Investigation on role of attractant on insectpollinators diversity and in increasing the quantitativeand qualitative parameters in bottle gourd, Lagenariasiceraria L. was carried out during summer season of2011-2012 at Division of Horticulture, Gandhi KrishiVignana Kendra, University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore. Bottle gourd was grown by following allthe recommended package of practices. Ten plantswere selected randomly to record different species ofinsect pollinators visiting the flowers daily during theflowering period from 0600 to 1800 h of the day athourly interval for 5 min. throughout the floweringperiod. Pollinators visiting the flowers beforeapplication of the attractants and after application ofthe attractants were collected, preserved and identifiedwith the help of Taxonomist, Department of

Agricultural Entomology, GKVK, Bangalore. To studythe role of attractants on insect pollination in bottlegourd, the experiment was laid out in randomizedcomplete block design with five replications and fourtreatments (T1- Open pollination, T2 - Open pollinationwith citral-a, T3 - Open pollination with citral-b andT4 -Control). In case of open pollination withoutattractant, all the species of pollinators were allowedto visit the bottle gourd flowers. Similarly, in openpollination with attractants, Citral-a and Citral-b weresprayed at 10 μl / litre of water for three times to cropduring flowering at weekly interval by using handsprayer. In case of control, plots were covered withnylon mesh and no pollinators were allowed to visitthe flowers. Ten flower buds were tagged in eachtreatment for further studies to record the quantitativeparameters viz., flower drop, fruit set, fruit weight,fruit volume, number of sound seeds per fruit, testweight and the qualitative parameters like moisturecontent, total soluble sugars, ash content, per cent seedgermination were assessed and compared among thetreatments.


The result of the present investigation on insectpollinators diversity in bottle gourd revealed that ten,nineteen and eighteen species of insect pollinatorswere recorded during flowering, before and afterapplication of attractants with Citral-a and Citral-b,respectively (Table I). Among them, eight specieswere belong to order Hymenoptera, five species toDiptera, three species to Lepidoptera and two speciesto Coleoptera and one species from Hemiptera.Hymenopterans consisted of four species from thefamily Apidae, (Apis dorsata Fab, Amegilla zonataSmith, Ceratina (pithitis) hieroglyphica Smith,Ceratina (Pithitis) bingham Cockerell, three speciesfrom Halictidae (Nomia iridiscens Smith, Nomiaelliotii Smith and Halictus sp.) and one species fromFormicidae (unidentified). Dipteran consisted of fivespecies, one species each belong to familyCalliphoridae (unidentified) and Stratiomyiidae(Hermetia sp.) and three species belongs to family

Syrphidae (Paragus yerburiensis Stuckenberg,Paragus serratus Fabricius, Paragus crenulatusThomson). Lepidopteran consisted of one species eachfrom the family Noctuidae (Dysgonia sp.),Papilionidae (Pachliopta hector L.) and Pieridae(Delias chrysippus). Coleopterans consisted of twospecies, one species each belongs to familyChrysomelidae (Aulacophora faveicollis Lucas) andNitidulidae (Haptoneus sp.). Hemiptera consist of onlyone species from family Miridae (Nesidiocoris sp.).After application of attractants viz., Citral-a and Citral-b, six species of dipterans were attracted to flowers ofbottle gourd compared to before spraying withattractants. However, the members of the orderHymenoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera andLepidoptera were attracted to flowers of bottle gourdin equal numbers expect, members of dipterans whichwere attracted after application of attractants. Atwal(1970) recorded more than twenty three insect speciesvisiting cucurbitaceous flowers at Ludhiana.Shrivastava and Shrivastava (1991) recorded twentythree species of insects visiting cucurbitaceous cropin Rewa (India). Eswarappa (2001) reported twentysix insect species on chow-chow crop, whereas,Prakash (2002) reported twenty seven insect speciesvisiting cucumber crop, which includes honey bees,solitary bees, Dipterans and Lepidopterans. Similarly,Sajjanar et al. (2004) reported twenty four insectspecies on cucumber, of which fourteen speciesbelonged to order Hymenoptera, four to Diptera, twoto Coleoptera and four to Lepidoptera. Among thehoney bee species, A.dorsata Fab. was the mostfrequent visitor, followed by A.cerana Fab. and A.florea Fab. The slight variation in the present studyon insect visitors to bottle gourd and earlier studieson insect pollinators visit to various cucurbitaceouscrops may be due to type of cucurbit crop, colour offlowers, time of flower opening, floral reward andclimatic conditions of the area.

The role of attractant in pollination of bottlegourd on quantitative parameters such as fruit set, fruitweight, fruit volume, fruit length, number of soundseeds and test weight were maximum in openpollinated plot with Citral-a (69.10 %, 2.13 kg, 2817

ROLE OF ATTRACTMENTS IN INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF BOTTLE GOURD 17

TAB

LE I

Inse

ct p

ollin

ator

s div

ersi

ty in

bot

lle g

ourd

Hym

enop

tera

Api

dae

Apis

dor

sata

Fab

.Ap

is d

orsa

ta F

ab.

Apis

dor

sata

Fab

.

Ameg

illa

zona

ta S

mith

Ameg

illa

zona

ta S

mith

Ameg

illa

zona

ta S

mith

Cer

atin

a (P

ithiti

s) b

ingh

am C

ocke

rell

Cer

atin

a (P

ithiti

s) b

ingh

am C

ocke

rell

Cer

atin

a (P

ithiti

s) b

ingh

am C

ocke

rell

Cer

atin

a (P

ithiti

s) h

iero

glyp

hica

Sm

ithC

erat

ina

(Pith

itis)

hie

rogl

yphi

ca S

mith

Cer

atin

a (P

ithiti

s) h

iero

glyp

hica

Sm

ith

Hal

ictid

aeN

omia

irid

isce

ns S

mith

Nom

ia ir

idis

cens

Sm

ithN

omia

irid

isce

ns S

mith

Nom

ia e

lliot

ii Sm

ithN

omia

elli

otii

Smith

Nom

ia e

lliot

ii Sm

ith

Hal

ictu

s sp

.H

alic

tus

sp.

Hal

ictu

s sp

.

Form

icid

aeU

nide

ntifi

edU

nide

ntifi

edU

nide

ntifi

ed

Col

eopt

era

Niti

dulid

ae-

Hap

tone

us s

p.H

apto

neus

sp.

Chr

ysom

elid

aeAu

laco

phor

a fa

veic

ollis

(Luc

as)

Aula

coph

ora

fave

icol

lis (L

ucas

)Au

laco

phor

a fa

veic

ollis

(Luc

as)

Hem

ipte

raM

irida

eN

esid

ioco

ris

sp.

Nes

idio

cori

s sp

.N

esid

ioco

ris

sp.

Dip

tera

Stra

tiom

yiid

ae–

Her

met

ia s

p.H

erm

etia

sp.

Syrp

hida

e–

Psra

gus

yerb

urie

nsis

Stru

cken

berg

Psra

gus

yerb

urie

nsis

Stru

cken

berg

–Pa

ragu

s cr

enul

atus

Tho

mso

nPa

ragu

s cr

enul

atus

Tho

mso

n

–Pa

ragu

s se

rrat

us (F

abric

us)

–

Lepi

dopt

era

Cal

lipho

ridae

–U

nide

ntifi

edU

nide

ntifi

ed

Papi

lioni

dae

–Pa

chlio

pta

hect

or L

.Pa

chlio

pta

hect

or L

.

Noc

tuid

ae–

Dys

goni

a sp

.D

ysgo

nia

sp.

Pier

idae

–D

elia

schr

y si

ppus

L.

Del

iasc

hry

sipp

us L

.

Inse

ct p

ollin

ator

s

Ord

ers

Fam

ilyFa

mily

Bef

ore

spra

yC

itral

-aC

itral

-b

18 C. D. SRIKANTH et al.

TAB

LE I

I

Role

of a

ttrac

tant

s on

quan

titat

ive

para

met

ers o

f bot

tle g

ourd

Ope

n po

llina

tion

36.5

4 (3

7.17

)@63

.48

(52.

78)@

1.87

(7.6

9)#

2340

(48.

36)#

43.9

3 (6

.64)

#42

3 (2

0.58

)#16

.58

(4.1

3)#

Ope

n po

llina

tion

30.9

0 (3

3.75

)@69

.10

(56.

20)@

2.13

(8.1

0)#

2817

(53.

00)#

47.2

9 (6

.90)

#45

3 (2

1.27

)#18

.52

(4.3

5)#

with

citr

al- a

(10 μl

)

Ope

n po

llina

tion

32.6

0 (3

4.80

)@67

.4 (5

5.16

)@2.

06 (8

.00)

#26

67 (5

1.59

)#47

.30

(6.9

1)#

439

(20.

97)#

18.1

4 (4

.31)

#w

ith c

itral

- b (1

0 μl

)

Con

trol

100

(89.

43)@

0.00

(0.7

1)@

0.00

(0.7

1)#

0.00

(0.7

1)#

0.00

(0.7

1)#

0.00

(0.7

1)#

0.00

(0.7

1)#

Mea

n50

.00

49.9

01.

5119

5634

.63

329

13.3

1

SEm

±0.

370.

610.

021.

060.

080.

190.

05

CD

at 5

%0.

811.

340.

042.

320.

180.

430.

12

Mea

n of

ten

flow

ers /

frui

ts@

Fig

ures

in th

e pa

rent

hese

s are

Arc

Sig

n tra

nsfo

rmed

val

ues

# Fi

gure

s in

the

pare

nthe

ses a

re

tran

sfor

med

val

ues

Polli

natio

n ty

peFl

ower

dro

p(%

)Fr

uit s

et (%

)Fr

uit w

eigh

t(k

g)Fr

uit v

olum

e(m

l)Fr

uit l

engt

h(c

m)

No.

of s

ound

seed

s / fr

uit

Seed

wei

ght

(g)


ml, 47.29 cm, 453.00 and 18.52 g, respectively)compared to open pollination with Citral-b (67.40%,2.06 kg, 2667.00 ml, 47.30 cm, 439.00 and 18.14 g,respectively) and in open pollination without attractant(63.46 %, 1.87 kg, 2340.00 ml, 43.93 cm, 382.00 and16.58 g, respectively). However, no fruit set wasobserved in control, which may be due to absence ofinsect pollinators (Table II). The present findings arein conformity with the observation of Pashte VrushaliVijaykumar (2011) who reported that significantlyhigher number of capsules per plant in sesamum wasobserved in caged condition with A. cerana colony(54.00), followed by Citral-a (51.43), Citral-b (49.33)and Geraniol (47.47) whereas, number of capsules perplant was least in control (27.96). The lower numberof capsules per plant in control (caged) plot might bedue to absence of pollinators. Similarly, Pateel andSattagi (2007) reported that cucumber was sprayedwith cacambe (10.00 %) produced significantly highernumber of fruits per plant (19.00), which accountedfor 116.15 and 375.00 per cent increase over openpollinated crop without spray and caged crop withoutbees, respectively. Further, it was followed by jaggery

solution (10.00 %), Bee-Q (1.25 %) and sugar solution(10.00 %). The open pollinated crop sprayed withcacambe (10.00 %) produced significantly higher fruitweight (128.10 g / fruit) which accounted for 32.88and 84.50 per cent increase over open pollinationwithout spray and caged without bees, respectively.Further, Bee-Q (1.25 %), jaggery solution (10.00 %)and sugar solution (10.00 %) recorded fruit weightranging from 116.80 to123.20 g / fruit. The fruit weightwas minimum with 69.43 g in the crop caged withoutbees which proved significantly inferior to abovetreatments. Similarly, the qualitative parameters suchas moisture, ash content, TSS and germinationpercentage (Table III) were more in open pollinationwith Citral-a (86.14, 2.42, 5.00 and 85.80 %,respectively), followed by open pollination with Citral-b (85.44, 2.33, 5.00 and 85.08%, respectively) and inopen pollination without attractant (85.09, 2.30, 5.00and 84.64 %, respectively). The present findings onqualitative parameters are in conformity with thefindings of Pashte Vrushali Vijaykumar (2011) whoreported that germination per cent in sesamum wasmore in caged condition with A. cerana colony

TABLE III

Role of attractants on qualitative parameters of bottle gourd

Pollination type

Open pollination 85.97 (67.98)@ 5 2.30 (8.67)@ 84.64 (67.01)@

Open pollination with citral -a (10μl) 86.14 (68.16)@ 5 2.42 (8.95)@ 85.80 (67.86)@

Open pollination with citral -b (10μl) 85.44 (67.67)@ 5 2.33 (8.78)@ 85.08 (67.28)@

Control 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)

Mean 64.44 3.75 1.76 63.88

SEm± 0.33 NS 0.12 0.48

CD at 5% 0.72 NS 0.27 1.50

Note : Mean of ten fruitsTSS-Total soluble sugar@Figures in the parentheses are Arc sign transformed values

Moisture (%) TSS (%) Ash content(%)

Germination(%)

20 C. D. SRIKANTH et al.

treatment (92.00 %), followed by Citral-b (91.00%)and Citral-a (90.67 %) and these three treatments wereon par with each other.

Hence, it is concluded from the presentinvestigation that role of attractants viz., Citral-a andCitral-b play an important role in attracting morenumber of insect pollinators, thereby helps inincreasing the productivity of bottle gourd.

REFERENCES

ATWAL, A. S., 1970, Biology, ecology and utilization ofinsects other than honey bees in the pollination ofcrops. Final Res. Rept. (1965-70) of PL 480 Projectexecuted at Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana (India).

ESWARAPPA, G., 2001, Pollination potentiality of differentspecies of honeybees in increasing the productivityof chow-chow (Sechium edule (Jacq) S.W.). M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, University of Agril. Sciences,Bangalore

FREE, J. B., 1970, Insect pollination of crops. AcademicPress, London and New York pp. 544.

MC GREGOR, S. E., 1976, Insect pollination of cultivatedcrop plants (Agriculture hand book No.496), Agril.Res. Serv. U.S. Dept. Agric. pp. 411.

NEMPAL SINGH, 2004, Modern technologoy on vegetableproduction. International Book Distribution Co.Lucknow pp. 249.

PASTHE VRUSHALI VIJAYKUMAR, 2011, Pollinators diversitywith special reference to role of honey bee inquantitative and qualitative improvement of sesamum.M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University of AgriculturalSciences, Bangalore.

PATEEL, M. C. AND SATTAGI, H. N., 2007, Effect of differentattractants on attracting the bees to cucumber(Cucumis sativa L.) crop. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci.,20(4): 761-763.

SAJJANAR, S.M., KUBERAPPA, G.C. AND PRABHUSWAMY, H. P.,2004, Insect visitors of cucumber (Cucumis sativus)and the role of honey bee, Apis cerana F., in itspollination. Pest manage. Econ. Entom., 12 (1):23-31.

SHRIVASTAVA AND SHRIVASTAVA, U., 1991, Insect pollinationin some cucurbits. In: Proc. 6th Int. Symp. Polln., p.445-451.


(Received : October, 2012 Accepted : November, 2012)

Enhancement of Seed Quality through Chemopriming in Cucumber(Cucumis sativus L.)

K. J. SOWMYA, RAME GOWDA, K. BHANUPRAKASH, H. S. YOGEESHA,T. B. PUTTARAJU AND B. C. CHANNAKESHAVA

Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Chemoprming is one of the promising seed enhancement technologies to overcome the problems of seedemergence and seedling establishment under stress conditions. Therefore the present study was conducted toknow the influence of chemopriming on seed quality attributes in cucumber. Among the inorganic salts used inthe study, ethrel @ 100 ppm primed seeds registered significantly higher first and final count germination, BRI,SVI- I and SVI- II (87.83 and 89.25 %, 0.541, 2669 and 961, respectively). The T50 value and mean germinationtime (MGT) were also lower (1.08 and 1.48 days) in ethrel primed seeds. Further, higher mean seedling length(30. 03 cm) and mean seedling dry weight (11.12 mg) were registered in 1per cent KNO3 primed seeds. However,among vigour levels, significantly higher first and final count germination, BRI, mean seedling length, meanseedling dry weight, SVI- I and SVI- II (91.30 and 93.89 %, 0.541, 25.70 cm, 9.68 mg, 2418 and 911) in highvigour seeds and also the low vigour seeds have recorded 31.48 per cent increase in the final count germinationin contrast to 10.00 per cent increase in high vigour seeds, in comparison with unprimed seeds. Therefore, seedquality enhancement of cucumber shall be done at 25±10C temperature by priming with 100 ppm ethrel or 1 percent KNO3, followed by 100 ppm GA3.


CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus L.) is one of the mostimportant cucurbitaceous vegetable grown throughoutthe world and ranks fourth after tomato, cabbage andonion. The crop is probably originated in India fromwhere it seems to have spread to Asia and Africa andthen to Europe. The world average productivity ofcucumber is 16.53 t / ha, but, on the contrary it is only6.67 t / ha (Anon., 2004) in India. The wide gap inproductivity can be attributed to the lack of availabilityof quality seeds of high yielding varieties, promisinghybrids and parthenocarpic varieties suited for glassor poly house cultivation. Seed quality is one of thekey factors affecting the successful farming, but thisseed trait inevitably declines during prolonged storage.Poor quality seeds generally show decline in theirability to germinate and emerge into vigourousseedlings, leading to problems for successful cropproduction (Powell et al., 2000).

Seed priming is a pre-sowing treatment thatinvolves controlled hydration of seeds, sufficient toallow pregerminative metabolic events to take placeand to restrict radicle protrusion through the seed coat.This technique is being used in some vegetables seeds

including cucumber to augment the germination rate,total germination and seedling uniformity etc., mainlyunder unfavourable environmental conditions. Seedgermination and seedling establishment are importantstages in the field performance of crop plants. In thefield, seed germination is controlled by manyenvironmental factors and innate conditions, whichsubsequently affect seedling establishment. Seeds areoften placed to specific conditions unfavourable forgermination. Although seed priming is a practicalmethod to improve rates and uniformity of germination(Parera and Cantliffe, 1994), priming methods differdepending on crop species and seed and germinationconditions (Bush et al., 2000; Khan, 1992; McDonald,2000). Of the known germination methods, chemicalpre-treatment is the most promising because of easeof application, scale of economics, and labour-savingattributes compared with methods in which theenvironment must be controlled for prolonged periodof time. Chemopriming is soaking of seeds in variousinorganic salt solutions like KCl, KNO3, CaCl2,KH2PO4, etc. Various inorganic salts were first usedas osmotica for seed treatment to improve germinationof pepper seeds after they were soaked in solutions

containing NaNO3, MnSO4 and MgCl2. However, thesereports attributed the advantages of the treatments toa nutritional effect of the salt sodium chloride whichmay also be used as priming osmoticum. Seeds treatedwith NaCl have been found successful in a wide varietyof crop species.

Amer (1977) stated that, watermelon seeds couldbe primed for low-temperature germination by pre-treatment at 30° or 35°C by imbibing the seeds in saltsolution prior to sowing, since inorganic osmoticumwas superior to organic osmoticum and differences inthe efficacy of the priming existed among the differentsalt solutions tested. Sanjay Kumar et al. (1996)reported significant improvements in vegetative andreproductive characteristics in 16 months old seeds ofokra by growth regulator treatment. Among the plantgrowth regulators, GA3 was found most effective thanothers. Carter (1998) found that the effects of the GA3and ethephon were additive as the highest germinationat 40°C was obtained with 3.5 mM ethephon and 3.0mM GA3 with reduced abnormal radicals (<1 %) inpepper. Significant improvement in germination andseedling vigour index was noticed in the seeds treatedwith GA3 at 200 ppm over untreated control in tomato,capsicum and onion (Jagadish, 1994). With this milieu,the objective of this study was to determine theinfluence of chemopriming on seed quality attributesin cucumber.


In the present study, seed enhancement incucumber by using chemicals was undertaken in SeedScience and Technology Section at the Indian Instituteof Horticultural Research, Hessarghatta, Bangaloreduring 2009-2011. Freshly harvested and gradedcucumber seeds of cv. INDAM-11 were obtained fromthe M/s Indo American Hybrid Seeds Pvt., Ltd.,Bangalore. The seeds were dried to reduce the moistureto safe level (< 6 %) and they were stored at 40C inrefrigerator till the completion of the experiment.

Fresh cucumber seeds were subjected toaccelerated ageing (AA) test as per Delouche andBaskin (1973) to create lots of two vigour levels, viz.,

high vigour (V1: > 90 % germination) and low vigour(V2: < 60 % germination) and were used for theexperiment. These seeds were subjected tochemopriming by soaking in the aqueous solutions ofvarious inorganic salts in the ratio of 1: 2 (W/V) attwo different temperatures (T1- 25±10C; T2- 10±10C)for a period of 48 h. After soaking for 48 hours, seedswere air dried to reduce the moisture content (6-7 %).Inorganic salts (C): C1- Control: C2- KH2PO4

at10-1 M; C3- Oxalic acid at 10-1 M; C4- GA3 at 100 ppm;C5- Ethrel at 100 ppm; C6- KNO3 at 1 per cent;C7- Thiourea at 1 per cent; C8- Benzyl adenine at100 ppm; C9- NaCl at10-1 M. The experimental datawere statistically analyzed by adopting “Fisher’sAnalysis of Variance Techniques”. Critical difference(CD) values were computed at 1 per cent levelwherever ‘F’ test was significant. The followingobservations were recorded for the evaluation of seedquality due to chemopriming.

Seed moisture content (%): Moisture content ofseed sample was determined by gravimetric methodby using high constant temperature oven method asper ISTA (2007). Two grams of seeds were taken inaluminium containers and kept in a hot air ovenmaintained at 130 ± 20 C for a period of one hour. Thenthe samples were cooled in desiccators over silica gelfor 30 to 45 m. The cooled samples were weighed andthe seed moisture content was expressed in percentageon wet weight basis using the following formula.

ENHANCEMENT OF SEED QUALITY THROUGH CHEMOPRIMING IN CUCUMBER (cucumis sativus L.) 23

Where,

W1 : - weight of the empty aluminium container

W2 : _ weight of the empty aluminium container +

seeds before drying

W3 : - weight of the empty container + seeds afterdrying

First and final counts of germination (%): Thestandard germination test was conducted in the

Moisture content (%)=(W2-W3)

(W2-W1) × 100

laboratory using ‘between paper’ method as per ISTA(2007). Fifty seeds each of four replications wereplaced equidistantly on moist germination paper. Therolled towels were incubated in germination chambermaintained at 250±10C and 90 per cent relativehumidity (RH). The first and the final counts weretaken on 4th and 8th day of germination test,respectively. The percentage of germination wasexpressed based on the normal seedlings.

Mean germination time (MGT): Meangermination time (MGT) was calculated according tothe equation of Ellis and Roberts (1981) and expressedin days. The equation is as follows:

MGT = Σ D n / Σ n

Where, ‘D’ is the number of days counted fromthe beginning of the test and ‘n’ is the number of seedsthat germinate on day ‘D’.

Time to 50 per cent germination (T50) : Time toget 50 per cent germination was calculated accordingto the formula of Coolbear et al. (1990). T50 wasdefined as days needed to reach 50 per cent of finalgermination percentage.

Speed of germination (BRI): Speed ofgermination was calculated as Bartlett’s Rate Index(Bartlett, 1973), which was worked out from the dailygermination counts and calculated as follows :

P1+ (P1+P2) + (P1+P2+P3) +…+ (P1+P2+P3+…. +Pn)BRI = —————————————————————— N (P1 + P2 + P3 +. …+ Pn)

Where, P1 + P2 + P3 + ………and Pn are thegermination (%) at 1st, 2nd, 3rd and nth day,respectively and ‘N’ is the total number of days takenfor germination.

Mean seedling length (cm): From the seeds keptfor standard germination test, ten normal seedlingswere randomly selected on final (8th day) counting andthe seedling length was measured from root tip to shootapex and the mean seedling length was computed andexpressed in centimeter.

Mean seedling dry weight (mg): Ten seedlingsselected for seedling length measurement were usedfor recording seedling dry weight. After removing thecotyledons (remnant seed), seedlings were dried in hotair oven maintained at 80±20C for 18 hours and cooledin desiccators over silica gel. The mean seedling dryweight was recorded and expressed in milligrams perseedling.

Seedling vigour index (SVI): Seedling VigourIndex (SVI) was calculated by adopting the methodsuggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973) andexpressed as whole number. The formula used toestimate the SVI is as follows :

SVI-I = Germination (%) x Mean seedling length(cm)

andSVI-II = Germination (%) x Mean seedling dry

weight (mg)


The seed moisture of chemoprimed seeds wassignificantly higher at 100C (6.35 %) and it was lowerin 250C (6.14 %). Among the inorganic salts, higherseed moisture (6.50 %) was recorded in benzyl adenineprimed seeds and it was lowest (5.10 %) in unprimedcontrol. The time taken for 50 per cent germination(T50) value was significantly lower (1.02 days) in highvogour seeds and it was higher (1.74 days) in lowvigour seeds. However, among the chemicals, lowerT50 value (1.08 days) was recorded in ethrel primedseeds which was on par with the seeds primed withthiourea (1.17 days), benzyl adenine (1.17 days), GA3(1.17 days), KH2PO4 (1.25 days), NaCl (1.25 days)and KNO3 (1.25 days). But, untreated control (C1),recorded significantly higher value of T50 (2.58 days)as indicated in Table I.

The first count germination was significantlyhigher (91.30 %) in high vigour seeds and it was lower(71.50 %) in low vigour seeds. Whereas, ethrel primedseeds indicated higher first count germination (87.83%) and it was on par with benzyl adenine (87.17 %),GA3 (86.67 %), KNO3 (84.50 %), KH2PO4 (84 %) andthiourea (83 %) primed seeds and it was lowest(59.25 %) in control. In case of benzyl adenine primedseeds, interestingly seedling growth was considerablystunted and root growth was also not proper, althoughit has recorded significantly higher germination which

24 K. J. SOWMYA et al.

TABLE I

Seed moisture and T50 value as influenced by vigour levels, temperature andchemopriming in cucumber

T1 : 25±10C C1- Control 5.04 5.12 5.08 1.00 4.00 2.50C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 5.84 6.63 6.24 1.00 1.00 1.00C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 6.45 5.97 6.21 1.00 2.00 1.50C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 6.03 6.24 6.14 1.00 1.33 1.17C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 6.45 6.08 6.27 1.00 1.00 1.00C6- KNO3 @ 1% 6.47 6.16 6.32 1.00 2.00 1.50C7- Thiourea @ 1% 6.42 6.11 6.27 1.00 1.00 1.00C8- BA @ 100ppm 6.42 6.19 6.31 1.00 1.33 1.17C9- NaCl @10-1M 6.20 6.61 6.41 1.00 1.67 1.34



V x T V x TT1-25±10C 6.15 6.12 6.14 1.00 1.70 1.35T2-10±10C 6.38 6.33 6.35 1.04 1.78 1.41

V x C V x CC1- Control 5.08 5.12 5.10 1.17 4.00 2.58C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 6.04 6.47 6.25 1.00 1.50 1.25C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 6.56 6.27 6.42 1.00 2.00 1.50C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 6.30 6.38 6.34 1.00 1.33 1.17C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 6.57 6.28 6.42 1.00 1.17 1.08C6- KNO3 @ 1% 6.45 6.36 6.40 1.00 1.50 1.25C7- Thiourea @ 1% 6.40 6.24 6.32 1.00 1.33 1.17C8- BA @ 100ppm 6.62 6.39 6.50 1.00 1.33 1.17C9- NaCl @10-1M 6.35 6.53 6.44 1.00 1.50 1.25Mean 6.26 6.23 6.24 1.02 1.74 1.38

SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%) SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%)V 0.032 NS 0.051 0.19T 0.032 0.120 0.051 NSC 0.068 0.255 0.108 0.40V x T 0.045 NS 3.78 0.072 NS 9.03V x C 0.096 0.361 0.152 NST x C 0.096 NS 0.152 NSV x T x C 0.136 NS 0.215 NS

NS: Non significant, Vigour levels (V): V1- High vigour (> 90%); V2- low vigour (< 60%)

was on par with other chemicals and the subsequentgrowth of seedlings was also arrested probably due tohigher concentration of chemical. The finalgermination count was higher (93.89 %) in high vigourseeds and it was lower (73.72 %) in low vigour seeds.Ethrel primed seeds (89.25 %) showed significantlyhigher final count and it was on par with GA3(88.33 %), BA (87.33 %) and KNO3 (85.83 %) and itwas lowest (73.50 %) in control (Table II). Similarresults were obtained by Amer (1977); Sanjay Kumar

et al. (1996); Demir and Oztokat (2003); Warley andFernando (2004) in different crops. The low vigourseeds have recorded 31.48 per cent increase in the finalcount germination in contrast to 10.00 per cent increasein high vigour seeds, in comparison with unprimedseeds. Potassium nitrate solution has long been knownas a suitable chemical approach for promotinggermination in various plant species and generally asa priming agent or germination media (Bush et al.,2000; Madakadze et al., 1993; McDonald, 2000).

TreatmentsSeed moisture (%) T50 (days)

V1 V2 Mean V1 V2 Mean

ENHANCEMENT OF SEED QUALITY THROUGH CHEMOPRIMING IN CUCUMBER 25

TABLE II

First and final count germination as influenced by vigour levels, temperature andchemopriming in cucumber

T1-25±10C C1- Control 71.33 49.00 60.17 89.33 57.33 73.33C2- KH2PO4


T2-10±10C C1- Control 70.00 46.67 58.34 90.00 57.33 73.67C2- KH2PO4


V x T V x TT1-25±10C 90.89 72.85 81.87 93.11 75.89 84.50T2-10±10C 91.70 70.15 80.93 94.67 71.56 83.11Mean 91.30 71.50 81.40 93.89 73.72 83.81



SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%) SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%)V 0.52 1.94 0.51 1.90T 0.52 NS 0.51 NSC 1.10 4.10 1.09 4.03V x T 0.73 NS 4.67 0.72 2.69 4.45V x C 1.55 5.81 1.52 5.70T x C 1.55 5.81 1.52 5.70V x T x C 2.20 8.22 2.16 8.06

NS: Non significant, Vigour levels (V): V1- High vigour (> 90%); V2- Low vigour (< 60%)

The mean germination time (MGT) was lower(1.43 days) in high vigour and it was higher (1.82 days)in low vigour seeds. However, benzyl adenine primedseeds registered lower MGT (1.36 days), which wasstatistically on par with NaCl (1.43 days), KH2PO4(1.46 days), ethrel (1.48 days), thiourea (1.51 days),GA3 (1.51 days), KNO3 (1.55 days) and oxalic acid(1.57 days), but, it was significantly higher (2.76 days)in unprimed control (Table III). Chemopriming by

TreatmentsFirst count germination (%) Final count germination (%)


using KNO3 and NaCl resulted in enhancing cucumberseed germination at low temperature. Because, whenseeds primed with KNO3, K2HPO4 and NaCl, at 0, 1,2.5 and 4.5 per cent concentration (W/V) and testedat 150C and 250C, beneficial germination was observedat 150C at higher dose of chemicals (Piri et al., 2009).The Bartlett Rate Index (BRI), an indicative of speedof germination was also varied significantly due tovigour levels, chemicals and their interactions. High


vigour seeds recorded significantly higher (0.541) BRIcompared to low vigour seeds (0.52). Among thechemicals, benzyl adenine primed seeds recordedhigher BRI (0.541) and it was statistically on par withethrel (0.541), NaCl (0.540), KH2PO4 (0.54), KNO3(0.538), thiourea (0.538), GA3 (0.537) and oxalic acid(0.534) compared to control (0.468). 1This effect ofpriming has been attributed to metabolic repair and

activation of seed during water imbibition (Basra etal., 2005).

Further, the mean seedling length was superior(26.08 cm) at 250C and it was inferior (25.28 cm) in100C. The higher mean seedling length was recordedin KH2PO4 and it was statistically on par with GA3(30.03 cm), ethrel (29.88 cm) and NaCl (29.04 cm)

TABLE III

Mean gemination time and speed of germination as influenced by vigour levels, temperature andchemopriming in cucumber


@10-1M 1.30 1.45 1.38 0.547 0.542 0.545C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 1.48 1.83 1.66 0.538 0.523 0.531C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 1.33 1.79 1.56 0.546 0.524 0.535C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 1.35 1.61 1.48 0.544 0.537 0.541C6- KNO3 @ 1% 1.40 2.01 1.71 0.546 0.520 0.533C7- Thiourea @ 1% 1.33 1.77 1.55 0.546 0.527 0.537C8- BA @ 100ppm 1.28 1.52 1.40 0.548 0.536 0.542C9- NaCl @10-1M 1.33 1.74 1.54 0.546 0.523 0.535C1- Control 2.47 3.27 2.87 0.490 0.436 0.463C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 1.42 1.67 1.55 0.543 0.529 0.536C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 1.30 1.69 1.50 0.548 0.528 0.538C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 1.31 1.61 1.46 0.548 0.532 0.540

T2 : 10±10C C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 1.29 1.67 1.48 0.548 0.534 0.541C6- KNO3 @ 1% 1.26 1.53 1.40 0.550 0.537 0.544C7- Thiourea @ 1% 1.33 1.60 1.47 0.547 0.531 0.539C8- BA @ 100ppm 1.26 1.38 1.32 0.549 0.532 0.541C9- NaCl @10-1M 1.21 1.44 1.33 0.552 0.540 0.546

V x T V x TT1-25±10C 1.44 1.87 1.66 0.541 0.519 0.530

T2-10±10C 1.43 1.76 1.60 0.542 0.522 0.532V x C V x C

C1- Control 2.32 3.20 2.76 0.499 0.436 0.468C2- KH2PO4


SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%) SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%)V 0.03 0.12 0.001 0.004T 0.03 NS 0.001 NSC 0.07 0.25 0.002 0.009V x T 0.04 NS 14.18 0.002 NS 1.61V x C 0.09 NS 0.003 0.013T x C 0.09 NS 0.003 NSV x T x C 0.13 NS 0.005 NS

NS: Non significant, BRI-Bartlett Rate Index (Indicative of speed of germination)Vigour levels (V) ; V1 - Fresh seeds - high vigour (> 90 %) ; V2 - Low vigour., (< 60 %)

TreatmentsMean germination time (days) Speed of germination (BRI)



compared to benzyl adenine @ 100 ppm (04.48 cm)primed seeds (Table IV). Similarly, higher meanseedling dry weight was registered in high vigour (9.68mg) seeds in comparison with low vigour seeds (9.36mg). While, the KNO3 primed seeds registered higher(11.12 mg) mean seedling dry weight and it wasstatistically on par with ethrel (10.75 mg), KH2PO4

(10.48 mg) compared to unprimed control (6.91 mg).Comparable results were reported by Ghassemi andEsmaeilpour (2008) and they also opined that KNO3priming could be used to enhance the rate andpercentage of cucumber seedling emergence and itsestablishment, particularly in early spring sowings atlow temperatures.

TABLE IV

Mean seedling length and mean seedling dry weight as influenced by vigour levels, temperature andchemopriming in cucumber


@10-1M 29.93 31.50 30.72 10.47 10.67 10.57C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 27.27 29.93 28.60 9.40 11.66 10.53C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 29.43 27.18 28.31 10.33 9.73 10.03C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 29.47 29.84 29.66 10.29 10.49 10.39C6- KNO3 @ 1% 31.20 29.45 30.33 11.91 10.30 11.11C7- Thiourea @ 1% 26.72 28.33 27.53 9.10 10.25 09.68C8- BA @ 100ppm 05.33 04.63 04.98 06.90 06.60 06.75C9- NaCl @10-1M 30.43 29.27 29.85 09.30 10.83 10.07C1- Control 21.02 25.53 23.28 07.47 06.34 06.91C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 31.40 28.30 29.85 11.50 09.30 10.40C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 26.33 26.00 26.17 10.03 08.23 09.13C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 26.47 29.17 27.82 09.97 11.09 10.53

T2 : 10±10C C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 30.45 29.77 30.11 11.41 10.80 11.11C6- KNO3 @ 1% 31.12 28.37 29.75 11.63 10.63 11.13C7- Thiourea @ 1% 28.10 28.67 28.39 8.90 09.50 09.20C8- BA @ 100ppm 04.03 03.92 03.98 07.60 06.43 07.02C9- NaCl @10-1M 28.15 28.32 28.24 10.23 09.57 09.90

V x T V x TT1-25±10C 26.18 25.97 26.08 09.49 09.63 09.56T2-10±10C 25.23 25.34 25.28 09.86 09.10 09.48



SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%) SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%)V 0.17 NS 0.08 0.31T 0.17 0.64 0.08 NSC 0.36 1.35 0.17 0.65V x T 0.24 NS 4.85 0.12 0.43 6.33V x C 0.51 NS 0.25 0.92T x C 0.51 NS 0.25 0.92

V x T x C 0.72 2.69 0.35 1.30

NS: Non Significant, Vigour levels (V): V1- High vigour (> 90%); V2- low vigour (< 60%)

TreatmentsMean seedling length (cm) Mean seedling dry weight (mg)



Seedling vigour index - I and II was significantlyhigher (2418 and 911) in high vigour seeds comparedto low vigour seeds (1882 and 697). Further, the seedsprimed at 250C indicated higher SVI-I (2099) incomparison with 100C (2201). Among the chemicals,higher SVI-I and II (2669 and 961) was noticed inethrel and it was statistically on par with KNO3 (2585and 961) primed seeds. While, the SVI-I and II were

significantly lower (392) in benzyl adenine primedseeds and unprimed control (519), respectively(Table V). Similar results were reported by Surekha(2002) in onion primed with various chemicals.Therefore, from the present study on enhancement ofseed quality attributes in cucumber throughchemopriming, the best results were obtained at25 ± 10C. The best inorganic salts which have recorded

TABLE V

SVI-1 and SVI-II (Seedling Vigour Indix) as influenced by vigour levels, temperature andchemopriming in cucumber

T1 : 25±10C C1- Control 2308 1354 1831 689 351 520C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 2748 2687 2717 962 910 936C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 2580 2033 2306 888 792 840C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 2825 2324 2574 992 832 912C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 2791 2445 2618 975 859 917C6- KNO3 @ 1% 2891 2111 2501 1103 737 920C7- Thiourea @ 1% 2539 2230 2385 861 807 834C8- BA @ 100ppm 487 389 438 635 554 594C9- NaCl @10-1M 2799 2070 2435 855 767 811C1- Control 1890 1466 1678 672 363 517C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 3098 1811 2454 1135 595 865C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 2344 1591 1967 901 504 703C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 2576 2180 2378 969 830 900

T2 : 10±10C C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 3045 2392 2718 1141 867 1004C6- KNO3 @ 1% 2966 2373 2669 1108 889 998C7- Thiourea @ 1% 2620 2026 2323 830 671 750C8- BA @ 100ppm 381 309 345 718 506 612C9- NaCl @10-1M 2625 207 2350 953 702 827

V x T V x TT1-25±10C 2441 1961 2201 885 735 810

T2-10±10C 2394 1803 2099 937 659 798V x C V x C

C1- Control 2099 1410 1755 681 357 519C2- KH2PO4

@10-1M 2923 2249 2586 1049 753 901C3- Oxalic acid @10-1M 2462 1813 2137 895 649 772C4- GA3 @ 100ppm 2701 2252 2477 981 831 906C5- Ethrel @ 100ppm 2918 2419 2669 1058 864 961C6- KNO3 @ 1% 2929 2242 2585 1106 814 960C7- Thiourea @ 1% 2580 2129 2354 846 739 793C8- BA @ 100ppm 435 350 392 677 530 604C9- NaCl @10-1M 2713 2073 2393 905 735 820Mean 2418 1882 2150 911 697 804

SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%) SEm± CD (P=0.01) CV (%)V 19.65 73 9.00 33T 19.65 73 9.00 NSC 41.67 15.5 19.40 71V x T 27.79 NS 6.72 12.73 47 8.23V x C 58.95 220 27.01 101T x C 58.95 220 27.01 101V x T x C 83.37 311 38.20 142

NS: Non Significant, Vigour levels (V): V1- High vigour (> 90%); V2- low vigour (< 60%)

TreatmentsSVI-I SVI-II



significantly higher seed quality attributes areindicated below in their order of performance. Ethrel(100 ppm) followed by KNO3 (1%); GA3 (100 ppm);KH2PO4

(10–1M); Thiourea (1%); NaCl (10–1M) andOxalic acid (10–1M).

REFERENCES

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(Received : November, 2012 Accepted : December, 2012)

Lactic Acid Bacterial Fermentation of Tomato Juice Blended withHoney for Value Addition

PUSHPA PRIYA, K. B. MUNISHAMANNA AND C. N. DIVYA SHREE


ABSTRACT

An investigation was undertaken to determine the potential enhancement of nutrients of tomato juiceblended with honey by lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC 6161) and the influence of lacticacid bacterial isolates on pH, TSS, titrable acidity, vitamin C and lycopene content. The results indicated that thelower pH (3.52) (T4), TSS (4.25°Brix) (T4), titrable acidity (0.53 %) (T2, T6 and T7) and vitamin C (2.32 mg / 100ml) (T6) and highest pH (3.95) (T6), TSS (8.06°Brix) (T3), titrable acidity (0.85 %) (T4) and vitamin C (5.75 mg/ 100 ml) (T8). Lycopene did not vary in all the treatments (0.312 mg / 100 ml). Addition of honey to the tomatojuice also not enhance the lycopene content in any of the treatments.


TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum) is one of the mostpopular and widely cultivated vegetables in the world.Tomatoes and tomato based foods are consideredhealthy foods for low in fat, calories, good source offibre, contain significant amount of lycopene and betacarotene, vitamin C, traces of selenium, copper,manganese and zinc and contains combination ofantioxidant micronutrients (Parafitt et al., 1994).Tomatoes contain lycopene most powerful naturalantioxidant has been found to prevent prostate cancer.The term fermentation was used for the production ofwine in early days, but at present it encompasses thefoods made by the application of microorganismsincluding lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acidfermentation is one of the oldest methods of preservingfruits and vegetables which contributes desirablephysical and flavor characteristics. Microbialfermentation method can be successfully employedto produce a good flavor in tomato beverage. Probiotictomato juice by lactic acid bacteria could serve as ahealthy beverage for vegetarians and consumers whoare allergic to dairy products (Yoon et al., 2004). Theantimicrobial properties of lactic acid bacteria canimprove the microbiological quality of the food. (PriyaMathapati et al., 2010 studied the yeast Saccharomycescerevisiae 3282 for the production of tomato wine andreported that the wine developed from tomato fruitsby yeast fermentation has attractive colour, acidic in

*Part of the M.Sc thesis submitted by the senior author to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

taste with an alcohol 7.83 per cent. Which is acceptablefor consumption as compared to standard wine andrecommended for commercial production. Tomatoconsumption has been associated with decreased riskof breast cancer, head and neck cancer and alsostrongly protective against neurodegenerative diseases.


In the present study, reference of lactic acidbacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC 6161) wereused. The reference cultures were obtained from theMicrobial Type Culture Collection Centre (MTCC),Chandigarh, India.

Preparation of starter culture: One loop full ofinoculums of lactic acid bacteria were inoculated to100 ml of MRS broth in 250 ml conical flask. Theyeast and LAB culture were incubated for 24 h at280 C.

Tomato juice preparation: Good qualities oftomatoes were selected and chopped, pulp wasextracted by passing through grinder, seeds and peelof tomato were removed by filtering through stainlesssteel filter. The water was added to filtered pulp in theratio of 1: 0.6 (1 part of pulp: 0.6 part of water). TheTSS of tomato juice was adjusted to 20°Brix by

addition of cane sugar. Different treatments wereimposed to the tomato juice.

Biochemical analysis : Biochemical analysis offermented tomato juice beverages such as pH, TSS,titrable acidity, vitamin C, and lycopene content weredetermined by standard procedures.

pH of the sample was measured using digital pHmeter of analog model (Corin Research, USA).

Total soluble solids (TSS) of the sample weredetermined with the help of “ERMA” handrefractometer.

Titrable acidity were worked out using theprocedure developed by Srivastava and Kumar, 1993.

Vitamin C from fermented tomato juices wasdetermined by 2, 6-dichlorophenol indophenols visualtitration method.

Lycopene estimation was done using absorbancevalues.

Absorbance (1 unit) = 3.1206μg of lycopene/ml

31.206 × Absorbance

Weight of the sampleLycopene (mg / 100 g) =

TABLE IScreening of lactic acid bacterial isolates of

tomato juice blended with honey

No.

T1 Tomato juice + LAB1 3.62c 4.46e

T2 Tomato juice + LAB2 3.92a 5.68cd

T3 Tomato juice + LAB3 3.55d 8.06a

T4 Tomato juice + RLAB 3.52d 4.25a

T5 Tomato juice + LAB1 + 5% honey 3.91a 7.23b

T6 Tomato juice + LAB2 + 5% honey 3.95a 5.66cd

T7 Tomato juice + LAB3 + 5% honey 3.93a 6.20c

T8 Tomato juice + RLAB + 5% honey 3.83b 5.30d

F-Test * *S.Em± 0.01 0.13CD (at 5%) 0.03 0.41

LAB1: Tomato juice LAB isolate 1,LAB2 : Tomato juice LAB isolate 2,LAB3 : Tomato juice LAB isolate 3,

RLAB : Reference lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillusplantarum MTCC 6161),

Values with same superscript do not differ significantly*Significant at 5% level

Treatments pH TSS(°Brix)


The experiment was conducted to screen thelactic acid bacterial isolates for its efficiency andpotentiality for the fermentation of tomato juiceblended with honey. The influence of lactic acidbacterial isolates on pH and TSS content of thefermented tomato juice is presented in Table I andFig. 1.

The results of the experiment on fermentation oftomato juice blended with honey by different lacticacid bacterial isolates on biochemical parameters arediscussed here.

pH : The changes in pH between the treatmentswere in the range between 3.52 and 3.95. The changein pH between the treatments is not much influencedby the LAB strains. However, the tomato juice blendedwith 5 per cent honey slightly increases the pH content

Fig. 1. Lactic acid bacterial isolates of tomato juice blendedwith honey on pH and TSS content in the fermentedtomato beverages

32 PUSHPA PRIYA et al.

by all the LAB strains screened. The highest pH (3.95)was observed in the treatment T6 which was on parwith the treatment T7. The lowest pH (3.52) wasobserved in the treatment T4.

Yoon et al., (2004) revealed that the tomato juicefermented by lactic acid bacterial culture resulted inreduced the pH to 4.1 from 6.5. Findings of Yoonet al., (2005) noticed that pH reduction from 6.3 tobelow 4.5 after lactic acid fermentation in red beetroot juice.

Total Soluble Sugars (TSS): The changes in TSSbetween the treatments were in the range between 4.25and 8.06° Brix. The higher TSS (8.06° Brix) wasobserved inthe in the treatment T3. The lower TSS(4.25° Brix) was recorded in the treatment T4. Theincrease in TSS content in the fermented juice wasobserved with a blending of 5 per cent honey.Significant differences at 5 per cent were observedbetween strains with respect to TSS. The decrease insugar content mainly depends upon the efficiency oflactic acid bacteria in fermenting lactose to lactic acidand alcohol.

Titrable acidity and Vitamin C content of thefermented tomato juice is presented in Table II andFig. 2.

Titrable acidity: The change in titrable acidityvaries from 0.52 to 0.85 per cent. Significant differenceat 5 per cent was observed between the treatments withrespect to titrable acidity. The highest acidity(0.85 %) was recorded in the treatment T4 followedby the treatment T8 (0.76 %). Among LAB strainsreference strain RLAB was more efficient in capableof producing titrable acidity compared to isolateLAB1, LAB2 and LAB3. Addition of honey to thetomato juice did not influence much on production oftitrable acidity. Citric acid, malic acid and tartaric acidsare important acids present in fermented tomato juice.

Vitamin C: The highest vitamin C (5.75 mg /100 ml) was recorded in the tomato juice blended with5 per cent honey fermented by reference strain RLAB(T8). Among the strains, reference bacterial strainRLAB (T4) recorded the highest vitamin C (4.73 mg/100 ml). The data indicates that there was significant

TABLE IIScreening of lactic acid bacterial isolates of

tomato juice blended with honey

No.

T1 Tomato juice + LAB1 0.73a 4.10bc

T2 Tomato juice + LAB2 0.53b 3.65c

T3 Tomato juice + LAB3 0.52b 4.07bc

T4 Tomato juice + RLAB 0.85a 4.73b

T5 Tomato juice + LAB1 + 5% honey 0.54b 3.98bc

T6 Tomato juice + LAB2 + 5% honey 0.53b 2.32d

T7 Tomato juice + LAB3 + 5% honey 0.53b 4.07bc

T8 Tomato juice + RLAB + 5% honey 0.76a 5.75a

F-Test * *S.Em± 0.04 0.22CD (at 5%) 0.14 0.27


RLAB : Reference lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillusplantarum MTCC 6161),

Values with same superscript do not differ significantly*Significant at 5% level

Treatments Titrableacidity

(%)

Vitamin-C(mg / 100

ml)

Fig. 2. Lactic acid bacterial isolates of tomato juice blendedwith honey on titrable acidity and Vitamin C contentin the fermented tomato

LACTIC ACID BACTERIAL FERMENTATION OF TOMATO JUICE BLENDED WITH HONEY 33

differences with respect to vitamin C content betweenthe treatments.

It is possible that microorganisms wereinstrumental in the destruction of vitamin C thepossible destruction might be due to direct oxidation,the oxygen not being completely used up or displacedduring the initial fermentation processes. Marica etal., 2007 reported the vitamin content is higher in beetroot juice than carrot juice.

Lycopene: The influence of lactic acid bacterialisolates on lycopene content of fermented tomato juiceis presented in Table III. The results indicate that theobserved value of lycopene found to be 0.312 mg/100ml in all the treatment combinations under study.Hence, the data subjected to statistical test reveals thatno significant difference in the lycopene contentbetween the treatments.

The result concludes that the higher pH (3.95)was observed in the treatment T6 and lower pH (3.52)was observed in treatment T4. The highest TSS(8.06°Brix) was observed in treatment T3 and the lowerTSS (4.25°Brix) was recorded in treatment T4.The

higher titrable acidity (0.85 %) was recorded in thetreatment T4 as compared to lower values wereobserved in treatment T3 (0.52 %).The higher vitaminC (5.75 mg / 100 ml) was recorded in treatment T8and lower values were noticed in T6 (2.32 mg / 100ml). It can be inferred that pH, TSS, titrable acidityand vitamin C were found to have significant betweentreatments. The results indicate that the observedvalues of lycopene was found to be 0.312 mg / 100 mlin all the treatment combinations under study and it isnot influenced by any kind of additions of sugarsources like honey. With addition of honey and suitablestrain for fermentation has increased the food valueby showing higher vitamin C content.

REFERENCES

CAPUTI, A., UEDA, J. M. AND BROWN, T., 1968,Spectrophotometric determination of chromiccomplex formed during oxidation of alcohol. Amer.J. Enol. Vitic.,19: 160-165.

MARICA RAKIN, MAJA VUKASINOVIC, SLAVICA SILER

MARINKOVIC AND MILAN MAKSIMOVIC, 2007,Contribution of lactic acid fermentation to improvednutritive quality vegetable juices enriched withbrewer’s yeast autolysate. Food Chem.,100: 599-602.

PARAFITT, V.J., RUBBA, P., BALTON AND MARITTA, M., 1994,A comparison of antioxidant status and free radicalperoxidation of plasma lipoprotein in healthy youngpertons., Euro – Hort. J., 15 : 571-576.

PRIYA, R. MATHAPATI., NITIN V. GHASGHASE AND MAYURI K.KULKARNI, 2010, Study of Saccharomyces cerevisiae3283 for the production of tomato wine. Int. J. Chem.Sci., 5-15.

SRIVASTAVA, R. P. AND KUMAR, S., 1993, Important methodsfor analysis of fruits/vegetable and theirproducts.Fruit and Vegetable preservation principlesand practices. 2nd Ed. 321-229.

YOON, K. Y., EDWARD E. WOODAMS AND YONG HANG, 2004.Probiotication of tomato juice by lactic acid bacteria.J. Microbiology, 42: 315-318.

YOON, K.Y., WOODAMS, E. E., AND HANG, Y. D., 2005,Fermentation of beet juice by beneficial lactic acidbacteria. Lebensm-wiss. U.Technol., 38: 73-75.

34 PUSHPA PRIYA et al.

TABLE IIIInfluence of Lactic acid bacterial isolates on

lycopene content of fermented beverage

No.

T1 Tomato juice + LAB1 0.312T2 Tomato juice + LAB2 0.312T3 Tomato juice + LAB3 0.312T4 Tomato juice + RLAB 0.312T5 Tomato juice + LAB1 + 5% honey 0.312T6 Tomato juice + LAB2 + 5% honey 0.312T7 Tomato juice + LAB3 + 5% honey 0.312T8 Tomato juice + RLAB + 5% honey 0.312


RLAB : Reference lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC 6161),

Treatments Lycopene(mg / 100

ml)

(Received : November, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Growth and Instability Analysis of Finger Millet Crop in Karnataka

G. M. DIVYA, K. N. KRISHNAMURTHY AND D. M. GOWDA

Department of Agricultural Statistics, Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Agriculture,UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

In India, agriculture sector continuous to play an important role in the economy by providing livelihoodfor nearly two third of population. Karnataka is one of the agriculturally important states of India having eighthposition in terms of area and it occupies first position with respect to finger millet. The present study was conductedon time series data on area, production and yield from the period 1955-56 to 2004-05, with respect to six majorfinger millet growing districts of Karnataka. The study particularly aims at examining the growth and instabilityof area, production and yield of finger millet crop in the state. The trend lines show an increase in both productionand yield even though the area under the crop is decreasing. The growth rates in area, production and yield wascalculated using compound growth rates. The analysis indicates that there was negative growth in area and positivegrowth in yield in all the selected districts of Karnataka. The variability in production is attributed to decline inarea and increase in yield.


FINGER MILLET (Eleusine coracana (L.)), commonlyknown as ragi, is an important coarse cereal grown inIndia. Finger millet constitutes about 85 per cent ofthe minor millets produced in India and the rest bykodo millet, foxtail millet, little millet, barnyard milletand proso millet. Finger millet first originated fromAfrica and was introduced to India approximately 4000years ago. It is highly adaptable to higher elevations.It is most important small millet in tropics (12 % ofglobal millet area) and is cultivated in more than 25countries in Africa (eastern and southern) and Asia(from near East to Far East), predominantly as a staplefood grain. The major producers are Uganda, India,Nepal and China. Finger millet has high yield potential(more than 10 t / ha under optimum irrigated condition)and stores very well. The total area of finger millet inIndia is about 20 lakh hectares with annual productionof 25-28 lakh tonnes. During 2009-10 it was grown inan area of 12.68 lakh hectares with a production of18.9 lakh tonnes and yield of 1489 kg / ha. The majorragi growing states in India are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,Uttarakhand, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradeshand some parts of Gujarat of which Karnataka standsfirst in production.

In 2009-10, Karnataka has an area of 8 lakhhectares with a production of 13 lakh tonnes and itcontributes 60 per cent of all India total. The major

ragi growing districts in Karnataka are Bangalore rural,Tumkur, Kolar, Mysore, Mandya and Chitradurga.

As finger millet is considered as an importantstaple food in southern region of Karnataka, the presentstudy was undertaken to examine the growth and percent of instability in area, production and yield offinger millet in Karnataka.


The present study is based on secondary data ofarea, production and yield of finger millet in selecteddistricts viz., Bangalore rural, Tumkur, Kolar, MysoreMandya and Chitradurga of Karnataka for a period of50 years (i.e., from 1955-56 to 2004-05). The datawas collected from the Directorate of Economics andStatistics, Karnataka. The study period was dividedinto 5 decades viz., decade I (1955-56 to 1964-65),decade II (1965-66 to 1974-75), decade III (1975-76to 1984-85), decade IV (1985-86 to 1994-95) anddecade V (1995-96 to 2004-05). Three differentanalyses has been carried out in the present study viz.

(a) Trend lines are fitted to indicate the long termfluctuations in area, production and yield of fingermillet.

(b) Compound growth rates are calculated decade- wise to study the growth in area, production andyield of finger millet.

(c) Variability in area, production and yield offinger millet is measured through instability index.

(a) Trend lines for area, production and yield offinger millet : In this study, decade-wise trend lineswere fitted to area, production and yield of fingermillet. This will enable us to observe long termfluctuations with respect to all the three componentsfor valid comparison among the districts.

(b) Compound growth rates for area, productionand yield of finger millet : The compound growthrates (CGR) of area, production and yield of fingermillet for each decade were estimated to study thegrowth rates. Both linear and compound growth rateswere estimated. Since linear rates of growth are foundnot very convenient for any comparison of growthbetween two periods, it is appropriate to analyse thetrend in growth of agricultural crops in terms ofcompound rates rather than linear growth rate(Dandekar, 1980). However, compound growth rateswere used for the study. The compound growth ratesare usually estimated by fitting a semi-log trendequation of the form

ln y = a + bt (1)

Where, y is the time series data (responsevariable) of area, production and yield of finger millet,a is the trend term (explanatory variable) and a is theconstant coefficient. The slope coefficient b measuresthe relative change in y for a given absolute change inthe value of the explanatory variable t. If we multiplythe relative change in y by 100, we get the percentagechange or growth rate in y for an absolute change invariable t. The slope coefficient b measures theinstantaneous rate of growth. We calculate thecompound growth rate r as follows:

CGR(r)=[antilog b – 1] × 100 (2)

The above mentioned equation (1) may beestimated by ordinary least squares (OLS) method.To test for the significance of b, Student’s t test wasused.

(c) Instability in area, production and yield offinger millet : According to Goswami and Challa(2006), instability in production is expected to becaused by instability in area and yield. If instability inboth the components decline, the instability inproduction is bound to decline. This is true with respectto finger millet. It was found that adoption of newtechnology had increased instability in food grains andagriculture production in India (Ramesh Chand andRaju, 2008). The studies on the issue of instabilityconducted during 1980s concluded that agricultureproduction had become more unstable after theintroduction of new agricultural technology (Mehra,1981; Hazell, 1982; Dev 1987; and Ray, 1983). Thiswas attributed to diverse factors like nature of newtechnology such of introduction of new varieties andimproved methods of cultivation, increase invariability of rainfall and prices and so on. In thepresent study we measure the instability proposed byRamesh Chand and Raju (2008) in which instabilitycan be captured by detrending the series i.e. bysubtracting trend values from actual values and byconsidering the variation in residuals. The variabilityis measured by using instability index as

Instability index = Standard deviation[ln (Yt+1/ Yt)] (3)

where, Yt is the area / production / yield in thecurrent year and, Yt+1 is for next year. This index isunit free and very robust and it measures deviationsfrom the underlying trend (log linear in thiscase).When there are no deviations from trend the ratioYt+1/Yt is constant and thus standard deviation is zero.As the series fluctuates more, the ratio also fluctuatesmore and the standard deviation increases.


(a) Trend lines for area, production and yield infinger millet: Fig. 1 shows decade-wise trend in areaunder finger millet. It is seen that area under fingermillet has a downward trend in all the districts exceptTumkur. Bangalore rural district which had an averagearea of 240 thousand hectares during 1955-56 camedown to 140 thousand hectares during 2004-05, whileTumkur showed an upward trend from 165thousand hectares during 1955-56 to 190 thousandhectares during 2004-05. Fig. 2 shows trend in

36 G. M. DIVYA et al.

Fig. 1. Decade-wise trend in area under finger millet inselected districts of Karnataka

Fig. 2. Decade-wise trend in production of finger millet inselected districts of Karnataka

production of finger millet among the districts. It wasobserved that except Mysore and Mandya, the otherfour districts showed an increasing trend. A downfallin production in all the districts was seen during 1970s.This may be due to severe to mild droughts duringthat period. The same trend was observed with respectto yield of finger millet (Figure 3).Thereafter the yieldof finger millet showed an increasing trend.

Fig. 3. Decade-wise trend in yield finger millet in selecteddistricts of Karnataka

(b) Compound growth rates for area, productionand yield of finger millet: Table I shows decade-wisecompound growth rates of area, production and yieldof finger millet in selected districts of Karnataka.

During decade I (1955-56 to 1964-65) positivegrowth rates in area, production and yield was noticedin Mandya and Mysore districts, while, Chitradurgashowed negative growth. Eventhough, there wassignificant growth in area in both Bangalore rural andTumkur districts, it showed a negative growth in yieldof finger millet. Positive growth in Mandya andMysore during the pre green revolution period isattributed to the awareness among farmers in fertilizerapplications.

During decade II (1965-66 to 1974-75) positivesignificant growth rates in area, production and yieldwas observed in Mysore, Mandya and Chitradurgadistricts. However, Bangalore rural, Tumkur and Kolardistricts had a negative growth in area, their growth inproduction and yields are significantly positive. Thisperiod of growth is due to the green revolution wherenew varieties of finger millet were released and therewas increased inclination among farmers to try thesenew varieties of finger millet.

During decade III (1975-76 to 1984-85) positivegrowth rates in area, production and yield wasobserved in Bangalore rural, Tumkur, Mysore andChitradurga districts, whereas, negative growth wasnoticed in Mandya and Kolar districts.

During fourth decade (1985-86 to 1994-95) therewas negative growth in area in all the districts exceptTumkur which showed a non-significant growth rateof 0.69 per cent. The growth in production was positivein Bangalore rural, Kolar and Mysore districts.However, there was a positive growth in yield in allthe districts.

During the last decade (1995-96 to 2004-05) allthe districts showed negative growth in area,production and yield of finger millet. The main reasonbehind this decline in area, production and yield maybe attributed to the shifting of this crop to othercommercial crops such as sunflower, groundnut, etc.

GROWTH AND INSTABILITY ANALYSIS OF FINGER MILLET CROP IN KARNATAKA 37

38 G. M. DIVYA et al.

TAB

LE I

I

Inst

abili

ty (p

er c

ent)

in a

rea,

pro

duct

ion

and

yiel

d of

fing

er m

illet

in se

lect

ed d

istr

icts

of K

arna

taka

Ban

galo

re R

ural

5.3

4 2

0.15

20.

72 2

4.13

33.

49 3

7.68

11.

26 4

0.18

38.

59 1

1.34

22.

24 2

1.14

13.

62 4

9.86

36.

16

Tum

kur

2.1

4 2

9.92

31.

34 8

.56

33.

58 3

5.84

18.

44 3

0.05

22.

42

7.38

25.

01 2

1.34

13.

26 3

7.23

27.

63

Kol

ar10

.96

34.

16 1

1.23

15.

32 3

8.09

31.

58 1

2.48

59.

13 4

7.48

6.

18 3

0.72

25.

00 4

1.36

90.

96 4

3.96

Mys

ore

10.5

6 6

1.12

47.

08

4.32

24.

42 2

6.15

6

.18

38.

12 3

9.12

12.

18 5

4.34

46.

24

9.46

35.

18 2

9.38

Man

dya

11.3

4 3

5.24

38.

46 1

6.12

66.

38 2

9.12

27.

32 5

2.43

30.

43 2

5.16

52.

10 3

3.62

18.

14 4

2.33

30.

42

Chi

tradu

rga

11.6

5 3

5.02

34.

53 1

6.03

40.

93 3

7.88

14.

62 4

1.38

23.

48 1

2.13

52.

14 2

4.16

21.

43 4

1.33

41.

15

A –

Are

a

P -

Prod

uctio

n

Y –

Yie

ld

Dec

ade

I(1

955-

56 to

196

4-65

)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

II(1

965-

66 to

197

4-75

)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

III

(197

5-76

to 1

984-

85)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

IV(1

985-

86 to

199

4-95

)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

V(1

995-

96 to

200

4-05

)

AP

Y

Dis

trict

s

TAB

LE I

Dec

ade-

wis

e co

mpo

und

grow

th ra

tes o

f are

a, p

rodu

ctio

n an

d yi

eld

of fi

nger

mill

et in

sele

cted

dis

tric

ts o

f Kar

nata

ka

Ban

galo

re1.

37*

1.15

-0 .4

5- 4

.72

*

6.65

9.90

*1.

850.

46- 1

.37

- 2.9

4*2.

095.

19-1

.37

-0.4

50.

92-1

.37*

0.92

**2.

32**

Rur

al

Tum

kur

1.37

**-0

.45

-2.0

9-3

.17*

7.64

*11

.17*

*1.

150.

920.

000.

695.

195.

43*

-0.9

2-1

.37

- 0.4

5

0.23

1.62

**1.

39**

Kol

ar0.

92-1

.82

- 4.5

0**

-2.0

513

.76*

*5.

19**

0.00

-7.9

5-7

.95

-2.5

0**

4.47

7.39

**-1

.37

-5.8

1-4

.72

-0.9

2**

1.15

*1.

62**

Mys

ore

2.09

2.56

0.

460.

0012

.46*

*12

.20*

*0.

922.

320.

46-1

.37

3.51

5.19

-4.0

5**

-6.8

8-3

.72

-0.6

8**

0.93

0.23

Man

dya

4.47

**6.

90

2.32

0.69

12.4

6**

12.4

6**

-2.2

7-5

.59

-2.0

5-3

.39

-2.0

51.

37-4

.93*

*-6

.67

-1.8

2

0.00

2.32

**2.

09**

Chi

tradu

rga

-2.5

0- 4

.93

-2.7

27.

64**

10.6

6*3.

033.

51*

2.80

3.27

-5.3

7**

-3.6

12.

32-3

.61

-4.0

5-0

.82

0.

69*

1.62

**1.

15**

* S

igni

fican

t at 5

% le

vel

*

* S

igni

fican

t at 1

% le

vel

A –

Are

a

P -

Prod

uctio

n

Y –

Yie

ld

Dec

ade

II(1

965-

66 to

197

4-75

)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

III

(197

5-76

to 1

984-

85)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

IV(1

985-

86 to

199

4-95

)

AP

Y

Dec

ade

V(1

995-

96 to

200

1-05

)

AP

YD

istri

cts

Dec

ade

I(1

955-

56 to

196

4-65

)

AP

Y

Ove

rall

AP

Y

Thus, an overall view of the growth rates in areaunder finger millet indicates a negative trend inBangalore rural, Kolar and Mysore districts. However,a significant positive growth in production and yieldwas observed in all the districts. This may be due tosustainability of production and yield in small areaswith improved varieties which are resistant to fingerblast such as GPU 28, GPU 66, PR 202, etc.

(c) Instability in area, production and yield offinger millet: The instability in area, production andyield of finger millet was calculated decade-wise andare presented in Table II.

Instability in area was low in all the districtsduring decade I compared to other decades. This is aperiod of pre green revolution in which much of thetechnology was not developed and there were nopopular varieties to try. Thereafter the instabilityincreased. The instability was low at 2.14 per cent forTumkur during decade I and was as high as 41.36 percent for Kolar during decade V.

Instability in production has increased over thedecades. It was low at 20.15 per cent for Bangalorerural during decade I and was very high at 90.96 percent for Kolar during decade V. The increase ininstability during decade II was attributed totechnology dissemination among farmers in terms ofapplication of fertilizers. The variability during thelast decade is due to drought during 2002 and a declinein rainfall. There was also major shift in croppingpattern and an inclination was more towards cashcrops.

Instability in yield was low at 11.23 per cent forKolar during decade I and as high as 47.08 per centfor Mysore during the same decade. A decline ininstability during decade II for majority of districtsmay be due to the adoption of green revolutiontechnology. The trend did not prevail during the thirdand fourth decades because there were popularvarieties such as Indaf series which dominated theother local varieties.

It is evident from the study that the area underfinger millet has been declining over the decades. The

main reason is that this crop is being replaced by othercash crops like maize, oil seeds such as sunflower,safflower, etc. However, the production and yield hasbeen maintained. Recent times, finger millet eventhough considered as a poor man’s crop is gainingimportance because of its nutritional qualities. Now-a-days, there is health awareness among people whichhas led to replace cereals like rice and wheat by fingermillet in their daily diet. From the farmer’s point ofview, due to severe drought conditions prevailing inrecent times, this crop can be grown with minimuminputs. Thus, there is a need to improve the productionand yield so as to sustain the demand for finger milletin future.

REFERENCES

DANDEKAR, 1980, Introduction, seminar and methodologyfor the study of growth rates in agriculture, Indian J.Agri. Econ., 35(2): 1-12.

DEV AND MAHENDRA, S., 1987, Growth and Instability infood Grains production: An interstate analysis,economic and political weekly, 22(39) : September26, pp. A82 – A 92.

GOWSAMI, S. N. AND CHALLA, O., 2006, Socio-economicfactors affecting land use in India, Agri. Situ. India,60(10): 615-623.

HAZELL AND PETER, B. R., 1982, Instability in Indian Foodgrains Production, Research ReportNo. 30, International Food Policy Research Institute,Washington D.C., U.S.A.

MEHRA AND SHAKUNTALA, 1981, Instability in IndianAgriculture in the Context of the New Technology,Research Report No.25, International Food PolicyResearch Institute, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

RAMESH CHAND AND RAJU, S.S., 2008, Instability in Indianagriculture during different phases of technology andpolicy, Discussion paper: NPP01, National Centre forAgricultural Economics and Policy Research, ICAR,New Delhi.

RAY, S. K., 1983, An empirical investigation of the natureand causes for growth and instability in IndianAgriculture: 1950-80, Indian J. Agri. Econ., 38(4):459-474.

GROWTH AND INSTABILITY ANALYSIS OF FINGER MILLET CROP IN KARNATAKA 39

(Received : April, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Impact of Nutrition Counselling on the Knowledge, Attitude and Practicesof Post-Menopausal Women with Orthopaedic Ailments

S. SHAMSHAD BEGUM, J. MUSTHARI BEGUM AND M. V. MUNISWAMAPPA

Bakery Training Unit, Directorate of Extension, UAS, Hebbal, Bangalore - 560 024

ABSTRACT

Menopause is the stage at which women stop ovulatingand, the menopausal period affects each womendifferently. There will be decline in the ovarian function resulting in lowered estrogen production responsible fora series of changes commonly known as menopausal changes like dizziness, headache, difficulty in breathing andheart palpitations, vasomotor disturbances, perspiration, nightsweats, irregular bleeding , hot flushes etc. In addition,orthopaedic ailments like chronic back pain, stiffness and osteoporosis are commonly observed. Nutrition educationand counselling plays an important role in improving nutritional status of an individual or community with respectto food, health and nutrition and convincing them to adopt desirable food habits. The impact of counselling onknowledge scores of the subjects is indicated that , before counselling only 11.4 and 22.4 per cent of the subjectswere aware of menopausal and orthopaedic ailments but after counselling gain in knowledge regarding the samewas found to be 74.28 and 65.71 per cent, respectively. In subjects after counselling the correlation co-efficientbetween knowledge and attitude and knowledge and practices showed positive (0.047, 0.023, respectively)correlation among the subjects. As knowledge increased there was improvement in attitude and practices. Hence,counselling improved KAP regarding menopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake. Hence,it can be concluded that nutrition counselling based on dietary modifications, lifestyle alterations can be used asthe basis of prevention and as a general strategy to overcome the menopausal problems and orthopaedic ailmentsin coming years.


MENOPAUSE is the stage at which women stopovulating. The menopausal period affects each womendifferently. However, most of the women experiencethis around the age of fifty and usually lasts up to fiftyfive years. The major endocrinal changes occur inwomen between 45 and 50 years of age with a declinein the ovarian function resulting in lowered estrogenproduction responsible for a series of changescommonly known as menopausal changes. The acutesymptoms experienced during menopause includedizziness, headache, difficulty in breathing and heartpalpitations, vasomotor disturbances, perspiration,nightsweats, irregular bleeding, hot flushes, vaginalthinning and dryness, mood changes, changes insexuality and insomnia. Further, the chronic changesthat occur includes vascular diseases and skeletalosteoporosis. In addition, orthopaedic ailments likechronic back pain, stiffness and osteoporosis arecommonly observed.

Nutrition education plays an important role inimproving nutritional status of an individual or

community with respect to food, health and nutritionand convincing them to adopt desirable food habits.Ignorance appears to be the most important singlefactor underlying malnutrition. However, certainstrategies such as nutrition counselling based ondietary modifications if implemented can decrease themorbidity associated with orthopaedic ailments inpost- menopausal women. Imparting diet counsellingto the subjects is highly beneficial in improvingnutrition, knowledge, attitude and practices test scores.Nutrition education has been reported to bring abouta marked improvement in the dietary pattern of studygroup in whom the frequency of usage of soy basedfoods intake was high (Deshpande and Bargale 2004).

The impact of training enhanced the knowledgeand readiness to incorporate millets in the daily dietand the trainees perceived that value added productsof millets were viable technologies for incomegeneration to rural community, (Nirmala Yenagi et al.2004). Nutrition counselling imparted changes likeadoption of desirable cooking practices that are helpfulfor prevention of heart diseases in coming years

(Navjot Kaur and chawla, 2006). Nutrition educationprovided insight into prevention of breast cancer forother minority populations, such as Latina, Asian andAmerican Indian Women.

Hence, the reviewed research data revealed thatawareness about relationship between bone health andnutrition, awareness about menopausal problemsamong women during pre-menopause, peri-menopauseand post-menopause is less. Hence, the education onawareness about bone health and nutrition, inclusionof calcium rich foods in daily dietary, menopause andmenopausal problems, management of menopause andassociated conditions assumes a greater importancespecially for women in India. Very few studies havebeen conducted on nutrition counselling ofmenopausal women. So, the present study wasconducted to study the impact of nutrition counsellingon the knowledge, attitude and practices of post-menopausal women with orthopaedic ailments


Selection of subjects : A group of 35 post-menopausal women with orthopaedic ailmentsattending the OPD of Victoria Hospital werepurposively selected to assess knowledge, attitude andpractice scores of subjects. The patients were sufferingfrom menopausal problems and they also hadorthopaedic ailments.

Knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) test :Multiple choice questions were developed to assessthe knowledge of the subjects pertaining to generaldiet, calcium rich foods, soybean and factors relatedto orthopaedic ailment and menopausal problems.Simple questions were structured to assess the attitudeand dietary practices followed by the subjects. Pre andpost-tests of knowledge, attitude and practices wasconducted by using interview method.

Nutrition counselling : Based on the results ofKAP, nutrition counselling programme was planned.Knowledge was imparted to a group of 35 subjectsthrough lectures, posters, leaflets, CD’s and personaldiscussion on various topics such as menopause,menopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments. A bookletentitled, ‘How to improve your Bone Health? ‘ which

had detailed information with regard to dietary intake,calcium rich foods, healthy dietary and cookingpractices was provided to subjects for a long termbenefit. Information was translated in Kannada for thebenefit of those who do not follow the information inEnglish. Nutrition counselling was imparted weeklyfor a period of three months along with medical doctor.

Assessment of impact of nutrition counselling onKAP scores : To study the impact of nutritioncounselling on knowledge, attitude and practices(KAP), post KAP test was conducted. Scoring wasdone on the following basis: Scores of one and zerowere awarded, respectively to each correct and wronganswer. Gain in scores and per cent improvement wascalculated using following equations:

Statistical analysis : The data was classified,tabulated using SPSS office package windows 2003,expressed as percentage, mean ±SD. The results wereanalysed statistically using t-test to determine whetherthere is any significant change in the parameters likeknowledge, attitude and practice of the subjects. Percent improvement was calculated. Correlationco-efficient between knowledge and practices wascalculated before counselling and after counselling(Kothari, 2004).


Impact of counselling on menopausal problems,orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake onknowledge scores of the subjects : The counsellingwas done to subjects selected for nutrition intervention.The impact of counselling on knowledge scores of thesubjects is indicated in Table I. Nutrition counsellingto subjects resulted in desirable changes in theknowledge related practices / parameters. Beforecounselling, only 11.4 and 22.4 per cent of the subjectswere aware of menopausal and orthopaedic ailments,but, after counselling, gain in knowledge regardingthe same was found to be 74.28 and 65.71 per cent,respectively. Only 5.71 per cent of them were aware

IMPACT OF NUTRITION COUNSELLING ON POST-MENOPAUSAL WOMEN WITH ORTHOPAEDIC AILMENTS 41

Gain in scores = Scores of post test - score of pretest

× 100 % improvement =Gaininscores

Pre-test scores

TABLE I

Impact of counselling on menopausal, orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake on knowledgescores of the subjects

Particulars

Menopausal problems 4 11.42 26 74.3Orthopaedic ailments 8 22.85 22 62.8Occurrence of fractures 2 5.71 28 80.0Influence of nutritional status on - - 16 45.7menopausal problemsBone health 6 17.14 26 74.3Nutitional information of ragi and soya 8 22.85 28 80.0Beneficial effects of soy on menopausal health - - 24 68.6Influence of lifestyle on menopausal 3 8.57 23 65.7problems and bone healthMenopausal health 3 8.57 22 62.8Influence of exercise and bone health - - 18 51.4

Multiple responses are possible

(n=35)

Before counselling After counselling

No. per cent per cent

of the occurrence of fractures, but, after counselling80 per cent of the subjects gained knowledge regardingoccurrence of fractures during post-menopausalperiod. The subjects were totally unaware about theinfluence of nutritional status on menopausalproblems. However, after nutrition counselling 45.71per cent of the subjects developed awareness.

The knowledge regarding importance of bonehealth and menopausal health was understood by only17.14 and 8.57 of the subjects, but, after counsellingthe gain in knowledge was observed among 74.28 and62.85 per cent of the subjects. Hence, ‘nutritioncounselling will improve the nutritional knowledgeof the subjects’.

The beneficial effects of soy on menopausalhealth was again not known to the subjects however,after counselling 68.57 per cent developed awareness.Regarding influence of lifestyle on menopausalproblems and bone health, only 8.57 of the subjectswere aware before counselling. Anyhow, it was noticedthat after counselling the awareness increased to 65.71per cent among subjects.

Impact of counselling on menopausal problems,orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake on attitudescores of the subjects : The attitude scores of thesubjects is indicated in Table II. Nutrition counsellingimparted to subjects resulted in desirable changes inattitudes related to menopausal problems, orthopaedicailments and nutritional intake.

On pre-testing it was observed that only 11.42per cent of the subjects felt that exposure to sunlightis good for bone health, but, after counselling, 80 percent of the subjects could understand the benefit ofbone health. The awareness regarding nutrients toimprove bone health was found to be 17.14 per centon pre-testing which was improved by 74.28 per centon post-testing. The beneficial effect of consumptionsoy and its products was understood only aftercounselling. The score initially was zero and increasedto 80 per cent after counselling.The benefits ofconsumption of milk and other calcium supplementswas 11.42 and 5.71 per cent before counselling, but,after counselling it increased to 77.14 and 74.28 percent, respectively among subjects.

42 S. SHAMSHAD BEGUM et al.

No.

TABLE II

Impact of counselling on menopausal, orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake on attitude scoresof the subjects

Particulars

Exposure to sunlight is good for bone health 4 11.42 28 80Awareness of medicines to improve bone health 2 5.71 26 74.28Soy and its products should not be consumed as - - 28 80they are difficult to digestMilk is rich in calcium and is beneficial for bone 4 11.42 27 77.14healthCalcium supplements are beneficial for adults 2 5.71 26 74.28Cardiovascular diseases and obesity are higher in 6 17.14 18 51.42post-menopasual womenMenopause has relation to heart disease 3 8.57 23 65.71Exercise reduces symptoms like hot flushes and 5 14.28 26 74.28insomnia in post-menopausal womenDietary pattern and life style has major impact on 8 22.85 28 80occurrence of fractures in post-menopausalwomenStressful life adds to menopausal problems 7 20 23 65.71

(n=35)


The subjects were not aware of the associateddiseases of menopause, but, after counselling 51.42per cent of the subjects came to know that prevalenceof cardiovascular diseases and obesity are highlyassociated during postmenopausal period in women.However, 65.71 per cent of the subjects could realizemenopause and its association to heart disease aftercounselling.

Menopausal symptoms can be relieved byaltering the life style, however, only 14.28 per cent ofthe subjects were aware that exercise reducessymptoms like hot flushes and insomnia in post-menopausal women but after counselling 74.28 percent of the subjects were aware of the same. Majorityof the subjects could also relate that the dietary patternand life style has major impact on occurrence offractures in post-menopausal women indicating theeffect of counselling. However, after counselling 65.71per cent of the subjects were aware that stress in lifecan add to the problems of menopausal women.

Impact of counselling on menopausal,orthopaedic ailments and nutritional intake onpractices of subjects : The data regarding impact ofcounselling on menopausal, orthopaedic ailments andnutritional intake on practices of the subjects ispresented in Table III. Nutrition counselling impartedto subjects resulted in desirable changes in practicesrelated to menopausal problems, orthopaedic ailmentsand nutritional intake. Misconceptions were prevalentin relation to dietary factors as only 17.14 per cent ofsubjects preferred to use combination of flours and22.85 per cent of the subjects preferred washing ofvegetables before cutting, but, change in thesepractices was however seen in 80 per cent of thesubjects after nutrition counselling.

It was found that 28.57 per cent of the subjectwere experiencing menopausal symptoms andproblems, but, after counselling and nutritionintervention, the occurrence of was reduced to 17.14per cent among subjects.


No. per cent No. per cent

nutrition intake before and after counselling ispresented in Table IV. The mean scores related toknowledge improved from 2.37 to 9.2 after nutritioneducation counselling with gain of 6.83 scores. Themean scores for attitude was found to increase from3.10 to 8.73 after nutritional counselling with gain of5 .63 scores. (Fig. 1). Similarly, the mean scores forpractices adopted by the subjects with respect to themenopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments andnutrition intake was found to increase from 2.83 to8.93 with a gain of 6.13 scores. The paired t-testindicated significant difference at five per cent levelfor all the parameters before and after intervention.

Correlation co-efficient between knowledge,attitude and practices regarding menopausalproblems, orthopaedic ailments and nutritionalintake : The data regarding correlation coefficientbetween knowledge, attitude and practices regardingmenopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments andnutritional intake is indicted in Table V.

During counselling after getting awareness aboutthe beneficial effects of ragi and soybean the usage ofrage and soybean and preference for fresh fruit, GLVthan meat was increased from to 37.14 per cent to82.85 per cent among subjects.

The awareness regarding modification of lifestyleto overcome the menopausal problems and orthopaedicailments was found to increase from 20 per cent to74.28 per cent among subjects. Around 54.28 per centof the subjects preferred to exercise regularly aftercounselling.

Before counselling, the subjects were consumingexcess of tea or coffee to an extent of 74.28 per centof the subjects, but, after counselling it was reducedto 25.71 per cent among subjects due to the awarenessthrough nutrition counselling.

KAP scores regarding menopausal problems,orthopaedic ailments and nutrition intake before andafter counselling : The mean scores related to theknowledge, attitude and practices regardingmenopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments and

TABLE III

Impact of counselling on menopausal, orthopedic ailments and nutritional intake on practices of thesubjects

Combination of flours or fortified flours used 6 17.14 28 80

Washing of vegetables before cutting 8 22.85 28 80

Cooking in a covered pan 18 51.42 27 77.14

Exposure to sunlight 12 34.28 24 68.57

Menopausal symptoms and problems 10 28.57 6 17.14

Using ragi and soybean 18 51.42 30 85.71

Preference of fresh fruit, GLV than meat 13 37.14 29 82.85

Consumption of milk and milk products 8 22.85 22 62.85

Modification in life style 7 20.0 26 74.28

Excessive consumption of tea or coffee 26 74.28 9 25.71

Exercising regularly 7 20.0 19 54.28

Particulars

(n=35)



No. per cent No. per cent

TABLE IV

Knowledge, attitude and practices regarding menopausal problems, orthopaedic ailments andnutrition intake before and after counselling

Knowledge Before 71 2.37 ±1.32 6.3 4.84*

After 276 9.20 ± 0.80

Attitude Before 43 3.10 ± 1.12 5.63 9.62*

After 262 8.73 ± 0.69

Practice Before 84 2.83 ± 1.06 6.13 2.56*

After 268 8.93 ± 1.08

Parameters

(n=35)

Interventions Totalscore

Mean ±S.D.

Differenceof mean

Pairedt-test

Fig. 1. Comparison of mean scores with regard to KAP ofthe subjects before and after intervention

TABLE V

Correlation co-efficient between knowledge, attitude and practices regarding menopausal problems,orthopedic ailments and nutritional intake

(n=35)

Knowledge 1.0000 -0.1411 -0.0685 1.000 0.0471 0.023

Attitude -0.1411 1.0000 -0.1557 0.0471 1.0000 -0.0805

Practice -0.0685 -0.1557 1.0000 0.0230 -0.0805 1.0000

ParametersKnowledge Attitude Practice

After counselling

Knowledge Attitude Practice

Before counselling

It was observed that there was negativecorrelation among the knowledge, attitude andpractices regarding menopausal problems amongsubjects before counselling.

In subjects after counselling, the correlation co-efficient between knowledge and attitude andknowledge and practices showed positive (0.047,0.023, respectively) correlation among the subjects.As knowledge increased there was improvement inattitude and practices. Hence, counselling improvedKAP regarding menopausal problems, orthopaedicailments and nutritional intake. In this KAP study, itwas found that more emphasis should be given on


attitude so as to improve their practices. The studycan be still continued and carried out on the sameaspect.

Similar results were observed by Kaur andChawla (2006), where on post-test, a significantimprovement in scores was observed in knowledge,attitude and practices of cardiovascular subjects andthey adopted some desirable cooking practices also.

As observed by Deshpande and Bargale (2004)who studied the impact of nutrition education onutilization of soybean found that 10.6 per cent of ruralwomen were using soybean in daily preparationsfollowed by 6.6 per cent thrice in a week and 17.3 percent once in a week on counselling.

The impact of training studied by Yenagi et al.(2004) enhanced the knowledge and readiness toincorporate millets 25, 50 and 100 per cent level inwheat, rice and pulse recipes in the daily diet toimprove nutrition security.

It was also observed by Geetha and MushtariBeghum (2001) in a K.A.P. study conducted onprisoners to study the effect of nutritional counselling,that a person’s knowledge and attitude towardsnutritional aspect can have a positive effect to promotebetter practice with regard to health and nutrition asreflected in the results indicating highly significant.

Nutrition counselling was done to subjects duringintervention on use of finger millet composite flourmix for a period of 3 months. In order to have a longterm benefit the subjects were provided with bookletboth in English and local language-Kannada whichprovided detailed information with regard to

menopausal problems and their management,orthopaedic ailments, associated conditions and otherrelevant topics related to post-menopausal period.

Therefore, nutrition education thus brought amarked improvement in the dietary pattern of studygroup and therefore the frequency of usage of soybased foods intake improved greatly. Hence, it can beconcluded that nutrition counselling based on dietarymodifications, lifestyle alterations can be used as thebasis of prevention and as a general strategy to overcome the menopausal problems and orthopaedicailments in coming years.

REFERENCES

DESHPANDE, S. S. AND BARGALE, P. C., 2004, Impact ofnutrition education on utilization of soybean inselected rural areas of Bhopal district. Proc. NutritionSociety of India, XXXVI Annual Meet, 5_6th

November. Mysore.

GEETHA, K. AND MUSHTARI BEGUM. J., 2001, Ph.D. Thesissubmitted to Bangalore University, Bangalore.

KOTHARI, C. R., 2004, Research methodology - methodsand techniques, New Age, International PublishersLtd, New Delhi-110 002.

NAVJOT KAUR AND CHAWLA, P., 2006, Impact of nutritioncounselling on the knowledge, attitude and practicescores of at risk coronary heart disease subjects.The Ind. J. Nutr, Dietet. 43 : 82.

NIRMALA YENAGI, USHA MALAGI, SHANTH KUMAR AND PATIL,S. A., 2004, Promotion of value added minor milletproducts to enhance the contribution to food securityand incomes of the rural poor. Proc. Nutrition Societyof India, XXXVI Annual Meet Mysore.



Genetic Variability and Inter-Relationship among M3 and F3M3 Mutant of TetraploidWheat (Triticum sp.) for Yield and Quality Parameters

G. RAMYA, K. MADHUSUDAN, P. E. PRADEEP, I. K. KALAPPANAVAR AND V. SUJAY

All India Co-ordinated Wheat Improvement Project, UAS, Dharwad - 580 005

ABSTRACT

2760 mutants which are in M3 and F3M3 generation were evaluated for yield and quality parameters inaugmented (RCBD) design at Dharwad during rabi 2008-09. The mutants showed highly significant variation foralmost all the traits except starch content. Presence of narrow gap between phenotypic coefficient of variation(PCV) and genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) for all the characters under study suggested that expressionof these traits have low environmental influence. Heritability estimates were high for days to 50 per cent flowering,days to maturity, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, protein, and zeleny sedimentation value. This suggested thegreater effectiveness of selection and improvement to be expected for these characters in future breeding programmeas the genetic variance is mostly is due to additive gene expression. High heritability coupled with high geneticadvance as per cent over mean was observed for the character yield per plant. Seed yield per plant had significantpositive association with 1000-grain weight, starch content and zeleny sedimentation value can be utilized inbreeding for high yielding free threshable mutants with improved quality.


DICOCCUM wheat [Triticum dicoccum (Schrank.)Schulb] is a tetraploid wheat (2n 28) commonly knownas jave, khapli, samba, sadaka, sajjage etc., istraditionally cultivated in Karnataka, southernMaharashtra, Sourashtra region of costal Gujarath,parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. This speciesalso possesses a very high degree of resistance to stemand leaf rusts and tolerant to moisture stress. Dicoccumwheat is a good source of protein and dietary fibre(Buvaneshwari et al., 1998). It is a suitable cereal fordiabetes and cardiovascular disease due to its capacityto lower blood glucose and lipid levels (Yenagi et al.,1999). Hence, on account of being a special food,dicoccum wheat always fetches premium price in themarkets as compared to bread and durum wheats.

Further, the extent of variation realized byhybridization especially in case of dicoccum wheathas been often reported to be inadequate (Porfiri etal., 1998; D’ Antuono et al., 1998 and Tomar et aI.,1989). It is suggested that the application of mutationtreatment to hybrids may be one means of adding thevariability inherent in the cross. Experiment byGregory (1956) on peanut that the variation inducedby irradiation might be cumulative with that ofhybridization. Similar results were also observed inwheat (Ram et al., 1987 and Pavlova, 1993). Keeping

these things in view, present study was undertaken toestimate genetic variability and association studies foryield and quality parameters among the inducedmutants.


The present experiment was conducted duringrabi season of 2008-09. Induced mutants were grownin the field at Wheat Improvement Project fields, Dr.Sanjay Rajaram Wheat Laboratory, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Dharwad. The experimental siteis located between 15° 26’N latitude and 75° 07’Elongitude and has altitude of 678 m above the meansea level. It comes under transitional tract ofKarnataka. The material for the present study wasgenerated using two dicoccum varieties DDK. l001,DDK 1025 and two durum variety DWR 1006, HD4502. All combinations of crosses were done by takingdicoccum as female and durum as male during rabiseason of 2006-07.

Each hybrid and the parental lines were treatedwith chemical mutagen, Ethyl Methane Sulphonate(EMS) at 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 per cent concentration asper the standard procedure. Grains (husk removed) ofeach of the genotypes were pre-soaked in water for 14hours. The pre-soaked seeds were treated with the

chemical mutagen EMS for 6 hours with constantstirring. After EMS treatment, seeds were thoroughlywashed with water for 4-5 times then immediatelysown in the field.

Similarly, seeds of each of hybrid and theirparents were exposed to 150Gy, 200Gy, 250Gy{GyGrey (1Grey10krad)} gamma rays treatments fromCobolt60 source at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre(BARC), Trombay, Mumbai at equilibrium moisturecontent of eight per cent. Following irradiation andchemical mutagen treatment of seeds, different M1 andF1M1 were grown in the field during kharif 2007.Surviving plants were selfed to get the seeds ofrespective M2 and F2M1 generations and again selfedto get M3 and F3M3 during rabi 2007-08. This materialcomprised of 2760 mutants, details of mutants fromdifferent treatments were presented in Table I andschematic diagram of development of material isdepicted in Fig. 1.

During rabi 2008-09, 2760 mutants were sownin an augmented (RCBD) design, mutants in one metrerow with spacing of 23 cm. Each block contains 40mutants with 3 local checks. The recommendedpackage of practices was followed to raise a good cropstand. Observations were recorded on five randomly

TABLE I

Number of nutant lines used for the study in M3 generation

DWR 1006 200 65 45 134 29 14 577

HD 4502 37 55 4 65 54 30 245

DDK 1001 76 31 17 21 26 27 198

DDK 1025 135 59 2 57 10 20 283

DDK 1001 × DWR 1006 96 44 30 44 73 67 354

DDK 1001 × HD 4502 78 78 18 56 40 46 316

DDK 1001 × HD 4502 101 50 90 74 7 24 346

DDK 1025 × DWR 1006 147 139 34 81 22 18 431

Total 960 521 240 532 261 246 2760

Parents /crosses

Gamma rays (Gy)

150 200 250

EMS (%)

0.2 0.3 0.4Total

selected plants in each entry for data on days to 50 percent flowering (DFF), days to maturity (DM), 1000-grain weight (TGW), grain yield (YPP) were recordedand quality parameters viz., Protein (PC), Starch (SC),Wet gluten (WG), and Zeleny sedimentation value(ZSV) by using Infratec™ 1241 Grain Analyzer afterproper sun drying. PCV and GCV values werecategorized as low, moderate and high as indicated bySivasubramanian and Menon (1973). Heritability(Broad Sense) was categorized as low, moderate andhigh as given by Robinson et al. (1949). Geneticadvance as per cent mean was categorized as low,moderate and high as given by Johnson et al. (1955).Genotypic and phenotypic correlations were calculatedby using the formula given by Weber and Moorthy(1952). WINDOSTAT (version 8.0) software is usedto obtain genetic parameters.


The mutants showed highly significant variationfor days to 50 per cent flowering, days to maturity,thousand-grain weight, grain yield per plant, proteincontent, wet gluten and zeleny sedimentation value,but, no significant variation was found for the traitstarch content. Analysis of variance is presented inthe Table II. All the mutants under the study displayed

48 G. RAMYA et al.

Fig.

1. F

low

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rt sh

owin

g de

velo

pmen

t of e

xper

imen

tal m

ater

ial u

pto

M3 /

F3M

3 gen

erat

ion

GENETIC VARIABILITY AND INTER-RELATIONSHIP AMONG M3 AND F3M3 MUTANT OF TETRAPLOID WHEAT 49

TABLE II

Analysis of variance for yield, yield attributing and quality traits of tetraploid wheat

Block(elininating check - Var.) 68 3.73 8.50 6.59 7.73 0.14 1.50 0.65 15.27

Entries(ignoring blocks) 2762 29.90** 42.42** 21.48** 123.22** 0.46** 0.86 1.87** 2487.79**

Checks 2 1436.58 2724.27 1130.51 559.63 92.84 867.07 93.58 1661.99

Varieties 2759 28.89 39.54 9.75 120.63 0.34 0.23 1.80 2478.47

Checks vs. Varieties 1 33.43 2653.53 30187.76 6412.80 160.39 3.34 16.39 29860.19

Error 136 1.62 2.15 2.70 17.39 0.16 1.02 1.09 12.36

CD (5%) – 3.87 3.52 4.9 11.58 0.84 3.87 2.38 2.26

S.Em ± – 1.95 1.78 2.48 5.85 0.42 1.95 1.20 1.14

Sources ofvariation

DF DFF DM TGW YPP PC SC WG ZSV

considerable amount of differences in their meanperformance with respect to all the characters studiedexcept starch content. This had also been exemplifiedby highly significant mean sum of squares for thesetraits which indicated that the lines used for the studywere genetically diverse. The mutants showed a widerange of variation, which provides ample scope forselection of superior and desired mutants by the plantbreeders for further improvement in tetraploid wheat.

The values of mean, range, phenotypic coefficientof variation (PCA), genotypic coefficient of variation(GCA), heritability (h2), genetic advance (GA) andgenetic advance over mean (GAM) for eight charactersstudied are presented in Table III. An assessment ofheritable and non-heritable components in the totalvariability is indispensable in adopting suitablebreeding procedure. The heritable portion of theoverall observed variation can be ascertained bystudying the components of variation such ascoefficients of genotypic and phenotypic variability,heritability and predicted genetic advance. Presenceof narrow gap between phenotypic coefficient ofvariation (PCV) and genotypic coefficient of variation(GCV) for all the characters under study suggested

that expression of these traits have low environmentalinfluence.

The phenotypic and genotypic coefficients ofvariation were highest for seed yield per plant,suggesting that these characters are under the influenceof genetic control (Ajmal et al., 2009). Hence, simpleselection can be relied upon and practiced for furtherimprovement of these characters. Low GCV and PCVwere recorded for days to 50 per cent flowering(Shukla and Sigh, 2004), days to maturity, 1000-grainweight (Ajmal et al., 2009), protein content (Mevlutet al., 2009), starch content, wet gluten, zelenysedimentation value (Mevlut et al., 2009).

Genotypic coefficients of variability (GCV)would be more useful for the assessment of inherentor real variability as it exhibits the heritable portiononly (Allard, 1960). The estimated GCV for differentcharacters was almost the same as that of PCV.Therefore it is evident, that the influence ofenvironment on the expression of these characters wasinvariably low in the study. It may be assumed thatthe phenotypic variability as such can be utilized inmaking selection.

50 G. RAMYA et al.

TABLE III

Estimates of range, mean and different genetic parameters for yield, yield attributing and qualitytraits of tetraploid wheat

DFF 58.4 44 67 6.02 6.15 93.0 10.0 17.2

DM 100.0 84 115 8.67 8.99 95.7 12.1 12.15

TGW 30.9 7 93 8.3 10.11 67.3 4.26 14.03

YPP 31.2 20.8 48.2 32.57 35.29 85.1 18.86 61.92

PC 13.8 11.5 15.7 3.52 4.14 72.1 0.85 6.16

SC 61.6 54.3 66.2 0.72 0.91 54.8 5.82 9.57

WG 34.8 31.8 38.2 2.90 3.79 58.3 1.58 4.56

ZSV 52.5 34.9 498.8 8.98 9.10 86.8 9.70 18.25

Characters Mean Range

Min. Max.

GCV PCV h2 (%) GA GAM

Heritability estimates reveal the heritable portionof variability present in different characters. Theknowledge of heritability enables the plant breeder todecide the course of selection procedure to be followedunder a given situation. However, heritability valuescoupled with genetic advance would be more reliable(Johnson et al., 1955) and useful in formulatingselection procedure. In the present study, heritabilityestimates in broad sense and genetic advance as percent of mean were estimated. Heritability estimateswere high for all the characters studied, except forstarch content and wet gluten (Subhashchandra et al.,2009). This suggested the greater effectiveness ofselection and improvement to be expected for thesecharacters in future breeding programme as the geneticvariance is mostly due to additive gene expression.

In the present study, high heritability coupledwith high genetic advance as per cent over mean wasobserved for yield per plant. This indicates the lesserinfluence of environment in expression of thesecharacters and prevalence of additive gene action intheir inheritance, hence are amenable for simpleselection. The high genetic advance over mean coupledwith moderate to high heritability suggested theimportance of additive gene action for these traits. The

moderately high heritability and low genetic advancefor remaining characters indicating the presence ofnon-additive gene action and role of environment inexpression of these traits. Therefore, priority shouldbe given to those traits which recorded higher estimatesof genetic advance as per cent mean while decidingselection strategies and selection based on thesecharacters may be useful in realizing better gain byselection.

The phenotypic correlation coefficients wereworked out for yield, yield attributing and qualitycharacters and the values are presented in Table IV.Association of seed yield with 1000-grain weight,starch content and zeleny sedimentation value (Waqar-Ul-Haq et al., 2010 and Konvalina et aI., 2009) werefound to be significant and positively correlated. Daysto 50 per cent flowering, days to maturity, proteincontent and wet gluten were negatively correlated,among which protein content and wet gluten weresignificant, but negatively correlated.

Significant positive correlation was observed fordays to 50 per cent flowering with days to maturity,protein content and wet gluten and negative significantcorrelation with 1000 grain weight, starch content and


TABLE IV

Estimation of Phenotypic Correlations coefficients for yield, yield attributing and quality trits oftetraploid wheat

DFF 1

DM -954.** 1

YPP -.035 -0.14 1

TGW -.036* .092** .193** 1

PC .108** .066** -0.61** -.248** 1

SC -.172** -.191** .057** .173** -.317** 1

WG .022 .004 -.107** -.100** -.054** .069** 1

ZSV -054** -.062** .057** -.045* -.095** .006 .050** 1

* Significant at 5%, .0.05–0.0355 ** Significant at 1%, 0.01–0.0467

Characters DFF DM YPP TGW PC SC WG ZSV

zeleny sedimentation value, whereas, negativelyassociated with yield per plant. On the contrary, daysto maturity is significant and positively correlated with1000-grain weight and protein content, whereas, nonsignificant positively correlated with wet gluten. 1000-grain weight exhibited negative and significantcorrelation with protein content, wet gluten, zelenysedimentation value and positive significantcorrelation with starch content. Positive significantcorrelation was observed between protein content, but,protein content was found to be significant butnegatively correlated with starch content, wet glutenand zeleny sedimentation value. Starch contentcorrelated positively with zeleny sedimentation valueand significantly positive correlation with wet gluten.On contrary, wet gluten was found to be positivelycorrelated with zeleny sedimentation value.

The authors are extremely indebted to the Dr.Sanjaya Rajaram Wheat Laboratory, All IndiaCoordinated Wheat Improvement Project, Universityof Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad for providingexperimental material and Bhabha Atomic ResearchCentre, Trombay for radiation treatment of theexperimental material and financial support.

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BHUVANESHWARI, G., YENAGI, N. B., HANCHINAL, R. R. AND

NAIK, R K., 1998, Nutritional and therapeuticqualities of Triticum dicoccum wheat varieties. In:The 4th International Food Convention, Mysore,Karnataka, India, 23-27.

D’ANTUONO, L. F., MINELLI, M. AND JARADT, A. A, 1998,Yield and yield components analysis of emmer wheat(Triticum dicoccum Schulber) land races from Italy.Triticeae III: Proc. 3rd International Triticeae Symp.,Aleppa, Syria, 4-8 May, 1998, pp.393-404.

GREGORY, W. C., 1956, The comparative effect of radiationand hybridization in plant breeding. Proc. 1st UNConf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 12: 48-54.

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KONVALINA, P., MOUDRY JR, J., CAPOUCHOVA 1. AND MOUDRY,J., 2009, Baking quality of winter wheat varieties inorganic farming. Agron. Res., 7: 612-617.

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MEVLUT, A., 2009, Genetic variability and interrelationshipamong grain yield and some quality traits in Turkishwinter durum wheat landraces. Turk. J Agric., 33:547-556.

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PODIRI, O., D’ ANTUONO, L. F., CODIANNI, P., MAZZA, L.,CASTAGNA, R. AND JARADAT, A. A., 1998, Evaluationof an Italian hulled wheat collection for agronomicand quality characters. . Triticeace III: Proceedingsof the Third International Triticeae Symposium,Alleposysia, 4-8 May, pp.387-392.

RAM, B., SIKKA, V. K., YUNUS, M. AND NAIDU, M. R., 1987,Polygenic variation in wheat following hybridizationand mutagenesis. Ann. Bio., 3: 107-110.

ROBINSON, H. F., COMSTOCK, R. E. AND HARVEY, P. H., 1949,Genotypic and phenotypic correlations in com andtheir implications in selection. Agron. J, 43: 282-287.

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SIVASUBRAMANIAN, S. AND MENON, M., 1973, Heterosis andinbreeding depression in rice. Madras Agric. J., 60:1139.

SUBHASHCHANDRA, B., LOHITHASWA, H. C., DESAI, S. A.,HANCHINAL, R. R., KALAPPANAVAR, I. K., MATH, K. K.AND SALIMATH, P. M., 2009, Assessment of geneticvariability and relationship between genetic diversityand transgressive seggregation in tetraploid wheat.Karnataka. J Agric. Sci., 22 (1): 36-38.

TOMAR, S. M. S., KOCHUMADHAVAN, M. AND NAMBISAN, P. N.N., 1989, Hybrid weakness in Triticum dicoccumSchulb. Wheat Information Service, 69: 21-23.

WAQAR-UL-HAQ, MUHAMMAD, M. AND ZAHID, A., 2010,Estimation of interrelationships among yield and yieldrelated attributes in wheat lines. Pak. J. Bot., 42(1):567-573.

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YENAGI, N. B., HANCHINAL, R. R. AND SUMA, C., 1999,Nutritional quality of dicoccum wheat semolina andits use in planning therapeutic diets. Paper presentedin 32nd Annual Meeting of Nutrition Society of India,Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, 25-26 November,1999.


(Received : April, 2011 Accepted : December, 2012)

Effect of Processing Techniques on the Bio-accessibility of Micronutrients in SelectedGenotypes of Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum)

ANWARA A. KHATUN, SUNANDA SHARAN, K. P. VISWANATHA AND B. VEENA

Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Legumes are good source of calcium, iron and zinc, but, are also a source of phytate and other antinutritional factors and dietary fibre components that can negatively affect the bio-accessibility of these minerals.Ten horsegram genotypes were studied for estimation of calcium and iron content as well as the bio-accessibiJityof these two minerals. The effect of processing such as germination, cooking and roasting on the bio-accessibilitywas also studied. The calcium and iron content of ten horsegram genotypes ranged from.244 to 312 and 5.89 to7.44 mg / 100 g of seed, respectively. In-vitro bio-accessibility of iron and calcium of raw horsegram genotypesranged from 0.26 to 0.85 and 22.50 to 38.50 mg / 100 g of seeds, respectively. Germination, cooking and roastingsignificantly increased the in-vitro bio-accessibility of iron and calcium. Highest increase was achieved bygermination followed by cooking and roasting.


LEGUMES constitute the major source of protein forlarge group of people around the world, especially invegetarian diets. They are a good source of mineralsand are also a good source of complex carbohydratesand fibre which play an important role in certainchronic disorders like diabetes and cardiovasculardiseases. Plant foods such as cereals and legumes haveconsistently been considered as the major potentialsources of dietary protein for feeding the growingpopulation (Deshpande, 1992). Among food legumes,horsegram is a valuable source of protein, mineralsand vitamins and can play an important role in humannutrition in many developing countries like India. Butthe presence of anti nutritional factors would lowerthe nutritive value of legumes which interfere in theminerals bio-avaialability (Reddy et al., 1982).horsegram, (Macrotyloma uniflorum) is an importantminor legume crop of India, because of its adaptabilityto poor soil and adverse climatic conditions. It is saidto be a good source of minerals especially calciumand phosphorus required for healthy bones andcomparatively cheaper than other pulses and hence, itis called as poor man’s pulse. Though, horsegram is arich source of minerals like calcium and phosphorus,the bio-accessibility of these minerals is in jeopardybecause of its higher amount of antinutritional factorssuch as phytates, oxalate and so on which prevent theiravailability. From the nutritional point of view, it isinteresting not only to know the mineral used fornormal physiological function or storage. To estimatemineral bio-availability in foods, in-vivo and in-vitro

methods have been proposed. in-vitro methods aregenerally based on stimulation of gastro intestinaldigestion and estimation of the proportion of theingested nutrients convertible to an absorbable formin the digestive tract by measuring the soluble fractionor the fraction that dialyses through a membrane. Inthe later case the results are expressed as dialyzablefractions (dialysabilities).Vicente et al. (2001)considering the above aspects, horsergram genotypeswere subjected to different traditional processingmethods such as germination, cooking and roasting.The main aim was to evaluate the effect of householdprocessing methods on iron and calcium bio-accessibility which is the nutrient status of this cheaperpulse.


Ten different varieties of horsegram seeds werecollected from the AICRP on Arid Legumes,University of Agricultural Sciences GKVK,Bangalore, India. Seeds were soaked overnight andgerminated in muslin cloth for 18 hours and dried at50°C in hot air oven to get germinated seeds. On theother hand to obtain pressure cooked seeds, horsegramseeds were soaked overnight and the water was drainedoff and pressure cooking was done for 20 min. andcooked water was discarded and seeds were dried in ahot air oven at 50°C temperature. In case of roasting,seeds were roasted in an iron pan for three to fiveminutes. Finally, the processed and raw seeds wereground to fine powder separately, stored in plastic

containers at ambient temperature and used forestimation. Calcium was estimated by titrimetricmethod, while, iron was estimated through AtomicAbsorption and Spectrophotometric methods. Bio-accessibility of iron and calcium was carried out asper the procedure of Rao and Prabhavathi (1978) andLuten et al. (1996). For in-vitro dialysability of bio-accessible iron and calcium, 10 g sample was mixedwith 80 ml water in a 250 ml beaker. The pH wasadjusted to two by adding six M HCl. The pH waschecked after 15 min and if necessary readjusted totwo. Three ml of freshly prepared pepsin (16 g pepsinin 100 ml 0.1 M HCl) solution was added and thesample was made up to 100ml with water. Aftermixing, the sample was incubated at 37°C in a shakerwater bath for two hours. The gastric digests werestored in ice for 90 min.). Titrable acidity wasmeasured in an aliquot. Homogenized pepsin digestaliquots (20 g) were weighed in to 250 ml beaker whichwas placed in water at 37°C for five minutes. Segmentsof dialysis membranes (containing 25 ml water andNaHCO3 being equivalent in moles to the NaOH usedto determine the incubated at 37°C in a Shaker waterbath) put into the beaker (containing 29 g pepsindigest) and kept in water bath at 37°C for incubation.After 30 min. the pH was measured and five gram ofthe pancreatin mixture was added to each digest. Thedigest was incubated in a shaker water bath for twohours at 37°C. At the end of the incubation period,the pH was measured and checked for 7. The dialysisbags were rinsed with water, carefully dried andweighed. The content of each dialysis bag wastransferred into acid washed containers and analyzedfor its composition of iron by Spectro photometricmethod (AOAC, 1965) and calcium was analysed byRaghuramulu et al. (2003).


Calcium and iron content of 10 raw horsegramgenotypes are presented in Table I. The calcium

content ranged from 244 mg in BGM-1 to 312 mg inGHG-13 per 100 g dry sample. Iron content rangedfrom 5.89 mg in CRHG-10 to 7.44 mg in GHG-5 per100 g. The bio-accessibility of iron and calcium fromraw and processed sample is presented in Table II andTable III, respectively. Table II represents the bio-accessible iron in dry sample of raw seeds and theeffects of different household processing on the same.Mean bio-accessible iron content was 0.48 mg / l00 gwith a range of 0.26 mg to 0.85 mg / l00 g of drysample. The highest value of 0.85 mg was recordedby VLG-19 genotype followed by 0.60 mg in GHG-13and in PHG-9. The lowest bio-accessible iron of 0.26mg content was recorded by CRHG -12 followed by0.33 mg in BGM-l and 0.36 mg in CRHG-9 andAK-42. Germination significantly increased the bio-accessible iron content with a mean value of 0.72mg / l00 g. Average per cent increase was in the rangeof 26 in VLG -19 and 77 per cent in CRHG-12genotype. Cooking increased the bio-accessible ironcontent in the range of 6 per cent in GHG-5, 37 percent in GHG-13 genotype. Roasting also increasedcontent in the range of 6 per cent in GHG-5. 37 percent in GHG-13 genotype. Roasting also increased thebio-accessible iron content in the range of 4 (VLG-19) to 30 per cent in BGM -1. Bio-accessible calciumcontent varied significantly among the genotypes witha mean value of 28.95 mg / l00 g (Table III). Thehighest bio-accessible calcium content of 38.50 mgwas recorded by PHG-9, while, the lowest content of12.50 mg were recorded by CRHG-12. Germinationsignificantly increased the value of bio- accessiblecalcium content from a mean of 28.95 mg to 41.70mg / 100 g. Cooking and roasting also increased thebio-accessibility of calcium to some extent, except onPHG-9 andVLG-19 genotypes which showed lower bio-accessibility calcium content under roasting than ofraw form. Lombardi et al. (1998) reported significantdifference in bio-accessibility of iron and calcium

TABLE ICalcium and iron content of raw horsegram genotypes (mg / 100g of seeds)

Calcium 295 244 308 307 296 303 312 297 304 300 296.6Iron 6.92 6.33 6.84 5.89 6.30 7.44 6.07 6.04 6.27 6.10 6.42

Varieities AK-42 BGM-1 CRHG-9 CRHG-10 CRHG-12 GHG-5 GHG-13 IKGH-05-01 PHG-9 VLG-19 Mean

EFFECT OF PROCESSING TECHNIQUES ON THE BIO-ACCESSIBILITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN HORSEGRAM 55

TABLE II

Effect of domestic processing on bio-accessibility of iron of different horsegram genotypes

AK- 42 0.36 0.60 (67) 0.42 (21) 0.40 (11)BGM 1 0.33 0.51 (55) 0.44 (33) 0.43 (30)CRHG9 0.36 0.57 (58) 0.42 (17) 0.39 (8)CRHG 10 0.47 0.67 (42) 0.52 (11) 0.58 (23)CRHG 12 0.26 0.46 (77) 0.30 (15) 0.29 (11)GHG5 0.53 0.80 (51) 0.56 (6) 0.57 (7)GHG 13 0.60 0.90 (50) 0.82 (37) 0.77 (30)IKGH 05-01 0.47 0.76 (61) 0.56 (19) 0.52 (11)PHG9 0.60 0.88 (45) 0.73 (22) 0.64 (7)VLG 19 0.85 1.07 (26) 0.94 (11) 0.88 (4)Mean 0.48 0.72 (53) 0.57 (19) 0.55 (14)F value 1079.46** 540.73** 76.00** 98.59**SEm± 0.0052 0.0084 0.0229 0.0183CD at5 % 0.0165 0.0264 0.0722 0.0577

Values in the parentheses indicate the per cent increase after processing

GenotypesBio-accessible iron (mg / 100 g)

Raw Germinated Cooked Roasted

TABLE III

Effect of domestic processing on bio-accessibility of calcium in different horsegram genotypes

AK- 42 35.50 48.50 (37) 43.00 (21) 46.50 (31)BGM I 26.50 38.50 (45) 30.00 (13) 33.50 (26)CRHG 9 31.00 37.50 (21) 36.50 (18) 35.50 (14)CRHG 10 23.50 41.50 (6) 28.50 (21) 26.50 (13)CRHG 12 22.50 40.00 (78) 27.50 (22) 27.50 (22)GHG 5 25.00 32.00 (2) 29.50 (18) 27.50 (10)GHG 13 29.00 43.00 (48) 34.00 (17) 31.50 (9)IKGH 05-01 28.50 39.00 (37) 33.00 (16) 31.50 (10)PHG 9 38.50 49.50 (29) 39.00 (11) 36.00 (7)VLG 19 29.50 47.50 (61) 32.50 (10) 29.00 (2)Mean 28.95 41.70 (36) 33.35 (16) 32.50 (17)F value 54.20** 29.06** 12.07** 39.32**SEm± 0.6892 1.0247 1.4230 0.9487CD at5 % 2.1716 3.2287 4.4838 2.9892

Values in the parentheses indicate the per cent increase after processing

GenotypesBio-accessible iron (mg / 100 g)

Raw Germinated Cooked Roasted

56 ANWARA A. KHATUN et al.

between the raw and cooked beans. Mamiro et al.(2001) reported that germination significantlyincreased the in-vitro extractability of calcium, ironand zinc in finger millet and kidney bean, whilesoaking, autoclaving and fermentation showed smallereffect and germination reduced the phytic acid contentby 85 and 66 per cent, respectively.

In the present study, in-vitro bio-accessibiliy ofiron was found to be higher than the values reportedby Sathya et al. (2002) and Vijayalakshmi et al. (2004).Sathya et al. (2002) determined the in-vitrobio-availibility of CO-4 mungbean variety andreported maximum iron bio-availability of 6.12 percent followed by 6.09 per cent in 24 hours germination.

EFFECT OF PROCESSING TECHNIQUES ON THE BIO-ACCESSIBILITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN HORSEGRAM 57

5.l3 per cent in cooked and 4.86 per cent in roastedseeds, respectively compared to 4.76 per cent in rawmung bean. Vijayalakshmi et al. (2004) reported thein-vitro availability of iron from selected mung beanrecipes. The results showed that longer the germinationperiod, greater the release of available iron. The invitro bio-availability of iron varied from recipe torecipe through mungbean was the common factor.Arora (2004), reported the in-vitro ionizable ironcontent of cooked bengalgram dhal, redgram dhal andkabuli channa was found to be 0.77, 0.77 and 2.44 mg/100 g, respectively.

Among the three domestic processing methods,highest increase of both bio-accessible iron andcalcium was observed upon germination followed bycooking and roasting being the least. In the presentstudy, it was found that household processingtechnique such as cooking, roasting and germinationsignificantly increased the bio-accessibility of mineralscompared to that of raw horsegram. Similar reportswere also reported by Sathya et al. (2002) andVijayalakshmi et al. (2004). Poor availability couldbe related to the composition of the diet and highamounts of anti nutritional factors such as phytates,tannins, oxalates etc. Germination may activate theenzymes which breakdown anti-nutritional compoundsviz., phytase enzyme which breaks down the complexstructure of phytate to a lesser complex intermediatecomponent mio-inositol hexa phosphate which is lessprone to binding with minerals like iron or calcium.Leaching of tannins may also occur through soakingand in cooking water. Heat treatment such as roastingmay inactivate or destroy the inhibitors therebyincreased the bio-availability. Thus, it may beconcluded that germination, cooking and roastingprocess significantly increased the bio-accessibilityof calcium and iron of different horsegram genotypescompared to raw form. Hence, by adopting commonhousehold processing the nutrient status of this poorman’s pulse could be improved and consumed forbetter health and to prevent micronutrient deficienciesat a low cost benefit for the population. Since, themajor cause of iron deficiency is due to low iron bio-availability from the diet, improving the iron statusby increasing the dietary iron bio-availability throughdifferent processing methods as indicated above is thebest way to combat iron deficiency.

REFERENCES

A.O.A. C., 1965, Official method of analysis. Associationof Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, D. C.

ARORA, A., 2004, Ionisable iron content in some foods asinfluenced by lemon and tea., J. Food Sci. Techno.,41(4): 443-445.

DESHPANDE, S. S., 1992, Food legumes in human nutrition:A personal perspective. Crit Rev Food Sci. Nutr.32 : 333-363.

LOMBARDI-BOCCIA, G., LUCARLNI, M., DI LULLO, G., DEL

PUPPO, E., FERRARI, A. AND CAROVELE, E., 1998,Dialyzable, soluble and fermentable calcium frombeans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) as model for in-vitroassessment of the potential calcium availability. FoodChem. 61: 167-171.

LUTEN, J., CREWS, H., FLYNN, A., DAEL, D. V., KASTENMAYER,P., HURRER, R., DFEELSTRA, H., SHEN, L .H., TAIT, S.F., HICKSON, K., FARRE , R., SCHLEMMER, V. AND

FROHLICH, W., 1996, Inter laboratory trail on thedetermination of the in vitro iron dialysability fromfood. J .Sci. Food Agric. 72 : 415-424. .

MAMIRO, P. R. S., VANI, J., NWIKYA, S. M. AND HUYGHEBAERT,A., 2001, In vitro extractability of calcium,iron andzinc in finger millet and kidney beans duringprocessing. J. Food Sci. 66 (9): 1271-1275.

RAGHURAMULU, N., NAIR, K. M. AND KALYANSUNDARAM, S.,2003, A manual of laboratory techniques, NationalIrtstitute of Nutrition, Hyderabad.

RAO, N. AND PRABAVATHI, T., 1978, An in vitro method forpredicting the bio-availability of iron from foods. Am.J .Clin. Nutr. 31 : 169-175.

REDDY, N. R., SATHE, S. K. AND SALUNKHE, D. K., 1982,Phytates in legumes and cereals. Adv. Food Res., 28 :1-90.

SATHYA, R., AMIRTHAVENI, M. AND PURUSHOTHAMAN, V., 2002,Enhancing the bio-availability of iron from mungbean(vigna radiate) through simple modifications incooking. The Ind. J. Nutr. Dietet. 39 : 45-54.

VICENTE, S., REYS, B., ROSAURA, F. AND MARIA, J. S., 2001,Effects of legume processing on calcium, iron andzinc contents and dialysabilities. J. Sci. Food Agric.81 : 1180-1185.

VIJAYALAKSHMI, P., AMIRTHAVENI, M., SUNDARAM, S. AND TSOU,S. A., 2001, Importing the in vitro availability of ironfrom selected mungbean recipes. The Ind. J. Nutr.Dietet. 41 : 1-6.

(Received : April, 2011 Accepted : December, 2012)

Shelf Life and Quality of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) as Influenced by1-Methylcyclopropene (MCP) under Cold Storage Condition

M. ANJANAPPA, G. S. JAYARAMANA GOWDA AND B. SURESH KUMARA

PG Centre, Department of Horticulture, UHS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

An investigation was carried out to findout the efficacy of I-MCP ethylene inhibitor, on shelf-life andquality of freshly harvested tomato fruits, with various levels of treatment of I-MCP on exposure for a period of12 hours viz., 1 tablet / m3, 2 tablet / m3 and control, stored under cold storage condition (7±3°C:RH 90±5%).Various storage attributes were studied at successive days of storage, I-MCP @ 1 tablet / m3 is revealed thatretention of higher ascorbic acid, fruit firmness, overall acceptability, better taste of fruit and maintained attractiveyellow colour, whereas, I-MCP @ 2 tablet / m3 was found most effective in higher acidity per cent, betterappearance of fruit, with minimum spoilage and physiological weight loss, among the various treatments, I-MCP@ 1 tablet / m3 was found most effective in extending the shelf-life for 5 days higher over control.


TOMATO (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the mostimportant vegetable crops grown throughout India dueto its nutritious value, attractive colour, good taste andalso used in preparation of various processed productslike jam, ketchup, paste, powder and puree. The fruitis highly perishable and subjected to early spoilageduring storage, it is estimated that 9-16 per cent of thetomato produce is lost due to post-harvest handlingduring harvest, shipment, mechanical injury andimproper pre and post-harvest treatment are the majorcauses for losses.

The goal of post harvest technology ofhorticultural crops is to maintain the quality whileminimising losses during series of handling steps fromharvest until the consumption. The use of I-MCP (l-Methylcyclopropene) in post-harvest is a revolutionarytechnique in preserving freshness of horticulturalproduce. The I-MCP is a gas with a molecular weightof 54 and a formula of C4H6. It blocks ethylenebinding, prevents or seriously interferes with ethyleneinduced fruit ripening and affects on fruit quality.I-MCP also influences ethylene biosynthesis in somespecies through feedback inhibition. Sisler and Serek(1997) proposed a model of how I-MCP reacts withthe ethylene receptor. Ethylene is used commerciaIlyas liquid products (“Ethephon”, “Ethrel”) that releaseethylene to ripen fruits (i.e., tomato, banana, pears).However, plant can respond to ethylene from anothersource. In contrast, I -MCP blocks ethylene binding

to its receptor and it is applied in post-harvest stage.In a normal plant response, ethylene attaches to areceptor molecule and a response occurs. In this way,MCP acts as an ethylene inhibitor in plants (Bowerand Mitcham, 2001). The present investigation wascarried out to evaluate the efficacy of I-MCP (0.18%)in enhancing the shelflife of freshly harvested tomatoand its effects on organoleptic qualities of tomatofruits.


The experiment was carried out during Oct-Nov2009 by using processing variety of tomato NS-88(F1 hybrid). The fruits were harvested at breaker stagedirectly from the farmers’ field and packed in plasticcrates immediately and transported to the Post HarvestTechnology Laboratory, Division of Horticulture,UAS, GKVK, Bangalore by truck. Then, fruits werewashed in running water to remove dust and chemicalresidues present on the surface of fruit. The fruits weregraded into uniform size. The selected fruits wereplaced in plastic crates of 20 kg capacity. There wereabout 4 replications with 6 treatments. In eachreplication, 80 kg tomato fruits were packed in 4 plasticcrates at 20 kg in each plastic crate separately fordifferent storage condition.

Fumigation chambers of one cubic meter volumewere constructed using PVC pipes and jointsmeasuring 1.35 metre length, 0.93 metre width and

0.80 metre height. Four plastic crates packed with 80kg tomato fruits were placed in one fumigationchamber, which is air tight. In each treatment, totally8 fumigation chambers were constructed for 4treatments. In the control, untreated fruits were packedin plastic crates and kept in room temperature and coldstorage conditions along with treated fruits.

Tomato fruits were exposed to cel fresh tablet(0.18 % I-MCP) treatment at one tablet / m3 (T1) andtwo tablet / m3 (T2) were exposed on the day of theharvest. Four plastic crates tomato fruits were placedin each fumigation chamber with 25 ml beakercontaining one tablet of cel fresh were placed and 15ml water was added to the beaker and beaker was keptat center of the fumigation chamber and then it wassealed air tight immediately. The duration of thetreatments was 12 hrs. Untreated (T3) tomato fruitsscored as control. After 12 hrs of exposure to cel fresh,the plastic crates were removed from the fumigationchamber and tomato fruits were kept in cold storagecondition at (7 ± 3°C) with (90 ± 5 % RH). Fruitswere sampled on 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 15 daysafter storage in each treatment and replication andobservations were recorded on parameters such as totalsoluble solids, titratable acidity, ascorbic acid content,pH, fruits firmness, physiological weight loss, numberof fruits spoiled, fruit colour, sensory evaluation.

Sensory evaluation of tomato fruits analysed on7th and 15th days after storage by using 1-5 hedonicscale rating by 10 penolist.

The treated fruits were visually observed forfungal, moulds and bacterial growth at regular intervalsthroughout the storage period and observations wererecorded. Colour is measured by using Munsell colourchart. Colour of the fruits at different intervals werejudged by comparing with the ‘R’ and ‘hue’ from theMunsell colour chart compared with tomato fruits.

The data was analyzed using completerandomized design (CRD) and ‘F’ test carried was outto test the significance of the treatments.


Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene (MCP) onvarious physical and chemical characteristic duringstorage of tomato fruits were presented and discussedhereunder.

The treatment did not show any significant effecton the changes in total soluble solid (TSS) of thetomato fruit during storage period except on 5th, 7th

day and 11th days of storage. The TSS content of treatedfruit was less (3.86) compared to control (4.05). HigherTSS was observed in control at room temperature,during storage. This is attributed to hydrolysis ofpolysaccharides like starch and pectin substances intosimpler substances which contributed to increased TSScontent. Similar observations were recorded byIndiresh et al. (2008) in tomato(Table I).

Significant difference was observed on aciditycontent of tomato fruit on 9, 11 and 15 day of storageand there was no significant difference on other daysof storage. Highest mean value of acidity (0.36 %)was observed in the treatment T2, followed by T1 (0.34%) and T3 (0.33 %) during storage (Table II). Thisdecrease in acidity might be due to acid hydrolysis ofpolysaccharides and non-reducing sugars to theirsimpler components where acid is utilized forconverting them to hexose sugars or complexes in thepresence of metal ions. Similar results were reportedby Sisler and Serek, (1997).

Ascorbic acid content of tomato fruit differsignificantly on 10 and 15 day of storage and therewas no significant difference was observed on other

5 Best Best Extremely acceptability4 Better Very much attractive Highly acceptability3 Good Acceptable attractive Acceptability2 Okay Moderately attractive Moderately acceptability1 Bad Slightly attractive Slightly acceptability

Overall acceptabilityScores Taste Appearance

SHELF LIFE AND QUALITY OF TOMATO AS INFLUENCED BY I-METHYLCYCLOPROPENE 59

TABLE I

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on total soluble solids (TSS° Brix) of tomato fruits under coldstorage (7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

T1 3.3 3.49 3.52 3.96 4.42 4.08 4.11 4.21 3.88

T2 3.28 3.44 3.70 3.91 4.55 3.86 4.01 4.14 3.86

T3 3.3 3.56 4.04 4.36 4.59 4.12 4.14 4.32 4.05

SEM± 0.036 0.035 0.488 0.037 0.052 0.040 0.031 0.037 -

F test NS NS * * NS * NS NS -

CD at 5% 0.117 0.113 0.114 0.118 0.166 0.130 0.100 0.121 -

T1 : 1tablet / m3 T2: 2 tablet / m3 T3 : ControlNS : Non significant * : significant @ 5 % level

Treatments3 5

Days after storage (DAS)

At harvest 7 9 11 13 15 Mean

TABLE II

Effect1-Methylcyclopropene on acidity (%) of tomato fruits under cold storage(7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

T1 0.38 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.34T2 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.36T3 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.29 0.25 0.33SEM± 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.004 -F test NS NS NS NS * * NS * -

CD at 5% 0.07 0.013 0.0124 0.019 0.014 0.016 0.019 0.0.13 -

T1 : 1tablet / m3 T2: 2 tablet / m3 T3 : ControlNS : Non significant * : significant @ 5 % level

Treatments3 5

Days after storage


days of storage. Highest mean value of ascorbic acidcontent (22.77 mg / 100 gm) was observed in thetreatment T1, followed by T2 (21.91 mg / 100 gm) andT3 control (20.33 mg / l00 g) during storage. This isdue to decrease in ascorbic acid content might be theeffect of storage temperature and catalytic activity offructose. Chemical treatment brings degradation andsubsequent oxidation and light reaction were the otherpossible causes of reduction in ascorbic acid content.

Penchaiya et al. (2006) in mango reported the sameresults (Table III).

Significant difference was observed on pH oftomato fruits on 7, 11 and 13 days of storage and therewas non-significant difference on other days ofstorage. Highest mean value of pH (4.63) was observedin the treatment T3 followed by T2 (4.51) and Tl (4.44)during storage (Table IV). Due to a corresponding

60 M. ANJANAPPA et al.

TABLE III

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on ascorbic acid content (mg / 100 g) of tomato fruts under coldstorage (7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

T1 24.84 23.09 22.86 20.31 22.77

Tz 24.86 22.28 21.26 19.24 21.91

T3 24.81 21.84 18.61 16.06 20.33

SEM± 0.003 0.327 0.266 0.325 -

F test NS NS * * -

CD at 5% - 1.047 0.853 1.040 -

NS : Non significant * : Significant @ 5 % level

Treatments5

Days after storage

At harvest 10 15 Mean

decrease in acidity might be responsible for it. Similarobservations for changes in pH were observed intomato by Younes et al. (2008).

Firmness of tomato fruits was differedsignificantly on 3, 7, 13 and 15 days of storage andthere was non-significant difference on other days ofstorage. Highest mean value of firmness of fruits (2.39kg / cm2) was observed in the treatment T2, followedby T1 (2.19 kg / cm2) and T3 (2.03 kg / cm2) duringstorage (Table V). I-MCP treatment delayed the

softening thereby slowing down the rate of respirationon binding ethylene receptor and treated fruits remainmore firm. Similar results were obtained by Pandeyand Singh (2007) in mango.

Higher shelf-life was observed in Tl (16.50 days)followed by T2 (15.50 days) and T3 (9.75 days) duringstorage and I-MCP treatment extended shelf-life6 days greater than control. Physiological loss inweight (PLW %) was differed significantly on 9, 11,13 and 15 days of storage and non-significant

TABLE IV

Effectof 1-Methylcyclopropene on pH of tomato fruits under cold stotage(7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

Treatments3 5

Days after storage


T1 4.1 4.42 4.65 4.72 4.82 4.62 4.55 4.25 4.51T2 4.1 4.32 4.55 4.62 4.75 4.52 4.45 4.22 4.44T3 4.1 4.55 4.72 4.92 5.00 4.72 4.67 4.42 4.63SEM± - 0.035 0.043 0.025 0.032 0.025 0.043 0.026 -F test - NS * * NS * NS * -

CD at 5% - 0.113 0.043 0.081 0.103 0.082 0.138 0.084 -



TABLE V

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on firmness (kg/cm2) of tomato fruits under cold stotage(7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

Treatments

Firmness KG/CM2)

3 5

Days after storage


T1 4 2.17 2.1 2.01 1.99 1.87 1.82 1.57 2.19T2 4 2.36 2.27 2.21 2.2 2.11 2.1 1.88 2.39T3 4 1.98 2.06 1.87 1.8 1.75 1.68 1.17 2.03SEM± 0 0.026 0.044 0.027 0.038 0.030 0.032 0.025 -F test NS * NS * NS NS * * -

CD at 5% 0 0.083 0.141 0.086 0.123 0.096 0104 0.080 -


difference was observed on other days of storage.Highest mean value of physiological loss in weight(1.75 %) was in the treatment T3, followed by T1 (1.11%) and T2 (0.96 %) during storage(Table VI). Per centof weight loss might also due to rate oflenticellular and cuticular transpiration. The 1-MCPreduced the moisture loss and the respirationrate. These same result was reported by Laxmanetal.(2009) in tomato.

Significant difference was observed on numberof fruits spoiled on 5, 11, 13 and 15 days of storage.Highest mean value on number of spoiled fruits (22.35)was observed in the treatment T3, followed by Tl(16.28) and T2 (15.50), during storage (Table VII). Itmight be due to accumulation water on surface of fruitwhich would leads to more fungal diseases likeAlternaria rot and white Mycellial growth sclerotiumand fruits stored under cold storage shows higher

TABLE VI

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on shelf-life and physiological loss in weight (%) of tomato fruitsunder cold storage (7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

Treatments3 5

Days after storage

Atharvest

7 9 11 13 15 Mean

T1 16.50 0 0.55 0.86 1.03 1.18 1.26 1.39 1.53 1.11

T2 15.50 0 0.39 0.56 0.78 1.05 1.14 1.33 1.48 0.96

T3 9.75 0 0.96 1.25 1.56 1.89 2.07 2.16 2.39 1.75

SEM± 0.595 - 0.063 0.035 0.030 0.034 0.02 0.022 0.025 -

F test * - NS NS NS * * * * -

CD at 5% 1.756 - 0.204 0.114 0.097 0.109 0.064 0.070 0.080 -

NS : Non significant ; * : Significant @ 5 % level

Shelf-lifein days


spoilage rate due to reduced infection, similar resultswere also reported by Joao et al. (2007) in papaya.

For sensory evaluation, there was difference inappearance, over all acceptability and taste of tomatoon 7 and 15 days of storage lower themethylcyclopropene concentration better will be theacceptability higher score value this might be due tobetter color and taste of the treated fruit, same resultshave been reported by Laxman et al. (2009) andIndiresh et al. (2008) in tomato (Table VIII).

The maximum colour value (5 R 4/8) wasfound in T3 as compared to treated fruits T2(5 R 5/10) and Tl (5 R 5/8) in) at end ofstorage period. Change in colour value rangedfrom 2.5 PR to 5 R with varied R and hue values.Changes in colour value ranged from 10 RYR to 5 Rwith varied R and hue values. This is due to reducedrespiration rate and slow down anthocyanindegradation leads slow colour development, sameresult have been reported by Loao et al. (2007) inpapaya (Table IX).

TABLE VII

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on number of fruits spoiled of tomato fruits under cold storage(7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

Treatments3 5

Days after storage


T1 - 4.00 6.75 13.25 22.75 22.25 19.00 26.00 16.28

T2 - 5.50 8.75 12.50 20.00 15.75 23.00 23.00 15.50

T3 - 7.50 17.25 15.75 21.00 28.50 32.25 34.25 22.35

SEM± - 0.577 0.853 1.060 0.893 0.790 1.010 0.893 -

F test - NS * NS NS * * * -

CD at 5% - 1.703 2.519 3.129 2.636 2.332 2.981 2.636 -


TABLE VIII

Effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene on appearance, overall aceptability and taste of tomato fruits undercold storage (7 ± 3°C; RH 90 ± 5%)

T1 3.67 3.34 3.89 3.54 3.95 3.53

Tz 3.88 3.61 3.84 3.39 3.91 3.44

T3 2.86 2.12 3.64 2.07 3.80 2.01

TreatmentsAppearance

7th day 15th day

Overallacceptability

7th day 15th day

Taste

7th day 15th day


TAB

LE I

X

Effe

ct o

f 1-M

ethy

lcyc

lopr

open

e on

col

our o

f tom

ato

frui

ts st

ored

und

er c

old

stor

age

(7 ±

3°C

; RH

90

± 5%

)

T 15

86

105

86

106

105

85

85

8

T 25

85

85

85

85

85

105

105

10

T 35

105

104

105

105

104

104

84

8

Col

our v

alue

; PR

- Pu

rplis

h R

ed,

R

YR

– R

ed Y

ello

w R

ed,

Y

R -

Yel

low

Red

,

R

- R

ed

35

79

1113

Hue

RH

ueR

Hue

RH

ueR

Hue

R

Col

our v

alue

@ 1

0 RY

RC

olou

r val

ue@

10

RYR

Col

our v

alue

@ 1

5 Y

RC

olou

r val

ue@

15

YR

Col

our v

alue

@ 1

0 Y

RC

olou

r val

ue@

5 R

15

Hue

RH

ue

Col

our v

alue

@ 5

R


Day

s af

ter S

tora

ge

Trea

tmen

ts

At h

arve

st

RH

ueR

Col

our v

alue

@ 2

.5 P

R

From the above points it is concluded that, thetreating of tomato fruits with 1-MCP one tablet / m3

will be helpful in better retention of parameters likefirmness, over all acceptability, taste and delayedcolour development in cold storage condition. Whereastreating tomato fruits with I-MCP 2 tablets / m3 willbe helpful in better retention of parameters likeappearance with minimum physiological loss in weightand reduced spoilage rate in ambient condition. Finallytreating of tomato fruits with I-MCP one tablet / m3 isadvisable for tomato fruits to extend shelf life andbetter retention of quality parameters under ambientand cold storage condition even after 15 days ofstorage.

REFERENCES

BOWER, K, M. AND MITCHAM, S, B., 2001,1- methylcyclopropene: a review on 1-MCP asethylene inhibitor. Post harvest biology and technol.,28 : 1- 25

INDIRESH, K. M., ANJANAPPA, M. AND CHIKKASUBBANNA,V. C., 2008, Effect of I-methylcyclopropene (I-MCP)on the shelf life and organoleptic qualities of tomatofruits. New vistas in vegetable processing, pp. 97-102.

JOAO, P. F., BEATRIZ, R. C., GISELA, P., DEMATTOS, B.,ADRIANA, Z., MERCADANTE, F. M. AND JOAO, R. N.,2007, Papaya fruit ripening: Response to ethyleneand I-methylcyc1opropene (I-MCP). J Agric. FoodChem., 55 (15): 6118-6123.

LAXMAN, K., ROKADE, A. K. AND PRAVEEN, J., 2009, Effectof I-MCP on quality and shelf life of tomato. Inter.Conference on Hort., 318 : 9-12.

PANDEY, G. AND SINGH, B. P., 2007, Comparative responseof 1-Methylcyclopropene and KMNO4 on post harvestbehavior of mango. Indian J. Horti., 64(2): 123-126.

PENCHAIYA, P., JANSASITHORN, R. AND KANLAYANANAT, S.,2006, Effect of I-MCP on physiological changes inmango ‘Nam Dokmai’. Acta Hort. 712: 717-721.

SISLER, E. C. AND SEREK, M., 1997, Comparison ofcyclopropene, 1-methylcyclopropene, and 3,3-dimethylcyc1opropene as an ethylene antagonist inplants. Plant Growth Reg. 18: 169-175.

YOUNES, M., PETER, M. A. AND TOIVONEN, A., 2008, Effectsof storage conditions and I-methylcyclopropene onsome qualitative characteristics of tomato Fruits.International J. Agril. & Bio., 15(6): 93-96.


(Received : February, 2011 Accepted : January, 2013)

Effect of Micronutrients on Growth and Yield of Mushrooms

S. RAJA, B. C. MALLESHA AND P. A. GOWDA


ABSTRACT

Study evaluated the growth and yield of Pleurotus florida and Hypsozygous ulmarius on paddy strawand coirpith amended with micronutrients (Sulphate forms of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc). Sulphateforms of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc enhanced mycelial growth of mushroom fungus at 4, 6, 0.4 and 0.2per cent of concentration, respectively. These concentration of micronutrients were amended to substrates. Themaximum yield of Hypsozygous ulmarius was observed on paddy straw (533.3 g / bag) and coirpith (366.6 g /bag) amended with calcium sulphate with higher bio-efficiency of 109.94 and 75.54 per cent, respectively. Thehighest yield of Pleurotus florida was recorded on paddy straw (463.3 g / bag) and coirpith (360.0 g / bag)amended with calcium sulphate with maximum bio-efficiency of 95.50 and 74.21 per cent, respectively. Calciumsulphate at 4 per cent level is best amendment to paddy straw and coirpith for increased growth and yield ofmushroom.


MUSHROOMS are fruiting bodies of Basidiomycotinaand Ascomycotina fungi. They include edible,medicinal and poisonous species. There are about2,000 species of mushroom fungi, belonging to 31genera, among these, 100 species can be cultivatedartificially, but, only 30 species are commerciallycultivated all over the world. So far, 1800 species ofmushroom fungi have been proved for their medicinalvalues and 10 per cent of the total mushrooms arepoisonous (Chang and Miles, 1997). Pleurotus sp andHypsozygous sp are efficient lignin degradingmushrooms, belonging to Hymenomycetes ofBasidiomycotina. Pleurotus florida is commonlycalled as Oyster or Dhingri or Abalone mushroom.Hypsozygous ulmarius is commonly called as elmmushroom or black oyster mushroom. Cellulose richorganic substrates are found to be good for thecultivation of these mushrooms. Therefore, thecellulose rich agricultural wastes or byproducts of agroindustry like paddy straw, coir pith, paper waste,sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw, banana leaves, hulledmaize cobs etc., can be used as substrates forcultivation of Pleurotus sp and Hypsozygous sp. Inthe present study paddy straw and coirpith wereselected as substrates because of their availability inlarge quantities in Karnataka.


The pure cultures of Hypsozygous ulmarius andPleurotus florida were used from the Mushroom

Laboratory, Department of Agricultural Microbiology,University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,Bangalore.

Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium wasprepared by boiling potato slices with water andinfusion was collected. In the infusion, requiredquantity of dextrose, different concentration ofselected micronutrients (CaSO4, MgSO4, FeSO4 andZnSO4) and agar was added. The media were sterilizedin an autoclave at 121°C and 15 psi for 15 min.Medium was poured into sterile petri plates and 10rom disc of Pleurotus florida and Hypsozygousulmarius colony was inoculated aseptically. Thepetriplates were incubated at 25 ± 2 °c and after sixdays of growth, the diameter of colony was recorded.Similarly potato dextrose broth supplemented withmicronutrients was prepared without agar, andinoculated with 10 mm disc of mushroom fungi andmycelia dry weight was recorded.

Cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotusflorida) and elm mushroom (Hypsozygous ulmarius)was carried out by following the method of Desai(1982). The selected concentration of CaSO4, MgSO4,FeSO4, and ZnSO4 at 4, 6, 0.4 and 0.2 per cent,respectively amended to the pasteurized paddy straw,coir pith and used for mushroom cultivation. Fullymatured fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom and elmmushroom were harvested prior to up curling ofmargin.

Bio-efficiency of mushroom was calculated byusing formula as recommended by Chang and Miles(1989).

Dry weight ofsubstrate

Fresh weight ofmushrooms

Bio effciency (%) = × 100

(0.51 g) broth and in control (0.92 g). Mycelial dryweight of Pleurotus florida was maximum at 4 percent level of calcium sulphate (0.51 g) and 6 per centof magnesium sulphate (0.98 g) supplemented broth.Minimum mycelial dry weight was recorded in control(0.45 g).

In iron and zinc sulphate supplemented medium,the maximum growth of Hypsozygous ulmarius wasobserved at 0.4 (89.6 mm) and 0.2 per cent (82.6 mm)respectively and least growth was observed at 1.0 percent concentration level (Table I). Maximum mycelialgrowth of Pleurotus florida was observed at 0.4 percent concentration of iron sulphate (88.0 mm) and 0.2per cent concentration of zinc sulphate (82.0 mm)supplemented media (Table II). Least growth was


Maximum mycelial dry weight of Hypsozygousulmarius was observed at 4 per cent concentration ofcalcium sulphate (1.18 g) and 6 per cent concentrationof magnesium sulphate (1.74 g) supplemented broth(Table III). The minimum mycelial dry weight wasrecorded in 2 per cent calcium sulphate supplemented

TABLE IEffect of micronutrients on growth (diameter in mm) of Hypsozygous ulmarius

0.2% 68.3c 80.0c 74.0c 82.6a

0.4% 79.0b 81.3c 89.6a 64.6c

0.6% 85.3a 82.0c 81.3b 61.6d

0.8% 86.0a 85.3b 72.0c 54.3e

1.0% 88.1a 90.3a 67.0d 41.3f

Control (PDA) 71.6a 71.6d 71.6c 71.6b

S.Em 1.16 0.92 0.62 0.47CD at 5% 3.58 2.84 1.92 1.45

TABLE IIEffect of micronutrients on growth (diameter in mm) of Pleurotus florida

0.2 % 73.6d 81.0c 78.3b 82.0a

0.4% 80.6c 81.6c 88.0a 68.0b

0.6% 82.3bc 83.6b 79.6b 67.3b

0.8% 84.0b 88.3a 77.3b 60.0c

1.0% 89.6a 89.6a 74.6c 42.3d

Control (PDA) 72.0d 72.0d 72.0d 72.0c

S.Em 0.43 0.36 0.54 0.60CD at 5% 1.32 1.10 1.67 1.87

Concentration ofmicronutrients

Micronutrients

CaSO4 MgSO4 FeSO4 ZnSO4

EFFECT OF MICRONUTRIENTS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF MUSHROOMS 67

Values with same Superscript do not differ Significantly


Micronutrients

CaSO4MgSO4 FeSO4

ZnSO4


TABLE III

Effect of micronutrients on growth of Hypsozygous ulmarius and Pleurotus florida

2% 0.51c 0.42b 1.18c 0.57c

4% 1.183 0.513 1.63b 0.64b

6% 0.97b 0.45b 1.743 0.983

Control (PDB) 0.92b 0.45b 0.92d 0.45d

SE.m 0.02 0.009 0.01 0.01CD at 5% 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.03


Mycelial dry weight (g)

Hypsorygousumarius

Pleurotusflorida

Hypsozygourulmarius

Pleurotusflorida

CaSO4 MgSO4

observed in one per cent zinc sulphate supplementedmedia (42.3 mm).

Similar growth trend of Lentinus squarrosnlusand Psathyrella atroumbonata was observed byWuyep et al. (2003). They reported that chloride formsof Mn2+ and Ca2+ ions at higher concentrationstimulate mycelial growth. Sharma et al. (2006)reported that increased concentration (beyond 2 ppm)of zinc and ferrous sulphate resulted in decreasedmycelial growth of Lentinula edodes.

Yield of mushrooms : The maximum yield ofHypsozygous ulmarius was recorded in paddy strawamended with calcium sulphate (533.3 g) with bio-efficiency of 109.94 per cent followed by paddy straw

amended with magnesium sulphate (413.3 g) with bio-efficiency of 85.20 per cent. The lowest yield wasobtained in paddy straw amended with zinc sulphate(233.3 g) with lower bio-efficiency of 48.09 per cent.

The maximum yield of Hypsozygous ulmariuswas recorded on coirpith amended with calciumsulphate (366.6 g) with maximum bio-efficiency of75.57 per cent followed by control coirpith (263.3 g)with bio-efficiency of 50.27 per cent. The minimumyield was obtained on coirpith amended with zincsulphate (116.6 g) with bio-efficiency of 24.03 per cent(Table IV).

The maximum yield of Pleurotus florida wasobserved on paddy straw amended with calcium

TABLE IV

Effect of micronutrients on yield of Hypsozygous ulmarius on straw and coirpith

4 % CaSO4 533.3a 366.6a 109.94a 75.54316% MgSO4 413.3b 243.3b 85.20b 50.15c

0.4 % FeSO4 286.6cd 133.3c 59.08d 27.47d

0.2 %ZnSO4 233.3d 116.6c 48.09e 24.03e

Control 373.3bc 263.3b 76.95c 50.27b

S.Em 25.82 14.38 0.05 0.01CD at 5% 82.09 44.43 0.24 0.04

AmendmentsPaddy straw Coirpith Paddy straw Coirpith

Yield (g / bag) Bio-efficiency (%)

68 S. RAJA et al.



sulphate (463.3 g) with bio-efficiency of 95.50 percent followed by paddy straw amended withmagnesium sulphate (413.3 g) with bio-efficiency of85.20 per cent. The lowest yield was obtained in paddystraw amended with zinc sulphate (183.3 g) with lowerbio-efficiency of 37.78 per cent.

The maximum yield of Pleurotus florida wasobserved in coirpith amended with calcium sulphate(360.0 g) with bio-efficiency of 74.21 per cent,followed by coirpith amended with magnesiumsulphate (253.3 g) with bio-efficiency of 52.21 percent. The minimum yield was recorded in coirpithamended with zinc sulphate (110.0 g) with lower bio-efficiency of 22.65 per cent (Table V).

This observation is in agreement with findingsof Royse and Sanchez Vazquez (2003). They reportedthat yield and bio-efficiency of Shiitake mushroom(Lentinula edodes) were more in 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 percent calcium carbonate supplemented substrates. Oei(1996) reported that Shiitake mushrooms on calciumcarbonate and calcium sulphate supplemented woodchips gave higher yield than control. Calcium sulphateat 4 per cent level is best amendment to paddy strawand coirpith for increased growth and yield ofmushrooms.

REFERENCES

CHANG AND MILES., 1989, Edible mushrooms and theircultivation. CRC press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 345.

CHANG AND MILES., 1997, Mushroom Biology: ConciseBasic and Current Development, World Scientific,London. p. 194.

DESAI, A. V. P. 1982, Bio-efficiency, chemical and microbialchanges in different substrates used for cultivation ofoyster mushroom Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer,M.Sc. Thesis is University of Agricultural Sciences,Banglore.

OEI, P., 1996, Mushroom cultivation with special emphasison appropriate technique for developing countries,Tool publications: 274.

ROYSE AND SANCHEZ VAZQUEZ, 2003, Influence ofprecipitated calcium carbonate on Shiitake (Lentinulaedodes) yield and mushroom size. Bioresource Tech.,90 : 225-228.

SHARMA, S. R., KUMAR, S. AND SHARMA, V. P., 2006,Physiological requirement for cultivation ofMalaysian strain of shiitake Lentinula edodes. J.Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 36 : 149-152.

WUYEP, P. A., KHAN AND NOK, A. J., 2003, Production andregulation of lignin degrading enzymes from Lantinussquarrosnlus and Psathyrella atroumbonata. Afr. J.Biotechnol., 2(11): 444-447.

TABLE V

Effect of micronutrients on yield of Pleurotus florida on straw and coirpith

4%CaSO4 463.3a 360.03 95.503 74.21a

6% MgSO4 413.3a 253.3b 85.20b 52.21 b

0.4 % FeSO4 250.0b 110.0c 51.53d 27.45c

0.2 % ZnSO4 183.3b 133.3bc 37.78e 22.65d

Control 416.6a 250.0ab 78.95c 51.53b

S.Em 22.16 25.99 0.72 1.06CD at 5% 69.33 86.49 3.22 4.77

AmendmentsPaddy straw Coirpith Paddy straw Coirpith

Yield (g / bag) Bio-efficiency (%)

EFFECT OF MICRONUTRIENTS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF MUSHROOMS 69

(Received : August, 2011 Accepted : January, 2013)


Development and Evaluation of a Mechanical Pomelo Fruit Peeler

P. NAVYA YADAV, B. RANGANNA AND V. PALANIMUTHU

Department of Agrilcultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Pomelo fruit is an exotic large citrus fruit and belongs to the family Rutaceae. The fruit preparation isdifficult compared to other fruits. It is a bit difficult to get to the segments inside a pomelo fruit. Since pomelo hasa very thick peel. One has to work hard to remove it before eating. A study was undertaken to develop a mechanicalpomelo peeler to overcome the difficulty. The peeler was evaluated for its performance for three different sizedfruits (small, medium and large) on different days after harvest (0th, 2nd, 4th & 6'h day) of fruit. Peeling efficiencyand pulp loss while peeling were determined to study its performance. The peeling efficiency was found to behigher (84.09 %) for large fruits peeled on 0th day of harvest compared to medium and small fruits (82.50 and80.72 %, respectively). Pulp loss was less in large fresh fruits (1.29 %) and high for medium (2.02 %) and smallfruits (2.20 %). The peeling efficiency observed decreasing and the pulp loss increasing with increase in daysafter harvest of the fruits.


POMELO fruit also called the Chinese grapefruit,shaddock, pumelo and pompelous belongs to thefamily Rutaceae. It is an exotic large citrus fruit andan ancient ancestor of the common grapefruit. It is thelargest of the citrus fruits with a shape that can befairly round or slightly pointed at one end (fruit rangesfrom nearly round to oblate or pear shaped). It rangesfrom cantaloupe size to as large as a 25 lb watermelonand has very thick soft rind. The skin is green to yellowand slightly bumpy and flesh colour ranges from pinkto rose. Like grapefruit, it can range from almostseedless to very seedy, from juicy to dry and fromsweet to sour. It is sweeter than the grapefruit and canbe eaten fresh. However, the membranes around thesegments are difficult to peel. Pomelo commonly has16 to 18 segments compared to most grapefruits thathave about 12 segments.

Pomelo is native to south-eastern Asia andMalaysia; grows wildly on river banks of Fiji andFriendly Islands. It is grown in countries like China,Japan, India, Fiji, Malaysia and Thailand. Pomelo isone of the economically important fruit trees in India.It is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropicalregions of South Eastern Asia.

Pomelo is rich in nutrients and can prevent cancerin human beings. Medicinally, pomelo can adjust tohuman body’s metabolism, reduce blood pressure,clear throat, relieve cough and contribute to a better

appetite. It can also help those who consume too muchalcohol. Pomelo skin is also used medicinally in somecultures. For instance, in South-east Asia, raw pomeloskin cut pieces are given to patients suffering fromexcessive coughing and a history of epileptic seizures.The thickness of fresh fruit skin will be about 20-25mm.

The fruit preparation is not easy compared toother fruits. It is a bit difficult to get to the segmentsinside the pomelo fruit. The rind surrounding the fruitis extremely thick and has to cut off a portion of it andthen pull the remaining before reaching the inside offruit. It is therefore necessary to pull off the membranesthat surround the segments since, the membranes aretough and inedible. The pulp is also quite thick skinnedcompared to a grapefruit and the flavour cells are veryjuicy. Owing to this problem, one has to work hard toremove it before eating.

Peeling is one of the most important preparatorysteps in processing of any fruit and the selection ofproper peeling method is critical to the quality of thefinished product. Traditionally, pomelo fruit is cutusing a conventional knife. This procedure involvesskill, appropriate cutting force and peeling timeespecially in the case of aged and over ripened fruits.The knife should be sharp enough for efficient peeling.The main constraint observed here is the peel thickness

which varies along the entire fruit and the shape beingnot uniform.

The review of literature suggests scanty researchfindings reported on developing a peeling machine andpost-harvest aspects of this fruit.

Stephens (1967) had constructed a avocadopeeling machine. The machine consisted of two drums,both rotating downward towards the nip. One had asolid outside surface, the other had a perforated outsidesurface. Pitted avocado halves were placed at oncewith seed cavity towards the perforated drum. As drumrotates, the solid drum presses the meat of the avocadothrough ¼ inch holes in the perforated drum. A doctorblade mounted inside the perforated drum cuts the meatfrom the peel and another doctor blade on the outsideof the perforated drum removes the peel.

Odigboh (1976) has designed, constructed anddeveloped a cassava peeling machine. The peelerconsisted of a cylindrical knife assembly and a solidcylinder, both mounted parallel and 20 mm apart onan inclined frame. Bruemmer and Griffin (1978)investigated the application of vacuum infusion ofpectinase into grapefruit, as a method for digestion ofpeel albedo and sectionizing fruit.

Adams and Kirk (1992) patented a method forenzymatic peeling of citrus fruit by pressure infusionto vacuum infusion. The authors reported that thismethod enabled easy removal of peel as well asmembranes from fruit and segments.

Rouhana and Mannheim (1994) reported anoptimization of enzymatic peeling of grapefruit. Theyfound that both pectinases and cellulases must be usedto obtain an efficient peeling process, and enzymessolution must be pH stabilized to reduce loss ofactivity. According to them, the enzyme solutionscould be used for several consecutive peeling runs.The enzymatic digestion of membranes was alsoachieved and a firm and shiny product was obtained.


The investigation was carried out at the PostHarvest Technology Scheme, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore. A mechanical rind

peeler for peeling pomelo fruits was developed andits performance was evaluated.

Principle: A sharp ‘U’ shaped blade at a suitablerake angle is made to penetrate up to the thickness ofrind and is held at that depth. When the pomelo fruitis rotated about its central axis, a ring like section ofthe rind of width equal to blade width gets peeled dueto the scrapping action of blade. While peeling, if theblade is made to move slowly parallel to the axis ofrotation of fruit, the entire rind of the fruit gets peeledjust like a helical coil. The Figure 1, shows theschematic diagram of the developed mechanical peeler.

Moving bracketwith peeling knife

Main frame

(All measurements in mm)

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the developed pomelo me-chanical peeler

The peeler consists of a main frame of 600 mmwidth and 850 mm length. The frame is fixed with ascrew shaft of 25 mm diameter which again issupported by two spur gears (each of 10 mm diameter)one above the other as shown. The movement to thegears is given by the handle provided for the purposeat one end. Further, the upper gear is connected to ashaft of 15 mm diameter, which is mounted on themain frame. This shaft contains two discs each of 85mm diameter, mounted in the opposite direction. Thesediscs contain pins on the concave, which enableholding of the fruit firmly and provide strong grip tothe fruit while peeling.

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A MECHANICAL POMELO FRUIT PEELER 71

Screw shaft

Pomelo fruitFruit fixing jaws with fins

Main frame

One of the discs is fixed and the other is movable.The gap between the two discs can be adjustedaccording to the size of the pomelo fruit. The fruitheld between the two discs can be rotated using thehandle. A ‘U’ shaped blade fixed at a positionperpendicular to the shaft is operated vertically byhand. The blade can be moved over the entire fruit toenable it to remove the peel. The blade is piercedthrough the fruit initially and then the peel is removedin the form of circular rings when the shaft containingfruit is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction. Afterthe peel is separated from the fruit, the fruit is removedby loosening the discs. The peeling is done in such away that the peel is removed along with sufficientquantity of albedo without damaging the segments(edible part) of the fruit. The arrangement is made tosuit fruits of varying sizes and shapes.

Evaluation of pomelo fruit peeler : Trials wereconducted to evaluate the performance of thedeveloped pomelo rind peeler. Three fruit sizes wereconsidered as small, medium and large based on theirphysical sizes (diameter) for this study. These fruitswere peeled on 0th, 2nd, 4th and 6th day after the harvestof fruit. The peeling efficiency and pulp loss were thevariables studied during peeling.

a) Independent variables :

i. Fruit size : Small (11.5 to 13.5 cm)

Medium (13.6 to 14.8 cm) and

Large (14.9 to 16.8 cm)

ii. Days after fruit harvest : 0.2, 4 & 6.

b) Dependent variables

i. Peeling efficiency (%)

ii. Pulp loss (%)

The fruits were peeled using the developedmachine on different days after harvest. After peelingthe fruit, the pulp loss with peel during peeling wasseparated and weighed using an electronic balance.Using these data, the fruit peeling efficiency and pulploss were calculated by using the formulae,

TABLE I

Peeling efficiency (%) of pomelo rind peeler for different size of fruits

Small 80.72 79.31 78.07 77.61 78.93(11.5 to 13.5 cm) .

Medium 82.50 80.44 78.90 78.15 80.00(13.6 to 14.8 cm)

Large 84.09 82.71 80.34 79.82 81.74(14.9 to 16.8 cm)

Mean 82.43 80.82 79.10 78.52

Fruit size (cm)Days after harvest

Mean0th day 2nd day 4th day 6th day

72 P. NAVYA YADAV et al.

Weight of pulp lost due topeeling by machine

Weight of the totalavailable pulp on the fruit

Pulp loss = (%) × 100

Weight of peel removedby the machine

Weight of the totalavailable peel on the fruit

Peelingefficiency =

(%)× 100


From the Table I it is evident that, the peelingefficiency of pomelo rind peeler varied with size ofpomeloes. For large fruits (with mean dia of 15.6 cm),it was higher at 84.09 compared to medium (82.5 %having mean dia of 14.13 cm) and lower for smallfruits (80.72 % having mean dia of 12.75 cm). These

TABLE II

Pomelo pulp loss (%) while peeling with pomelo rind peeler

Small 2.20 2.49 3.03 3.17 2.73(11.5 to 13.5 cm) .Medium 2.02 2.07 2.22 2.53 2.21(13.6 to 14.8 cm)Large 1.29 1.55 1.59 1.73 1.54(14.9 to 16.8 cm)Mean 1.84 2.04 2.28 2.48

Fruit size (cm)

Pulp loss (%)

Days after harvestMean

0th day 2nd day 4th day 6th day

values were obtained for the fruits being peeled on0th day of harvest. Similar trend in the peelingefficiency was observed when the pomeloes werepeeled on 2nd, 4th and 6th days after harvest of fruits.

While peeling pomelo fruits using the developedrind peeler, less pulp loss was observed for the largefruits. The pulp losses for fresh fruits were 1.29, 2.02and 2.20 per cent for large, medium and small sizedfruits, respectively.

The pulp loss was less in fresh fruits and wasfound to increase as the peeling of fruits was delayedafter harvest. The pulp loss for large fruits increasedfrom 1.29 (fresh fruit) to 1.73 per cent for the fruitspeeled 6 days after harvest.

Fig. 2, shows the clear variation in peelingefficiencies of different sized fruits on different daysafter harvest. It was observed that the peeling

Fig. 2. Peeling efficiency of Pomelo Rind Peeler

efficiency was high in case of large sized fresh fruitsand decreased as the fruit size reduced to medium andsmall sizes and also as the days after harvest increased.The peeling efficiency decreased as the days afterharvest increased because of reduction in peel softnessand firmness owing to transpiration losses of the peelmoisture content as the fruit gets older.

Fig. 3 shows the graph indicating clear variationin the pulp loss while peeling of fruits on differentdays after harvest. It could be noticed that the pulploss was less in case of fresh fruits and was found toincrease as the peeling of fruits was delayed afterharvest. As days after harvest increased the peelthickness shrinked due to moisture loss (transpiration)which led to the damage of pulp resulting in loss ofsome pulp along with peel. Further, the pulp loss wasmore in case of small and medium fruits compared tolarge fruits, as the peel thickness and albedo contentwere high in large sized fruits.

Fig. 3. Pomelo pulp loss during peeling by the developedrind peeler

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A MECHANICAL POMELO FRUIT PEELER 73

While working out the economics of thedeveloped rind peeler, the cost of peeling each fruitwas Re 0.16 only, and the output of the machine was75 fruits / hour.

A mechanical pomelo rind peeler was developedfor all the sizes of fruit. The peeler was evaluated forits peeling efficiency of pomelo fruits. Among the threefruit sizes (small, medium and large) peeled ondifferent days after harvest (0th, 2nd, 4th and 6th day) thepeeling efficiency was higher in large fresh fruits(0th day) and lower for small fruits. The peelingefficiency decreased as the days after harvestincreased. Pulp loss was high in small fruits on 6th dayafter harvest and less in large fresh fruits (0th day),and was found to increase as the days after harvestincreased.

Since the peeling efficiency of the developed rindpeeler was high, it could peel approximately about 75fruits per hour and costs Re. 0.16 per fruit. The costeconomics of peeler suggests that the peeler was low

cost equipment giving better output in less time. Thepeeler was easier in operation and could be used by acommon man.

REFERENCES

ADAMS, B. AND KIRK, W., 1992, Process for enzyme peelingof fresh citrus fruit. U.S. Patent 5,000,96.March 19, 1992.

BRUEMMER, L. H. AND GRIFFIN, A.W., 1978, Sectionizinggrapefruit by enzyme digestion. Florida State Horti.So., 91: 112 -114.

ODIGBOH, E. U., 1976, A cassava peeling machine:Development, Design, Construction. J. Agril. Engg.Res., 21(3): 361-369.

ROUHANA, A. AND MANNHEIM, C. H., 1994, Optimization ofenzymatic peeling of grapefruit. Leben. Wissen.Technol, 27: 103-107.

STEPHENS, T. S., 1967, The description and operation of amachine for peeling avocado. Proc. Rio Grande ValleyHorti. Soc., 21: 136 -143.

74 P. NAVYA YADAV et al.

(Received : June, 2011 Accepted : January, 2013)

Determination of Physical, Cooking and Sensory Properties of Elite Cowpea (Vignaunguiculata (L.) Walp) Genotypes

DEEPA TERDAL, USHA RAVINDRA AND R. CHANDRU

Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Twelve selected genotypes of cowpea [T-2 , MS-5, IC-202778, MS-7, IC-243353, KBC-2, GC-3, IC-259084, MS-6, IC-219607, MS-4, C-152 (Control)] were evaluated for their physical properties, cookingcharacteristics and acceptability by organoleptic studies. Seed colour of different elite cowpea genotypes variedfrom brown to strong brown, light yellowish brown to reddish brown and yellowish red, while most of the genotypeswere reddish yellow to pale yellow. Pod colour varied from pink to pinkish white and pinkish gray and some ofthe other genotypes varied from brown to light brown and yellow. Maximum time taken for open cooking was 22-36 minutes. The optimum time for pressure cooking was 10 min. The per cent increase in weight of the sampleranged from 77.4-124.0 and 72.8-129.4 g for boiling and pressure cooked samples, respectively. The per centincrease in volume of the boiled samples ranged from 231.0 - 336.0 ml, in case of pressure cooking it was189.0 – 336.2 ml. The per cent leached out solids ranged from 24.6-43.6 for open cooking and 20.3-36.3 forpressure cooking. Sensory evaluation of boiled and pressure cooked samples were evaluated on nine point hedonicscale, which revealed that pressure cooked samples showed higher acceptability compared to open cooked samples.The genotype MS-5, MS-6, C-152 (Control), MS-7 and T-2 exhibited highest overall acceptability for open andpressure cooked samples and were found to be superior and suitable for the ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook snackfoods.


PULSES or grain legumes provide essential amino acidsto predominantly vegetarian population. They are alsoreferred to as poor man’s meat. Pulses are one of therichest and least expensive sources of protein in humandiets in many parts of the world. Cowpea (Vignaunguiculata (L.) Walp), like other grain legume is animportant foodstuff in tropical and subtropicalcountries. It is widely cultivated and distributed inAfrica, Asia, West Indies, Latin America and India.The legume can be grown in marginal soils and inarid or semi arid regions. Its deep penetrating rootsystem enables it to withstand very dry conditions.Cowpea provide essential nutrients and high level ofprotein (about 25%) making it extremely valuablewhere many people cannot afford protein foods suchas meat and fish (Chinma et al., 2008). According toFAO, about 7.56 million tonnes of cowpea areproduced worldwide annually on about 12.76 millionhectares. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for about 70per cent of total world production (Anon, 2009).

Although the nutritional value lies in its proteincontent, which is 20-25 per cent double the protein

value of most of cereals. Cowpea is comparatively acheap source of quality protein, phosphorous, iron andvitamin and excellent substitute for meat, eggs andother protein rich foods (Kalubowila, 2008). By virtueof their unique chemical composition, cowpea offersa great potential in meeting the nutritionalrequirements of the Indian population. Cowpeacontains, moisture (13.4 g), protein (24.1 g), energy(323 Kcal), fat (1.0 g), crude fibre (3.8 g), carbohydrate(54.5 g), calcium (77 mg), iron (8.6 mg), phosphorus(414 mg), oxalic acid (9.0 mg) and phytic acid (185mg) per 100 g of edible part (Gopalan et al., 2007).

There is great need to increase the productionand utilization of cowpea. In this regard, the efforts ofagricultural scientists have been invaluable. It isessential to test the acceptability and culinary qualityof newer varieties. Because, most of the people preferthe pulses which have shorter cooking time and bettertaste. Therefore, analysis of elite cowpea genotypesfor their cooking quality will provide characteristicsand interactions of proteins in food systems. Theirgenetic variations will influence processing,

preparations and quality attributes of foods. Hence,the present study was undertaken to evaluate physical,cooking characteristics and sensory evaluation of thedifferent twelve elite cowpea genotypes.


Pure and healthy seeds of the twelve elite cowpea[T-2 , MS-5, IC-202778, MS-7, IC-243353, KBC-2,GC-3, IC-259084, MS-6, IC-219607, MS-4, C-152(Control)] genotypes were procured from SunflowerSeed Production Scheme, MRS, UAS, Hebbal,Bangalore. The seeds were sorted to remove stones,dirt and any other foreign particles. They were storedin an air tight plastic container until ready forprocessing.

The colour of pods and seeds were recordedunder natural day light condition using Munsell ColourChart (Anon., 1954). Cooking characteristics of thecowpea seeds were determined by using proceduregiven by Chinma et al., 2008. The open cooked andpressure cooked samples were judged for theiracceptability by ten semi-trained panel members fromthe Department of Food Science and Nutrition, UAS,GKVK, Bangalore, using nine point Hedonic Scalefor appearance, texture, aroma, taste and overallacceptability.


Pod and seed colour : The colour of the pods ofelite cowpea genotypes varied widely from pink topinkish white among the genotypes. Of the twelvegenotypes studied, five genotypes (T-2, IC-202778,IC-243353, KBC-2 and GC-3) were found to be ofpink colour, IC-219607 and MS-5 were pinkish whitewhile MS-4 was pinkish gray in colour. IC-259084,C-152 showed yellow colour and MS-6 found to bebrown in colour (Table I).

The colours of the three genotypes (T-2, MS-5and IC-202778) were reddish yellow. Dark reddishbrown colour was seen in KBC-2. Pale yellowcoloured seeds seen in two genotypes viz., MS-7 andIC-259084. Brown, yellowish brown, light yellowish

TABLE I

Comparison of elite cowpea genotypes seedcolour to munsell colour chart

Genotypes

T-2 Pink (8/4) Reddish yellow (7/6)

MS-5 Pinkish white (8/2) Reddish yellow (7/6)

IC-202778 Pink (7/4) Reddish yellow

MS-7 Brown(5/4) Pale yellow (8/4)

IC-243353 Pink(8/4) Yellowish brown (5/8)

KBC-2 Pink(8/4) Dark reddish brown (3/3)

GC-3 Pink(7/3) Brown (5/4)

IC-259084 Yellow(7/8) Pale yellow (8/4)

MS-6 Light brown(6/4) Light yellowish brown(6/4)

IC-219607 Pinkish white(8/2) Yellowish red (5/8)

MS-4 Pinkish gray(7/2) Strong (5/6)

C-152(Control) Yellow(7/6) Reddish brown (4/4)

Measured by visual observation (Munsell Soil Colour Chart,1954)

Podcolour Seed colour

brown, reddish brown and strong brown colour wasseen in GC-3, IC-243353, MS-6, C-152 and MS-4genotypes, respectively. Whereas, IC-219607 hadyellowish red colour (Table I).

Open cooking : The cooking time of thegenotypes ranged between 22 and 36 min. Thegenotype IC-243353 took maximum i.e. 36 min. forcooking, while, the MS-5 took minimum of 22 minutesfor cooking (Table II). Similar observation was madeby Gomathinayagam et al. (2000) who reported thatCo.4 took 18 min and Co 3 took 19 min. for completecooking in chickpea varieties. These differences maybe due to the presence of higher moisture content andalso thickness and composition of the seed coat, aswell as the composition of the cotyledon cell wall.

Weight of 100 seeds before cooking : The averageweight of hundred seeds before cooking rangedbetween 9 and 22 g (Table II). The IC-202778 found

76 DEEPA TERDAL et al.

TABLE II

Effect of boiling on the cooking characteristics of elite cowpea genotypes

T-2 31.0 12.3 95.3 258.4 33.5MS-5 22.0 11.0 85.2 231.0 30.0IC-202778 30.0 16.0 124.0 336.0 43.6MS-7 30.0 12.0 93.0 252.0 32.7IC-243353 36.0 15.0 116.2 315.0 41.0KBC-2 25.0 11.0 85.2 231.0 30.0GC-3 26.0 12.0 93.0 304.6 46.0IC-259084 28.0 10.0 108.4 252.0 32.7MS-6 32.0 11.0 85.2 231.0 30.0IC-219607 24.0 10.0 77.4 210.0 27.3MS-4 23.0 9.0 69.7 189.0 24.6C-152 (Control) 28.0 10.0 77.4 210.0 27.3Mean 27.9 12.1 85.4 251.7 32.2F-value * * * * *S.Em± 0.289 0.096 0.093 0.021 0.193CD at 5% 0.843 0.280 0.281 0.064 0.562

*Significant at 5 % level

Genotypes Cooking time(min)

Weight of100 seeds

beforecooking (g)

Per centincrease inweight (g)

Per centincrease in

volume (ml)

Per centleachedoutsolids (%)

to have significantly higher weight (22 g) followedby IC 243353 (15.0 g) and T 2 (12.3 g). This differencemay be due to difference in seed size and compositionof seeds.

Per cent increase in weight : The results of theper cent increase in weight of the cowpea genotypesafter cooking is represented in Table II and valuesranged from 77.4 to124.0 g. The per cent increase inweight of the samples was found maximum inIC-202778 (124.0). This may be due to the higherwater absorption capacity of IC-202778 after it wascooked. Water absorption capacity depends onmoisture content of the seeds.

Per cent increase in volume : The per cent gainin volume ranged from 231.0 to 336.0 ml (Table II).Highest gain was observed in IC-202778 (336.0 ml)

and least was found in genotype MS-5 (231.0 ml).Highest per cent increase in volume may be due to thehighest moisture content.

Per cent leached out solids : The average percent leached out solids ranged from 24.6 to 43.6 percent (Table II). Highest was observed in IC-202778(43.6 %) and least was observed in MS-4 (24.6%).Hence, these genotypes can be used for soup, sambarand curry preparation, to avoid the discarding of waterafter cooking. The per cent of leached out solids forman important criteria in deciding the quality of a varietyas that would decide its use in soups and dhal by theconsumers. Shruthi (2008) determined the cookingcharacteristics of Dolichos beans. Per cent leached outsolids was ranged from 21.8 to 40.5 per cent. Valuesof the per cent leached solids in present study aresimilar with the above mentioned study.

DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL, COOKING AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF ELITE COWPEA 77

Pressure cooking

Cooking time : The genotypes were pressurecooked for 10 minutes. The cooking time wascomparatively lower than the time taken for boiling.The data is represented in Table III.

Weight of 100 seeds before cooking : The averageweight of 100 seeds before cooking ranged from 9 to22 g. The IC-202778 (22 g) found to have significantlyhigher weight followed by T-2 (12.3 g). This differenceis due to difference in seed weight from genotype toother genotype (Table III).

Per cent increase in weight: The per cent increasein weight ranged from 72.8 to 129.4 g (Table III). Thegenotype which showed higher per cent in weight wasIC-202778 (129.4 g). The lesser per cent increase inweight was found in MS-4 of about 72.8 g.Gomathinayagam et al. (2000) reported that increase

in weight was 207 g for Co.4 and 215 g for Co.3 andwater uptake was 265 g for both the varieties.

Per cent increase in volume: The per centincrease in volume ranged from 189.0 – 336.2 ml(Table III). The overall results showed that by pressurecooking there is still a better expansion in volume ofthe genotypes cooked. This might be due to the factthat more water is conserved in pressure cooking thanboiling.

Per cent leached solids : The per cent leachedsolids ranged from 20.3 - 36.3 (Table III). Highest percent leached solids was found in IC-202778 (36.3) andleast per cent leached solids was noticed in MS-4(20.3). The higher values of per cent leached out solidswas recorded in boiling when compared to pressurecooking. This was mainly due to conversion of morewater into vapour pressure in pressure cooking. Similar

TABLE III

Effect of pressure cooking on the cooking chaacteristics of elite cowpea genotypes

T-2 10.0 12.3 99.3 258.7 27.6MS-5 10.0 11.0 89.0 231.3 25.0IC-202778 10.0 16.0 129.4 336.2 36.3MS-7 10.0 12.0 97.0 252.1 27.2IC-243353 10.0 15.0 121.2 315.1 34.0KBC-2 10.0 11.0 89.0 231.3 25.0GC-3 10.0 12.0 97.0 252.1 27.2IC-259084 10.0 10.0 80.8 210.0 22.6MS-6 10.0 11.0 89.0 231.3 25.0IC-219607 10.0 10.0 80.8 210.0 22.6MS-4 10.0 9.0 72.8 189.0 20.3C-152 (Control) 10.0 10.0 80.8 210.0 22.6Mean - 12.1 94.5 246.0 26.4F-value - * * * *S.EM± - 0.096 0.191 0.077 0.192CD at 5% - 0.280 0.560 0.224 0.561


Genotypes Cooking time(min)

Weight of100 seeds

beforecooking, (g)

Per centincrease inweight (g)

Per centincrease in

volume (ml)

Per centleached outsolids (%)


observations are reported by Shruthi (2008) whenstudied the per cent leached out solids in pressurecooked genotypes of Dolichos beans varied from 22.5to 55.9. Gomathinayagam et al. (2000) reportedcooking characteristics of a new variety chickpea viz.,Co.4. This new variety was on par with check varietyCo.3 for cooking characteristics.

Sensory evaluation of the cooked elite cowpeagenotypes

Boiled or open cooked genotypes : C-152 andMS-7 showed the highest overall acceptability. Theleast accepted genotype was IC-219607. The averagescore were 5.9, 5.0, 4.5, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.5 for appearance,texture, colour, flavour, taste and overall acceptability,respectively (Table IV). Gomathinagyam et al. (2000)showed that Co.4, a newly released variety of chickpea

was more acceptable than Co.3, a control variety interms of all sensory attributes. More of the genotypesscored lesser acceptance. This might be due to changein taste and also harvest of pod at right time andchemicals which were used for storage.

Pressure cooked genotypes : Higher score (8.2)was received by MS-7 followed by C-152 (8.0) andMS-5 (8.0) and least was received by IC-202778 (5.0),with significantly highest score for C-152 (8.3) andleast was for IC-259084 (5.9) and data is presented inTable V. Hence, all the genotypes exhibited goodcooking characteristic. On the whole, pressure cookingwas considered to be the best method and the sensoryevaluation of boiled and pressure cooked samplesrevealed that pressure cooked samples were highlyacceptable.

TABLE IV

Mean scores for sensory characteristics of boiled elite cowpea genotypes

T-2 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.4

MS-5 7.8 7.9 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0

IC-202778 5.0 6.4 4.9 4.9 4.9 5.4

MS-7 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.3

IC-243353 6.0 4.6 4.2 5.7 5.7 6.2

KBC-2 6.5 5.1 5.5 4.8 4.8 4.9

GC-3 5.0 6.5 5.1 4.9 4.9 5.3

IC-259084 6.3 5.9 5.0 6.5 6.5 6.5

MS-6 7.2 7.8 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.6

IC-219607 5.9 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

MS-4 5.7 6.0 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6

C-152 (Control) 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3

F-value * * * * * *

S.Em± 0.377 0.343 0.408 0.363 0.353 0.350

CD at 5% 1.056 0.961 1.146 1.019 0.989 0.981


Genotypes Appearance Texture Colour Flavour Taste Overallacceptability

DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL, COOKING AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF ELITE COWPEA 79

TABLE V

Mean scores for sensory characteristics of pressure cooked elite cowpea genotypes

T-2 7.2 7.8 7.4 7.8 7.3 7.7

MS-5 7.4 7.3 8.2 7.9 8.0 7.8

IC-202778 5.9 7.5 6.0 5.2 5.0 5.9

MS-7 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.4 8.2 8.2

IC-243353 6.33 6.8 6.8 6.3 6.4 6.5

KBC-2 7.4 7.3 7.1 5.2 5.3 6.3

GC-3 6.8 7.3 6.5 4.5 4.8 7.1

IC-259084 7.7 7.3 7.5 6.7 5.6 6.0

MS-6 7.2 7.6 6.6 8.3 7.7 7.6

IC-219607 6.3 6.1 7.9 5.9 4.7 6.0

MS-4 6.5 5.8 6.8 5.7 6.6 6.6

C-152 (Control) 8.1 8.2 7.8 8.9 8.0 8.3

F-value * * * * * *

S.E± 0.267 0.232 0.245 0.302 0.223 0.252

CD at 5% 0.748 0.650 0.687 0.846 0.626 0.708


Genotypes Appearance Texture Colour Flavour Taste Overallacceptability

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS, 1954, Munsell soil colour charts, MunsellColour Macbeth Division of KollmorganCorporation, 2441, North Calvert Street, Baltimore.

ANONYMOUS, 2009, http://www.iita.org/cmscowpea_project.

CHINMA, C. E., ALEMEDE, I. C. AND EMELIFE, I. G., 2008,Physico-chemical and functional properties of someNigerian cowpea varieties. Pakistan J. Nutrition,7 (1): 186-190

GOMATHINAYAGAM, P., MUTHIAH, A. R., RANGASAMY, P.,SIVAKUMAR, S., SETHUPATHI, R., RAMALINGAM AND

VANRHEENEN, 2000, A new chickpea variety for TamilNadu. Madras Agric. J., 87 (1-3): 47-90.

GOPALAN, C., RAMASASTRI, B.V. AND BALASUBRAMANIAN, S.C., 2007, Nutritive value of Indian foods. NationalInstitute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad.

KALUBOWILA, I., UMA, M.S. AND YENAGI, N., 2008, Nutritivevalue and cooking quality of some genotypes ofcowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.). Environment andEcology 26 (2A): 751-754.

SHRUTHI, B. S., 2008, Nutrient composition, productdevelopment and sensory evaluation of Dolichos bean(Lablab purpureus), M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Universityof Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka.



Studies on the Influence of Accelerated Ageing and Seed Priming on Seed QualityParameters of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Hybrid KBSH-41 and its Parents

SHARANAPPA, P. J. DEVARAJU, R. SIDDARAJU, PARASHIVAMURTHY AND RAME GOWDA

Department of Seed Science & Technology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The study was carried out during 2009 to know the effect of PEG priming and hydro priming on agedseeds of sunflower hybrid KBSH-41 and its parental lines viz., CMS-234A and RHA 95C-1 was evaluated in thepresent study. Seeds of all genotypes were aged for 24 h and 48 h at 400 C and 90 per cent RH, the unaged seedswere used as control. Further, seeds were primed with PEG-6000 -1.0 MPa at 100 C and hydro primed by soakingin water by 24 h at 200 C. The results revealed that the priming treatment with PEG 6000 at -1.0 MPa increasedthe seed quality parameters such as germination (98 %), mean seedling length (26.96 cm), mean seedling dryweight (0.178 mg), seedling vigour index (2489), speed of germination (96.2), field emergence (87 %). Amongthe genotypes, the hybrid KBSH-41 showed better improvement with regard to seed quality parameter than itsparents upon priming treatments. The study is concluded that the seed primed with PEG-6000 -1.0 MPa at 100 Cimproves the seed quality parameters in marginal lots of sunflower.


SYMPTOMS of seed accelerated ageing are a reducedrate and uniformity of germination, lower resistanceto adverse germination conditions, decrease in totalgermination and number of normal seedlings. Ageingis assumed that accumulates during ageing of dry seedsand this damage can partly be repaired when the seedsbecomes imbibed (Villiers and Edgecumbe, 1975).Loss of seed vigour and viability is associated withmany biochemical changes including DNA damage,alteration in the synthesis of RNA, protein, respiratoryactivity, ATP production and deterioration ofmembrane properties (Priestley, 1986). Thegermination of aged seeds will be delayed until repairprocess has taken place. Severe ageing damage canlead to abnormal seedlings and non-germinating ofseeds (Villiers, 1974). The ageing induced damage tothe genome can be reversed by repair processes takingplace before visible germination (Osborne, 1982 andRoberts, 1988).

In recent years, a great deal of attention has beengiven to priming treatments like osmo-priming andhydro-priming. Priming of seeds with PEG 6000 offersan effective means for reducing the time required forgermination, seedling emergence and also forincreasing resistance to the adverse effect ofenvironment (Heydecker, 1973). Seed priming is apromising technique to overcome erratic or poor

germination (Bradford, 1986). Pre-soaking of seedsin osmotic solution resulted in increased germinationof vegetable seeds under sub optimal conditions(Brocklehurst et al., 1984) and also in crop speciesviz., field corn (Bodsworth and Bewley, 1981),sunflower (Smoke et al., 1993) and in sweet corn (Sungand Chang, 1993) under lower temperatures.Therefore, priming treatments like osmo-priming(PEG-6000) and hydro-priming (soaking in water) aregenerally used to improve the quality of seeds (Mitraand Basu, 1979, Liou, 1987 and Rao et al., 1987).Therefore, aim of the present study was to establishthe relation between accelerated ageing induced seedquality loss and to know whether beneficial effects ofpost-accelerated ageing osmo-priming on seeds ofsunflower hybrid KBSH-41 and its parents.


Seed materials : Seeds of sunflower hybridKBSH-41 and its parents CMS-234A and RHA95C-1were obtained from All India Co-ordinated ResearchProject on Sunflower, GKVK, Bangalore. The seedsdried to a safe moisture level, graded to uniform sizeand used for the study. The seeds were stored inmoisture proof polythene bags until the initiation ofthe study.

Ageing and priming treatments: The sunflowerseeds were subjected to accelerated ageing as perDelouche and Baskin (1973) by placing requiredquantity of seeds from each genotype on monolayerwire gauze in a controlled humidity chambermaintained at 40 0C ± 1 0C and 90 per cent relativehumidity. The samples were drawn at 0 h (A1), 24 h(A2) and 48 h (A3) in three replications for analysis.The accelerated aged seeds were subjected to PEG-6000 -1.0 MPa (P3) for 72 h at 100C followed bywashing with distilled water thoroughly for 3-4 timesand dried under shade until they attain original seedmoisture content and another set of seeds weresubjected to hydro-priming (P2) by soaking in waterat 25 0C for 18 hr and dried under shade until theyattain original seed moisture content. Untreated seedsserved as control (P1). The seed quality parametersviz., seed germination (%), mean seedling length (cm),mean seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index,speed of germination and field emergence wereestimated according to ISTA (1996).

Estimation of total soluble sugars and proteins:The total soluble sugar content in the seed leachatewas estimated by the Phenol Sulphuric Acid method(Dubois et al., 1956) and total soluble protein contentin the acetone powder prepared from seeds wasevaluated by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). Theresults were expressed as percentage. The data wasstatistically analyzed by subjecting to ANOVA asdescribed by Sundararaj et al. (1972), adopting theFisher’s Analysis of Variance Technique. CriticalDifference (CD) values were computed at 5 per centlevel of significance.


The results in Table Irevealed that the seed qualityparameters viz., seed germination, seedling length,seedling dry weight, seedling vigour index, fieldemergence, speed of emergence, soluble sugar contentand protein content found to be differed significantlywith respect to genotypes, accelerated ageing and seedpriming treatments and their interactions. The highestseed germination was recorded in fresh seeds ofKBSH-41 upon PEG priming at -1.0MPa for 72 h(98 %) and it was lowest in the untreated seeds of 48h aged seeds of RHA95C-1 (74.33 %). Among the

ageing levels, the fresh seeds registered highest meangermination (90.33 %) followed by 24 h aged seeds(83.96 %) and lowest was recorded in 48 h aged seeds(82.96 %). Among the priming treatments, PEG 6000priming at -1.0MPa for 72 h recorded the highestgermination (88.63 %), while, the untreated seedsrecorded the lowest (81.89 %).

The highest seedling length was recorded in thefresh seeds of KBSH-41 at hydro priming for 18 h(26.96 cm) followed by fresh treated seeds of KBSH-41 (25.64 cm) and it was significantly superior overall other treatment combination (Table II), whereas,untreated 24 h aged seeds of RHA 95C-1 recorded thelowest seedling length (11.95 cm).

Among the ageing levels (Table III), the highestseedling length was noticed in fresh seeds (20.56 cm).Among the priming treatments, PEG priming at -1.0MPa for 72 h registered highest mean seedlinglength (19.91 cm), while, the untreated seeds recordedthe lowest (16.62 cm). The highest seedling dry weightwas recorded in the PEG treated fresh seeds of KBSH-41 (0.178 mg) followed by PEG treated 24 h aged seeds(0.176 mg) and it was significantly superior overuntreated seeds of the 48 h aged seeds of RHA95C-1(0.096 mg).

Among the ageing levels (Table IV), themaximum dry weight was noticed in fresh seeds (0.138mg). Among the priming treatments, PEG primingregistered maximum mean seedling dry weight (0.141mg), while, the untreated seeds recorded the lowest(0.116 mg). The highest seedling vigour index wasrecorded in the PEG treated fresh seeds of KBSH-41(2489), while, it was lowest in untreated 48 h agedseeds of RHA95C-1 (895). Among the ageing levels,the highest SVI was recorded in fresh seeds (1845)andlowest in 48 h aged seeds (1520). Among the primingtreatments, PEG priming at -1.0MPa for 72 h recordedthe highest SVI (1823) and the untreated seedsrecorded the lowest SVI (1425).

The highest speed of germination was recordedin PEG treated 24 h aged seeds of KBSH-41 (24.72)and it was lowest in untreated 48 h aged seeds of RHA

82 SHARANAPPA et al.

TAB

LE I

Ger

min

atio

n pe

rcen

tage

as i

nflu

ence

d by

ace

lera

ted

agei

ng a

nd p

rim

ing

in su

nflo

wer

hyb

rid

KBS

K-4

1 an

d its

par

ents

P 189

.00

84.3

382

.00

86.0

080

.00

78.0

087

.33

76.0

074

.33

85.1

181

.33

79.2

287

.44

80.1

178

.11

81.8

9P 2

97.0

092

.00

87.3

387

.33

82.6

684

.66

88.6

681

.00

80.0

092

.11

84.8

883

.22

91.0

085

.22

84.0

086

.74

P 398

.00

93.3

392

.66

90.6

685

.00

87.0

089

.00

81.3

380

.66

94.6

687

.55

83.6

692

.55

86.5

586

.77

88.6

3M

ean

94.6

789

.89

87.3

388

.00

82.5

583

.22

88.3

379

.44

78.3

390

.63

84.5

982

.03

90.3

383

.96

82.9

6

G

A

PG

× A

A ×

PG

× P

G

× A

× P

S.Em

±0.

308

0.30

8 0

.308

0.53

40.

534

0.53

41.

60C

D (P

=0.0

5)0.

874

0.87

40.

874

1.51

41.

511.

514

2.62

CV

(%)

1.8

7 TAB

LE I

I

Seed

ling

leng

th (c

m) a

s inf

luen

ced

by a

ccel

erat

ed a

gein

g an

d pr

imin

g in

sunf

low

er h

ybri

d K

BSH

-41

and

its p

aren

ts

P 125

.64

20.5

316

.96

15.2

514

.96

11.9

516

.40

15.8

812

.02

21.0

414

.05

14.7

719

.09

17.1

213

.64

16.6

2P 2

26.9

624

.68

21.0

416

.59

16.2

215

.96

19.0

716

.11

13.8

624

.23

16.2

516

.35

20.8

719

16.9

518

.94

P 325

.425

.09

24.5

519

.43

16.9

816

.76

20.3

118

.79

16.7

125

.01

17.7

218

.621

.71

12.2

919

.34

19.9

1M

ean

26.0

023

.43

20.8

517

.09

16.0

514

.89

18.5

916

.93

14.2

023

.43

16.0

116

.57

20.5

616

.14

16.6

4

G

A

P

G

× A

A ×

P

G

× P

G ×

A ×

PS.

Em±

0.08

70.

087

0.08

70.

151

0.15

10.

151

0.45

CD

(P=0

.05)

0.24

60.

246

0.24

60.

427

0.42

70.

427

0.74

CV

(%)

2.42

Gen

otyp

es (G

)A

gein

g le

vels

(A)

Trea

tmen

ts (P

)G

1 : K

BSH

-41

A1 :

F

resh

seed

sP 1 :

U

ntre

ated

G2 :

CM

S-23

4AA

2 :

24 h

r age

ing

P 2 :

Hyd

ro p

rimin

gG

3 : R

HA

95

C-1

A3 :

48

hr a

gein

gP 3

: P

EG 6

000

- 1.0

MPa

for 7

2 hr

A3

INFLUENCE OF ACCELERATED AGEING AND SEED PRIMING ON SEED QUALITY PARAMETERS OF SUNFLOWER 83

A ×

PM

ean

A3

Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

A2

A ×

PM

ean

Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

A2

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

TAB

LE I

II

Mea

n se

edlin

g dr

y w

eigh

t (m

g)as

influ

ence

d by

acc

eler

ated

age

ing

and

prim

ing

in su

nflo

wer

hyb

rid

KBS

H-4

1 an

d it

pare

nts

P 10.

154

0.12

50.

135

0.12

00.

106

0.10

40.

110

0.09

80.

096

0.13

80.

110

0.10

10.

128

0.11

00.

112

0.11

6P 2

0.17

50.

172

0.17

00.

122

0.11

90.

119

0.11

60.

110

0.10

40.

172

0.12

00.

110

00.1

370.

134

0.13

10.

134

P 30.

178

0.17

60.

166

0.14

90.

145

0.13

60.

121

0.10

80.

102

0.17

30.

143

0.11

00.

149

0.13

0.13

50.

141

Mea

n0.

169

0.15

80.

157

0.13

00.

123

0.12

00.

116

0.10

50.

101

0.16

10.

124

0.10

70.

138

0.12

50.

126

G A

PG

× A

A ×

PG

× P

G

× A

× P

S.Em

±0.

001

0.00

10.

001

0.00

20.

002

0.00

20.

01C

D (P

=0.0

5)0.

004

0.00

40.

004

0.00

60.

006

0.00

60.

01C

V (%

)2.

11

TAB

LE I

V

Mea

n se

edlin

g vi

gour

inde

x as

influ

ence

d by

acc

eler

ated

age

ing

and

prim

ing

in su

nflo

wer

hyb

rid

KBS

H-4

1 an

d its

par

ents

P 122

5920

4514

0813

0812

2193

214

2313

3089

519

0411

5412

1616

6315

3210

7814

25P 2

2475

2255

1851

1470

1429

1339

1714

1435

1066

2194

1413

1405

1886

1707

1786

1695

P 324

8923

6522

0417

6914

4214

5917

0415

5013

3623

8315

5715

3019

8717

8616

9718

23M

ean

2408

2222

1851

1516

1364

1243

161

414

3810

9921

6013

7513

8418

4516

7515

20G

AP

G ×

AA

× P

G ×

P

G ×

A ×

PS.

Em±

9.58

9.58

9.58

16.5

916

.59

16.5

949

.80

CD

(P=0

.05)

27.1

727

.17

27.1

747

.05

47.0

547

.05

81.5

1C

V (%

)3.

04

Gen

otyp

es (G

)

Age

ing

leve

ls (A

)

T

reat

men

ts (P

)G

1 :

KB

SH-4

1A

1 :

Fre

sh se

eds

P 1 :

Unt

reat

edG

2 :

CM

S-23

4AA

2 :

24 h

r age

ing

P 2 :

Hyd

ro p

rimin

gG

3 : R

HA

95

C-1

A3 :

48

hr a

gein

gP 3

: P

EG 6

000

- 1.0

MPa

for 7

2 hr


Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A ×

P

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

Mea

nA

2A

3

Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A ×

P

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

Mea

nA

2A

3

95C-1 (15.60). Among the ageing levels, the freshseeds registered the highest speed of germination(21.51) and lowest was in 48 h aged seeds (18.32).Among the priming treatments, PEG priming at -1.0MPa for 72 h recorded the highest (21.98), while,the untreated seeds recorded the lowest (18.80)(Table V). The highest field emergence was recordedin PEG treated and hydro primed fresh seeds of KBSH-41 (87.00 %) and it was lowest in the untreated 48 haged seeds of RHA95C-1 (61.33 %). Among theageing levels, the fresh seeds registered the highestfield emergence (82.66 %) and it was lowest in 48 haged seeds (72.77 %). Among the priming treatments,PEG priming at -1.0 MPa for 72 h recorded the highest(80.22 %), while, the untreated seeds recorded thelowest (73.55 %) (Table VI).

With regard to total soluble sugar and proteincontent, the highest was recorded in PEG 6000 - 1.0MPa for 72 h treated fresh seeds of KBSH-41 (2.71and 2.58 %, respectively) and lowest was revealed inuntreated 48 h aged seeds of RHA 95C-1 (1.20 and0.78 %, respectively). Among ageing levels, the freshseeds recorded the highest (2.39 and 2.22 %,respectively) and it was lowest in the 48 h aged seeds(1.72 and 1.65 %, respectively) and in primingtreatments, PEG priming at -1.0 MPa for 72 h recordedthe highest total soluble sugars (2.16 and 2.18 %,respectively) and lowest in hydro-primed comparedto untreated seeds (1.57 and 1.25 %) (Table VII andVIII).

Seed priming has become a common seedenhancement treatment to increase the rate anduniformity of emergence under varied field conditions.Heydecker (1973) acknowledged the use of the term“Priming” of seeds. Malnassy (1971) described pre-sowing treatments to enhance germination and increaseseedling emergence under adverse environmentalconditions. The increase in seed germinationpercentage, upon PEG treatment may be due to limitedwater uptake at low water potential, permitting initialsteps of germination in advance and increased peroxidescavenging enzymatic activities and decreased lipidperoxidation influencing rapidity, synchrony and alsoincreased shoot, root length and mean seedling dryweight is because of higher metabolic activity that

leads to the better mobilization efficiency of storedfood that might have contributed for the better seedlinggrowth (Bailly et al., 2002) and increased vigour indexmay be due to increased seed germination percentage,shoot and root length or dry weight of the seedlings(Mruthyunjaya, 2003). Increased speed of emergenceand field emergence is because of accumulation ofsolutes resulting greater radicle protrusion due toenhancement of seed vigour in primed seeds (Agrawal,1986).

The increase in protein content in the seeds uponPEG treatment may be due to membranereconfiguration which may lead to the reactivation ofmembrane-associated enzymes and subsequentlyresulted in an enhancement of protein synthesis. Thesefindings are in lineage with (Sung and Chang, 1993;Srinivasan et al., 1999). The increased total solublesugar in the seeds may be due to decreased leachingof sugars (Sung and Chang, 1993) and also due todecreased sucrose utilization rather than the increasedsucrose synthesis and lower activities of sucrosesynthatase and other sucrose degrading enzymes.Since, most of the sucrose found in cotyledons istransported intact into the axis where it is degraded(Spyropoulos, 1986). Osmo-conditioning of seeds maybe due to sugar accumulation and the sugars be readilycleaved to support the energy and carbon metabolismoperating during seed imbibition and support themetabolic activities and consequently result in fasterrate of field emergence (Sung and Chang, 1993).

In present investigation, it was noticed that theconditioning the seeds with PEG 6000 at -1.0 MPa at100C for 72 h improved the performance of the freshseed as well as aged seeds with respect to physiologicalseeds quality parameters like seed germination,seedling length, mean seedling dry weight, seedlingvigour index, speed of germination, field emergence,total soluble protein and sugar (Tables VII and VIII).Overall it signifies that the damage occurred duringageing can be repaired to some extent by seedinvigouration techniques like osmo-priming andhydro-priming. Therefore, priming of aged seedsbefore seeding is advisable to enhance the performancepotential of the seed, thus, losses can be reduced tofarmers by using marginal seeds.


TAB

LE V

Spee

d of

ger

min

atio

n as

influ

ence

d by

acc

eler

ated

age

ing

and

prim

ing

in su

nflo

wer

hyb

rid

KBS

H-4

1 an

d its

par

ents

P 121

/27

19.6

619

.61

20.3

018

.33

17.0

219

.58

17.8

315

.60

20.1

818

.55

17.6

520

.38

18.6

017

.41

18.8

0P 2

21.9

922

.33

20.9

920

.99

21.3

320

.27

20.4

420

.22

18.0

821

.77

20.8

619

.58

21.1

421

.29

19.7

820

.74

P 324

.60

24.7

221

.83

22.4

023

.88

20.8

321

.99

22.3

319

.60

23.7

122

.38

21.3

123

.01

19.3

717

.76

21.9

8M

ean

22.6

722

.24

20.8

121

.23

21.1

819

.37

20.6

720

.13

17.7

621

.89

20.6

019

.51

21.5

119

.75

18.3

220

.51

G A

P

G

× A

A

× P

G

× P

G ×

A ×

PS.

Em±

0.09

0.09

0.09

0.16

0.16

0.16

0.28

CD

(P=0

.05)

0.19

0.19

0.19

0.33

0.33

0.33

0.57

CV

(%)

1.70

TAB

LE V

I

Fiel

d em

erge

nce

(%) a

s inf

luen

ced

by a

ccel

erat

ed a

gein

g an

d pr

imin

g in

sunf

low

er h

ybri

d K

BSH

-41

and

its p

aren

ts

P 184

.00

73.0

071

.00

79.6

670

.66

68.0

081

.00

69.6

661

.33

76.0

072

.77

76.7

781

.55

71.1

166

.77

73.5

5(6

6.44

)(5

8.71

)(5

7.41

)(6

3.20

)(5

7.21

)(5

5.55

)(6

4.16

)(5

6.58

)(5

1.55

)(6

0.85

)(5

8.65

)(5

7.43

)(6

4.60

)(5

7.50

)(5

4.84

)(5

8.98

)P 2

87.0

081

.33

78.0

080

.33

73.0

076

.00

81.6

672

.66

69.3

382

.11

76.4

474

.55

83.0

075

.66

74.4

477

.70

(68.

90)

(64.

41)

(62.

03)

(63.

68)

(58.

69)

(60.

66)

(64.

66)(

58.5

0)(5

6.38

)(6

5.11

)(6

1.01

)(5

9.85

)(6

5.74

)(6

0.53

)(5

9.69

)(6

1.99

)P 3

87.0

083

.33

81.3

381

.00

76.0

075

.00

82.3

381

.00

75.0

083

.88

77.3

379

.44

83.4

480

.11

77.1

180

.22

(68.

07)

(65.

00)

(64.

41)

(64.

17)

(60.

17)

(60.

01)

(65.

15)

(64.

16)

(60.

00)

(66.

39)

(61.

62)

(63.

10)

(66.

06)

(63.

58)

(61.

47)

(61.

70)

Mea

n86

.00

79.2

276

.78

80.3

373

.22

73.0

081

.66

74.4

468

.55

80.6

675

.51

76.9

282

.66

75.6

372

.77

(68.

07)

(63.

00)

(61.

28)

(63.

68)

(58.

86)

(58.

74)

(64.

66)

(59.

75)

(55.

98)

(64.

12)

(60.

43)

(60.

13)

(65.

47)

(60.

54)

(58.

67)

G A

P

G ×

A

A

× P

G

× P

G

× A

× P

S

.Em

±0.

320.

320.

320.

550.

550.

551.

67C

D (P

=0.0

5)0.

900.

900.

901.

571.

571.

572.

73C

V (%

)2.

16

V

alue

s in

par

anth

eses

are

tran

sfor

med

dat

a

Gen

otyp

es (G

)

Age

ing

leve

ls (A

)

T

reat

men

ts (P

)G

1 : K

BSH

-41

A1 :

Fr

esh

seed

sP 1 :

U

ntre

ated

G2 :

CM

S-23

4AA

2 :

24 h

r age

ing

P 2 :

Hyd

ro p

rimin

gG

3 : R

HA

95

C-1

A3 :

48

hr a

gein

gP 3

: P

EG 6

000-

1.0

MPa

for 7

2 hr

G2

G3

G ×

PA

× P

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

Mea

nA

2A

3

G2

G3

G ×

PA

× P

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A1

Mea

nA

2A

3


Trea

tmen

tsG

1

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

Trea

tmen

tsG

1

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

TAB

LE V

II

Tota

l sol

uble

suga

r con

tent

(%) i

n se

ed a

s inf

luen

ced

by a

ccel

erat

ed a

gein

g an

d pr

imin

g in

sunf

low

er h

ybri

d K

BSH

-41a

nd it

s par

ents

P 11.

971.

231.

292.

151.

301.

192.

531.

281.

201.

491.

541.

672.

221.

271.

221.

57(8

.08)

(6.3

6)(6

.52)

(8.4

3)(6

.54)

(6.2

6)(9

.15)

(6.4

9)(6

.28)

(6.9

9)(7

.08)

(7.3

1)(8

.55)

(6.4

7)(6

.35)

(7.1

2)P 2

2.55

2.20

1.41

2.43

1.98

1.46

2.27

2.03

1.41

2.05

1.95

1.90

2.42

2.07

2.03

2.01

(9.1

9)(8

.52)

(6.8

1)(8

.96)

(8.0

8)(6

.93)

(8.6

7)(8

.20)

(6.8

1)(8

.18)

(7.9

9)(7

.90)

(8.9

4)(8

.27)

(6.8

5)(8

.02)

P 32.

712.

022.

092.

572.

051.

882.

302.

041.

782.

272.

172.

042.

522.

031.

922.

16(9

.47)

(8.1

8)(8

.32)

(9.2

3)(8

.23)

(7.8

8)(8

.72)

(8.2

1)(7

.67)

(8.6

6)(8

.45)

(8.2

0)(9

.14)

(8.2

0)(7

.96)

(8.4

3)M

ean

2.41

1.82

1.60

2.38

1.78

1.51

2.37

1.78

1.46

1.94

1.89

1.87

2.39

1.79

1.72

(8.9

1)(7

.68)

(7.2

1)(8

.87)

(7.6

1)(7

.02)

(8.8

4)(7

.63)

(6.9

2)(7

.94)

(7.8

4)(7

.80)

(8.8

8)(7

.65)

(7.0

5)

G

A

P

G

× A

A ×

P

G

× P

G ×

A ×

PS.

Em±

0.00

80.

008

0.00

80.

014

0.01

40.

014

0.04

CD

(P=0

.05)

0.02

30.

023

0.02

30.

040.

040.

040.

07C

V (%

)2,

22

TAB

LE V

III

P 11.

761.

221.

061.

621.

130.

831.

591.

260.

781.

341.

191.

211.

651.

200.

891.

25(7

.62)

(6.3

5)(5

.90)

(7.3

1)(6

.11)

(5.2

2)(7

.24)

(9.4

4)(5

.08)

(6.6

2)(6

.21)

(6.2

5)(7

.39)

(6.3

0)(5

.40)

(6.3

6)P 2

2.45

2.21

2/16

2.41

2.07

2.50

2.46

1.82

1.82

2.27

2.32

2.03

2.44

2.03

2.20

2.21

(9.0

1)(8

.55)

(8.4

5)(8

.93)

(8.2

7)(9

.09)

(9.0

2)(7

.76)

(7.7

6)(8

.67)

(8.7

6)(8

.18)

(8.9

8)(8

.20)

(8.4

3)(8

.54)

P 32.

582.

282.

082.

552.

311.

752.

551.

811.

742.

312.

202.

042.

562.

131.

862.

18(9

.24)

(8.6

9)(8

.30)

(9.1

8)(8

.74)

(7.6

1)(9

.20)

(7.7

4)(7

.59)

(8.7

5)(8

.51)

(8.1

8)(9

.21)

(8.3

9)(7

.83)

(8.4

8)M

ean

2.26

1.90

1.77

2.19

1.84

1.69

2.20

1.63

1.45

1.97

1.90

1.76

2.22

1.79

1.65

(8.6

2)(7

.86)

(7.5

5)(8

.47)

(7.7

0)(7

.30)

(8.4

8)(7

.31)

(6.8

1)(8

.01)

(7.8

3)(7

.54)

(8.5

3)(7

.63)

(7.2

2)

G

A

P

G

× A

A ×

PG

× P

G

× A

× P

SEm

±0.

006

0.00

60.

006

0.00

10.

001

0.00

1

0.03

CD

(P=

0.05

)0.

016

0.01

60.

016

0.02

80.

028

0.02

8

0.05

CV

(%)

1.59

* Va

lues

in p

aren

thes

es a

re tr

ansf

orm

ed d

ata

Gen

otyp

es (G

)

Age

ing

leve

ls (A

)

T

reat

men

ts (P

)G

1 :

KB

SH-4

1A

1 :

Fre

sh s

eeds

P 1 :

Unt

reat

edG

2 :

CM

S-23

4AA

2 :

24 h

r age

ing

P 2 :

Hyd

ro p

rimin

gG

3 : R

HA

95

C-1

A3 :

48

hr a

gein

gP 3

: P

EG 6

000

- 1.0

MPa

for 7

2 hr

s

Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A ×

P

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

G2

G1

G3

G1

Trea

tmen

tsG

1G

2G

3G

× P

A ×

P

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

A2

A1

A3

G2

G1

G3

G1

Tota

l sol

uble

pro

tein

con

tent

(%) i

n se

ed a

s inf

luen

ced

by a

ccel

erat

ed a

gein

g an

d pr

imin

g in

sunf

low

er h

ybri

d K

BSH

-41

and

its p

aren

ts


Mea

nG

2G

3

Mea

nG

2G

3

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, P. K., 1986, Seed vigour: Concepts andmeasurement. In: Seed Production Ttechnology (eds.J. P. Srivastava and L. T. Simarki), 190-198.International Centre for Agricultural Research in theDry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria.

BAILLY, C., BOGATEK, L., RENATA, COME, D. AND FRANCOISE,C., 2002, Changes in activities of antioxidant enzymesand lipoxygenase during growth of sunflower seedlingfrom seeds of different vigour. Seed Sci. Res., 12: 47-55.

BODSWORTH, S. AND BEWLEY, J. D., 1981, Osmotic primingof seeds of crop species with polyethylene glycol asa means enhancing early and synchronous germinationat cool temperatures. Canadian J. Bot., 59: 672-676.

BRADFORD, K. J., 1986, Manipulation of seed water relationsvia osmotic priming to improve germination understress conditions. Hort. Sci., 21: 1105-1112.

BROCKLEHURST, P. A., DEARMANN, J. AND DREW, R. L. K.,1984, Effects of osmotic priming on seed germinationand seedling growth in leek. Scientia Horticulturae,24: 201-210.

DELOUCHE, J. C. AND BASKIN, C. C., 1973, Accelerated ageingtechniques for predicting the relative storability ofseed lots. Seed Sci. & Technol., 1: 427-452.

DUBOIS, M., GILLES, K. A., HAMILTON, J. K., REBERS, P. A.AND SMITH, F., 1956, Colorimetric method fordetermination of sugars and related substances. Ann.Chem., 28(3): 350.

HEYDECKER, W., 1973, Germination of an idea the primingof seeds. University of Nottingham. School ofAgriculture Rep. 1973 / 74.

ISTA, 1996, International rules for Seed Testing. Seed Sci.and Technol., 24: 23-46.

LIOU, T. D., 1987, Studies on germination and vigour incabbage seeds. Thesis, Agricultural University,Wageningen, Netherlands.

LOWRY, O. H., ROSERBROUGH, N. J., FARRLAND, A. L. AND

RADALL, R. J., 1951, Protein measurement with Folin-phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193: 265-275.

MALNASSY, T. G., 1971, Physiological and biochemicalstudies on a treatment hastening the germination ofseed at low temperature. Ph.D. Thesis, RutgersUniversity, N.J.

MITRA.R. AND BASU, R. N., 1979, The osmotic potential ofpolyethylene glycol 600. Pl. Physiol., 51: 914-916.

MRUTHYUNJAYA, 2003, Seed enhancement to improve sowingquality and storability in sunflower (Helianthus

annuus L.). M.Sc.(Agri). Thesis, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore, pp. 56-59.

OSBORNE, D. J., 1982, De-oxy-ribonucleic acid integrity andrepair in seed germination: the importance in viabilityand survival. In : The physiology and biochemistryof seed development, dormancy and germination. (ed.A.A.Khan), pp. 319-333. North Holland PublishingCompany, Amsterdam.

PRIESTLY, 1986, Morphological, structural and biochemicalchanges associated with seed ageing. pp 125-195 inPriestly, D.A. (Ed.) seed ageing. Ithaca, London,Lonstock, Publishing Association.

RAO. N. K., ROBERTS, E. H. AND ELLIS, R. H., 1987, Theinfluence of pre and post storage hydration treatmentson chromosomal aberrations, seedling abnormalitiesand viability of lettuce seeds. Ann. Bot., 60: 97-108.

ROBERTS, E. H., 1988, Seed ageing: the genome and itsexpression. In : Senescence and ageing in plants.(ed. A.C.Leopold and L.D.Nooden). pp. 465-498.Academi Press, San Diego.

SMOKE, M. A., CHOJNOWSKI, M., CORBINEAU, E. AND COME,D., 1993, Effect of osmotic treatment on sunflowerseed germination in relation with temperature andoxygen, pp.1033-1038 in Come, D. and Corbineau,f. (Eds) Fourth International Workshop on Seeds.Basic and Applied Aspects of Seed Biology, Vol. 3,Paris, ASFIS.

SPYROPOULOS, C. G., 1986, Osmo-regulation, growth andsucrose accumulation in germinated Trigunellafoenum graecum (fenugreek) seeds treated withpolyethylene glycol. Physiol. Pl., 68: 129-135.

SRINIVASAN, K., SAXENA, S. AND SINGH, B. B., 1999, Osmoand hydro priming of seeds to improve vigour andsome biochemical activities. Seed Sci. & Technol.,27: 785-793.

SUNDARARAJ, N., NAGARAJU, S., VENKATARAM, M. N. AND

JAGANNATH, M. K., 1972, Design and Analysis of FieldExperiments. University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore.

SUNG, F. J. M. AND CHANG, Y. H., 1993, Biochemicalactivities associated with priming of sweet corn seedsto improve vigour. Seed Sci. & Technol., 21: 97-105.

VILLIERS, T. A. AND EDGECUMBE, D. J., 1975, On the causeof seed deterioration in dry storage. Seed Sci. &Technol., 3: 761-774.

VILLIERS. T. A., 1974, Chromosome stability and extendedviability of seed stored fully imbibed. Pl. Physiol.,53: 875-878.


(Received : August, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Survey, Transmission, Farmers Perception and Practices for Management of YellowMosaic Disease of Pole Bean in Southern Karnataka

V. JYOTHI AND N. NAGARAJU

Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Survey conducted for yellow mosaic disease of pole bean revealed the prevalence of the disease inBangalore rural, Ramanagara, Kolar and Chickballapur with the incidence ranging from 27.9 to 80.0 per cent.The highest disease incidence was recorded in Kolar (80.0 %) followed by Bangalore rural (78.3 %) Ramanagara(77.9 %) and Chickballapur ( 76.9 %) district. Average number of pupae or eggs of whitefly (Bemisia tabaciGenn.) found to be more in lower leaves (6.2) compared to middle (1.8) and upper leaves (0.1). The rate oftransmission of surveyed samples infected with yellow mosaic virus was 100 per cent when 24 h acquisition andinoculation access period was given. Minimum of one hour acquisition access period (AAP) and inoculationaccess period (IAP) showed 40 and 20 per cent transmission of yellow mosaic disease, respectively compared to100 per cent transmission when 24 h acquisition feeding and inoculation feeding was given. Hundred per centtransmission was achieved when 10 viruliferous whiteflies per plant were used. Among 31 farmers interviewed,for the farmer’s perception on the disease management practices, more than 70.0 per cent farmers expressedunawareness on cause and spread of the disease and also chemicals which are not recommended were used for themanagement of yellow mosaic disease of pole bean.


POLE BEAN ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of theimportant vegetable crops growing extensivelythroughout the year. Since, the crop is being grownas stalked crop up to 120 to 130 days with 10 to 12pickings compared to 4 to 5 pickings in French bean.Pods are long, slender, and fibrous and suitable forlong distance transport. The yield is comparativelythree times more than the regular French bean. Inrecent years, pole bean grown extensively in Kolar,Ramanagara, Chickballapur and Bangalore rural andurban districts. The crop succumbs to many diseases,among them yellow mosaic is one of the importantlimiting factors of pole bean productivity. Yellowmosaic disease in french bean is widely distributed inthe tropical and sub tropical regions. The symptomappears as brilliant yellow or golden yellow colouron leaves which may be partially or completely yellow.Cultivars express rugosity and rolling of leaves, whiletolerant cultivars develop mild yellowing and oftenplant show stunting. Pods exhibits blotching,discoloured with reduced size and number(Maramorosch and Muniyappa, 1981). The estimationof crop loss ranged from 40 to 100 per cent dependingon the cultivar and time of infection (Pierre, 1975 andGalvez and Cardenas , 1980). A causal agent of goldenmosaic in beans is bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV),

type member of the genus Begamovirus (family :Geminiviridae) transmitted by whiteflies, Bemisiatabaci throughout the year


A roving survey was carried out in four districtsduring the month of February to June 2012, to knowper cent disease incidence of yellow mosaic diseaseand occurrence of the whitefly vector, in pole beangrowing districts of Bangalore rural, Ramanagara,Kolar and Chickballapur. In each district, minimumthree taluks, from each taluk two villages and fromeach village minimum two pole bean fields wereselected. The percentage of disease incidence wasassessed by recording the number of plants showingdisease symptoms out of total number of plantsexamined by using the formula mentioned below.

Number of diseased plants

Total number of plantsexamined

× 100Per cent disease =incidence

The diseased samples collected in the surveyhave been used for transmission studies through avector whitefly Bemisia tabaci Genn. under laboratory

condition. During the survey, an additional informationsuch as, name of the farmer, age of the crop, varietiesgrown, perception on the disease and the vector, plantprotection measures followed for management of thedisease were recorded using structured schedule.

In order to count the number of pupae / eggs onthe leaves of pole bean, an average of ten leaves weredetached from bottom, middle and top portion of theplants. Developmental stages of whiteflies, pupae /eggs from each leaf was counted using a hand lens(10X) and the data was recorded.


Among the districts, Kolar district recordedminimum of 48.1 to maximum of 80.0 per centincidence of yellow mosaic in pole bean (Table I)followed by Bangalore rural (34.4 to 78.3 %),

Ramanagar (27.9 to 77.9 %) and Chickbalapur (65.5to 76.9 %). Whitefly pupae and eggs was found to behigher in lower leaves (4.0 to 6.2) compared to middle(1.0 to 1.8), whereas, in upper leaves the range of countwas between 0.0 and 0.2.

Yellow mosaic infected pole bean samplescollected during the survey were tested fortransmission to susceptible pole bean var. NZ using awhitefly vector Bemisia tabaci. The vector wasallowed on the isolates separately with 24 h acquisitionaccess period (AAP). About, 10 viruliferous whiteflieswere allowed to feed on test plants with 24 h asinoculation access period. Later test plants were keptseparately for symptom expression. The infected plantsshowed varied symptoms like bright yellow patches,complete yellowing, stunted growth, reducedflowering, and downward curling across the location(Table II).

TABLE I

Incidence of yellow mosaic virus disease of pole bean in different districts

Bangalore rural 15-90 NZ 34.4 - 78.3 4.9 1.8 0.2

Ramanagara 20-45 NZ 27.9 - 77.9 6.0 1.0 0.1

Kolar 30-90 NZ 48.1 - 80.0 6.2 1.4 0.0

Chickballapur 15-90 NZ, NZ super, 65.5 - 76.9 4.0 1.5 0.0

* : Average of 10 leaves Survey : February-June 2012

DistrictStage of thecrop (days)during visit

Varietygrown

Range ofdisease

incidence (%)

No. of pupae / eggs of whitefly *

Bottonleaves

Middleleaves

Topleaves

TABLE II

Transmission of yellow mosaic virus infected pole been samples collected from farmers’ fields duringthe survey under laboratory condition

Bangalore rural Bright yellow patches, complete yellowing , stunted growth , reduced flowering 70-100Ramanagara Complete yellowing , stunted growth , reduced flowering 80-90Kolar Green & yellow patches , stunted growth , reduced flowering, downward curling 60-100Chickballapur Severe yellow patches, reduced plant height, curling of leaves 90-100

* = AAP: 24 h , IAP: 24 h , No. of whiteflies used : 10 , Variety used : NZ

Infected samplescollected(District)

Symptoms observed after transmissionPer cent

transmission*(%)

90 V. JYOTHI AND N. NAGARAJU

The mung bean yellow mosaic virus on cultivatedmung bean was 8 to 45 per cent depending upon theclimate and whitefly population (Nath and Saikia ,1993). The incidence of MYMV among mung beanvarieties ranged from 0 to 58.5 per cent has beenreported by Singh et al., (2000) from Uttar Pradesh.

The yellow mosaic incidence in mung bean indifferent districts of Uttar Pradesh ranging from 5-100 per cent with yield loss varied from 10-100 percent depending upon the stage at of the crop (Nene,1972). Singh et al. (1979) reported as higher incidenceof yellow mosaic disease on mung bean and urd beanin north east and south east districts of Haryana rangingbetween 70-100 per cent in 1973-1975, respectively.The incidence of yellow mosaic on pole bean wasfairly less in districts of Bhatinda (4.50 %), Ferozepur(1.25%) and Jalandhar (4.60 %). Whereas, itsincidence was more in Sangrur (13.85 %) andGurdaspur (20.0 %) in different districts of Punjabreported by Bansal et.al., (1984).

The viruliferous whiteflies could able to transmityellow mosaic disease with a minimum AAP of 1 h.The rate of transmission increased as AAP wasincreased. In case of 1 h. AAP, the per centtransmission of disease recorded was 40.0 followedby 70.0 per cent transmission when 6 h AAP was given.Hundred per cent transmission was recorded when

12 h. AAP and 24 h. IAP was given with 10viruliferous whiteflies were used per plant.

The results from the Table III showed that, theminimum inoculation access period required forindigenous whiteflies to transmit yellow mosaic viruswas 1 h. with transmission of 20 per cent. However, itis also showed that the per cent transmission increasedwith the increase IAP and reached maximum after 12h and 24 h which recorded 100 per cent transmission.Whereas, 60.0 per cent transmission was noticed at 6h. IAP. Seven to eight days old pole bean seedlingswere inoculated with varying number of Bemisiatabaci viz.,1, 5 , 10 and 20 to determine optimumnumber of whiteflies required for 100 per centtransmission. Single adult whitefly could transmit thevirus up to 40.0 per cent. Hundred per centtransmission was obtained when 10 and 20 whitefliesper plant were used.The days taken for symptomsexpression varied from 7 to 23 days depending uponthe AAP and IAP.

One hour AAP of vector whitefly, showedtransmission of yellow mosaic virus of Phaseoluslunatus was 40 per cent as reported by Capoor andVarma (1948). Similarly, acquisition time of one hourhas been reported for bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus,tomato leaf curl virus, and cotton crumple virus byVarma, 1952; Retuerma et al., 1971; Reddy and

TABLE III

Virus - vector relationship on transmission of pole bean yellow mosaic virus through Bemisia tabaci

1 40.0 20.0 40.0 7- 23

6 70.0 60.0 90.0 7 - 21

12 100.0 100.0 100.0 7 -15

24 100.0 100.0 100.0 7 -15

* = 1, 5, 10 & 20

Acquisition /inoculationperiod (hr)

Acquisitionaccess period

Inoculationaccess period

Number ofwhiteflies *

No. of daystaken forsymptom

expression

YELLOW MOSAIC DISEASE OF POLE BEAN 91

Per cent transmission

Yaraguntaiah (1981) and Brown and Nelson (1987),respectively. The efficiency of transmission variedwith respect to whitefly number. Symptoms of yellowmosaic started appearing in blackgram ten days afterwhitefly inoculation, 47.7 per cent of the plantsdeveloped yellow mosaic symptoms after 30 days ofinoculation (Kammal Naimuddin et al., 2011).

Dolichos yellow mosaic virus was successfullytransmitted when 20 to 30 infective whiteflies wereused (Capoor and Varma, 1950 and Raj et al., 1988).The efficiency of transmission of Croton Yellow VeinMosaic Virus (CYVMV) is increased with increasein number of whiteflies, 15 in case of Croton YellowVein Mosaic Virus (Mandal, 1989). But, single adultwhitefly, B. tabaci, could successfully transmittedCYVMV.

During the survey, information was also collectedto know the farmers’s perception on management ofyellow mosaic virus disease of pole bean usingstructured schedule. Among 31 farmers, more than70.0 per cent were not aware of cause and spread ofthe disease , 66.6 to 100 per cent of farmers have usednon-recommended chemicals viz., Carbendazim,Copper oxychloride, Ecomite, Fenazaquin, Metaloxyl+ Mancozeb for the management of the disease across

the districts, up to 40.0 per cent followed seedtreatment with imidacloprid, 50.0 per cent sprayedTraizophos and Imidacloprid for the management ofwhiteflies. Additionally, 92.2 per cent followed othermanagement practices like field sanitation and croprotation in addition to chemical management(Table IV).

A similar situation was recorded in thePhilippines, where a significant proportion of ricefarmers could identify rice tungro disease, but a muchsmaller number knew that it was transmitted by leafhoppers and fewer still knew that it was caused by avirus (Warburton et al., 1997). Surveyed 174 tomatofields of farmers in Bangalore urban, Bangalore rural,Tumkur, Mandya and Kolar to know the perceptionof farmers about leaf curl virus during 1998. Tomatogrowing farmers felt that cause of tomato leaf curldisease was due to high temperature (86.2 %), waterlogging (11.5 %), insects damage (9.2 %), very dry /hot condition (5.7 %), poor soil condition (2.9 %),whitefly (2.3 %) and viral nature (1.7 %), whereas,5.7 per cent of tomato farmers did not know the causeof disease (Nagaraju et al., 2002).

When farmers perception was studied to knowthe perception on groundnut bud necrosis virus intomato, 75.6 per cent perceived that the disease was

TABLE IV

Farmer’s practices for the management of yellow mosaic virus disease of pole bean

Bangalore rural 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 16.6 50.0 8.3 66.6 92.0 16.6

Ramanagara 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 50.0 0.0

Kolar 0.0 0.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 29.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 86.0 29.0

Chickaballapur 0.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 50.0 0.0 70.0 80.0 20.0

Other methods : Field sanitation, crop rotationOthers chemicals : Carbendazim, Copper oxychloride, Metaloxyl (8 %) + Mancozeb (63 %), Ecomite, Fenazaquine 10 % EC

District

Bordercropwith

maize(%)

Intercropwith

maize

Seedtreatment

withImida-cloprid

(%)

Res.varieties

(%)

Reflectivemulches

(%)

Chemical spray

Triazo-phos 40%EC (%)

Imidaclo-prid

18%SL(%)

Thiame-thoxam

25%WDG(%)

Otherchemicals

(%)

Othermethods

(%)

Cause ofthe

disease(%)

92 V. JYOTHI AND NAGARAJU

due to high temperature, 70.0 per cent of themconfused the disease as late blight of tomato andsprayed the fungicides accordingly ( Ambika, 2011),6.80 per cent knew that the disease caused by insects,only 1.71 per cent knew about the vector as thrips ,1.27 per cent knew on cause of the disease as virusand 8.2 per cent perceived the disease was due towater logging , 4.2 per cent perceived the disease wasdue to too dry condition, 3.1 per cent reported thedisease on soil type.

REFERENCES

AMBIKA, D. S., 2011, Monitoring and management ofgroundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV) intomato. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Agri. Sci.,Bangalore,India, 94pp.

BANSAL, R. D., KHATRI, H. L., SHARMA, O. P. AND SINGH, I.P., 1984, Epidemiological studies on viral disease ofmung and mash in Punjab. PAU Res. J., 21(1): 54-58.

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KAMAAL NAIMUDDIN, MOHAMMAD AKRAM AND GUPTA

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MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW MOSAIC DISEASE OF POLE BEAN 93

(Received : July, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Effect of Irrigation Schedules on Growth and Yield of Aerobic Rice (Oryza Sativa L.)Genotypes

S. NOOR ASMA, B. K. RAMACHANDRAPPA, H. V. NANJAPPA, MUDALAGIRIYAPPA, B. C. SHANKARALINGAPPA

AND SHAILAJA HITTALAMANI

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Field experiment was conducted on the red sandy loam soils, ZARS, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore duringsummer 2011 to assess the performance of two aerobic rice genotypes under different irrigation schedules. Theexperiment was laid out in a factorial Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with two genotypes(G1 - MAS 26, G2 - MAS 868) and five irrigation schedules (delayed irrigation scheduled at 0.6 IW/CEP ratiothroughout (I1), irrigation scheduled at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio throughout (I2), delayed irrigations at IW/CPE ratio of0.6 from 15-45 DAS and 0.8 IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest (I3), delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratiofrom 46-75 DAS (14) and delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio from 76 DAS to harvest (I5). Among the aerobicrice genotypes, MAS 868 performed better over the other genotype. Among the treatment combinations, theMAS 868 with irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and 0.8 IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest(G2I3) recorded Significantly higher plant height (25.33 cm), number of tillers (34.76), leaf area index (4.62),total dry matter production (38.68 g hill–1) at 90 DAS and grain yield (96.02 q ha–1), number of productive tillershill–1 (24.48), panicle length (18.39 cm), number of filled grains panicle–1 (99.5 g) and 1000 seed weight(26.78 g).


RICE and rice based systems are predominant in Indianagriculture. Rapid degradation of rice ecologies dueto imbalanced use of fertilizers and unscientific watermanagement has put tremendous pressure on the ricegrowers to make rice farming economically viable andecologically sustainable. The concept of aerobic riceholds promise for farmers in water-short irrigated riceenvironments where water availability at the farm levelis too low or where water is too expensive to growflooded lowland rice (Rajakumar et al., 2009).

Aerobic rice is grown like any other crops suchas Maize or Sorghum on dry soils with surfaceirrigations provided when necessary with intensiveagronomic practices. Aerobic rice is projected assustainable rice production methodology for theimmediate future to address water scarcity andenvironmental safety in the scenario of global warming(www.aerobicrice.org). Aerobic rice requires lesslabour (55 %) than lowland puddle rice and can bemechanized (Wang et al., 2002). Aerobic rice is analternate system that requires less water and highexternal inputs (Bouman et al., 2002). Two varieties

Part of M.Sc. (Agril.) Thesis submitted by Senior Author to UAS, GKVK, Bangalore.

for aerobic situation were developed in 2007 (Aerobicrice brochure, UAS).

Aerobic rice varieties developed for the purposeyield as much as irrigated puddled rice varietiestraditionally grown in rice fields. In a pioneering effortin 2007 March, India officially released for cultivationits first drought tolerant Aerobic Rice Variety MAS946-1 followed by MAS 26 (2008) at the Universityof Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India. Yield ofaerobic rice varieties varies from 4.5 to 6.5 t ha–1 whichis about double that of traditional upland varieties andabout 20-30 per cent lower than that of lowlandvarieties grown under flooded conditions (BeJderet al., 2005).

There are several approaches for schedulingirrigation of field crops of which moisture regimesand climatological approach are found to be reliableand dependable. Scientific irrigation scheduling shouldgo with an understanding of soil-water-plant-atmospheric continuum. Irrigation water economy canbe aimed through appropriate irrigation schedules.Though there are different methods of scheduling of

irrigation, meteorological approach based on panevaporation is one of the simplest, reliable, economicaland least time consuming method has been used inthis experiment. Information is scanty on schedulingirrigations at different phenophases of aerobic ricevarieties. Hence, this experiment has been planned toassess the performance of two aerobic rice genotypesunder different irrigation schedules entitled “Responseof irrigation schedules on growth and yield of aerobicrice (Oryza sativa. I.) genotypes”.


The experiment was conducted at the ZonalAgricultural Research Station, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Bangalore, Karnataka under rainfed condition duringsummer 2011. The soil was near neutral in reaction(pH 6.73) and organic carbon content was low(0.42 %). The soil test results of the experimental sitereveal that soil is medium in nitrogen, phosphorousand potassium. The field experiment was laid out in afactorial Randomized Complete Block Design(RCBD) with three replications.

There were 10 treatment combinationscomprising of two genotypes and five irrigationschedules.

Genotypes :

Irrigation schedules : Delayed irrigationscheduled at 0.6 IW/CEP ratio throughout (I1),irrigation scheduled at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio throughout(I2), delayed irrigations at IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 from15-45 DAS and 0.8 IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS toharvest (I3), delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratiofrom 46-75 DAS (I4) and delayed irrigations at 0.6IW/CPE ratio from 76 DAS to harvest (I5).

The direct sowing was done in 5 cm depth with25X25 cm spacing. The experiment was maintainedas per the standered package of practice of aerobicrice cultivation (UAS, Aerobic Rice Brochure, 2007).

To overcome border effect observations weremade on middle plants in the row. The observationswere recorded in experiments on five random plantsat centre of the row for growth parameter and yieldattribute characters. The data obtained were subjectedto statistical analysis and were tested at five per centlevel of significance to interpret the treatmentdifferences.

RESUTS AND DISCUSSION

Growth parameters : Among the aerobic ricegenotypes during investigation, MAS 868 recordedsignificantly higher taller plants (23.18 cm), numberof tillers hill–1 (32.20), total dry matter production(36.86 g hill–1). Tillering capacity is one of the mostimportant characteristics of a variety and it dependenton the total dry matter production during 90 DAS(Honda and Okazima, 1969). Significantly higher leafarea index (4.05) at 90 DAS was recorded in MAS868 compared to MAS 26. Delayed irrigations at 0.6IW ICPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and at 0.8 IW/CPEratio from 46 DAS to harvest (13) recorded highesttotal dry matter accumulation (36.73 g hill–1). It wasdue to increase in growth parameters like plant height(22.03 cm), number of tillers (32.20), leaf area index(4.00) at 90 DAS, compared to all other irrigationschedules. Scheduling irrigations at 0.6 IW ICPE ratiofrom 15-45 DAS and 0.8 IW ICPE ratio from 46 DASto harvest with MAS 868 recorded highest plant height(25.33 cm), number of tillers (34.76), leaf area index(4.62) and total dry matter production (38.68 g hill–1)at 90 DAS compared to all other treatmentcombination. Delayed irrigation at 0.6 IW/CPE ratiothroughout with MAS 26 recorded lower plant height,

Parentage IR64/ Azucena IR64/ AzucenaBack cross Back cross

Duration 115-120 days 135-140 days

Morphological characters

Growth habit Semi dwarf Semi dwarf

Leaf sheath Green Green

Panicle Medium, Short, straightdrooping

Grain colour Light brown White

Grain type Medium slender Short bold

EFFECT OF IRRIGATION SCHEDULES ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF AEROBIC RICE GENOTYPES 95

Particulars MAS 26 (G1) MAS 868 (G2)

number of tillers, leaf area and total dry matterproduction.

Yield and yield attribute : MAS 868 recordedsignificantly higher grain yield (82.67 q ha–1) whichwas superior over MAS 26 (49.28 q ha–1). Thegenotype differences were also reported by AjayaKumar, (2008) and Shekara et al. (2010). Higher grainyield of MAS 868 was a consequence of higher yieldcomponents. The important yield attributing characterslike more number of productive tillers hill–1 (21.78),longer panicle length (16.57 cm), higher number offilled grains panicle–1 (91.64), higher test weight (25.15g) and higher grain yield hill–1 (52.12 g). Thisfacilitated efficient use of moisture and nutrients andeventually reflected in higher yield (Feng et al., 2007and Van ling et al., 2010).

The straw yield was higher in MAS 868 (84.65 qha–1) over MAS 26 (56.78 q ha–1). The lower strawyield in MAS 26 was due to slender plant stature,reduced leaf area index and resulted in poorphotosynthesis which in turn decreased the growth anddry matter accumulation in plant causing reduction instraw yield as well as yield components. This is inconformity with the results of Anil Kumar et al. (1993).They also found that the genotypes having lower leafarea index produced the lower dry matter and yield.

The significantly higher grain yield (78.49 qha–1) was obtained in delayed irrigation at 0.6 IW /CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and at 0.8 IW/CPE ratiofrom 46 DAS to harvest (13). It was mainly due toadequate moisture availability to the crop in thistreatment. Improved yield was attributed to highergrowth parameter and total dry matter production

TABLE I

Growth parameters at 90 DAS as influenced by irrigation schedules in aerobic rice genotypes

Genotypes (G)Gl: MAS-26 19.38 28.93 3.50 27.47G2: MAS-868 23.18 32.20 4.05 28.74S.Em± 0.27 0.64 0.10 0.41C.D. at 5% 0.82 1.92 0.31 1.22

Treatments Plant height(cm)

Numbertillers

Leaf areaindex

Total dry matterproduction (g hill–1)

I1 0.6 0.6 0.6 20.12 29.31 3.48 27.85I2 0.8 0.8 0.8 21.19 27.44 3.64 27.97I3 0.6 0.8 0.8 22.03 32.58 4.00 28.7214 0.8 0.6 0.8 21.05 31.76 3.94 28.60I5 0.8 0.6 0.6 21.99 31.73 3.83 27.38S.Em± 1.52 2.36 1.33 0.44C.D. at 5% 4.54 7.02 4.28 1.31Genotypes X irrigation schedules (G X I)G1 I1 17.23 26.12 3.11 27.17Gl I2 21.44 26.56 3.66 27.83Gl I3 18.74 30.40 3.26 27.18G1I4 18.21 29.93 3.74 27.94Gl I5 21.27 31.66 3.76 27.23G2 I1 23.01 32.51 3.80 28.53G2 I2 20.93 28.32 3.62 28.11G2 I3 25.33 34.76 4.62 30.26G214 23.90 33.60 4.26 29.25G2 I5 22.72 31.80 3.91 27.53S.Em± 0.62 1.46 0.23 0.91C.D. at 5% 1.85 4.30 0.69 2.72

DAS : Days After Sowing NS : Non-significant

15-45DAS

45-75 DAS(IW / CPE)

70 DASAt harvest

96 S. NOOR ASMA et al.

Irrigation schedules (I)

(Table I) and superior yield attributing parameters(Table II) like number of productive tillers hill–1

(23.03), number of ftlled grains panicle–1 (76.41), morepanicle length (17.12 cm), higher panicle–1 weight(37.86 g) and grain weight per hill–1 (49.05 g). Theirrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio throughout (I1) recordedthe lowest grain yield (56.02 q ha–1). It was due to lesswater supplied to the crop during this period. Chaudhryand Pandey (1968) found that the lowest grain yieldwas obtained, when the plant was allowed to wilttwice, once at tillering and again at flowering time.The present findings are analogous to the report ofSingh et al. (1935), Matsushima (1962) and Yamada(1965).

The interaction of aerobic rice genotypes withirrigation schedules had significant effect on grain

TABLE IIYield parameters as infleunced by irrigation schedules in aerobic rice genotypes

Genotypes (G)Gl : MAS-26 20.53 15.80 30.79 50.14 22.28G2 : MAS-868 21.78 16.57 36.74 91.64 25.15S.Em± 0.35 0.25 1.31 1.51 0.53C.D. at 5% 1.05 NS 3.91 4.50 1.59

TreatmentsNumber ofproductivetillers hill–1

Paniclelength(cm)

Panicleweight (g)

Number offilled grains

panicle–1

15-45DAS

45-75 DAS(IW / CPE)

70 DASAt harvest

1000 seedweight (g)

I1 0.6 0.6 0.6 20.77 15.46 29.86 68.60 22.90I2 0.8 0.8 0.8 19.40 15.85 33.39 66.82 24.28I3 0.6 0.8 0.8 23.03 17.12 37.86 76.41 24.6414 0.8 0.6 0.8 21.64 16.39 33.91 73.20 23.79I5 0.8 0.8 0.6 20.94 16.11 33.83 69.43 22.96S.Em± 0.56 0.41 2.08 2.39 0.84C.D. at 5% 1.67 1.21 6.18 7.11 NSGenotypes X irrigation schedules (G X I)G1 I1 18.99 14.89 24.65 46.93 20.80Gl I2 22.11 15.86 31.02 47.20 23.77Gl I3 21.58 15.84 36.66 53.33 22.50G1I4 20.11 16.22 30.63 52.33 22.14Gl I5 21.89 16.22 31.00 50.93 22.17G2 I1 22.55 16.06 35.06 90.26 25.00G2 I2 16.70 15.84 35.76 86.45 24.79G2 I3 24.48 18.39 39.06 99.50 26.78G214 23.18 16.57 37.18 94.07 25.45G2 I5 20.00 16.00 36.65 87.93 23.76S.Em± 0.79 0.58 2.94 3.38 1.19C.D. at 5% 2.36 1.72 8.75 10.06 3.56


yield and straw yield. MAS 868 with delayedirrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and0.8 IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest (G2I3)recorded significantly higher grain yield (96.02 qha–1) and straw yield (98.06 q ha–1) as compared to allother treatment combinations. It was due to higher totaldry matter production (38.68 g), more number ofproductive tillers (24.48) and test weight (26.78 g).Whereas, MAS 26 with delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio throughout (G1I1) recorded lowest grainyield (33.38 q ha–1) due to lower test weight (20.80 g)and less number of productive tillers hill–1 (16.70).

Thus, it is inferred that MAS 868 with delayedirrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and0.8 IW /CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest can befollowed for higher yield.



TABLE III

Grain weight hill–1 (g), grain yield (q ha–1), straw yield (q ha–1) as influenced by irrigation schedulesin aerobic rice genotypes

Genotypes (G)Gl : MAS-26 30.65 49.28 56.78G2 : MAS-868 52.12 82.67 84.65S.Em± 0.96 1.49 2.11C.D. at 5% 2.87 4.44 6.77

TreatmentsGrainweighthill–1

I1 0.6 0.6 0.6 35.65 56.02 65.93I2 0.8 0.8 0.8 39.22 62.77 67.67I3 0.6 0.8 0.8 49.05 78.49 81.3414 0.8 0.6 0.8 42.43 66.94 70.63I5 0.8 0.6 0.6 40.56 65.66 68.01S.Em± 1.52 2.36 1.33C.D. at 5% 4.54 7.02 4.28Genotypes × irrigation schedules (G × I)G1 I1 20.86 33.38 52.86Gl I2 34.03 54.46 58.76Gl I3 38.09 60.95 64.63G1I4 28.44 45.19 50.85Gl I5 31.82 52.45 56.83G2 I1 50.45 78.66 79.83G2 I2 44.42 71.09 76.59G2 I3 60.01 96.02 98.06G214 56.42 88.70 90.41G2 I5 49.30 78.88 79.19S.Em± 2.16 3.34 2.99C.D. at 5% 0.42 9.93 9.57


15-45DAS

45-75 DAS(IW / CPE)

70 DASAt harvest

Grainyield

Strawyield

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ANILKUMAR, K., JOHNKUTTY, P. K., MENON, G. AND BRIDIT, J.K., 1993, Long term effect of continuous manurialpractices on yield and nutrient availability in doublecrop wet land laterite soil. Oryza. 30: 362-363.

BELDER, P., BOUMAN, B. A. M., SPIERIZ, J. H. J., PENG, S.,CASTANEDA, A. R. AND VISPERAS, R. M., 2005, Cropperformance, nitrogen and water use in flooded andaerobic rice. Plant and Soil, 273: 167- 182.

BOUMAN, B. A. M., HENOGSDIJK, H., HARDY, B. BINDRABAN,P. S., TVONE, T. P. AND LADHA, L. K., 2002, Foreword,Proc. of the International Workshop on water wiserice production. International Rice Research Institute,Manila, Philippines.

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HONDA, T. AND OKAZIMA, H., 1969, Environmental lightcondition and the tiller development in rice plant.

98 S. NOOR ASMA et al.


Effect of partial shading on the development of tillerbud and dry matter production. Bull. Inst. Agric. Res.Tohuku Univ., 21: 163-176.

MATSUSHIMA, S., 1962, Some experiments on soil water plantrelationship in the cultivation of rice. Proc. Crop. Sci.Soc., Japan, 31(2): 115.

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(Received : August, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Influence of Azotobacter Bio-Fertilizer on Yield and Yield Attributing Parameters ofDifferent Mulberry Cultivars under Rainfed Condition

P. SOWMYA, T. GEETHA DEVI, K. VASUDHA PRABHAKAR AND S. HARISH BABU

Department of Sericulture, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

Applications of nitrogen through biological means in the form of biofertilizers are the key to sustainsericulture productivity. Six mulberry varieties and three treatments were evaluated by conducting the experimentin a split plot design. Among the treatments, application of 50 per cent N + 100 per cent PK through chemicalfertilizer + 50 per cent N through Azotobacter + vermicompost (T3) have been found to be highly beneficial forrainfed mulberry cultivation. Growth and yield of mulberry was also significantly higher with this treatmentrecording 21 per cent higher yield (27.47 ton / ha / year) compared to the control plot, where 100 per centnitrogen was applied through chemical fertilizer. Among the varieties, performance of RFS 175 and S 13 wassignificantly superior recording higher leaf yield (30.62 and 29.24 ton / ha / year) on par with each other. Hence,the use of Azotobacter biofertilizers in six mulberry varieties proved that it can be used effectively for all thevarieties under rainfed condition besides curtailing nitrogen application by 50 per cent.


* Part of thesis submitted to M.Sc. (Agri.) Seri, Department of Sericulture, UAS, GKVK,Bangalore

Bio fertilizers (Microbial inoculants) are carrier basedpreparation containing agricultural beneficial micro-organisms in a viable state intended for seed or soilapplication and desired micro-organisms in rootdevelopment. Biological nitrogen fixation is a processof the reduction of elemental nitrogen (N2) to ammonia.This ammonia is transferred from the bacteria to theplant to meet the nutritional nitrogen needs of plantsfor the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids,chlorophyll and so forth. The nitrogen fixing micro-organisms are classified as free living, associative andsymbiotic nitrogen fixing micro-organisms. Thosemicro-organisms that fix nitrogen independent of otherorganisms are called free living ex. Azotobacter. Someof the advantages of biofertilizers are it is cheap andcost effective, pollution free and eco friendly, fixatmospheric nitrogen and solubilize phosphorus in soil,increase crop yield by10-30 per cent, liberate growthpromoting substances and vitamins, reduce depletionof soil nutrients and provide sustainability to farmingsystem and improve soil physical properties, tilth andsoil health in general (Eranna and Govindan, 2002).Inoculation of soil with Azotobacter is effective inincreasing yield of crops. The beneficial effects ofAzotobacter in different crops have been reported byseveral workers (Sadve et al., 1977). Das et al. (1994)

have reported the beneficial effect of application ofAzotobacter chroococcum biofertilizer in K2 mulberryby curtailing 50 per cent of the recommended dose ofchemical nitrogen application. Though a few moreinformation are available on the positive response ofdifferent mulberry varieties to the application ofAzotobacter biofertilizer under rainfed condition.Thus,the present experiment was conducted to study theeffect of Azotobacter inculcation on growth and yieldof different mulberry cultivars.


The experiment was conducted at Departmentof Sericulture, University of AgriculturalSciences,GKVK, Bangalore in red sandy clay loamysoil with pH of 6.83. The initial soil organic carbonand nitrogen content was 0.47 per cent and 279 kg /ha, respectively as estimated by the methods ofJackson (1973). The experiment was laid in a splitplot design with six mulberry cultivars viz., RFS 175,MR 2, S 13, S 34, DD and Mysore local in the mainplot and three treatments viz., T1= 100 per cent NPKthrough chemical fertilizer + vermicompost, T2= 100per cent NPK through chemical fertilizer +Azotobacter + vermicompost, T3 = 50 per cent N +

100 per cent PK through chemical fertilizer + 50 percent N through Azotobacter + vermicompost withthree replication.

Each experimental plot with mulberry plantshaving 90 × 90 cm spacing. The plantation wasmaintained as per the rainfed package of practices formulberry cultivation (100: 50: 50 Kg NPK ha / yearand vermicompost were applied as common dose inall the three treatments).

The biofertilizer was applied at 4 kg / ha / cropafter 2-3 days of every crop harvest, pruning andintercultural operations. The biofertilizer was mixedwith finely powdered vermicompost at 10 MT / ha /crop and applied in between the rows near mulberryrhizosphere by making small furrows and then coveredwith soil. The same amount of vermicompost was alsoapplied in plots which received nitrogen at full dose

chemical nitrogen fertilizer. The nitrogen fertilizerdoses were applied in two equal splits in first andsecond crops. Chemical fertilizers were applied aftertwenty days of biofertilizer application. After 65 daysof growth the observations were recorded for heightof the plant, number of branches / plant, total shootlength, internodal distance, leaf area, hundred leafweight and leaf yield / plant. Total biomass yield wasalso recorded by harvesting leaves from all the plantsof the net plot in each treatment and converted to yield/ ha. The data were statistically analyzed and testedfor critical difference at 5 per cent level of significanceby Dunken Multiple Range Test (DMRT).


Pooled data of two crops (Table I) revealed thatthere was a significant difference in leaf yield betweenthe treatments in all the six rainfed cultivars tested.However, out of six rainfed cultivars tested for leafyield, the response of the cultivars S 13 and RFS 175

TABLE I

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on leaf yield (ton) in different mulberry varieties

Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

mean

T1 25.50 26.83 22.84 22.15 22.03 16.04 22.56

T2 32.61 21.12 27.42 20.78 25.97 10.79 23.11

T3 37.30 26.18 37.47 26.84 25.61 11.44 27.47

Varietal mean 30.69 24.71 29.24 23.26 21.81 12.75

For comparing the mean of F test S. Em± CDat5%

Main plot (V) * 1.052 3.315

Sub plot (T) * 0.803 2.343

V × T * 1.966 5.739

V1 - RFS 175, V2-MR 2, V3- S 13, V4-S 34, V5- DD, V6-Mysore local

T1 - 100 % NPK through chemical fertilizer + vermicompost,

T2 - 100 % NPK through chemical fertilizer + vermicompost + Azotobacter biofertilizer

T3 - 50 % N through Azotobacter bio-fertilizer + 50% N, 100% PK though chemical fertilizer + vermicompost

V5V4V3V2V1

INFLUENCE OF AZOTOBACTER BIO-FERTILIZER ON YIELD AND YIELD ATTRIBUTING PARAMETERS 101

towards Azotobacter was significantly higher compareto other cultivars. Whereas, Mysore local cultivarsshowed the least response.

Averaged over the varieties, treatment T3recorded significantly maximum yield (27,47 M.T /ha, followed by T2 (23. 11 MT / ha) and minimumwas recorded in T1 ( 22.56 MT / ha ).The treatment T3(50 % N through Azotobacter bio fertilizer+50 % N,100 % PK through chemical fertilizer +Vermicompost) recorded 10.65 per cent higher yieldthan T2 ( 100 % NPK through chemical fertilizer +vermicompost + Azotobacter biofertilizers ) and 21per cent higher yield than T1 ( 100 % NPK throughchemical fertilizer + vermIn compost). This is Inaccordance with the findings of Shankarappa, 1996and Sreeramulu et al., 2004 who reported 50 per centreduction of chemical nitrogen fertilizer by applicationof Azotobacter biofertilizer without affecting the leafyield.

Among the varieties, RFS 175 recordedsignificantly higher yield (30.69 MT / ha / year) onpar with S 13 (29.24 MT / ha / year) followed byMR 2 (24.71MT / ha / year), S 34 (23.26 MT / ha /year) and DD (21.81 / MT / ha / year). The least yieldwas recorded in Mysore Local (12.75 MT / ha / year).The variety S 13 is recommended for cultivation inred soil under rainfed condition (29.24 MT / ha / year).

The interaction between varieties and treatmentsrevealed that S 13 with T3 recorded maximum yield(37.47 ton / ha / year) which was on par with RFS 175with T3 (37.30 ton / ha / year). This was followed byRFS 175 with T2 (32.61 ton / ha / year), S 13 with T2(27.42 ton / ha / year) and S 34 with T3 (26.84 ton /ha / year) (Table I).

The growth and yield parameters also differedsignificantly. The maximum yield recorded in RFS 175is due to plant height (176.51 cm), maximum numberof branches (12.88), longest shoot length (170.50 cm),minimum internodal distance (5.83cm), maximum leafarea (234.2dm), maximum total shoot length(1411.01) and hundred leaf weight (300.31gm). The

variety S 13 recorded higher yield due to plant height(163.74 cm), number of branches (10.22), longestshoot length (148.98 cm), lower internodal distance(6.06 cm), total shoot length (858.27 cm)and hundredleaf weight (246.88 gm / plant), (Table 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7& 8). The result is similar with the findings of Das etal. (1994) where Azotobacter is known to producegrowth promoting substances such as auxins,gibberellins and cytokinins which result plant vigourand growth.

The present finding is further supported by thefindings of Umakanth and Bagyaraj (1998) found thatinoculation of nursery with Azotobacter chroococcumconsiderably increased plant growth and developmentof mulberry saplings. Jayaraj et al. (2006) found thatinoculation of mulberry garden with bio-inoculantslike VAM, Azotobacter chroococcum and Azospirillumbrasilense increased plant growth (root length,branching, number of branches and plant height)besides improvement in photosynthesis and soil health.

The increase in the leaf area evidenced from thepresent investigation cause attributed to increasedplant height and number of shoots that resulted in morenumber of leaves per plant thereby increasing the leafarea. This indicates more photosynthesizing leaveswould contribute to the productivity of mulberry.These observations are in line with Das et al. (1994),who reported positive responses of mulberry in termsof individual leaf area to Azotobacter under lownitrogen level.

The present study revealed the possibility ofusing Azotobacter biofertilizer for the cultivation ofall popular mulberry cultivars by curtailing 50 percent of the recommended chemical nitrogen fertilizerwithout affecting the leaf yield.

The application of Azotobacter biofertilizer with50 per cent inorganic nitrogen fertilizer andvermicompost in high yielding rainfed mulberryvarieties viz., S 13, RFS 175 can be adopted forincreasing the yield. It is an ecofreindly andsustainable technology.

102 P. SOWMYA et al.

TABLE II

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on plant height (dm) in different mulberry varieties

Main plot (V) * 1.320 4.160

Sub plot (T) * 0.515 1.502

V × T * 1.260 3.679


Main plot (V) * 0.452 1.423

Sub plot (T) * 0.184 0.538

V × T * 0.451 1.317

T1 12.00 12.0 7.66 7.33 9.66 9.33 9.66

T2 13.33 13.0 10.00 12.33 9.03 9.66 11.22

T3 13.33 11.66 13.00 14.00 9.33 10.66 12.00

Varietal mean 12.88 12.22 10.22 11.22 9.34 9.88 –

T1 179.00 147.00 181.40 199.90 186.33 176.73 178.39

T2 193.83 156.66 136.10 196.56 183.88 167.08 172.38

T3 156.70 21.66 173.74 1155.30 180.25 169.08 159.45

Varietal mean 176.51 141.77 163.74 183.92 183.49 171.08 –

TABLE III

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on number of branches per plant in different mulberry varieties

For comparing the mean of F test S.Em ± CD at 5%

Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1










Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1

TABLE IV

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on longest shoot length (cm) in different mulberry varieties


T1 171.35 131.34 170.0 198.66 177.98 163.26 168.76

T2 182.06 136.46 131.30 169.06 174.60 160.33 158.07

T3 158.11 105.86 145.66 182.25 171.90 140.0 150.63

Varietal mean 170.50 124.55 148.98 183.32 174.83 154.53 –

Main plot (V) * 1.168 3.680

Sub plot (T) * 0.800 2.377

V × T * 1.961 5.733

Main plot (V) * 0.043 0.135

Sub plot (T) * 0.034 1.100

V × T * 0.084 0.246

T1 6.0 6.60 6.0 6.20 6.35 6.50 6.27

T2 6.0 6.0 6.13 6.60 6.0 6.33 6.17

T3 5.49 6.17 6.06 6.26 6.11 6.16 5.85

Varietal mean 5.83 6.17 6.06 6.26 6.11 6.16 –





Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1


TABLE V

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on internodal distance (cm) in different mulberry varieties

Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1






TABLE VI

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on leaf area (dm2) in different mulberry varieties

T1 234.13 220.66 191/65 203.28 234.55 161.71 207.46

T2 234.03 229.14 181.83 203.00 234.58 161.87 207.41

T3 234.66 228.95 182.16 203.47 210.73 160.93 203.47

Varietal mean 234.27 229.19 181.88 203.25 226.59 161.50

For comparing the mean of F test S. Em± CDat 5%

Main plot (V) * 11.025 34.738

Sub plot (T) * 0.803 2.343

V × T * 5.536 6.597





TABLE VII

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on total shoot length (cm) different mulberry varieties

T1 1317.60 957.09 195.267 836.60 1243.16 1001.33 925.17

T2 1547.76 970.26 1012.54 1353.56 1093.33 1081.83 1176.55

T3 1367.66 833.66 1367.00 1635.26 1008.65 1132.22 1254.29

Varietal mean 1411.01 920.34 858.27 1275.14 1115.05 1132.22

For comparing the mean of F test S. Em± CD at 5%

Main plot (V) * 24.393 76.859

Sub plot (T) * 18.105 52.846

V × T * 44.347 128.44






Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1

Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1

TABLE VIII

Effect of Azotobacter bio-inoculum on hundred leaf weight (gm) in different mulberry varieties

T1 358.0 261.18 242.66 292.80 316.58 293.28 294.08

T2 307.13 241.83 255.66 315.0 296.08 165.06 263.46

T3 235.82 240.75 242.33 276.53 353.08 202.13 258.44

Varietal mean 300.31 247.92 246.88 321.91 321.91 220.16

For comparing the mean of F test S. Em± CD at 5%

Main plot (V) * 5.068 15.970

Sub plot (T) * 3.474 10.139

V × T * 8.509 24.836





REFERENCES

BADVE, D. A., RONE, B. K. AND MEN, B. B., 1977, Effect ofAzoto bacterization in combination with differentlevels of nitrogen on yield of sunflower, laboratorystudies. Food Emg. Agri., 18 (7): 23.

DAS, P. K., CHOUDARY, P. C., GHOSH, A, KATIYAR, R. S.,MADHAVA RAO, Y. R., MATHUR, V. B. AND

MAZUMDAR, M. K., 1994, Studies on the effect ofbacterial biofertilizers in irrigated mulberry (Morusalba L.). Indian J. Seric., 33 (2): 170-173.

ERANNA, N. AND GOVINDAN, R., 2002, Role of bio-fertilizersin mulberry production. Indian J. Seri., 41: 92-99.

JAYARAJ, S., 2003, Organic farming in mulberry sericu1ture:Non-chemical methods of pest management.

Workshop on Organic Farming and Rain WaterHarvesting for Sustainable Sericulture, RSRS,Kodathi, Banga1ore. pp. 15-20.

SHANKARAPP A, T. H., 1996, Selection of efficientAzotobacter strain for inoculation mulberry (Morusalba 1.). M.Sc. (Agric. Microbiology) Thesis, UAS,Bangalore, pp. 87.

SREERAMULU, K. R., BHASKAR, R. N. AND NARAYANA SWAMY,T. K., 2004, Rhizosphere micro flora of mulberryvarieties as influenced by soil moisture condition.Natl. Sem. Prosp. Organic Seri. & Seri - By productUtilization, p. 94-98.

UMAKANTH, C. G. AND BAGYARAJ, D. J., 1998, Responseof mulberry saplings to inoculation with VAmycorhizal fungi and Azotobacter. Sericologia,38 : 660-675.


Sub plot /Main plot

V6Treatment

meanV5V4V3V2V1

(Received : November, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Efficacy of Seed Bio-Priming in Enhancing Seedling Vigour of Cucumber(Cucumis sativus L.) under Biotic Stress Conditions

T. SIVASANKARI DEVI, M. K. SHIVAPRAKASH AND C. C. MAINA


ABSTRACT

The study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of seed bio-priming on enhancing seedling vigour ofcucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) infected with fungal pathogens under green house conditions. Seed bio-primingenhanced the efficiency of biocontrol agents and increased the PGPR activity of beneficial microorganisms usedfor seed bio-priming. The PGPR activity was measured by estimating the plant growth parameters like germinationpercentage, shoot and root length, seedling vigour index. Increased biocontrol efficiency and lower level ofdisease incidence was observed in both the treatments, Trichoderma harzianum (NBAII -THlO) and Pseudomonasfluorescens (NBAII -Pfl) were used for bio-priming along with PGPRs.


CUCURBITS form an important and vast group ofvegetable crops cultivated extensively in India. Thecucurbitaceae family comprises of many species ofvines with creeping growth habit viz., cucumber,watermelon, pumpkin, bittergourd, ridgegourd etc.which are either used as salad or for cooking orpicking. They are the direct seed sown vegetableshaving hard seed coat which need more time forgermination and sometime exhibit unevengermination. Seed priming technique may be used toimprove the germination related process of thesevegetable crops. Occurrence of diseases in thesevegetable crops constitute a major threat to theirproduction. Seed bio-priming offers an alternativemethod to combat the diseases and promote the cropgrowth.

Bio-priming is a process of biological seedtreatment that refers to combination of seed hydration(physiological aspect of disease control) andinoculation (biological aspect of disease control) ofseed with beneficial organisms to protect seed. Asuccessful antagonist should colonize rhizosphereduring seed germination (WeBer, 1983). Bioprimingusing biological control agents (BeAs) may be asuitable alternative to fungicides to control seed bornefungi (Harman and Taylor, 1988). Priming with PGPRincrease germination and improve seedlingestablishment. Initiation of physiological process helpsin the establishment and proliferation of PGPR on thespermosphere (Taylor and Harman, 1990). Becauseof the environmental conditions developed during

priming, the potential for microbial proliferation onthe seeds exists and several studies have demonstratedthe ability of applied microorganisms to establish onseeds during different priming or pre-germinationprocesses.


Bacterial suspensions were prepared using thesingle colonies grown on agar plates inoculated insterile broth, which was incubated overnight in rotaryshaker (25°C and at 150 rpm). From the resultingmaster culture, 0.5 ml aliquots were used to inoculatefresh flasks containing specific broth (100 ml). Afterincubation in rotary shaker (25°C and at 150 rpm) for24 hr, all spore suspensions were adjusted with sterilewater to give a spore concentration of 106 -107 / ml.The required volume (100 ml) of bacterial suspensionwas then centrifuged (12000 x g for 10 min) and theresulting pellet were re-suspended in the volume ofwater pre-determined for seed priming. Fungal isolateswere grown on potato dextrose agar at 28°C, andfollowing profuse sporulation. The spores wereharvested by adding sterile distilled water to the platesand scraping the spores into suspension. Thesuspension was filtered through a double layer ofsterile glass wool and the spore suspension wasadjusted with sterile water to give a sporeconcentration of 106 -107 / ml.

Seed bio-priming : Bio-priming was done usingPGPRs Bacillus megaterium, Azospirillum brasilences

and Azotobacter chroococcum, and BeAs Trichodermaharzianum (NBAII - TH 10) and Pseudomonasfluorescens (NBAII -Pfl). Primed seeds were soakedin sterile distilled water containing bacterial pellet andfungal spores singly and in combination with thesticking agent (tween 20) at the concentrations of 0.1ml per litre for bacteria and 0.5 ml / litre for fungi.Flasks were kept in shaker at 150 rpm for 6 hr. Thebio-primed seeds were then air-dried on filter paperfor 1 hr in a laminar flowhood, packed and stored in arefrigerator at 5°C until required. Another groupof surface sterilised seeds (using 3 % sodiumhypochloride for 5 min, then air-dried) were preparedas control treatments (unprimed seeds) (Raj et al.,2004). The bio / microbial primed seeds were evaluatedby seedling tray method under green house condition.Seedling trays were filled with coirpith. Bio / microbialprimed seeds were sown.

Damping off / root rot incidence caused byPythium aphanidermatum, Rhizactonia solani andFusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucurbitae were the majordisease causing organisms isolated and purified frominfected plant samples. The above mentioned isolatedpathogens were inoculated in coirpith : soilrite (2: 1)mixture and incubated for 7 days. This infestedsubstrate was filled in the seedling trays, and the bio-microbial primed seeds were sown.

Germination percentage : The observation onthe germination percentage in different treatments wasrecorded.Percentage seedgermination =

No.of seeds germinated

Total No. of seeds sown × 100

Seedling vigour index : Vigour index (VI) wascalculated by multiplying per cent germination andseedling length as suggested by Abdul-Baki andAnderson, (1973).

VI = Germination (%) × Mean seedling length or) Dry weight

Shoot length : Shoot length was measured fromthe base of the shoot to the tip of the primary leaf. Themean values were calculated and expressed inem / plant.

Root length : Plants were uprooted. The rootlength of the plant was measured from the base of theroot to the tip of the primary root. The mean valueswere calculated and expressed in cm / plant.

Total biomass : The plant samples were allowedone day for sun drying and then dried in hot air ovenat 60 to 70°C until the constant weight was obtained.Weight of dried plant was recorded and expressed ing / plant.


Cent per cent germination was recorded(Table I) in T6 and T9 and it was on par with thetreatments T8 (98.52 %) and T5 (95.27 %). The

TABLE I

Efficacy of microbial seed priming onenhancing seedling virour of cucumber under

green house condition

T1 60.52 e 5.60 h 8.23h 1.81 g 109.54 h

T2 71.20 d 8.60 g 11.54 g 3.09 f 220.01 g

T3 85.20 ec 10.20 f 14.69 f 4.10 e 349.32 f

T4 89.28 bc 11.60 e 15.20 f 4.51 e 402.65 f

T5 95.27 ab 16.70 d 22.20 d 7.12 c 678.32 d

T6 100.00 a 19.20 e 24.41 e 8.96 b 896.00 e

T7 90.21 bc 12.56 e 17.12 e 5.89 d 531.34 e

T8 98.52 a 21.45 b 27.36 b 10.67 a 1051.21 b

T9 100.00 a 23.20 a 20.58 a 11.23 a 1123.00 a

CD 7.61 1.32 1.72 0.60 58.98(0.05)

Treatments

Germi-nation

percentage

Rootlength

(cm / pl)

Shootlength

(cm / pl)

Totalbiomass(g / pl)

VigourIndex

108 T. SIVASANKARI DEVI et al.

T1 : Control (unprimed seeds)T2 : hydroprimed seedsT3 : microbial primed with A. charoococcum (Az.c.)T4 : microbial primed with B. megaterium (B. m)T5 : microbial primed with P. fluorescens (P.f)T6 : microbial primed with T. harzianum (T.h)T7 : microbial primed with A. brasilences (Az.b)T8 : microbial primed with (Az.c + B. m + P.f. + T. h)T9 : Microbial primed with (Az.b + B.m + P.f + T.h)Mean values with the same superscript did not differ

significantly (P<0.05).

treatment T9 recorded the highest root length (23.2cm / pl), shoot length (29.58 cm / pl), total biomass(11.23 g / pl) and vigour index (1123) followed by T5which resulted in root length of (21.45 cm / pl), shootlength (27.36 cm / pl), total biomass (10.67 g / pl) andvigour index (1051.21). Both these treatments werethe combination of microorganisms and significantlydiffer from control T1 (unprimed seeds) and T2(hydroprimed seeds) with respect to root length of 5.6and 8.6 cm / pl, shoot length of 8.23 and 11.54 cm / pl,total biomass of 1.81 and 3.09 g / pl and vigour indexof 109.54 and 220.01, respectively.

Priming with PGPR increase germination andimprove seedling establishment. Initiation ofphysiological process helps in the establishment andproliferation of PGPR on the spermosphere (Taylorand Harman, 1990). Bio-priming of seeds withbacterial antagonists increase the population load ofantagonist to a tune of 10 fold on the seeds, thusprotecting the rhizosphere from the ingress of plantpathogens (Callan et al., 1990).

The treatment T9 recorded the highestgermination percentage of 96.23 per cent which wason par with treatment Ts (95.10 %), followed by (92.50%) and T5 (88.37 %) and it is significantly differedfrom the controls T1 (unprimed seeds) (33.84) and T2(hydroprimed seeds) (41.20). The treatment T9recorded the highest of root length (20.58 cm / pl),shoot length (28.37 cm / pl) and vigour index (964.22)followed by Ts which resulted in root length of 19.03cm / pl, shoot length of 26.24 cm / pl and vigour indexof 905.35. T9 recorded the highest total biomass of10.02 g / pl) which was on par with T8 (9.52 g / pl),followed by T6 (7.99 g / pl). Both T9 and T8 were thecombinations of microorganisms and significantlydiffer from controls T1 (unprimed seeds) and T2(hydroprimed seeds) in which root length were 4.97and 7.63 cm / pl, shoot length were 7.89 and 11.07 cm/ pl, total biomass were 1.61 and 2.76 g / pl and vigourindex were 54.48 and 113.71, respectively (Table II).

For biological seed treatments to replace the morestandard chemicals, they must be consistently effectiveagainst a range of pathogens. Harman and Taylor(1988) reported that the T. harzianum controlled P.ultimum, R. solani, F. graminearum and S. rolfsii. The

TABLE II

Efficacy of microbial seed priming withmicrobial agents on enhancing seedling vigourof cucumber challenged with fungal pathogens

under green house condition

T1 33.84 f 4.97 h 7.89 h 1.61 g 54.48 1

T2 41.20 e 7.63 g 11.07 g 2.76 f 113.71 h

T3 72.30 d 9.05 f 14.09 f 3.66 e 264.62 g

T4 81.20 c 10.29 e 14.58 f 4.02 e 326.42 f

Ts 88.37 b 14.81 d 21.29 d 6.35c 561.15 d

T6 92.50 ab 17.03 c 23.41 c 7.99 b 739.08 c

T7 78.20 cd 11.14 e 16.42 e 5.25 d 410.55 e

T8 95.10 a 19.03 b 26.24 b 9.52 a 905.35 b

T9 96.23 a 20.58 a 28.37 a 10.02 a 964.22 a

CD 6.73 1.17 1.65 0.54 49.28(0.05)

Treat-ments

Germi-nation

percentage

Rootlength

(cm / pl)

Shootlength

(cm / pl)

Totalbiomass(g / pl)

VigourIndex

range of pathogens controlled by these strains appearto depend strongly on the delivery system. Whenstrains were applied in the presence of priming, theiractivities approximately tripled. These results suggestthat the ability of a strain to control a specific pathogenmay be more strongly related to the quantity, qualityand location of the bioprotectant.

Priming markedly enhanced the ability of theTrichoderma strains to control Pythium sp. In theseedling assays, protection of nearly all crops wasgreater with priming than without. In field trials,

EFFICACY OF SEED BIO-PRIMING IN ENHANCING SEEDLING VIGOUR OF CUCUMBER 109



protection of peas by the strains was evident only whenseeds were primed. These results clearly demonstratethat the efficacy of Trichoderma and Enterobacterstrains can be increased by combining with matrixpriming. When matrix priming and Trichoderma werecombined, seeds were better protected and grew morerapidly in Pythium infested soil than if they weretreated similarly with thiram.

Colonization and proliferation of Trichodermaisolates on the seed surface protect the soybean seeds,and could suppress the Colletotrichum truncatum (a)directly by competing for nutrients and infection sites,

parasitism, antibiosis and lysis and / or (b) indirectlyinducing of plant defense responses (Begum et aI.,2008).

Begum et al. (2010) reported that the applicationof BCAs to soybean seeds during hydro-primingserved as an effective treatment system againstdamping-off of soybean caused by C. truncatum underfield conditions. It also improved the percentages ofseed germination and final seedling stand. Seeds bio-primed with bacterial isolate P. aeruginosa was foundto be the most effective treatment for controlling pre-and post-emergence damping-off and enhancinggermination and final seedling stand. There are severalreports on mixed inocula for biocontrol being moreeffective than single culture due to synergistic effects(Handelsman, 2002). Therefore, the synergism testshould first be done before using BCAs as a mixture.

Microbial primed seeds showed bettergermination percentage and reduced pre-andpost-emergence damping off and efficient biocontrolactivity than unprimed and hydroprimed. Table IIIshowed that the treatments T8 and T9 were thecombinations of different PGPRs and BCAs whichperformed better than the treatments T5 and T6 whichwere the sole inoculation of BCAs. Bioprimed seedswere covered with germinating hyphae of Trichodermaisolates. T. harzianum and the mixture of T. harzianumand P. fluorescens performed better than that of singleinoculation. A similar observation on the bio-primedcarrot seeds was reported by Jensen et al. (2004),where seeds were covered with sporulating myceliumof Clonostachys rosea IK726 after bio-priming. Theleakage of seed exudates during biopriming maysupply nutrients and energy for BCAs (Wright et al.,2003). This favourable environment contributed tocolonization and proliferation of BCAs over the seedsurface to facilitate water uptake and nutrients duringbio-priming.

Inoculation with T. harzianum as soil treatmentgreatly reduced or eliminated most of fungalpathogens. The great reduction of the pathogenpopulation densities in the rhizosphere soil could be aresult of lower proliferation rate of the pathogen inthe rhizosphere already colonized by the antagonist(Muhammad and Amusa, 2003).

TABLE III

Biocontrol efficiency of microbial seed primingwith microbial agents on cucumber challenged

with fungal pathogens under green housecondition

T1 46.20 f 46.07 e 46.14 f 4.17 d

T2 35.58 e 43.60 e 39.59 e 3.86 d

T3 22.86 d 30.43 c 26.65 c 5.85 d

T4 22.07 d 35.93 d 29.00 d 5.06 d

T5 5.27a 16.62 b 10.95 b 76.61 c

T6 8.40 b 5.46 a 6.93 a 84.12 b

T7 13.31 c 38.36 d 25.84 c 4.82 d

T8 4.38 a 5.31 a 4.85 a 92.58 a

T9 4.77 a 5.25 a 5.01 a 95.17 a

CD (0.05) 1.96 2.56 2.23 5.01



Treatments

Pre-emergencedampingoff (%)

Post-emergence

damping off(%)

Averagedisease

incidence

Biocontrlefficiency

(%)

110 T. SIVASANKARI DEVI et al.

The microbial primed seeds performed better inboth fungal pathogens infected and non-infectedsubstrates. The treatments T8 (microbial primed with(Az.c + Bm + P.f + Th) and T9 (microbial primed with(Az.b + Bm + P.f + Th) in which combinations of BCAsand PGPR were used for microbial seed priming. Boththese treatments recorded the maximum plant growthpromoting activity by improving germinationpercentage, root and shoot length, total biomass andvigour index.

REFERENCES

BEGUM, M. M., SARIAH, M., ZAINAL ABIDIN, M. A., PUTEH,A. B. AND RAHMAN, M. A., 2008, Antagonisticpotential of selected fungal and bacterial biocontrolagents against Colletotrichum truncatum of soybeanseeds. Pertanika 1. Trop. Agric. Sci., 31: 85-93.

BEGUM, M. M., SARIAH, M., PUTEH, A. B., ZAINAL ABIDIN,M. A., RAHMAN, M. A. AND SIDDIQUI, Y., 2010, Fieldperformance of bioprimed seeds to suppressColletotrichum truncatum causing damping-offand seedling stand of soybean. Bioi. Control.,53: 18-23.

CALLAN, N. W., MATHRE, D. E. AND MILLER, J. B., 1990,Biopriming seed treatment for biological control of

EFFICACY OF SEED BIO-PRIMING IN ENHANCING SEEDLING VIGOUR OF CUCUMBER 111

Pythium ultimum pre-emergence damping-off in sh2sweet corn. Plant Dis., 74: 368-372.

HANDELSMAN, J., 2002, Future trends in bio-control. In:Gnanamanickam, S.S. (Ed.), Biological Control ofCrop Diseases. Marcel Dekker, pp. 443 - 448.

HARMAN, G. E. AND TAYLOR, A. G., 1988, Improved seedlingperformance by integration of biological controlagents at favourable pH levels with solid matrixpriming. Phytopathol., 78: 520-525.

JENSEN, B., KNUDSEN, I. M. B., MADSEN, M. AND JENSEN, D.F., 2004, Biopriming of infected carrot seed with anantagonist, Clonostachys rosea, selected for controlof seed borne Alternaria spp. Bioi. Control.,94: 551-560.

RAJ, N.S., SHETTY, N.P. AND SHETTY, H. S., 2004, Seed bio-priming with Pseudomonas fluorescens isolatesenhances growth of pearl millet plants and inducesresistance against downy mildew. Int. 1. PestManage., 50: 41-48.

TAYLOR, A. G. AND HARMAN, G. E., 1990, Concept andtechnologies of selected seed treatments. Annu. Rev.Phytopathol., 28: 321-339.

WRIGHT, B., ROWSE, H. R. AND WHIPPS, J. M., 2003,Microbial populations on seeds during drum andsteeping priming. Plant Soil., B 631-640.

(Received : October, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Effect of Continuous Manuring and Cropping of Finger millet and Maize on Plant andDTPA Extractable Micronutrients

NASIR AHMAD NASRAT, S. ANIL KUMAR, R. C. GOWDA AND K. SUDHIR

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted in the ongoing long term fertilizers experiments at Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra,Bangalore to know the effect of continuous manuring and cropping on soil properties and distribution of nutrientsafter 22 cropping cycles in the field. Finger millet and maize are grown in the field during kharif and rabi seasons,respectively. The results indicated that the DTPA extractable zinc, copper, manganese and iron contents werehighest in the plots treated with FYM along with fertilizers. The plots treated with higher levels of NPK hadrelatively higher contents of micronutrients in the soil than those treated with lower levels of NPK fertilizers, dueto the addition of trace amounts of micronutrients every year to the soil from the fertilizer materials. Applicationof lime considerably decreased the contents of all the four micronutrients in the soil. DTPA-Zn and DTPA- Cuwere lower, while those of DTPA-Mn and DTPA- Fe were higher in lower depths of soil as compared to upperlayers of soil irrespective of treatments. The concentrations of all the four micronutrients in the plants of bothfinger millet and maize were in accordance with their contents in the soil.


MAXIMIZATION of agriculture production depends onproper management of inputs. Use of fertilizers andcrop varieties of high yielding potential haveundoubtedly brightened the hopes of humanity formeeting the challenges of growing food requirement.In recent years, it is observed that the productivity offood grain crops have reached stagnation or theproductivity is not commensurating with the fertilizerconsumption. The results generated from the long-termexperiments have revealed that continuous use of highanalysis chemical fertilizers increased the crop yieldin the initial years and adversely affected thesustainability at later stage. The decrease in stabilityand sustainability in production is observed as a resultof unscientific method of fertilizer management suchas application of fertilizers in an imbalanced mannerand at sub-optimal dosage and reduction in the use oforganic manures along with fertilizers. There is alsomining of soil resources under intense crop production.This is especially true with micronutrients, since thosenutrients are generally not supplemented and henceintense cropping has lead to their deficiency in mostsoils.

The long term monitoring of soil fertility isessential because many soil properties change slowlyover many decades and cannot be detected in

experiments lasting only a few years. The presentinvestigation was carried out to know the effect ofcontinuous cropping and manuring on micronutrientcontents of crops and available micronutrient statusof a red soil which has been under finger millet – maizecropping system for 22 years.


The AICRP on Long-Term Fertilizer Experimentwas initiated at the Zonal Agricultural ResearchStation, Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra, Universityof Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore at ‘E’ block during1986--87. The soil is classified as fine, mixedisothermic kandic paleustalf of Vijayapura series. Theinitial soil is slightly acidic (pH, 6.17) with low organiccarbon content (0.46 %), low available N (256.7 kgha-1), high available P (34.3 kg P2O5 ha-1) and lowavailable K (123.1 kg K2O ha-1) contents. The initialDTPA extractable micronutrient contents of soil are2.34, 2.30, 108.4 and 5.22 mg kg-1 for Zn, Cu, Mn andFe, respectively.

The long-term fertilizer experiment consists ofpermanently laid out plots (15 × 9 m) in randomizedblock design with eleven fixed treatments replicatedfour times. Finger millet and maize are raised every

year, respectively in the kharif and rabi-summer seasonwithout changing the fertilizer dosages andmanagement practices. The fertilizer dosage is 100-22- 42 kg ha–1 of N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively forfinger millet and is 100-33-82 kg ha–1 of N, P2O5 andK2O, respectively for maize. The three nutrients i.e.nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are applied asurea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash,respectively. The present study was carried out bycollecting soil samples from three depths i.e. 0-15 cm(D1), 15-30 cm (D2) and 30-50 cm (D3) from the plotsunder the following treatments, i.e. control, 50 per centNPK, 100 per cent NPK, 150 per cent NPK, 100 percent NPK with hand weeding, 100 per cent N, 100 percent NP, 100 per cent NPK with FYM, 100 per centNPK with liming and 100 per cent NPK with bothFYM and lime. The soil samples were collected afterthe harvest of maize raised during rabi-summer, 2008-09, and were analyzed for DTPA extractable Zn, Cu,Fe and Mn and the plant samples collected at harvestof maize as well as the previous crop of finger milletwere analysed for the contents of the same elements.


Effect of continuous manuring and cropping onthe available micronutrient status of soil : The dataon the effect of continuous manuring and cropping onthe available (DTPA extractable) micronutrient statusof soil are given in Table I.

The plots subjected to FYM application alongwith NPK at 100 per cent recommendation (T8)recorded significantly higher amounts of DTPA-Zn inthe first two depths of the soil (4.20 and 2.18 mg kg-1,respectively in D1 and D2) as compared to the plotssubjected to only fertilizers or lime with NPKfertilizers or lime with NPK fertilizers plus FYM. InD3 also, the same treatment (T8) recorded significantlyhigher DTPA-Zn (1.79 mg kg-1) than many of thetreatments except T1 (50 % NPK) and T7 (100 % N).The reason for this could be attributed to thedecomposition of FYM and the adsorption of releasedzinc by inorganic as well as organic colloids(Rajkumar, 1994). Increase in available Zn content ofsoil due to addition of organic manure has beenreported in the past also (Suresh Lal and Mathur,1989). The organic matter status of soil being low and

available P content of soil being very high couldpresumably be the two factors responsible for lowavailable Zn status, in the case of treatments involvingonly fertilizer use. It has been reported by Suresh Laland Mathur (1989) that, conversion of Zn to zincphosphate in P rich soil, very seriously affected Znavailability to crops. The soil amended with only lime(T5, 100 % NPK + lime) recorded lowest DTPA-Znvalues (1.43, 1.35 and 1.37 mg kg-1 in D1, D2 and D3,respectively) than those which were not amended withlime. This could be attributed to the formation ofinsoluble compounds at high soil pH resulting fromthe addition of lime (Sudhir et al., 2004 andShantakumari, 2007). The DTPA-Zn contentsdecreased with depth irrespective of treatments. Thereason for lower DTPA-Zn of soil in lower depthscould be due to lower amounts of organic matter inthe lower layers of soil.

The DTPA-Cu content of the soil was also highest(4.07 mg kg-1) in the plots treated with FYM i.e.T8(100 % NPK + FYM) and lowest (1.60 mg kg–1) in theplots treated with lime i.e. T5 (100 % NPK + lime) inthe first depth (D1) of soil. Reasons similar to the onequoted for DTPA-Zn could be given for this also. Thisis in conformity with the results reported by VenkateshBharadwaj el al. (1994). In the second depth, thehighest (3.45 mg kg–1) and the lowest DTPA-Cucontent (2.63 mg kg–1) were recorded by T3 (150 %NPK) and T5 (100 % NPK + lime), respectively. TheDTPA-Cu levels, eventhough not as high as observedunder FYM plus fertilizers plots, were still highenough in the fertilizer alone plots. This must be dueto the continuous addition of very small amountscopper every year when inorganic fertilizers wereapplied to the soil (Sarkar, 1990). There was a declinein DTPA–Cu content with increase in the depth of soil.This is probably because of its close association withorganic matter (Nipunage et al., 1996).

In D1, the plot amended with FYM (T8) recordedsignificantly higher DTPA-Fe compared to plotsamended with chemical fertilizers (T1, T2 and T3),whereas, in D2 and D3 the graded dose of fertilizers(T1, T2 and T3) recorded relatively higher values ofDTPA-Fe as compared to FYM plus NPK treated plot(T8). The DTPA-Fe content of the soil ranged from

EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS MANURING AND CROPPING OF FINGER MILLET AND MAIZE 113

TAB

LE I

Effe

ct o

f con

tinuo

us m

anur

ing

and

crop

ping

on

DTP

A ex

trac

tabl

e m

icro

nutr

ient

s in

diffe

rent

dep

ths o

f soi

l

T 1: 50

% N

PK2.

921.

731.

763.

333.

243.

1559

.242

.956

.099

.32

108.

911

7.9

T 2: 10

0% N

PK2.

721.

881.

623.

833.

233.

0266

.875

.164

.811

1.8

129.

012

7.4

T 3: 15

0 %

NPK

2.77

1.78

1.67

3.50

3.45

3.21

56.3

77.2

70.4

125.

114

7.3

137.

5

T 4: 10

0% N

PK+H

W2.

501.

681.

553.

153.

253.

0363

.372

.870

.698

.15

132.

213

4.9

T 5: 10

0% N

PK+

Lim

e1.

431.

351.

371.

602.

632.

9321

.427

.657

.324

.90

38.6

299

.80

T 6: 10

0% N

P3.

301.

671.

663.

053.

113.

1758

.966

.366

.711

3.3

120.

613

5.1

T 7: 10

0% N

2.94

1.44

1.76

3.16

3.17

3.23

64.3

65.4

61.4

130.

412

3.4

120.

2

T 8: 10

0% N

PK+F

YM

4.20

2.18

1.79

4.07

3.31

3.14

77.2

61.4

62.8

148.

513

6.0

135.

5

T 9: 10

0% N

PK+

FYM

+Lim

e2.

531.

461.

592.

263.

373.

0620

.326

.858

.522

.23

45.9

497

.75

T 10: C

ontro

l2.

201.

981.

473.

273.

153.

0728

.042

.465

.111

0.0

120.

412

1.2

CD

(5%

)0.

340

0.09

10.

075

0.36

10.

324

NS

4.29

5.35

5.48

8.85

11.2

011

.79

D

1: 0-

15 c

m; D

2: 15

-30

cm; D

3: 30

-60

cm

HW

= H

and

wee

ding

Trea

tmen

tsC

u (m

g kg

–1)

D1

D2

D3

Zn (m

g kg

–1)

D1

D2

D3

Mn

(mg

kg–1

)

D1

D2

D3

Fe (m

g kg

–1)

D1

D2

D3

114 NASIR AHMAD NASRAT et al.

20.3 mg kg–1 in T9 (100 % NPK + FYM + lime) to77.2 mg kg–1 in T8 (100 % NPK + FYM) in D1, andfrom 26.8 mg kg–1 in T9 (100 % NPK + FYM + lime)to 77.2 mg kg–1 in T3 (150 % NPK) in D2 and from56.0 mg kg–1 in T1 (50 % NPK) to 70.6 mg kg-1 in T4(100 % NPK + HW) in D3. Formation of insolublehydroxides of Fe at soil pH values near neutral wasprobably the most important reason for the negativeeffect of lime on available Fe. These results are inconformity with those of Shantakumari (2007).Addition of Fe from external sources viz., fertilizersand manures might be the reason for an increase inthe DTPA - Fe content of soil with increase in the levelsof application of NPK fertilizers. It has been reportedby Sarkar (1990) that considerable quantity ofmicronutrients like Fe and Mn are being added to soilevery year due to repeated application of fertilizers.In lower layers, DTPA-Fe was more as compared tosurface layer of soil under most treatments. This maybe due to higher amounts of clay in the lower depthsof soil as well as greater downward movement ofavailable Fe from the surface layer of soil.

The DTPA- Mn content of the soil ranged from22.23 mg kg–1 in T9 (100 % NPK + FYM + lime) to148.5 mg kg–1 in T8 (100 % NPK + FYM) in D1. In D2and D3 the highest DTPA-Mn (147.3 and 137.5 mgkg–1) were recorded in T3 (150 % NPK), while, thelowest DTPA- Mn were recorded by T5 (100 % NPK+ lime) in D2 (38.62 mg kg–1) and by T9 (100 % NPK+ FYM + lime) in D3 (97.75 mg kg–1). Among thedifferent treatments, the plots treated with lime (T5and T9) recorded lowest DTPA-Mn contents. LikeDTPA-Fe, the content of DTPA-Mn of soil was alsovery low in fertilizer plus lime and fertilizer plus limeplus FYM treatments apart from the control. At pH ofsoil greater than 6.0, Mn is known to form severalinsoluble oxides and hydroxide (Shantakumari, 2007).There was significant difference in the DTPA- Mn ofsoil between the treatments with graded doses of NPK,with the amounts increasing with increased doses ofNPK in all the soil depths. In spite of its losses fromthe soil by other mechanisms, DTPA – Mn was foundto be increasing with increasing depths of soil undermany treatments. This may be due to higher claycontent in lower depths and presence of Mn containing

minerals in greater amounts in the lower depths ofsoil.

Effect of continuous manuring and cropping onthe concentrations of zinc, copper, iron and manganesein finger millet and maize plants and yields of thecrop : Effect of continuous manuring and croppingon the concentrations of zinc, copper, iron andmanganese in finger millet plant and yield of the cropis given in Table II.

There was significant difference between manytreatments in respect of zinc concentration of the crop.The zinc content in both grain and straw of fingermillet was highest in T8 (FYM + NPK) and lowest inT5 (NPK + Lime), the values being 29.64 and 20.99mg kg-1, respectively for grain and straw in the formerand 13.95 and 15.30 mg kg–1, respectively for grainand straw in the latter treatment. Even in respect ofcopper content of finger millet, T8 recorded the highestconcentration both in grain and straw, the values being8.44 and 6.96 mg kg-1, respectively. The effect of T8on Cu content by the crop was on par with that of T3.The treatments including lime (T5 and T9) recordedsignificantly lower Cu contents than the above twotreatments both in grain ad straw. The lowest Cucontent was recorded by T10 (control) in grain and T5in straw, the respective values being 4.97 mg kg–1 and2.01 mg kg–1. Iron content in finger millet grain washighest (56.68 mg kg–1) in T3 and lowest (35.03 mgkg-1) in T5. In the straw, Fe content was highest (67.83mg kg-1) in T3 and lowest (38.75 mg kg–1) in T10. Therewas an increase in Fe content of plant with increase inthe levels of application of NPK. Manganese contentof finger millet grain was highest (26.57 mg kg–1) inT3 and lowest (6.73 mg kg–1) in T10. In the straw, itwas highest (76.28 mg kg–1) in T3 and lowest (26.30mg kg–1) in T5. There was increase in Mn content ofthe plant with increase in NPK levels. T5 and T10 werefound to be on par in their effects on Mn content ofplant.

Effect of continuous manuring and cropping onthe concentrations of zinc, copper, iron and manganesein maize plant and yield of the crop is given inTable III.


TABLE II

Effect of continuous manuring and cropping on micronutrient content in finger millet

T1: 50% NPK 21.16 17.55 6.37 4.21 45.55 40.96 9.78 39.14 13.69

T2: 100% NPK 21.19 17.67 7.28 5.19 47.52 51.43 17.10 68.68 29.50

T3: 150 % NPK 28.95 20.56 8.29 6.90 56.68 67.83 26.57 76.28 32.90

T4: 100% NPK+HW 21.14 17.39 6.93 4.51 46.06 55.42 16.54 66.16 26.87

T5: 100% NPK+ Lime 13.95 15.30 5.22 2.01 35.03 39.79 6.57 26.30 25.90

T6: 100% NP 22.53 17.75 6.35 3.76 44.38 55.93 12.94 51.77 4.02

T7: 100% N 22.32 16.84 5.96 3.24 44.32 50.05 16.09 64.38 3.68

T8: 100% NPK+FYM 29.64 20.99 8.44 6.96 51.79 60.92 18.36 57.46 30.80

T9: 100% NPK+FYM+ Lime 22.91 18.44 5.78 2.43 47.08 55.72 13.42 53.76 29.50

T10: Control 19.08 15.37 4.97 2.33 43.27 38.75 6.73 26.94 4.10

CD (5%) 1.325 1.176 0.298 0.515 1.35 5.175 2.04 3.90 3.15

HW – Hand weeding

TreatmentsZinc (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Copper (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Iron (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Grain yield(q ha–1)

Manganese(mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

TABLE III

Effect of continuous manuring and cropping on micronutrient content in maize

T1: 50% NPK 25.31 24.03 12.17 10.87 66.99 61.64 48.01 55.97 19.22

T2: 100% NPK 25.68 27.39 14.74 11.67 78.60 64.51 51.41 62.46 32.36

T3: 150 % NPK 33.67 36.83 20.93 15.97 90.03 84.24 55.28 69.05 37.49

T4: 100% NPK+HW 33.57 25.14 14.82 12.09 75.34 65.28 54.24 70.16 33.36

T5: 100% NPK+ Lime 30.06 27.37 8.00 7.63 57.50 38.79 46.37 55.76 35.15

T6: 100% NP 29.77 32.94 11.28 9.79 73.10 62.25 45.03 56.19 8.08

T7: 100% N 31.83 29.70 10.04 8.95 65.83 61.50 42.19 57.88 4.33

T8: 100% NPK+FYM 37.49 42.92 23.39 22.48 85.88 72.53 56.09 69.94 37.93

T9: 100% NPK+ FYM+ Lime 39.92 34.47 20.96 14.50 78.89 73.62 48.89 65.07 41.06

T10: Control 33.50 26.30 10.26 8.76 61.46 45.97 42.60 53.28 3.55

CD (5%) 3.212 3.393 1.621 0.886 5.609 7.069 4.525 5.702 3.15

HW = Hand weeding

TreatmentsZinc (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Copper (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Iron (mg kg–1)

Grain Straw

Grain yield(q ha–1)

Manganese(mg kg–1)

Grain Straw


The Zn content of maize plant variedsignificantly among treatments both in grain and straw.In maize grain, it was highest (37.49 mg kg–1) in T8and lowest (29.77 mg kg–1) in T6. In maize straw, itwas highest (42.92 mg kg–1) in T8 and lowest (24.03mg kg–1) in T1. The crop recorded highest Cu in T8both in grain (23.39 mg kg–1) and straw (22.48 mgkg–1) and lowest Cu in T5 both in grain (8.00 mg kg–1)and straw (7.63 mg kg–1). The copper content increasedwith increase in the levels of application of NPK. Inrespect of Fe, T3 recorded the highest contents i.e.90.03 and 84.24 mg kg–1 in grain and straw,respectively. Its effect was found to be on par withthat of T8, but significantly higher than that of T9.Liming tended to decline the concentration of Fe inplant. Iron content was the lowest in T5 both in grain(57.50 mg kg–1) and straw (38.79 mg kg–1). Manganesecontent of maize grain was highest (55.28 mg kg–1) inT3 and lowest in (42.19 mg kg–1) in T6. In straw, it was

highest (69.94 mg kg–1) in T8 and lowest (53.28 mgkg–1) in T10. Liming (T5 and T9) resulted in relativelylower Mn content in plant as compared to non-liming.There was an increase in Mn of plant with increase inlevels of NPK application.

In the case of all the micronutrients, the contentsof them in both finger millet and maize plants were inaccordance with the soil content of Zn under all thetreatments. However, the yield were not significantlycorrelated with the soil contents of available Zn andFe, but were correlated significantly with (Table IV)Mn which probably indicated that the plants absorbedrelatively higher quantities of nutrients which are alsohigh in the soil. One of the reasons for higher yieldsof crops in T8 (100 % FYM +NPK) and T3 (150 5NPK) could be attributed to higher levels ofmicronutrients in crops which in turn depended onhigher levels of the same nutrient in soil. Gupta et al.

TABLE IV

Correlation matrix for relationships among micronutrients of soil crop yield

Zn 1.0000

Cu 0.8325** 1.0000

Fe 0.7849** 0.8345** 1.0000

Mn 0.3420* 0.2482 0.4213* 1.0000

Grain yield 0.0397 -0.2353 0.1750 0.4241* 1.0000

Straw yield 0.0393 -0.2038 0.1847 0.4925** 0.9940**

Grain yield

Finger millet

Zn 1.0000

Cu 0.8325** 1.0000

Fe 0.7849** 0.8345** 1.0000

Mn 0.3420* 0.2482 0.4213* 1.0000

Grain yield -0.0565 -0.3663 0.0519 0.4482** 1.0000

Straw yield -0.0593 -0.3652 0.0534 0.5037** 0.9963**

*Significant at 0.05 level ** Significant at 0.01 level

Maize

MnFeCuZn


(2000) have reported that the addition of organicmanures to soil increased the availability ofmicronutrients in soil due to its complexing propertywith micronutrients and hence its retention in the soilagainst precipitation, fixation and leaching processes.Venkatesh Bharadwaj et al. (1994) reported that thecontent of micronutrients by crop was increased withthe addition of FYM along with 100 per cent NPKand this was attributed to extra amount of nutrientssupplied by FYM which caused increase in yield anduptake of nutrients. Ghosh et al. (2001) reported thatincorporation of FYM along with recommended doseof fertilizer resulted in higher content of micronutrientsthan recommended dose of fertilizer alone. The reasonfor lower micronutrient contents in control plots couldbe attributed to low availability of micronutrients dueto continuous cropping and hence its depletion in thesoil.

REFERENCES

GHOSH, B. N., PRAKASH, V. AND SINGH, R. D., 2001,Micronutrient status in soybean (Glycine max)-wheat(Triticum aestivum) cropping system In : Kumaonregion of Uttaranchal. Indian J Agric Sci., 71:149-152.

GUPTA, R. K., ARORA, B. R., SHARMA, K. N. AND AHLUWALIA,S. K., 2000, Influence of biogas slurry and farm yardmanure application on the changes in soil fertilityunder rice-wheat sequence. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.,48: 500-505.

NIPUNAGE, M. V., PHARANDE, A. L. AND WADKAR, R. S., 1996,Distribution of total and DTPA-Micronutrient cationsin Inceptisol soil series of Maharashtra. J. IndianSoc. Soil Sci., 44 : 779-781

RAJKUMAR, G. R., 1994, Studies on forms and distributionof micronutrients in paddy soils of TungabhadraProject Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, UAS,Dharwad.

SARKAR, M. C., 1990, Long-term effect of fertilizers on soileco-system. Fertilizer Newsl, 35: 81-85.

SHANTHAKUMARI, S., 2007, Distribution of secondary andmicronutrients in an Alfisol subjected to long termfertilizer schedule and continuous cropping. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore.

SUDHIR, K., SINGH, M.V. AND JAYAPRAKASH, S. M., 2004,Soil quality, crop productivity and sustainabilityexperiences under long-term finger millet- maizecropping in India. Research Bull, Indian Institute ofSoil Science (ICAR). Nabibagh, Berasia Road,Bhopal-462 038.

SURESH LAL AND MATHUR, B. S., 1989, Effect of long-termmanuring, fertilization and liming on crop yield andsome physico-chemical properties of soil. J. IndianSoc. Soil Sci., 36: 113-119.

VENKATESH BHARDWAJ, BANSAL R.S.K., MAHESWARI, S.C. AND

OMANWAR, P.K., 1994, Long term effects of continuousrotational cropping and fertilization on crop yieldsand soil properties-III. Changes in soil fractions ofN, P and K of the soil. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 42:392-397.



Growth Performance of Amur Strain of Common Carp in Southern Karnataka

Y. BASAVARAJU AND A. NARASIMHA REDDY

Fisheries Research and Information Centre, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore - 560 089

ABSTRACT

Field trials were conducted to evaluate the growth performance of Amur strain of common carp, Cyprinuscarpio in different locations of Southern Karnataka. Amur, a Hungarian strain of common carp introduced toKarnataka under DFID carp genetics project - Genetic Improvement Programme of Common Carp in Karnataka,during the year 2000 and underwent rigorous evaluation before it was released for commercial production. TheAmur and existing strains were evaluated in 12 trials (6 trials in monoculture and 6 trials in polyculture) over aperiod of 24 weeks in low-input aquaculture systems like water storage tanks, krishi hondas, check dams andculture ponds. The stocking density was 5000 fingerlings ha-1 in both mono and polyculture systems. Polycultureincludes common carp, catla, grass carp and silver carp in the ratio of 4:4:1:1. Results indicate that Amur andlocal strain of common carp attained a mean body weight of 260.80 ± 11.73g and 183.39 ± 13.85g under monoculture and 560.11 ± 20.04 g and 334.17 ± 15.74g in polyculture, respectively across all the locations andenvironments. The mean final weight of Amur strain was significantly higher than that of local strain (p < 0.05)both under mono and polyculture systems. The Amur strain registered 29.68 and 40.33 per cent faster growthover local strain in mono and polyculture systems, respectively. There was no significant difference in thesurvival rate of Amur and existing strain under monoculture (74.47 and 70.85 %) and polyculture systems (74.16and 75.30 %). Although, the production performance varied with type of water body, Amur strain consistentlyshowed its superiority over existing strain in all the trials. It may be inferred that Amur strain of common carp hasgreater potential in low-input aquaculture systems due to its better growth than the existing strain.


COMMON carp is widely cultured exotic fish species infreshwater aquaculture of India in general andKarnataka in particular. It is grown either alone or inpolyculture, most commonly with Catla catla and rohuLabeo rohita. It constitutes 43 per cent of fish seedstocked and contributes 35 per cent of total inland fishproduction of the state (Basavaraju et al., 2003).However, the existing stock of common carp ischaracterized by early sexual maturation (at an age ofapproximately 6 months and sometimes at a weightbelow 100g) and multiple spawning in a single year.This early maturation poses a potential problem forculture, wherein, energy is likely to be diverted fromsomatic growth into gonad development andreproduction. The potential constraints of this speciessuch as early maturation coupled withunwanted reproduction often result in overpopulationin grow-out ponds due to addition of new recruits.The new recruits compete with stocked fish forresources within the culture system and ultimatelyresult in reduced growth and smaller sized fish atharvest.

Various approaches have been assessed forimproving the performance of common carp inKarnataka such as hormonal sterilisation, triploidy andmonosex production. However, the most promisingand practical approach was evaluation of differentstocks of common carp. A project on ‘Geneticimprovement programme of common carp’ wasundertaken at Fisheries Research Station,Hesaraghatta, Bangalore in collaboration withDepartment For International Development (DFID),United Kingdom and World Fish Centre, Malaysiathrough stock evaluation and breeding programme(Basavaraju et al., 2004). Under this programme sixstocks of common carp of different geographicalregions (SV- Vietnam, P3 and Amur- Hungary, RJ-Indonesia and two local stocks–BRP and Hesaraghatta)and their crosses were evaluated for importantaquaculture traits such as faster growth and delayedmaturity. The on-station and on-farm studies revealedthat the Amur strain registered 27 per cent fastergrowth than other stocks. The strain has also exhibiteddelayed maturity (at the end of first year).

In contribution of these studies, growth wasassessed in farmers ponds across the state. The presentstudy highlights the performance of Amur in differenttypes of water bodies in mono and polyculture atdifferent locations of southern Karnataka.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Test strains : Amur strain used in the presentstudy is descended from the stock that was receivedfrom Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre, Hungaryto Fisheries Research and Information Centre (Inland),Hesaraghatta, Bangalore, during the year 2000, forevaluation and breeding programme of common carpin Karnataka. Local strain of common carp wasmaintained at Fisheries Research and InformationCentre, Hesaraghatta, Bangalore since many years.

Field trials : The Amur and existing strains wereevaluated in 12 trials (6 trials in monoculture and 6trials in polyculture) in low-input aquaculture systemslike water storage tanks, culture tanks, krishi hondaand check dams at different locations in five districtsviz., Bangalore, Mandya, Mysore, Chamarajnagar andHassan of southern Karnataka, over a period of 6-7months. Trials included both mono and polyculture(4+4). Details of protocols followed for growth trialsare given in Table I.

polyculture systems in the ratio of 4:4:1:1. Inpolyculture, Amur and local strains were rearedtogether with suitable marking technique (fincauterization). The stocked fish were sampled once ina month to assess the growth of fish by measuringbody weight (g) and standard length (mm) individually.

Data analysis : Data obtained at the end ofgrowth trials was subjected to statistical analysis usingSPSS software package (Ver.16.0) for one-wayanalysis.


The growth performance of Amur and localstrains of common carp were evaluated under low inputaquaculture management over a period of 6-7 monthsunder mono and polyculture systems at differentlocations of southern Karnataka.

A total of 6 trials were conducted undermonoculture (4 for Amur and 2 for local strain),wherein, the Amur and local strains were stockedseparately in each pond. The growth performance ofAmur and local strains under monoculture are givenin Table II. The performance of Amur undermonoculture at four different locations viz., Hebbal,Haniyuru-1, Haniyuru-2 and Itagalli was 256.61 ±11.02, 154.38 ± 14.26, 171.39 ± 14.20 and 397.16 ±6.73 g, respectively. While, the performance of localstrain at Hebbal and Hunasuru was 143.00 ± 11.23and 264.17 ± 18.93 g, respectively. The highestperformance of Amur was recorded at Itagalli (397.16± 6.73), whereas, the lowest (154.38 ± 14.26,) atHaniyuru-1.

In polyculture, the growth of Amur was assessedin six trials at six different locations. Among six trials,communal testing (includes Amur and local strain ofcommon carp with other carp species) was carried outin two trails and separate stocking (either Amur orlocal strain along with other carp species) in four trials.Communal testing consists of stocking the differentgenetic groups (Amur and local strains) to be testedinto the same pond after suitable marking (fincauterization). The rationale behind mixing of thevarious families or genetic groups is to minimizeconfounding genetic and environmental sources of

TABLE I

Protocols followed for the field trials

Culture type Mono and polycultureLime @ 300 kg / haManure (cattle dung) @ 10000 kg / ha / yearSpecies stocked Monoculture - Amur / LocalCommon carp strains Polyculture - Common carp

(Amur / Local), Catla,Grass carp and Silver carp@ 4:4:1:1 ratio

Stocking density 5000 fingerlings / haSampling frequency Once in 4 weeksParameters recorded Body weight (g) and standard

length (mm)Duration of trial 7 months

Stocking : The ponds / krishi hondas / checkdams were stocked with fingerlings of Amur, catla,grass carp and silver carp species at 50000 / ha in

120 Y. BASAVARAJU AND A. NARASIMHA REDDY

TABLE II

Growth performance of Amur and local strains of common carp undermonoculture at different locations

Hebbal Culture pond (200) Amur 3.73 ± 0.13 256.61 ± 11.02 86.00Hebbal Culture pond (200) Local 2.06 ± 0.08 143.00 ± 11.23 68.00Haniyuru-1 Water storage tank (150) Amur 1.63 ± 0.03 154.38 ± 14.26 78.60Haniyuru-2 Water storage tank (75) Amur 1.52 ± 0.03 171.39 ± 14.20 65.30Hunasuru Culture pond (700) Local 1.64 ± 0.04 264.17 ± 18.93 73.71Itagalli Krishi honda (50) Amur 2.63 ± 0.10 397.16 ± 6.73 68.00

Location Type of water bodyand size (m2)

Commoncarp

strains

Initial meanweight (g) ± SE

Final meanweight (g) ± SE

Survival(%)

variation on performance traits, since theenvironmental factors such as tank diversity, waterquality, food availability, competition etc., are knownto have large effect on growth performance traits(Chevassus, 1982). Communal testing allows any pondor growth vessel to be used as a testing facility,irrespective of its area or aquacultural management.In this system, genetic differences between groups offish and differences in pond productivity are notconfounded, as they are in separate testing. It alsoreduces the number of replications required andenables larger numbers of groups to be tested in asmaller number of ponds (Wohlfarth et al., 1985).

The growth performance of Amur and local strainis given in Table III. The growth of Amur at Haniyuru,Udigala, Panchavalli, Nidaghatta, Hunasuru and

Heddurga was 287.50 ± 40.31, 469.23 ± 30.67g,707.75 ± 30.79g, 664.86 ± 36.87g, 432.89 ± 29.19gand 547.75 ± 15.09g, respectively whereas, the growthof local strains at Udigala and Heddurga was 433.81± 14.09g and 234.17 ± 15.07g, respectively. Thehighest growth of Amur was recorded as 707.75 ±30.79g at Panchavalli, while, the lowest was 287.50 ±40.31g at Haniyuru.

The reason for difference in growth of Amur bothunder mono and polyculture at different locationscould be attributed to the type of water body, manuring,feeding and other management practices. The lowestgrowth performance was observed in water storagetanks (Haniyuru), while, the highest growth wasobserved in check dams.

TABLE III

Grwoth performance of Amur and local strains of common carp underpolyculture at different loctions

Haniyuru Water storage tank (200) Amur 1.97 ± 0.03 287.50 ± 40.31 67.00Udigala Water storage tank (300) Amur 2.69 ± 0.08 547.75 ± 15.09 82.00

Local 2.03 ± 0.05 433.81 ± 14.09 75.40Panchavalli Check dam (1000) Amur 1.95 ± 0.14 707.75 ± 30.79 72.50Nidaghatta Culture tank (2000) Amur 1.22 ± 0.01 664.86 ± 36.87 71.30Hunasuru Culture tank (500) Amur 2.77 ± 0.07 432.89 ± 29.19 78.00Heddurga Water storage tank (6000) Amur 2.08 ± 0.05 469.23 ± 30.67 73.00

Local 2.02 ± 0.06 234.17 ± 15.07 75.30

Location Type of water bodyand size (m2)

Commoncarp

strains

Initial meanweight (g) ± SE

Final meanweight (g) ± SE

Survival(%)

GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF AMUR STRAIN OF COMMON CARP IN SOUTHERN KARNATAKA 121

The interrupted electric power supply has madethe farmers to construct tanks for temporary waterstorage to feed their agricultural crops (water storagetanks). However, regular filling and usage of waterfrom these tanks resulted in poor or no planktonproduction and fish was often subjected to stress dueto varying water levels. The growth performance wasbetter in culture ponds at Hebbal and Hunasuru. Inculture ponds, there were no hindrances like in waterstorage tanks and the management was semi intensive.The highest growth was recorded in check dam wherethe shallow water increased surface area and inflowof water and organic load from the surroundings haveresulted in greater productivity. This might havecaused the good plankton production leading to thegrowth of fish. Reddy et al. (2001) suggested that thefactors related to soil quality and pond managementcould influence growth through an influence on waterquality. Hence, soil, water quality, pond managementand feeding plays a major role on growth of fish inearthen ponds. The main problem in carp culture isthe high variability of the growth performance amongponds (Wohlfarth and Moav et al., 1985) and thesimilar observations was also made in the presentstudy.

The overall growth performance indicates thatAmur and local strain has recorded a mean weight of260.80 ± 11.73g and 183.39 ± 13.85g undermonoculture, while, 560.11 ± 20.04g and 234.17 ±15.74 g under polyculture (Table IV). The Amur strainregistered 29.68 and 40.33 per cent faster growth over

TABLE IV

The overall growth performance of Amur and local strain of common carp undermono and polyculture

Initial mean weight (g) 2.39 ± 0.10 a 1.72 ± 3.80 b 2.13 ± 3.49 a 2.01 ± 5.84 a

Final mean weight (g) 260.80 ± 11.73 a 183.39 ± 13.85 b 560.11 ± 20.04 a 234.17 ± 15.74 b

Mean weight gain (g) 258.41 ± 11.63 a 181.67 ± 10.05 b 557.98 ± 16.55 a 234.16 ± 9.90 b

Survival (%) 74.47 ± 4.79 a 70.85 ± 0.30 a 73.69 ± 2.15 a 75.00 ± 0.30 a

Specific growth rate (% day-1) 2.26 2.25 2.69 2.30

Mean value with some superscript are not significantly different (p,0.05)

ParametersLocal

Polyculture

AmurLocal

Monoculture

Amur

local strain under mono and polyculture systems,respectively. The growth performances of both Amurand local strains under polyculture were higher thanthat of monoculture. The growth of Amur strain wasrelatively consistent across the culture systems andlocations.

Similar observations were made while evaluatingthe growth performances of six stocks of common carpof different origin, under mono and polyculture, forinitiating a breeding programme in Karnataka. Resultsindicate that Amur strain consistently showed bettergrowth over rest of the strains at an average of 27 percent faster growth over local strain (Basavaraju et al.,2004).

The specific growth rate (% day-1) of Amur andlocal strain was 2.26 and 2.25under monoculture and2.69 and 2.30 under polyculture, respectively. Thestudies on growth of European, Chinese and their crossbreeds, indicate that the specific growth rate(% day-1) was varied from 1.2 – 4.8 under controlledenvironmental conditions (Wohlfarth et al., 1983). Theoverall survival of Amur and local strains was 74.47and 70.85 per cent under monoculture, whereas, 74.47and 70.85 per cent under polyculture, respectively. Thegrowth of Amur and local strains both under monoand polyculture systems was significant, whereas, thesurvival was not significant (<0.05). It may beconcluded that Amur strain of Common carp hasgreater practical significance in low-input aquaculturesystems due to its better growth than the existing strain.

122 Y. BASAVARAJU AND A. NARASIMHA REDDY

REFERENCES

BASAVARAJU, Y., PENMAN, D. J., MAIR, G. C., 2003, Stockevaluation and development of a breeding programfor common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Karnataka,India: Progress of a research project. NAGAQuarterly 26, pp : 30-32.

BASAVARAJU, Y., PENMAN, D.Y. AND MAIR, G. C., 2004, Handbook on genetic improvement of carps: A guide totheoretical and practical aspects of geneticmanagement of carps in hatcheries. University ofAgricultural Sciences. Bangalore. India, pp : 28.

CHEVASSUS, B., 1982, Facteurs genetiques et sociuxinfluencant la croissance chez les poisons. Oceanis8, pp ;579-598.

HULATA, R., 1995, A review of genetic improvement of thecommon carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) and othercyprinids by cross breeding, hybridization andselection. Aquaculture 129, pp :143-155.

HULATA, G., MOAV, R. AND WOHLFARTH, G., 1980, Geneticdifferences between the Chinese and European racesof common carp III. Gonad abnormalities in hybrids.J. Fish. Biol. 16, pp : 369-370.

REDDY, P. V. G. K., GJERDE, B., TRIPATHI, S. D., JANA, R. K.,MAHAPATRA, K. D., GUPTA, S. D., SAHA, J. N.,SAHOO, M., LENKA, S., GOVINDASSAMY, P., RYE, M.AND GJEDREM, T. Growth and survival of six stocksof rohu (Labeo rohita, Hamilton) in mono andpolyculture production systems. Aquaculture20, pp : 239-250.

WOHLFARTH, G. W., MOAV, R. AND HULATA, G., 1983, Agenotype-environment interaction for growth rate inthe common carp, growing in intensively manuredponds. Aquaculture 33, pp : 187-195.

WOHLFARTH, G. W., 1984. Common carp In: J.L Mason(Editor). Evolution of domesticated animals,Longman, London–New York, pp : 375-380.

WOHLFARTH, G. W. AND MOAV, R., 1985, Communal testing,a method of testing the growth of different geneticgroups of common carp in earthern ponds.Aquaculture, 48 (2), pp : 143-157.

GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF AMUR STRAIN OF COMMON CARP IN SOUTHERN KARNATAKA 123

(Received : September, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Profile and Problems fo MGNREGA Beneficiaries :A Study in Dhalai District of Tripura State

JAYANTA ROY, K. NARAYANA GOWDA, M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN AND T. N. ANAND

Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The present study was carried in Ambassa block of Dhalai district in Tripura state during 2010-2011 toknow the profile and problems of MGNREGA beneficiaries. A total of 150 MGNREGA beneficiaries wereselected randomly from three villages (50 beneficiaries from each village) in Kulai gram panchayat of Ambassablock for the research study . Data were collected using a pre-tested interview schedule. The findings revealedthat majority of the beneficiaries belonged to middle aged, possessing small family and having low levels ofeducation, occupation, mass media participation, institutional linkage, deferred gratification and fatalism-scientism.Employment of hundred days per household per year is too less in the present situation (72 %) and lack ofmedical facilities near the work site (70 %) were the important problems encountered by MGNREGA beneficiaries.The major suggestions made by the MGNREGA beneficiaries to overcome the problems were : at least 150 daysof work needs to be provided under MGNREGA (100 %), provision of medical facilities near the work site(80 %) and increased wage rate (73 %).


The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act(NREGA) was notified on 7th September 2005. ThisAct covered 200 districts in the country during its firstphase of implementation during 2006-2007 and wasextended to additional 130 districts in 2007-2008. TheGovernment of India on 2nd October 2009 has renamedthe NREGA as Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). A total of615 districts in the country is covered underMGNREGA till 2010-2011. The basic objective of theAct is to enhance livelihood security in rural areas byproviding at least 100 days of guaranteed wageemployment in a financial year to every householdcreating rural assets for the sustainable developmentof an agricultural and natural resource-based economy.The ongoing programme of Sampoorna GrameenaRozgar Yojana (SGRY) and National Food for WorkProgramme are being integrated within the MahatmaGandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.Though the Government is spending crores of rupeesfor implementation of MGNREGA there are problemsfaced by the beneficiaries in availing the benefits fromthe programme. In this context, the present study iscarried out with the following specific objectives :

1. To know the personal and socio-psychologicalprofile of MGNREGA beneficiaries.

2. To enlist the problems and suggestions ofMGNREGA beneficiaries for effectiveimplementation of the programme.

METHODOLOGY

The present study was conducted in Dhalaidistrict of Tripura state during 2010-2011. Dhalaidistrict of Tripura state was purposively selected forthe study because MGNREGA programme wasimplemented first among the four districts (NorthTripura, South Tripura, West Tripura and Dhalai ) ofTripura state during 2006-2007. Among 34 Grampanchayats in Dhalai district, Kulai gram panchayatof Ambassa block was purposely selected for the study,since MGNREGA was first implemented in thedistrict. All the three villages viz., Netajinagar,Ramratanpara and Thankurpally of Kulai grampanchayat were selected for the research study whereMGNREGA programme was in operation since 2006-2007. A sample of 50 MGNREGA beneficiaries fromeach village was randomly selected for the study. Thus,

the total sample for the study constituted 150MGNREGA beneficiaries from three villages of Kulaigram panchayat in Ambassa Block of Dhalai district.Data were collected using a pre-tested interviewschedule. Ex-post facto research design was adoptedfor this study.

Information on 14 selected personal and socio-psychological characteristics of MGNREGAbeneficiaries (Table I) were collected using a suitablescales. Open end questions were asked to documentthe problems and suggestions of MGNREGAbeneficiaries.


I. Personal and Socio-psychological profile ofMGNREGA beneficiaries

The data in Table I depicts the personal and socio-psychological profile of MGNREGA beneficiaries.

1. Age : A close observation of Table I indicatesthat most of the respondents (46.0 %) were in middleaged, followed by young age group (29.3 %) and oldage group (24.6 %). Usually the respondents of middleage are enthusiastic and have more work efficiency

TABLE I

Personal and socio-psychological profile of MGNREGA beneficiaries

Personal andsocio-

psychologicalcharacteristics

Category Mean Standarddeviation

(n=150)

Age Young 44 29.3 34.87 6.17

Middle 69 46.0

Old 37 24.6

Education Low 63 42.0 1.94 1.31

Medium 39 26.0

High 48 32.0

Family size Small (< 5 members) 87 58.0 - -

Large (> 5 members) 63 42.0

Occupation Low 90 60.0 2.25 1.75

Medium 19 12.6

High 41 27.3

Livestock possession Low 41 27.3 1.22 0.94

Medium 45 30.0

High 64 42.6

Source of information Low 35 23.3 6.96 2.35

Medium 68 45.3

High 47 31.3

Mass media participation Low 64 42.6 4.85 1.57

Medium 30 20.0

High 56 37.3

MGNREGAbeneficiaries

Number Per cent

PROFILE AND PROBLEMS OF MGNREGA BENEFICIARIES : A STUDY IN DHALAI DISTRICT 125

Contd.

compared to the older and younger ones. Further,individuals of middle age group have more familyresponsibility than the younger one. This might be theimportant reason for majority of the respondentsbelonging to the middle age group. The results weresimilar to the findings of Bhakri (1985).

2. Education :Regarding educational level of thebeneficiaries, a larger number were falling under lowcategory (42.0 %) followed by medium (26.0 %) andhigh categories (32.0 %). The attributes contributingfor larger number of beneficiaries falling under loweducation category may be due to lack of schoolingfacilities, free time, and knowledge and financial

constraints. The results were similar to the findingsof Metti (1998).

3. Family size : Table I also revealed that 58.0per cent of the respondents had small family(5 members and below) and 42.0 per cent had largefamily (above 5 members). Due to the awareness ofbeneficiaries about family planning and small familynorms majority of them had small family. The resultswere in line with the results of Gayathridevi (2000).

4. Occupation : It could be observed fromTable I that majority of the respondents were belongingto low category (landless non-agricultural labourers)(60.0 %) followed by medium (12.6 %) and high

Personal andsocio-

psychologicalcharacteristics

Category Mean Standarddeviation

Social participation Low 35 23.3 4.47 1.37

Medium 75 50.0

High 40 26.6

Extension Low 59 39.3 7.41 1.98participation Medium 54 36.0

High 37 24.6

Cosmopoliteness Low 41 27.3 5.49 1.57

Medium 65 43.3

High 44 29.3

Institutional linkage Low 107 71.3 6.91 1.53

Medium 7 4.7

High 36 24.0

Achievement Low 40 26.6 15.93 2.32motivation Medium 63 42.0

High 47 31.3

Aspiration Low 56 37.3 12.33 2.37

Medium 36 24.0

High 58 38.6

Deferred Low 56 37.3 16.96 3.74gratification Medium 42 28.0

High 52 34.6

MGNREGAbeneficiaries

Number Per cent

126 JAYANTA ROY et al.

categories (27.3 %). MGNREGA programme isexclusively meant for unskilled below poverty linehouse holds, hence majority of landless agriculturallabourers are the beneficiaries of MGNREGAprogramme. This might be the reason for the abovetrend. The results of this research are similar to thefindings of Mehta and Joshi (1993).

5. Livestock possession: It is evident from tableI that majority of the respondents had high level oflivestock possession (42.6 %) followed by medium(30.0 %) and low (27.3 %). Increased income of thebeneficiaries due to participation in MGNREGAprogramme has resulted in purchasing more livestock,hence majority of the beneficiaries belonged tomedium levels of livestock possession. The findingswere similar to the findings of Kumaran (1997).

6. Source of information : Data presented inTable I revealed that majority of the beneficiaries hadmedium level of source of information (45.3 %)followed by high (31.3 %) and low (23.3 %)categories, respectively. It is indicated from thefindings that the information about MGNREGA iseasily available to the beneficiaries in time from otherbeneficiaries, neighbors, family members andMGNREGA staff. The results were similar to thefindings reported by Natarajan and Muthaiah (1995).

7. Mass media participation: Table I revealedthat 42.6 per cent of the respondents had low levelmass media participation followed by high (37.3 %)and medium (20.0 %) categories. The reason formajority of beneficiaries belonging to low level ofmass media participation is due to illiteracy, poorfinancial status and lack of free time to utilize themedia like newspaper, radio and television. Thefindings were in conformity with the findings of Metti(1998).

8. Social participation: The results regardingsocial participation revealed that half of therespondents had medium level of social participation(50.0 %), while 26.6 and 23.3 per cent of thebeneficiaries were found in high and low levels of

social participation, respectively. Most of therespondents were the members of village panchayatand local co-operative societies but due to lack offree time the beneficiaries were unable to attendmeetings. This is the main reason for nearly half ofthe beneficiaries belonging to medium level of socialparticipation (50 %). The findings of study weresupported by the findings of Patil (1994).

9. Extension participation : It is noticed fromTable I that a most number of the respondents(39.3 %) had low level of extension participationfollowed by medium (36.0 %) and high (24.6 %)levels, respectively. Most of the MGNREGAbeneficiaries were landless agricultural labours, non-agricultural labourers and few running petty business.The cultivable land possessed by the beneficiaries wasless fertile, without irrigation facilities and theproductivity was very low. It is quite obvious that thesebeneficiaries have less interest in extension activities(training programmes, demonstrations, krishi melaetc.,), hence more number of beneficiaries werebelonging to low level of extension participation. Inaddition, lack of knowledge about extension activitiesand free time to participate in the extensionprogrammes have also contributed to the above trend.The findings were similar to Metti (1998).

10. Cosmopoliteness: Table I revealed thatmajority of the beneficiaries had medium level ofcosmopoliteness (43.3 %) followed by high (29.3 %)and low categories (27.3 %). The reason for majorityof the beneficiaries belonging to medium to high levelsof cosmopoliteness (72.6 %) might due to frequentvisit of beneficiaries to the nearby town or places forpurchasing essential commodities (medicines, clothsand entertainment) and for drawing the weekly wagesfrom bank or post office. Similar results were observedby Natarajan and Muthaiah (1995).

11. Institutional linkage: It could be observedthat a great majority of the respondents had low levelof institutional linkage (71.3 %), while 24.0 per centhad high level and 4.7 per cent had medium level ofinstitutional linkage. Apart from visits to bank or post


office for drawing wages, the beneficiaries did notvisited any other institutions like Departments ofAgriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Fishery, Livestockand Block office. Hence majority of the beneficiaries(71.3 %) were belonging to low category ofinstitutional linkage. Similar results were observed byDolli (2006).

12. Achievement motivation: The resultsindicated 42.0 per cent of respondents had mediumlevel of achievement motivation, whereas 31.3 and26.6 per cent had high and low levels of achievementmotivation, respectively. It can be inferred that amajority of the beneficiaries were falling undermedium to high levels of achievement motivation(73.3 %). It is assumed that achievement motivationforces the individual towards reaching some goals,which he / she has set for himself / herself. Thebeneficiaries with medium / higher levels ofachievement motivation has participated inMGNREGA programme to earn more income andadditional employment so as to lead a better living.Similar results were observed by Arun Kumar (2005).

13. Aspiration: It could be observed fromTable I that, majority of the respondents had highaspiration level (38.6 %) followed by low (37.3 %)

and medium (24.0 %) levels, respectively. Due tounemployment and underemployment in rural areasthe beneficiaries have aspired to participate inMGNREGA programme for leading a comfortable andbetter living, hence majority of beneficiaries werefound in medium / high levels of aspiration (62.6 %).Similar findings were reported by Shivalingegowda(1996).

14. Deferred gratification: It is evident thatmajority of the respondents had low level of deferredgratification (37.3 %) followed by medium (28.0 %)and high (34.6 %) levels, respectively. The reason forlarger number of beneficiaries belonging to low levelof deferred gratification could be attributed to lowlevel of education and socio-economic status of thebeneficiaries. Due to poor education and low socio-economic status, the beneficiaries are unable to foreseethe future problems and save money as savings.Similar findings were observed by Shivalingegowda(1996).

II. Problems encountered by MGNREGAbeneficiaries

The problems encountered MGNREGAbeneficiaries are presented in Table II. A majority ofMGNREGA beneficiaries perceived that the

TABLE II

Problems encountered by MGNREGA beneficiaries

Problems

Employment of hundred days (per household per year ) 108 72.0 Iis too less in the present situationLack of medical facilities near the work site 105 70.0 IIDelay in payment of wages 103 68.6 IIIContinuous work not provided 100 66.6 IVSame wage rate is given for all kinds of work 97 64.6 VDelay in issue of job card 94 62.6 VISame wage rate is given for both men and women 93 62.0 VIILow wage rate 92 61.3 VIIIOne hundred days of employment not provided by authorities 83 55.3 IXPerson is not engaged at work site to look after children 69 46.0 X

* Multiple responses are possible

(n=150)

Beneficiaries

No. Per centRank


employment of hundred days (per household per year)is too less in the present situation (72.0 %), lack ofmedical facilities near the work site (70.0 %), delayin payment of wages (68.6 %), continuous work notprovided (66.6 %), same wage rate is given for allkinds of work (64.6 %), delay in issue of job card(62.6 %), same wage rate is given for both men andwomen (62.0 %), low wage rate (61.3 %) and onehundred days of employment not provided byauthorities (55.3 %) as problems faced by them. While,a little less than half of the MGNREGA beneficiariesperceived (46.0) a person is not engaged at work siteto look after their children as the problem.

As per the MGNREGA guidelines given byMinistry of Rural Development, Government of India,a minimum of 100 days employment should beprovided to the household and medical facilities forthe beneficiaries should be arranged near the work site,the reason may be unavailability of required facilitiesnearby primary health center. Further, delay in paymentof wages, the possible reason may be due to delay insanction of estimated amount against the work fromthe higher authority. Continuous work not providedand one hundred days employment not provided by

TABLE III

Suggestions to overcome problems as perceived by MGNREGA beneficiaries

Suggestions

At least 150 days of work needs to be provided under MGNREGA 150 100.00 IProvision of medical facilities near the work site 120 80.0 IIIncreased wage rate 110 73.3 IIITimely payment of full wages 103 68.6 IVProvision of continuous work 100 66.6 VDifferent wages needs to be given for different kinds of work 97 64.6 VITimely issuing of job cards 94 62.6 VIIMore wage rate should be given to men compared to women 93 62.0 VIIIEngagement of person to look after children at work site 79 52.6 IXJob may be given to neighbouring villagers also 65 43.3 X

* Multiple responses are possible

(n=150)

Beneficiaries

No. Per centRank

authorities may be due to the lack of required fund.Moreover, same wage for all kinds of works and samewage rate for both men and women, this is because ofschematic guidelines of MGNREGA programme. Dueto lack of sufficient staff there might be delay in issueof job cards which should be issued within 15 days ofsubmission of application form by the beneficiaries.Person is not engaged at work site to look afterchildren, the possible reason may be due to lack ofawareness of the implementing authority.

Most of the problems are similar with the findingsof Harish (2010) and Vanitha (2010).

III. Suggestions to overcome problems asperceived by MGNREGA beneficiaries

The suggestions made by the MGNREGAbeneficiaries to overcome their problems are furnishedin Table III. The data revealed that cent per cent ofthe beneficiaries were of the opinion that at least 150days of work needs to be provided under MGNREGA(100.0 %), followed by provision of medical facilitiesnear the work site (80.0 %), increased wage rate(73.3 %), timely payment of full wages (68.6 %),


provision of continuous work (66.6 %), differentwages needs to be provided for different kinds of work(64.6 %), timely issuing job card (62.6 %), more wagerate should be given to men compared to women (62.0%), engaging persons to look after children at worksite (52.6 %), and job may be given to neighboringvillagers also (43.3 %.).

The suggestions provided by MGNREGAbeneficiaries may be suitably considered by theauthority in making necessary arrangements foreffective implementation of the MGNREGAprogramme.

REFERENCES

ARUNKUMAR, B., 2005, A critical analysis of Swashaktiprogramme in Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis(Unpub.), Univ. Agri.Sci., Dharwad.

BHAKRI, V., 1985, Impact of recommended drylandagricultural technology in attitude, knowledge andadoption of farmers in Jammu district. M.Sc. (Agri.)Thesis (Unpub.),Andhra Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity, Hyderabad.

DOLLI, S. S., 2006, Sustainability of natural resourcemanagement in watershed development project.Ph.D.(Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.),Univ. Agri. Sci.,Dharwad.

GAYATHRIDEVI, S. P., 2000, Impact of selected ruraldevelopment programmes on Self employment of

rural women, M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ.Agril. Sci., Dharwad.

HARISH, B. G., 2010, An economic impact analysis ofMGNREGA in Chikmagalur District of Karnataka,M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agril. Sci.,Bangalore.

KUMARAN, K. P., 1997, Self help groups - An alternativeto institutional credit to the poor - A case study inAndhra Pradesh. J. Rural Dev., 16(3): 515-530.

MEHTA, B. C. AND JOSHI PRITAM,1993, Impact of IRDP onincome of tribal beneficiaries, J. Rural Dev.,12(2): 145-164.

METTI, S. K., 1998, Technology reach, perception,knowledge, adoption and attitude towards improvedagricultural technologies by small and marginalfamers in TBP area. Ph.D. (Agri.) Thesis(Unpub.), Univ. Agri. Sci., Dharwad.

NATARAJAN, K. AND MUTHAIAH, M.,1995, Attitude of farmerstowards social forestry programme. J.Extn.Educ.,6(1):1089-1090

PATIL, S. L., 1994, National agricultural extension projectas perceived by farmers and extension personnel ofDepartment of Agriculture, Karnataka. Ph.D. (Agri.)Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agril. Sci., Dharwad.

SHIVALINGEGOWDA, N. S., 1996, An analysis of povertyalleviation programmes in Bangalore- Rural districtof Karnataka. Ph.D. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ.Agril. Sci., Bangalore.

VANITHA, S. M., 2010, An economic analysis of MGNREGAprogramme in Mysore district of Karnataka, M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agri. Sci., Bangalore.


(Received : February, 2012 Accepted : October, 2012)

Factors Affecting Agro-biodversity (Landraces)

G. SWATHI, R. VASANTHA AND S. KIRAN

Department of Agricultural Extension, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh to identify the factors responsiblefor the loss or gain of Agro-biodiversity in selected crops. Data were collected from a randomly selected 120tribal farmers of Arakuvalley, Ananatagiri and Dumbriguda mandals of Visakhapatnam district by personal interviewmethod using pre-tested interview schedule. The results indicated that majority of the tribal farmers perceivedintroduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs), modern varieties or introduced crops and hybrids in place oflocal land races for commercial cultivation are the major causes for the loss of Agro-biodiversity. Whereas,majority of the tribal farmers perceived cultivation of vegetables for commercial purpose to make more money,as the major factor for the promotion of Agro-biodiversity.


DESPITE leading a shadowy existence in the publicbio-diversity debate, the issue of the loss of Agro-bio-diversity is hotly debated in expert circles. Agro-bio-diversity is that part of biodiversity that contributesin the context of agriculture to nutrition, livelihoodsand the maintenance of habitats. Plant genetic diversityis being eroded worldwide at a faster rate thanresearchers had predicted. Many locally adapted cropcultivars are becoming extinct, or are losing the distinctidentity to which they had evolved in a particulargeographical situation. Agro-biodiversity is highlythreatened mostly by the spread of modern agricultureand the globalisation of food markets. Monoculture,using external inputs to maximise agriculturalproduction has become the order of the day. Theresultant genetic uniformity invites disaster by makingthe crop vulnerable to pest and disease attacks.

The worlds single most important food crop faceda threat of extinction during 1970s due to devastationof rice fields from India to Indonesia by grassy-stuntvirus, which has subsequently compelled for a fouryear search to screen 17,000 paddy varieties, out ofwhich one has ultimately saved the human population.Today this resistant gene is incorporated into ricehybrids grown across 1,10,000 km2 of Asian rice fields.Alex et al., (2007) reported that due to introduction ofhigh yielding varieties and hybrids of green revolution,traditional rice varieties dwindled to about five percent of total paddy acreage. Not alone the varieties,but also accompanied knowledge about farming, food

preservation / preparation of these varieties had beenlost. India’s rich agro-biodiversity is rapidlydisappearing from farmers’ fields over time and spacedue to induced human pressures and other climaticfactors. With this disappearance of agro-biodiversity,global community recognized the importance of onfarm conservation (Regmi et al. 2008). Agro-biodiversity is the backbone for the sustainabledevelopment of agriculture, food security and povertyalleviation. There is an urgent need to bring desirablechanges in agricultural policy, research anddevelopment. In view of the above aspects, the presentstudy was conducted to identify the factors responsiblefor the loss and gain of agro-biodiversity and strategyfor the promotion of agro-biodiversity.

METHODOLOGY

The present study was conducted in selectedvillages of Arakuvalley, Ananatagiri and Dumbrigudamandals of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh.Visakhapatnam district was purposively selected sinceit is noted as a hub of biodiversity. It has highestnumber of tribes and stands third in tribal populationin the state. As the tribes live very close to nature, it ispresumed that more is the tribal population higher isthe Agro-biodiversity. Hence, Visakhapatnam district,a hub of biodiversity having highest number of tribesis selected for study. This situation helped in improvingchances of obtaining more information on

Agro-biodiversity. Four villages from each mandalwere selected randomly to make a sample of 12villages for the study. From each village ten farmerswere selected randomly. Thus, 120 tribal farmersconstitute the sample for the study. Agro-biodiversityin terms of landraces in five categories such as cereals(paddy), millets (ragi, sama, jowar and korra), pulses(red gram, horsegram, blackgram, greengram, frenchbean, broadbean, Rice bean and cowpea), oilseeds(niger and ground nut) and vegetables (chilli, brinjal,tomato, ginger, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, ridge gourd,colocasia, radish, cabbage and spinach) were selectedfor the study (Table A).

(NBPGR), Integrated Tribal Development Agency(ITDA), NGO (WASSAN and VIKASA), Departmentof Agriculture and Biodiversity board were made.

The schedule was prepared in local languageand pre-tested with respondents other than the sampledrespondents. Pre-tested helped us in refining, addingand deleting certain very difficult, very easy,ambiguous and vague questions. Questions in theschedule were thus fine tuned and administered to therespondents. Literate respondents were asked to fillup the answers, whereas, for illiterate respondents,questions were read out in local accent and responseswere recorded. The results were expressed in the formof frequencies and percentages.


Factors responsible for the loss inAgrobiodiversity as perceived by the tribal farmers:It can be observed from the Table I that majority ofrespondents (95 %) ranked introduction of HYV’s andhybrids as a major factor in replacing landraces as first.The study results indicated that landraces of paddysuch as Palla batalu, Payaka dhanyam and Kaliachiptidan were replaced by HYV’s and hybrids inpaddy and vegetables. The tribes are now-a-days moreoriented towards such varieties and crops that produceshigher net returns. Hence, this kind of attitude is posinga serious threat to landraces of various crops. Thefinding is in line with the findings of Maikhuri et al.(1997), Nautiyal et al. (2000) and Ishikawal et al.(2006).

Lack of processing facilities for millets is anotherserious problem for the loss in Agro-biodiversity asperceived by 91.67 per cent of the respondents. Theproblem of processing is more prevalent in millets suchas sama and korra. As the grain size of these millets issmall, tribals are facing difficulties in indigenousprocessing, hence, tribals are not preferring millets infood consumption as a results area under these milletsalso got reduced. Ragi being a millet without seed coat,is directly powdered in locally available mills. Hence,significant reduction in cultivation area is not observedin case of ragi.

The study clearly revealed that 90 per cent offarmers reported that lack of proper storage facilities

TABLE A

Local, scientific name and english names forthe lanraces identified in the study

Local /vernacular

name

Vari Oryza sativa PaddyChodlu / Ragulu Eleusina coracona Finger milletSama Panicum miliaceum Proso millet

Jonna Sorghum bicolor Jowar/sorghum

Korra Setaria italica Fox tail millet

Ulavulu Macrotyloma Horsegramuniflorum.

Kandulu Cajanus cajan Redgram

Dilli Vicia faba Broad bean

Cutting Vigna umbellata Rice bean

Bobbarlu Vigna unguiculata Cow Pea

Rajmah Phaseolus vulgaris French bean

Minumulu Vigna mungo Black gram

Pesalu Vigna radiata Green gram

Valisalu Guizotia abyssinica Niger

Scientificname

English name

132 G. SWATHI et al.

An extensive review of literature was done forformulation of the objective of the study anddevelopment of schedule. As studies pertaining to thesubject under research are few as this is a new area,exhaustive discussions with concerned personnel ofNational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

TABLE I

Factors responsible for the loss in Agro-biodiversity as perceived by the tribal farmers

Factors contributing towards the loss in Agro-biodiversity asperceived by tribal farmers

Introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs), modern varieties, 114 95.00 Ior introduced crops and hybrids in place of local landraces forcommercial cultivation.

Changes in food habits 103 85.83 V

Changes in Socio-economic factors 92 76.67 XI

Lack of processing facilities for millets 110 91.67 II

Supply of HYV seeds and other inputs at subsidizedcost by the government 98 81.67 IX

Migration of farmers to plain areas for employment andreduced interest in traditional agriculture 96 80.00 X

Changing attitudes from coarse to fine grains 100 83.33 VII

Long crop duration 99 82.50 VIII

Natural problems of cyclones, floods and drought causing varietal loss 105 87.50 IV

Landraces gives low yields than high yielding varieties 102 85.00 VI

Poor grain quality (loss of aroma and taste) than hybrids andhigh yielding varieties 87 72.50 XIV

Lack of proper storage facilities leading to loss of land races 108 90.00 III

Population growth and land fragmentation 89 74.17 XIII

Lack of traditional knowledge and awareness as in case ofRotton cidi and bayagunda in paddy, chepa dera in ragi 90 75.00 XII

(n=120)

Frequency Per cent Rank

lead to loss of many landraces. Landraces such asKanta kuli, Tettem danu and Rotton cidi in rice, Peddakandulu in red gram were lost due to problems instorage as perceived by respondents. The result is inaccordance with the results of Reddy et al. (2007).

Natural problems such as cyclones, floods anddrought lead to loss of landraces such as Tettem danuin rice, Luddamama sama in sama and Jurilu in greengram. This factor is perceived by 87.50 per cent ofrespondents. This is in line with the findings of Sunilet al. (2008).

Most of the tribal farmers now-a-days are cominginto contact with towns / cities frequently either forchildren education or health care. In due course theyhave learnt usual food habits of town dwellers such as

consumption of rice and felt prestige in consumingwhite rice instead of coarse grains such as millets (foreg: Jowar) this was expressed by 85.83 per cent ofrespondents. The result is in accordance with theresults of Kothari (1999) and Sunil et al. (2008).

85 Per cent of respondents perceived the factorthat as some of the landraces are low yielders forexample, Palla batalu in rice, maisama in sama, thoughthey have other good characters such as resistance topests and diseases were replaced by high yieldingvarieties attributing for the loss in Agro-biodiversity.Hence, necessary research should be done forscreening of good characters from eroding landracesbefore they are totally lost. This is in line with thefindings of Singh et al. (2006).

FACTORS AFFECTING AGRO-BIODIVERSITY (LANDRACES) 133

Long crop duration for example in case of Bodumundiya in ragi and pedda kandulu in red gram isanother factor that is perceived by 82.50 per cent ofrespondents causing loss of agro-biodiversity. This isin line with the findings of Thurston et al. (1999).

Supply of subsidized HYV’s and hybrids forcultivation and for consumption through publicdistribution system is another factor perceived by81.67 per cent of respondents that contributedsignificantly in increased rice area at the cost of areaunder millets. Similar findings were also reported byKothari (1999).

Farmers migration to plain areas, changes insocio-economic factors and increase in population andland fragmentation were other major factors expressedby 80, 76.67 and 74.17 per cent of respondents,respectively as factors that contributed for loss ofAgro-bio-diversity. This is in line with the findings ofKothari (1999) and Sunil et al. (2008).

Loss of awareness and knowledge in case ofRotton cidi and bayagunda in rice and chepadera in

ragi was perceived as major factor by 75 per cent ofrespondents contributing for loss of agro-biodiversityin these crops. Similar findings were also reported bySunil et al. (2008).

Factors responsible for the gain in agro-biodiversity as perceived by the tribal farmers: It canbe observed from the Table II that agro-biodiversityin certain crops (landraces) viz., rice, ragi, red gram,green gram, black gram, niger and vegetables hasincreased. The following factors were perceived ascause for gain in agro-biodiversity.

95.83 per cent of respondents perceived that therewas gain agro-biodiversity as they are cultivating thelandraces for commercial purposes to make moremoney. Good characters of landraces i.e., high yieldsand pest resistance were perceived as factorsresponsible for gain in agro-biodiversity by 91.67 and81.67 per cent, respectively. In case of Ballu dhanyamand yerra gosalu in rice, Korra sama in sama, Peridera in ragi, Bodde kandi in Redgram, Telu in niger,Bodi murich in chilli character of high yields led toincreased area and in landraces such as Vari dhanyam

TABLE IIFactors responsible for the gain in agro-biodiversity as perceived by the tribal farmers

Factors contributing towards the loss in agro-biodiversity asperceived by tribal farmers

Increased population leading to increased area under cultivation 97 80.83 IVCultivation for commercial purpose to make more money 115 95.83 ILandraces gives high yields without any fertilizers application 95 79.17 VHigh yields 110 91.67 IIPest resistant 98 81.67 IIINo germination on standing water 85 70.83 XIICan withstand heavy rains 88 73.33 XShort duration 92 76.67 VIISuitable for mixed cropping 91 75.83 VIIIHighly relished as ambali prepartion 84 70.00 XIIIComes up well in low moisture conditions 87 72.50 XIExcellent cooking quality and good taste 90 75.00 IXExclusively used in certain traditional foods 82 68.33 XIVLandraces have more aroma than hybrids and IIYU 94 78.33 VI

(n=120)

Frequency Per cent Rank


and Soppiri dhanyam in rice, Bodde kandi in red gram,Bostor pikkalu in broad bean, Telu in niger, Bodimurich in chilli and black brinjal in brinjal pestresistance was perceived as reason for increase in areaunder these landraces. This is in line with the findingsof Chun-Lin et al. (2003).

Increased population led to increased area underlandraces is expressed as one of the important factorsfor gain in agro-biodiversity by 80.83 per cent ofrespondents.

In addition, other plant characters such as shortduration nature (Budadera in ragi, vari dhanyam inrice, Korra sama in sama and Siri Kandi in red gram),suitable for mixed cropping (Budama dhanyam in rice,Peri sama in sama), excellent cooking quality and goodtaste (Pedda sama in sama, Isuku ravallu in rice, Peddasompku in colocasia), landraces can withstand heavyrains (Peri dera in ragi), comes up well in low moistureconditions (Mettu danam in ragi), no in-situgermination (Soppiri dhanyam and Pottu dhanyam inrice), highly relished as ambali preparation (San

mundiya in ragi, Peri sama in sama) and finallyexclusively used in certain traditional foods (Judumkandulu in red gram) expressed as factors responsiblefor gain in agro-biodiversity by 76.67, 75.83, 75,73.33,72.5, 70.83 and 70, 68.33 per cent of respondents,respectively.

Area lost under different landraces due todifferent factors : From the Table III, it is observedthat drought has resulted in loss of 97.34 per cent ofarea under pallbatalu and 95 per cent area underluddamamasama. Whereas, due to poor storageconditions morethan 90 per cent of area 8 landraceswere lost in more than 90 per cent of area underRottoncidi was lost. Due to changes in food habits 50per cent area under Budidera (wet paddy) and 16.67per cent of area under Koradera (Ragi) was lost. Thefactors drought and changes in food habitssimultaneously caused for 95 per cent loss of areaunder Tettem danu (wet paddy). Due to introductionof HYV’s, Pallabatalu, Payaka Dhanyam, Kaliachiptidan landraces (dry paddy) and Rotton cidi (wetpaddy) variety were lost in 80 per cent of area.

TABLE III

Per cent of area lost under different landraces due to different factors

Dry Paddy Pallabatalu Drought 97.34

Sama Maisama 60.00

Luddamamasama 95.00

Wet paddy Kantakuli Poor storage conditions 95.00

Rottoncidi 96.00

Wet paddy Budidera Changes in food habits 50.00

Wet Paddy Tettem danu Drought +poor storage conditions 95.00

Ragi Kora dera Change in attitude from coarse to fine grains 16.67

Dry paddy Pallabatalu Introduction of high yielding varieties 97.34

Payaka dhanyam 92.00

Kalia chiptidan 83.33

Wet paddy Rotton cidi 96.00

Name of landrace at threat per centof area

Factor responsible for loss oflandraces

Name of thecrop


On the whole, 3 landraces were lost in more than50 per cent of area and one landrace in Ragi was lostin due to change in attitude from coarse grains to finegrains and the other landraces have been at the threatof extinction due to various factors such as drought,improper storage conditions and introduction of highyielding varieties etc. This shows that a majority oflandraces have been at the threat of extinction andimmediate strategies have to be taken up to conservethese landraces which promote in sustainableagriculture.

Area increased under different landraces due todifferent factors : From the Table IV it is observedthat more than 100 per cent area increase was noticedin paddy landraces i.e. Ballu dhanyam, Sonaceri,Soppiri dhanyam and Vari dhanyam and ragi landracessuch as Garuvu chodlu, Aestibejalu (tomato landrace)and Vakaimu (brinjal) due to their high yieldingcharacter. The area under Boddekandi (Redgram),

Bodimurich (Chilli) increased by more than 100 percent due to their high yielding nature coupled withpest and disease resistance.

On the whole, six landraces have been increasedin their area from 10 to 100 per cent, five landraceshave been increased in their area from 100 to 200 percent and three landraces have been increased in morethan 200 per cent in their area. All these landracespossess good characteristics and the germplasm ofthese landraces should be conserved and they can beincorporated into new varieties so that we can improveour production.

It is concluded from the study findings thatintroduction of HYV’s is the causal factor for the lossof agro-biodiversity and cultivation of vegetables forcommercial purpose is the major factor for the gain inagro-biodiversity as perceived byrespondents.References

TABLE IV

Per cent of area increased under different landraces due to different factors

Dry Paddy Ballu dhanyam 109.00

Wet paddy Yerra gosalu 31.60

Bayagunda 20.00

Sonaceri High yields 300.00

Ragi Peri dera 50.00

Garuvu chodlu 140.00

Tomato Aestibejalu 300.00

Brinjal Vakaimu 159.25

Wet paddy Soppiri dhanyam High yields + 212.50Red gram Bodde kandi Resistant to pests and diseases 21.42

Niger Telu

Chilli Bodi murich 113.33

Sama Korra sama Resistant to pests 50.00and diseases

Name of landrace Per cent ofarea

Factor responsible forloss of landraces

Name of thecrop


CHUN-LIN, L., HENG LI., OUYANG, Z., XIANGYUN, Y., QIN

LI. AND TRANGMAR, B., 2003, Strategies for Agro-biodiversity conservation and promotion: a case fromYunnan, China. Biodiversity and Conservation.,12: 1145-1156.

ALEX, T., SAMANTHA, G. AND JULIA, W., 2007, Increasing theavailability of traditional seeds in Srilanka. LeisaIndia newsletter., 9 : 8-9.

ISHIKAWAL, R., YAMANAKA, S., FUKUTA, Y., CHITRAKON, S.,BOUNPHANOUSAY, C., KANYAVONG, K., TANG, L.H.,NAKAMURA, I., SATO, T. AND SATO, Y. I., 2006, Geneticerosion from modern varieties into traditional uplandrice cultivars (Oryza sativa L.) in Northern Thailand.Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution., 53: 245-252.

KOTHARI, A., 1999, Agro-biodiversity: The future of India’sAgriculture. Maharashtra Council of AgriculturalEducation and research (MCAER).

MAIKHURI, R. K., SEMWAL, R. L., RAO, K. S., NAUTIYAL, SAND SAXENA, K. G., 1997, Eroding Traditional CropDiversity Imperils the Sustainability of AgriculturalSystems in Central Himalaya. Curr. Sci., 73:777-782.

NAUTIYAL, S., RAO, K. S., MAIKHURI, R. K. AND NEGI, K. S.,2000, Apne hi ghar main kho gai Mukhmar.Environmental Bulletin., 8: 83-84.

REDDY, R., TONAPI, A. V., BEZKOROWAJNYJ, P. G., REDDY, T.G. AND WANI, S. P., 2007, Village Based Seed Banks

in Andhra Pradesh- a Case Study. MANAGE ExtensionReview., 8: 1-18.

REGMI, B. R., STHAPIT, B. R., UPADHYAY, M. P. AND SHRESTHA,P., 2008, Mainstreaming good practices of on farmconservation in context of Western Terai LandscapeComplex Project (WTLCP). In: B. R. Sthapit, D.Gauchan, A. Subedi and D. Jarvis (eds.) On-farmmanagement of agricultural biodiversity in Nepal:lessons learned, Proceeding of the nationalsymposium 18-19 July 2006, Kathmandu, Nepal.211-217.

SINGH, U. S., NEELAM, S., ZAIDI, N. W., SINGH, H. N., MANI,S. C. AND SINGH, R. K., 2006, Characterization andutilization of the ancient scented rice cultivar,Kalanamak. In Participatory Plant Breeding andKnowledge Management for Strengthening RuralLivelihoods. Papers Presented in an InternationalSymposium held at M. S. Swaminathan ResearchFoundation Chennai. Arunachalam, V.

SUNIL, N., VIMLA, B., RAO, K. S. AND MAIKHURI, R. K., 2008,J. Human Ecology., 23: 1-6.

THURSTON, H. D., SALICK, J., SMITH, M. E., TIRUTMANN, P.,PHAM, J. L. AND MCDOWELL, R., 1999, TraditionalManagement of Agro-biodiversity. In: S. Kannaiyan.Agro-biodiversity Hot Spots Access and benefitsharing. Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. NewDelhi. pp. 211-244.


(Received : July, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

Utilization of Benefits from Government Programmes or Schemes by Farmers inAndhra Pradesh – An Institutional Economic Analysis

KOLLA SRAVANTHI AND M. G. CHANDRAKANTH

Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

This study is mainly focused on estimating annual benefits received by farmers from Governmentprogrammes. A sample of 35 farmers each having access to canal irrigation (CIA), ground water irrigation (GIA)and rainfed (RFA) from Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh had chosen for analysis. On an average CIA, GIA andRFA farmers receive an annual benefits of Rs. 8732, Rs. 7518 and Rs. 11202, respectively from Governmentprogrammes. Proportion of benefits from programmes to total net returns from all sources per family per year isthree per cent for CIA, four per cent for GIA and 16 per cent for RFA farmers. Out of 39 programmes listed byGovernment departments, on an average around 5 to 6 programmes were utilized by the farmer. The gap in netreturns from all sources between irrigated and rainfed farmers was more, hence it is crucial to involve and exploredifferent programmes for rainfed farmers. To enhance the reach of benefit it is necessary for the Governmentdepartments to bring out a guide book in Telugu highlighting all the Government programmes.


ANDHRA PRADESH has been a front runner inimplementing several types of innovative Governmentprogrammes from Participatory IrrigationManagement (PIM) in surface irrigation to‘Abhayahastham’ (for SHG groups) and ‘Rajiv ArogyaShree’ (free health insurance programme for all BPLfamilies). While the state has been actively anddynamically implementing many such programmes,it is crucial to note how many programmes are devised,formulated and planned; as well as how manyprogrammes are actually in vogue (Gaiha, 2000). Thisstudy focuses on the benefits received fromGovernment programmes by farmers in Krishnadistrict of Andhra Pradesh along with the transactioncost spent by them.

The Government programmes focusing forwomen development are; 1. SHG loan subsidiesthrough DWACRA groups, 2.Widow pension, 3.Deepam (free one time LPG cylinder and gasconnection for women in BPL families), 4. KishoriShakti Yojana (nutritious food for adolescent girls),5. Santhwana, 6. Swadhar, 7. Janani Suraksha Yojana,8. Abhaya Hastham (insurance scheme for women inDWACRA groups) and 9. Indira Jeevitha BimaPadhakam.

Efforts were made to list the differentGovernment programmes of Andhra Pradesh aimed

towards benefiting people at micro level (i.e.,individual rather than group or macro benefit), usingthe printed and electronic media including internet.In all 39 Government programmes were listedcommencing from Ration card for BPL families on toIndiramma Housing Scheme, on to ‘Abhayahastha’(interest subsidy for SHG groups) etc. Out of 39programmes which were found from different sourcesin Andhra Pradesh, only 19 were found to be actuallyin vogue (50 %). This shows the first inefficiency inthe governance.

The policy makers in their ambition to evolvenew programmes do suggest / plan in their budgetallocation for innovative programmes. Oneinnovative programme from Tamil Nadu whichwas proposed by the then Chief MinisterSri K. Kamaraj in 1960s was the Mid DayMeal Scheme that has been adopted by the moststates in India. The overall per capita income of anIndian is estimated to at Rs. 53331 during the year2012. However the per capita income of an averagefarmer estimated at Rs.17600 which is at the most 1/3of Indian per capita income. The study is mainlyfocused to find out the share of the benefits fromGovernment programmes in the per capita income offarmers (Patil, 2005). Specific objectives are as

follows;

1. To estimate the utilization of benefits fromGovernment programmes and to estimate the extentof reach of Government programmes for women.

2. To analyse the efficiency in the distributionof benefits.

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study is to compare thedistribution of benefits from Government programmesamong canal irrigated area (CIA), groundwaterirrigated area (GIA) and rainfed area (RFA) farmersof Krishna district. In Krishna district, 35 farmerspossessing canal irrigation (CIA) (from NagarjunaSagar Left Bank Canal), 35 farmers possessinggroundwater irrigation through bore well (GIA) and35 farmers totally dependent on rainfall (RFA) havebeen randomly selected from Gopinenipalem villageof Vatsavai mandal, Anigandlapadu village ofPenuganchiprolu mandal and Ramachandrunipetavillage of Jaggaihpeta mandal, respectively.

The Gopinenipalem village is situated at thelatitude of 160 52’ degrees north and longitude of 800

10’ degrees east and agriculture is the main source oflivelihood in this village. The village has relativelygood access to canal irrigation from Nagarjuna sagarleft bank canal enabling farmers to cultivate maize,chilli, cotton and paddy. Anigandlapadu village issituated at the latitude of 160 53’ degrees north andlongitude of 800 17’ degrees east. Major source ofirrigation is groundwater extracted from bore wells.Ramachandrunipeta village situated at the latitude of160 56’ degrees north and longitude of 800 05’ degreeseast. Livelihood in this village is mainly from off farmemployment. Major crops grown are redgram, cotton,chilli.

Measures of central tendency are employed toquantify the magnitude of benefit from Governmentprogrammes or schemes (Channaveer, 2011).Percentages are used to find out the share of eachprogramme or benefit to the total. Some of theGovernment programmes like Indiramma Housing

Scheme, Pasukranthi Padhakam, Crop Loss ReliefFund, Subsidy for farm machinery extends benefitsover time. Thus the benefits for such beneficiaries areamortized.

The efficiency in the utilization of benefit fromthe Government programmes was calculated as theratio of net returns from all sources (in Rs.) per farmfamily to the total benefits received from Governmentprogrammes (in Rs.) per farm family. Net returns perfamily from all the sources include, net return per farmfamily in agriculture, net return per farm from livestockand net return per farm from non farm income. Incomesfrom different sources in all the three regions werecompared.

RESULTS AND DDISCUSSION

Farmers participation in Governmentprogrammes in the study area : Cent per cent of thesample farmers in CIA received white ration cardsobtain Rs.3621 worth of food security ration per year;80 per cent of the farmers received subsidized interestloan of Rs.1418 under SHG; Panchayath Water Supply(100 %, Rs.180); Crop Loss Relief Fund (97 %, Rs.7657); and so on. Among high value and lowparticipation lies in Indiramma Housing Scheme fromwhich 11 per cent of the farmers received an amortizedbenefit of Rs.3340 per family, followed by PasukranthiScheme benefiting nine per cent of the farm familiesderiving an amortized benefit of Rs.1759 per year. Thepopularity of the Government programmes can beexamined by considering the proportion of farmerbeneficiary in column 3 (Table I). Accordingly, themost popular Government programmes in CIA arewhite ration card (BPL card) providing Rs. 3621 perfamily for 100 per cent of farmers providing foodsecurity ration followed by Crop Loss Relief Fund(amortized benefit of Rs. 852, 97 %); subsidy oninterest of SHG loans (Rs. 1418, 80 %); Taiwansprayer subsidy (Rs. 723, 54 %). The type of benefitflow is also provided in the column 5 (Table I).

Benefits to farmers from Governmentprogrammes in GIA is indicated in Table II. About 97per cent of the sample farmers in GIA received whiteration cards obtain Rs. 2962 worth of food security

UTILIZATION OF BENEFITS FROM GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES OR SCHEMES BY FARMERS IN AP 139

TAB

LE I

Bene

fit to

farm

ers f

rom

Gov

enm

ent p

rogr

amm

es in

CIA

are

a of

Kri

shna

Dis

tric

t, 20

11

Prog

ram

mes

focu

sing

on

Whi

te ra

tion

card

(BPL

car

d)35

(100

)36

21m

onth

ly—

prov

idin

g fo

od a

nd n

utrit

iona

l sec

urity

Wag

e Em

ploy

men

tM

GN

REG

A5(

14)

no w

ork

allo

cate

don

ce a

yea

r—

Soci

al se

curit

yO

ld A

ge P

ensi

on13

(37)

2400

mon

thly

—D

isab

ility

pen

sion

1 (3

)60

00m

onth

ly —

Hou

sing

Indi

ram

ma

hous

ing

4(11

)30

000*

one

time

Rs.

3340

long

term

bene

fitN

TR C

olon

y H

ouse

s3(

9)12

000*

one

time

Rs.

1336

SHG

SHG

loan

subs

idy

28 (8

0)14

18ye

arly

—D

eepa

m (f

ree

one

time

LPG

8 (2

3)14

00*

one

time

Rs.

109

cylin

der a

nd g

as c

onne

ctio

n)D

rinki

ng w

ater

and

san

itatio

nPa

ncha

yath

Wat

er S

uppl

y35

(100

)18

0da

ily—

Hea

lth in

sura

nce

Raj

iv A

rogy

a Sh

ree

5 (1

4)11

429*

one

time

Rs.

1272

Ani

mal

hus

band

ryPa

shuk

rant

hi P

adha

kam

(one

3 (9

)15

800*

one

time

milc

h bu

ffal

o pe

r fam

ily)

Rs.

1759

Cat

tle F

eed

Dis

tribu

tion

2 (6

)18

00m

onth

ly—

(Fro

m C

oope

rativ

es)

ICD

SM

id D

ay M

eal

1 (3

)15

30da

ily—

Agr

icul

ture

Cro

p Lo

ss R

elie

f Fun

d (R

s. 24

0034

(97)

7657

effe

cted

seas

onR

s. 8

52pe

r far

m a

s a re

lief d

ue to

dro

ught

or fl

ood)

Subs

idiz

ed s

eeds

(fro

m14

(40)

1664

twic

e a

year

—A

gric

utltu

re D

epar

tmen

t)Fa

rm m

achi

nary

, im

plem

ents

and

Taiw

an sp

raye

r sub

sidy

from

19 (5

4)65

00*

one

year

Rs.

723

build

ings

Agr

icul

ture

Dep

artm

ent

Oil

engi

ne (5

0 pe

r cen

t sub

sidy

up

13 (3

70)

2000

0*on

e tim

eR

s. 13

60to

Rs.

2000

0 fr

om A

gric

ultu

reD

epar

tmen

t)

Figu

res

in p

aren

thes

es in

dica

te p

erce

ntag

e to

tota

l

*

To

tal b

enef

it fr

om lo

ng te

rm p

rogr

amm

e

Type

of t

he p

rogr

amm

eor

sche

me

Nam

e of

the

prog

ram

me

/sc

hem

e

Num

ber o

ffa

rmer

sbe

nefit

ted

in th

esa

mpl

e

Tota

l ann

ual

bene

fit a

vaile

dpe

r ben

efic

iary

fam

ily (R

s.)

Freq

uenc

y of

bene

fit fl

ow

Am

ortiz

ed b

enef

itav

aile

d fr

om lo

ngte

rm p

rogr

amm

e pe

rbe

nefic

iary

per

yea

r(R

s.)

140 KOLLA SRAVANTHI AND M. G. CHANDRAKANTH(n

=35)

TAB

LE I

IBe

nefit

to fa

rmer

s fro

m G

over

nmen

t pro

gram

mes

in G

IA o

f Kri

shna

Dis

tric

t, 20

01

Prog

ram

mes

focu

sing

on

prov

idin

g fo

odW

hite

ratio

n ca

rd (B

PL c

ard)

34 (9

7)29

62m

onth

ly—

and

nutri

tiona

l sec

urity

Wag

e em

ploy

men

tM

GN

REG

A1

(3)

2500

once

a y

ear

—So

cial

secu

rity

Old

Age

Pen

sion

5 (1

4)24

00m

onth

ly—

Wid

ow P

ensi

on2

(6)

2400

mon

thly

—H

ousi

ngIn

dira

mm

a ho

usin

g3

(9)

3000

0*on

e tim

eR

s. 33

40

NTR

col

ony

hous

es1

(3)

1200

0*on

e tim

eR

s. 13

36

SHG

SHG

loan

subs

idy

22 (6

3)10

31ye

arly

—D

eepa

m (f

ree

one

time

LPG

1 (3

)14

00*

(20

year

s)on

e tim

eR

s. 10

9cy

linde

r and

gas

con

nect

ion)

Drin

king

wat

er a

nd s

anita

tion

Panc

haya

th W

ater

Sup

ply

35 (1

00)

360

daily

—H

ealth

Raj

iv A

rogy

a Sh

ree

(hea

lth in

sura

nce)

5 (1

4)67

250*

one

time

Rs.

7487

Ani

mal

Hus

band

ryPa

shuk

rant

hi P

adha

kam

(one

1 (3

)15

800*

one

time

Rs.

1759

milc

h bu

ffal

o pe

r fam

ily)

Cat

tle F

eed

Dis

tribu

tion

5 (1

4)26

40m

onth

ly—

(Fro

m C

oope

rativ

es)

Agr

icul

ture

Cro

p Lo

ss R

elie

f Fun

d (R

s. 24

0028

(80)

1191

6*ef

fect

ed se

ason

Rs.

1327

per f

arm

as a

relie

f due

to d

roug

htor

floo

d)Su

bsid

ized

see

ds (f

rom

32 (9

1)66

2tw

ice

a ye

ar—

Agr

icut

lture

Dep

artm

ent)

Subs

idie

s fo

r Mic

ro Ir

rigat

ion

2 (6

)11

5665

*R

s. 12

877

Farm

mac

hina

ry, i

mpl

emen

ts a

ndTa

iwan

spra

yer s

ubsi

dy fr

om6

(17)

6500

*on

e tim

eR

s. 72

3bu

ildin

gsA

gric

ultu

re D

epar

tmen

t

Figu

res

in p

aren

thes

es in

dica

te p

erce

ntag

e to

tota

l

*

To

tal b

enef

it fr

om lo

ng te

rm p

rogr

amm

e

Type

of t

he p

rogr

amm

eor

sche

me

Nam

e of

the

prog

ram

me

/sc

hem

e

Num

ber o

ffa

rmer

sbe

nefit

ed in

the

sam

ple

Tota

l ann

ual

bene

fit a

vaile

dpe

r ben

efic

iary

fam

ily (R

s.)

Freq

uenc

y of

bene

fit fl

ow

Am

ortiz

ed b

enef

itav

aile

d fr

om lo

ngte

rm p

rogr

amm

e pe

rbe

nefic

iary

per

yea

r(R

s.)

UTILIZATION OF BENEFITS FROM GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES OR SCHEMES BY FARMERS IN AP 141 (n

=35)

ration per year; 63 per cent of the farmers receivedsubsidized interest loan of Rs.1031 under SHG;Panchayath Water Supply (100 %, Rs. 360); Crop LossRelief Fund (80 %, Rs.11916); and so on. Among highvalue and low participation lies in Indiramma Housingscheme from which 9 per cent of the farmers receivedan amortized benefit of Rs. 3340 per family, followedby Pasukranthi Scheme benefiting 3 per cent of thefarm families deriving an amortized benefit of Rs.1759per year. The popularity of the Governmentprogrammes can be examined by considering theproportion of farmer beneficiary in column 3(Table II). Accordingly the most popular Governmentprogrammes in GIA are white ration card (BPL card)providing Rs. 2962 per family for 97 per cent offarmers providing food security ration followed bysubsidized seeds (Rs. 662, 91 %); Crop Loss ReliefFund (amortized benefit of Rs. 1327, 80 %); subsidyon interest of SHG loans (Rs. 1031, 63 %).

Benefits to farmers from Governmentprogrammes in RFA is indicated in Table III. About97 per cent of the sample farmers in RFA receivedwhite ration cards obtain Rs. 3969 worth of foodsecurity ration per year; 89 per cent of the farmersreceived benefit of Rs. 4500 from MGNAREGA; 86per cent of the farmers received subsidized interestloan of Rs. 1194 under SHG; Panchayath Water Supply(100 %, Rs. 360); Crop Loss Relief Fund (83 %, Rs.4072); and so on. Among high value and lowparticipation lies in subsidized seeds from which 11per cent of the farmers received benefit of Rs. 750 perfamily, followed by NTR colony houses benefiting 11per cent of the farm families deriving an amortizedbenefit of Rs.1336 per year. The popularity of theGovernment programmes can be examined byconsidering the proportion of farmer beneficiary incolumn 3 of the Table III. Accordingly the mostpopular Government programmes in RFA are whiteration card (BPL card) providing Rs. 3969 per familyfor 97 per cent of farmers providing food securityration followed by MGNAREGA (Rs.4500, 89 %);subsidy on interest of SHG loans (Rs. 1194, 86 %);Crop Loss Relief Fund (amortized benefit of Rs. 4072,83 %).

It is hypothesized that rainfed farmers arebenefiting more from Government programmes

compared to irrigated farmers. That, around 97 percent of the sample farmers had ration card, in itself isa prima-face indicator of receiving at least the basicsupply of food. Therefore, the food security is takencare by the Government. The village panchayath issupplying water to all the farmers, indicating theinitiative taken by the village panchayath in obtainingmacro level benefit from Government. Panchayath issupplying piped water to people in GIA and RFA sincepast eight years, thereby providing hygienic water tothe people.

It is heartening to note that around 85 per cent ofthe farmers are having Rajiv Arogya shree cards in allthe three regions. In Andhra Pradesh, all the BPL cardholders are automatically health insured. The BPLcard holders just need to enroll their names and themembers of the family in the Village Panchayath officeto be eligible to receive the benefits. For this healthinsurance (Rajiv Arogya Shree), the Government ofAndhra Pradesh pays the premium amount.

Subsidies for seeds are the most popularprogramme of the Department of Agriculture in thecase of GIA farmers, where 91 per cent of the farmersare getting benefit. In CIA 40 per cent of the farmersand in RFA 11 per cent of the farmers are receivingseed subsidy. This difference is because, the Farmers’Cooperatives are functioning well in GIA. In RFA 90per cent of the people are benefiting fromMGNAREGA, while in GIA and CIA, less than 15per cent are benefiting from MGNAREGA due todisinterest towards the programme. A larger numberof RFA farmers are participating in MGNREGAcompared with CIA and GIA farmers due to low netreturns from different sources. Around 85 per cent ofthe farmers in all the three sample areas receivedcompensation towards crop loss by floods, protectingthe farmer from the risk due to natural calamities.

Around 97 per cent of the farmers in the threesample areas have BPL cards and are connected withdrinking water supply. About 85 to 95 per cent of theBPL families have been health insured and thisdemonstrates the Government of Andhra Pradesh’scommitment, and concern in creating awareness aboutthe health insurance programme. The government ofAndhra Pradesh, the Health Department and the Foodand Civil Supplies Department deserve full

142 KOLLA SRAVANTHI AND M. G. CHANDRAKANTH

TAB

LE I

II

Bene

fit to

farm

ers f

rom

Gov

ernm

ent p

rogr

amm

es in

RFA

of K

rish

na D

istr

ict,

2011

Prog

ram

mes

focu

sing

on

prov

idin

g fo

odW

hite

ratio

n ca

rd (B

PL c

ard)

34 (9

7)39

69m

onth

ly—

and

nut

ritio

nal s

ecur

ityW

age E

mpl

oym

ent

MG

NR

EGA

31 (8

9)45

00on

ce a

yea

r—

Soci

al se

curit

yO

ld A

ge P

ensi

on5

(14)

2400

mon

thly

—H

ousi

ngIn

dira

mm

a ho

usin

g10

(29)

3000

0*on

e tim

eR

s. 33

40

NTR

Col

ony

Hou

ses

4 (1

1)12

000*

one

time

Rs.

1336

SHG

SHG

loan

subs

idy

31 (8

6)11

94ye

arly

—D

eepa

m (f

ree

one

time

LPG

18 (5

1)14

00on

e tim

eR

s. 10

9cy

linde

r and

gas

con

nect

ion)

Drin

king

wat

er a

nd s

anita

tion

Panc

haya

th W

ater

Sup

ply

35 (1

00)

360

daily

—H

ealth

Raj

iv A

rogy

a Sh

ree

(hea

lth in

sura

nce)

3 (9

)50

000

one

time

Rs.

5566

ICD

SM

id D

ay M

eal

6 (1

7)15

30da

ily—

Agr

icul

ture

Cro

p Lo

ss R

elie

f Fun

d (R

s. 24

0023

(83)

4072

*ef

fect

ed se

ason

Rs.

453

per f

arm

as a

relie

f due

to d

roug

htor

floo

d)Su

bsid

ized

see

ds (f

rom

4 (1

1)75

0tw

ice

a ye

ar—

Agr

icut

lture

Dep

artm

ent)

Farm

mac

hina

ry, i

mpl

emen

ts a

ndTa

iwan

spra

yer s

ubsi

dy fr

om9

(26)

6500

*on

e tim

eR

s. 72

3bu

ildin

gsA

gric

ultu

re D

epar

tmen

t

Figu

res

in p

aren

thes

es in

dica

te p

erce

ntag

e to

tota

l

*

To

tal b

enef

it fr

om lo

ng te

rm p

rogr

amm

e

Type

of t

he p

rogr

amm

eor

sche

me

Nam

e of

the

prog

ram

me

/sc

hem

e

Num

ber o

ffa

rmer

sbe

nefit

ed in

the

sam

ple

Tota

l ann

ual

bene

fit a

vaile

dpe

r ben

efic

iary

fam

ily (R

s.)

Freq

uenc

y of

bene

fit fl

ow


Am

ortiz

ed b

enef

itav

aile

d fr

om lo

ngte

rm p

rogr

amm

e pe

rbe

nefic

iary

per

yea

r(R

s.)

(n=3

5)

appreciation for comprehensive health insuranceamong farmers and people living in the rural areas.

The total benefit received by sample farmers fromGovernment benefit across three regions is indicatedin Table IV. On an average CIA farmer receives benefitof Rs. 8732 from six Government programmes out of39 listed Government programmes. A GIA farmerreceives an average benefit of Rs.7518 from fiveGovernment programmes. A RFA farmer receives anaverage benefit of Rs. 11202 from six Governmentprogrammes. CIA and RFA participated in 15 per centof the total programmes listed by line departments andGIA farmers participated in 12 per cent of totalprogrammes.

In CIA 26 per cent of the farmers are benefitingfrom 5 Government programmes getting benefit up toRs. 6078. Around another 26 per cent of farmersbenefiting from 6 Government programmes gettingbenefit up to Rs. 8053. About 23 per cent of thefarmers benefiting from 7 Government programmesgetting a benefit of Rs. 10566 on an average in CIAeach family is getting benefit up to Rs. 8732 from 6Government programmes and the coefficient ofvariation is around 30 per cent. In GIA 40 per cent ofthe farmers getting benefit up to Rs. 4389 from fourGovernment programmes and coefficient of variationis around 22 per cent. About 31 per cent of the farmersgetting on an average a benefit of Rs. 10096 from sixGovernment programmes and the coefficient ofvariation is around 64 per cent. Each family is gettingbenefit up to Rs. 7518 from five Government

TABLE IV

Benefits accrued to farmers from Government programmes in CIA, GIA and RFA, 2011

Total number of programmes listed in Line 39 39 39Departments of the Government

Average number of programmes benefiting per family 6 5 6(15%) (12%) (15%)

Average benefit received per family per year (Rs) 8732 7518 11202

Figures in parentheses indicate percentage of programmes participated to total programmes listed by line departments

Location (Area) CIA (n=35) GIA (n=35) RFA (n=35)

programmes. In RFA, 26 per cent farmers receivedbenefit up to Rs.10143 from five Governmentprogrammes with 18 per cent as coefficient of variationand 17 per cent farmers received benefit up toRs. 11381 from six Government programmes witheight per cent of coefficient of variation and 26 percent of the farmers received on an average benefit ofRs.11993 from seven Government programmes with13 per cent of coefficient of variation. Each farmer inRFA receives annual benefit on an average up toRs.11202 from 6 Government programmes.

Efficiency in availing the benefit ofGovernment programmes

Efficiency in availing benefit of Governmentprogrammes in CIA, GIA and RFA is indicated inTable V. The net return from all sources per family inCIA is Rs. 261756, in GIA it is Rs.183434 and in RFAit is Rs. 58327. Relative efficiency of RFA farmersover CIA and GIA farmers can be examined byconsidering the net returns realized from all sourcesper rupee of benefit received from Governmentprogrammes. Accordingly the CIA farmer is realizingRs. 29.97 of net return per rupee of benefit received;the GIA farmer is realizing Rs. 24.39 per rupee ofbenefit received, while RFA farmer is realizing Rs.5.20 per rupee of benefit received. Thus, eventhoughthe benefits received from the Governmentprogrammes place the RFA farmer to receive Rs. 11202which is higher than that received by the CIA farmerRs. 8732 and GIA farmer Rs. 7518 respectively. TheCIA and GIA farmer is receiving 57 and 64 per cent of


TAB

LE V

Effic

ienc

y in

ava

illin

g be

nefit

from

Gov

ernm

ent p

rogr

amm

es in

CIA

, GIA

and

RFA

of K

rish

na D

istr

ict,

2011

Size

of t

he h

oldi

ng9.

026.

754.

26N

et re

turn

s fro

m c

rops

per

farm

fam

ily p

er y

ear

1495

0911

4359

1683

Net

retu

rns f

rom

live

stoc

k pe

r far

m fa

mily

per

yea

r37

904

2881

086

72N

et re

turn

s fro

m n

on fa

rm in

com

e (w

age

inco

me

etc)

per

farm

fam

ily74

342

4026

447

971

Net

retu

rns

per a

cre

of g

ross

cro

pped

are

a fr

om c

rops

1204

210

666

979

Net

retu

rns f

rom

all

sour

ces p

er fa

rm fa

mily

2617

5618

3434

5832

7N

et re

turn

s pe

r cap

ita55

863

4989

413

171

Net

retu

rns p

er w

orke

r*80

364

7514

116

871

Net

retu

rn fr

om L

ives

tock

(Rs.)

/ pe

r wor

ker f

or fa

rm fa

mili

es h

avin

g liv

e st

ock

3480

734

614

1114

9N

et re

turn

from

non

farm

inco

me

(Rs)

/ wor

king

pop

ulat

ion

for f

arm

fam

ilies

hav

ing

off f

arm

ing

inco

me

2990

876

056

1696

0To

tal b

enef

it (R

s) fr

om g

over

nmen

t pro

gram

mes

per

fam

ily87

3275

1811

202

Net

retu

rns p

er ru

pee

of b

enef

it re

ceiv

ed p

er y

ear

1 : 2

9.97

1 : 2

4.4

1 : 5

.2B

enef

it re

ceiv

ed p

er ru

pee

of n

et re

turn

s fro

m a

ll so

urce

s0.

030.

040.

19N

et re

turn

s fro

m a

ll so

urce

s + th

e be

nefit

rece

ived

from

Gov

ernm

ent p

rogr

amm

es27

0488

1909

5269

529

per f

amily

per

yea

r (R

s.)

Prop

ortio

n of

ben

efit

from

Gov

ernm

ent p

rogr

amm

es to

tota

l net

retu

rns f

rom

all

sour

ces

34

16pe

r yea

r per

fam

ily (%

)Fo

r eve

ry R

upee

of b

enef

it re

ceiv

ed b

y C

anal

farm

er, t

he b

enef

it re

ceiv

ed b

y R

FA fa

rmer

(Rs.)

1.28

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f ben

efit

rece

ived

by

grou

ndw

ater

farm

er, t

he b

enef

it re

ceiv

ed b

y R

FA fa

rmer

(Rs.)

1.49

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om a

ll so

urce

s by

cana

l far

mer

the

net r

etur

n ea

rned

by

RFA

farm

er (R

e.)

0.22

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om a

ll so

urce

s by

grou

ndw

ater

farm

er th

e re

turn

ear

ned

by R

FA fa

rmer

(Rs)

0.32

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om a

gric

ultu

re, b

y gr

ound

wat

er fa

rmer

the

net r

etur

n ea

rned

by

RFA

farm

er (R

e)0.

014

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om li

vest

ock,

by

cana

l far

mer

the

net

retu

rn e

arne

d by

RFA

farm

er (R

e)0.

23Fo

r eve

ry R

upee

of n

et re

turn

ear

ned

from

live

stoc

k, b

y g

roun

d w

ater

farm

er th

e ne

t ret

urn

earn

ed b

y R

FA fa

rmer

(Re)

0.3

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om o

ff fa

rm, b

y ca

nal f

arm

er th

e ne

t ret

urn

earn

ed b

y R

FA fa

rmer

(Re)

0.64

For e

very

Rup

ee o

f net

retu

rn e

arne

d fr

om o

ff fa

rm, b

y gr

ound

wat

er fa

rmer

the

net r

etur

n ea

rned

by

RFA

farm

er (R

e)1.

19

* A

vera

ge is

cal

cula

ted

for n

umbe

r of f

amily

mem

bers

who

are

ear

ning

inco

me.

Parti

cula

rsC

IAG

IA


RFA

(n=3

5)

income from agriculture, 15 and 14 per cent of incomefrom livestock, 28 and 22 per cent of income from offfarm activities, respectively. While, the RFA farmerin contrast is receiving 3 per cent income fromagriculture and 15 per cent of income from livestockand 82 per cent of income from off farm employment.Ceteris paribus, the CIA and GIA farmers areexhibiting relatively higher economic efficiencycompared with RFA farmer, eventhough theGovernment benefit received is almost 76 and 67 percent of the benefit received by RFA farmer. Thisefficiency of canal and ground water irrigated farmerscan be attributed to the intensive cultivation of crops,rearing of dairy and development of integrated farmingsystems due to availability of irrigation.

The gap in net returns from all sources betweenirrigated and rainfed farmers is substantial, hence it iscrucial to involve, explore and improve governanceof different programmes for rainfed farmers. It isnecessary for the developmental departments to bring

out a guide book in Telugu highlighting all thegovernmental programmes, details of documents tobe submitted, last date, eligibility to avail benefit,number of days of waiting period, to whom to submitand follow-up actions by the farmer. The guide bookshould be revised as and when changes occur.

REFERENCES

CHANNAVEER, 2011, Economic impact of developmentalprogrammes in peri urban and rural areas of Magaditown of Ramanagara district in Karnataka. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore.

GAIHA, R., 2000, Do anti poverty programmes reach therural poor in India. Oxford Development Studies,28(1) : 71-95.

PATIL, N., 2005, A Study on knowledge, extent ofparticipation and benefits derived by participantfarmers of the watershed development programme.M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University of AgriculturalSciences, Dharwad.

WORLD BANK, 2004, Making services work for poor people,World Development Report.



Impact of Rural Bio-resource Complex Project on Annual Income and EmploymentGeneration of its Stakeholders

R. VINAY KUMAR, K. NARAYANA GOWDA, T. N. ANAND AND M. S. NATARAJU


ABSTRACT

The present research study was carried out to analyze the impact of Rural Bio-resource Complex (RBRC)project implemented in Tubagere hobli of Doddaballapur taluk in Bangalore Rural district of Karnataka during2008. Data was collected from randomly selected sample of 200 respondents comprising of 40 small farmers, 40marginal farmers, 40 big farmers and 40 agricultural labourers spread in five gram panchayaths of Tubagere hobliusing pre-tested interview schedule. The results revealed that an enhanced average net income and employmentgeneration among the RBRC stakeholders after the implementation of RBRC project. The newly introducedinterventions by RBRC project fetched good net income per acre among which rose cultivation provided highestnet income of Rs. 1,38,738/- followed by sweet corn (Rs. 55,321/-). With respect to employment generation,rose and french bean seed production generated good number of man days of 316 and 61, respectively. Lack ofcredit facilities, problem of pests and diseases, inadequate availability of timely labour, low price for the produce,fluctuation in the price, exploitation by middlemen, lack of exclusive market for the produce and untimely paymentwere the major production and marketing problems encountered by RBRC stakeholders. Assured market pricefor commodities, developing less labour intensive technologies, providing more price for agricultural produceand developing more disease and pest resistant varieties were the major suggestions offered by majority of theRBRC stakeholders to overcome the problems.


THE development initiatives over the years haveconcentrated on people who responded to the effortsof the change agency and these clients are generallywell endowed with resources. As a result, the changesin the socio-economic development scenario have leadto the widening gap between rich and poor.Consequently, youth are loosing interest in farmingand given the choice they look for employment in non-agriculture sectors. The farmers, rural youth andwomen need to be provided with exclusive incomeand employment generation activities to rebuild theirconfidence in farming.

Towards this end, the University of AgriculturalSciences, Bangalore implemented the “Rural Bio-resource Complex” (RBRC) project, funded byDepartment of Biotechnology under the Ministry ofScience and Technology, Government of India. SinceApril 2005, the project has made a successful effortin improving the annual income and employmentgeneration among farmers, farm women and youth inTubagere hobli of Doddaballapur taluk situated inBangalore Rural district of Karnataka. The RBRCproject was implemented to rebuild the confidence in

farmers through market linkage, market intelligence,timely information support systems, grants, credit,insurance, cold storage, value addition, processing andweather forecasting which would help to empower andgradually improve the economy of the rural people inthe long run. The project has completed three yearsand has developed location specific models to enhancethe income and employment status of its stakeholders.It is in this context, the present study was carried outwith the following specific objectives:

1. To analyze the impact of Rural Bio-resourceComplex Project on annual income and employmentgeneration of its stakeholders

2. To identify the problems faced by RBRCstakeholders and elicit their suggestions

METHODOLOGY

The present study was carried out during 2008in five village panchayaths of Tubagere hobli ofDoddaballapur taluk in Bangalore Rural district ofKarnataka. From each panchayaths (Hadonahally,Melekote, S. S. Ghati, Tubagere and Hegdehally),forty RBRC stakeholders were selected randomlygiving equal representation for all the five

panchayaths. The criteria followed was, there shouldbe equal representation to all categories of farmers,i.e. ten small farmers, ten marginal farmers, ten bigfarmers and ten agricultural labourers. Thus, the totalnumber of respondents for the study was 200. Benchmark information documented by the project was usedfor comparing the annual income and employmentstatus of the respondents before and after theimplementation of RBRC project. Ex-post factoresearch design was followed in the study.

Assessing annual income and employmentgeneration : Annual income refers to the total annualnet income realized in rupees due to RBRC project bythe stakeholders. Based on the mean and standarddeviation, the respondents were classified as follows:


Intervention-wise average net income andemployment generation before and after Rural Bio-resource Complex Project : The average net incomeand employment generation has enhancedconsiderably after the implementation of RBRCproject. Among the seven enterprises that were takenup before the implementation of the project, sericulturefetched highest net income per acre of Rs. 63,458followed by improved cultivation of banana (Rs.44,985) and improved maize cultivation (Rs. 13,410).The same enterprises after the implementation ofRBRC project fetched Rs. 72,914, Rs. 1,27,050 andRs. 20,475, with an increased per cent of 14.90, 182.42and 52.68, respectively. Further, with respect toemployment generation when compared to the baselineperiod, it had increased considerably after theimplementation of RBRC project. The highest increasewas found in drumstick cultivation (66.67 %),followed by improved banana cultivation (39.78 %)and improved maize cultivation (35.29 %) as shownin Table I.

The possible reasons for enhanced annual incomeand employment generation might be due toempowerment, provision of better and improved seeds/ seedlings and other critical inputs from RBRCproject, service support rendered, providing marketlinkage, establishment of local institutions andutilization of available local resources judiciouslyresulting in enhanced productivity and minimizationof cost of productivity.

The results of the present study are in line withthe findings reported by Jayachandra and GurappaNaidu (2006), and Radhakrishna et al. (2008).

Average net income and employment generationdue to new interventions recommended by Rural Bio-resource Complex Project : The newly introducedinterventions by RBRC fetched high net income peracre among which rose cultivation provided highestnet income of Rs. 1,38,736, followed by sweet corn(Rs. 55,321) and baby corn (Rs. 39,971) as depictedin Table II. With respect to employment generation;rose cultivation, french bean seed production andwatermelon cultivation generated 316, 61 and 55,man days, respectively. Further, nursery raising,

Low <(Mean - ½SD) < 11509.28 < 13844.47

Medium (Mean± ½SD) 11509.28 to 13844.47 to40934.93 56720.75

High > (Mean + ½SD) > 40934.93 > 56720.75

Category Criteria BeforeRBRC (Rs.)

After RBRC(Rs.)

Annual net income (ANI) was measured usingthe following formula:

ANI = Gross income - total cost of cultivation

Employment generation is the number of mandays of employment generated annually in thestakeholder’s family as a result of participation in theRBRC project. Based on the mean and standarddeviation, the respondents were classified asfollows.

Low <(Mean - ½SD) < 48.72 < 50.27

Medium (Mean± ½SD) 48.72 to 50.27 to70.28 82.82

High > (Mean + ½SD) > 70.28 > 82.82

Man days /Category Criteria Before

RBRC After RBRC

The data were collected using a pretestedinterview schedule. The collected data was scored,tabulated and analyzed using frequency, mean,standard deviation and percentage.

148 R. VINAY KUMAR et al.

TABLE I

Intervention-wise average net income and employment generation before and after RuralBio-resource Complex Project

Intervention

Improved cultivation of ragi + redgram 5,200 8,430 61.53 58 69 18.96

Improved maize cultivation 13,410 20,475 52.68 34 46 35.29

Improved cultivation of sunflower 12,850 17,736 38.02 41 52 26.82

Improved banana cultivation 44,985 1,27,050 182.42 93 130 39.78

Drumstick cultivation 1,075 1,329 23.62 6 10 66.67

Mulberry cultivation + silkworm rearing 63,458 72,914 14.90 62 69 11.29

Sheep rearing 1,644 1,839 11.86 35 35 0

Average employment generation(man days)

Before After % increasedue to RBRC

vermi-composting, apiary, ragi malt preparation, fishrearing, biofuels and others contributed for theimprovement in employment generation.

TABLE II

Average net income and employment generationdue to new interventions recommended by

RBRC project

Newintervention

Pop corn cultivation 15,595 40Improved sweet corn 55,320 42cultivationBaby corn cultivation 39,971 41Watermelon cultivation 18,033 55French beans seed 16,836 61productionRose cultivation 1,38,736 316Bio fuels 12,000 15Organic farming 20,980 54Fish rearing 3,150 43Apiary 1,419 28Ragi malt preparation 697 36

Average netincome

(Rs. / acre)

Averageemploymentgeneration(man days)

The probable reasons for enhanced annualincome and employment generation might be due tointroduction of suitable new interventions based onthe local conditions, provision of better and improvedseeds / seedlings and other critical inputs,empowerment of stakeholders, service support andencouraging youths to take up new ventures likenursery raising, vermi-composting and apiary withsuitable training, providing market linkage,establishment of local institutions by RBRC andutilisation of available local resources judiciously.

Constraints encountered by RBRC stakeholders: Table III presents the data on the production andmarketing constraints faced by the RBRCstakeholders.

Production constraints: The productionconstraints were classified into technical and non-technical constraints. The technical productionconstraints encountered by the RBRC stakeholders are:‘problem of diseases’ scored the highest percentage(60.0 %), followed by ‘problem of pests’ (52.5 %),‘problem of weeds’ (49.5 %) and ‘lack of knowledgeon balanced use of fertilizers’ (36.5 %).

The important non-technical productionproblems faced by the RBRC stakeholders include:‘inadequate availability of timely labours’ (70.5 %),

Average net income(Rs. / acre)

Before After % increase todue RBRC

IMPACT OF RBRC PROJECT ON ANNUAL INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION OF ITS STTAKEHOLDERS 149

TABLE III

Constraints faced by RBRC stakeholders

Constraints*

I Production constraintsA Technical constraints1 Problem of pests 105 52.5 II2 Problem of diseases 120 60.0 I3 Problem of weeds 99 49.5 III4 Lack of knowledge on balanced use of fertilizer 73 36.5 IVB Non-technical constraints1 Inadequate availability of inputs in time 83 41.5 V2 High cost of plant protection chemicals 88 44.0 IV3 Inadequate availability of good planting material 75 37.5 VI4 Lack of credit facility 109 54.5 II5 High cost of fertilizers 99 49.5 III6 Inadequate availability of timely labours 141 70.5 I7 Lack of implement and tractor services 23 11.5 VIIII Marketing constraints1 Poor transportation facilities 82 41.0 VI2 Lack of storage facilities 59 29.5 VII3 Low price for the produce / enterprise 124 62.0 IV4 Fluctuation in the prices 146 73.0 I5 Exploitation by the middleman 138 69.0 II6 Lack of exclusive market for produce 129 64.5 III7 Untimely payment 129 64.5 III8 Lack of local market for the produce 88 44.0 V

Number Per cent Ranking

(n=200)

followed by ‘lack of credit facility’ (54.5 %), ‘highcost of fertilizers’ (49.5 %), ‘high cost of plantprotection chemicals’ (44.0 %) and ‘inadequateavailability of inputs in time’ (41.5 %).

Marketing constraints: The major marketingconstraints faced by the respondents were: ‘fluctuationin the prices’ (73.0 %), followed by ‘exploitation bymiddlemen’ (69.0 %), ‘lack of exclusive markets forproduce’ (64.5 %), ‘untimely payment’ (64.5 %) and‘lack of local market for the produce’ (44.0 %).

The findings reported under various sub -headings depicting constraints are on par with thefindings quoted by Usha Rani (1999) and Arul Prakash(2004).

Suggestions of RBRC stakeholders to overcomethe constraints : It could be observed from the

Table IV that, a great majority of the RBRCstakeholders suggested to provide assured market pricefor commodities (75.5 %), to develop less labourintensive technologies (70.5 %), to provide more pricefor agricultural produce (66.0 %), to develop moredisease and pest resistant varieties (64.0 %), toeliminate middleman (56.5 %) and to increase thenumber of development programmes and projects likeRBRC (53.5 %). Other suggestions were to provideregular power supply (44.5 %), establishment of localmarkets (31.5 %) and the government has to buy-backcommodities (26.5 %).

These findings are in conformity with that ofUsha Rani (1999) and Vanitha Chethan (2002).

The results revealed that there is an enhancementin the average net income and employment generationamong the stakeholders after the implementation of

150 R. VINAY KUMAR et al.

TABLE IV

Suggestions expressed by RBRC stakeholders

Suggestions

Develop more disease and pest resistant varieties 128 64.0 IVAssured market price for commodities 151 75.5 IGovernment has to buy-back commodities 53 26.5 IXRemoval of middleman 113 56.5 VDevelop less labour intensive technologies 141 70.5 IIEstablishment of local markets 63 31.5 VIIIProvide more price for agricultural produce 132 66.0 IIIRegular power supply 89 44.5 VIIIncrease development programmes and projects similar to RBRC 107 53.5 VI

Ranking

(n=200)

RBRC project in Bangalore Rural district ofKarnataka. The project authorities should consider thesuggestions offered by the RBRC stakeholder toovercome the constraints faced by them for makingthe project more effective so as to improve the livingstandards of its stakeholders.

REFERENCES

ARUL PRAKASH, R., 2004, Analysis of Swarnajayanthi GramSwarozgar Yojana in Salem and Thiruvallur Districtsof Tamil Nadu. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ.Agril. Sci., Dharwad

JAYACHANDRA, K. AND GURAPPA NAIDU, Y., 2006, Impact ofDairy Cooperatives on income, employment and

creation of assets of marginal and small farmers - Acase study. National Cooperative Union of Indiareview, 43 (4): 719-724.

RADHAKRISHNA, S. G., ESWARAPPA, G. AND MANJUNATHA, B.N., 2008, Empowerment of women in SujalaWatershed programme through income generatingactivities. Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 42 (1): 88-91.

USHA RANI, R., 1999, A study on opinion of womenbeneficiaries towards DWCRA and benefits derivedin Vizianagaram district, Andra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Agri.)Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agril. Sci., Dharwad.

VANITHA CHETHAN, 2002, Awareness and impact of SGSYon women beneficiaries and their attitude towards theprogramme. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ.Agril. Sci., Bangalore.

IMPACT OF RBRC PROJECT ON ANNUAL INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION OF ITS STTAKEHOLDERS 151

Number Per cent

Response

(Received : February, 2012 Accepted : November, 2012)

Knowledge and Symbolic Adoption of Trained Sericulturists

M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN, K. G. BANUPRAKASH, V. SHANKARANARAYAN AND C. R. JAHIR BASHA

Project Planning and Monitoring Cell, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The present investigation was carried out to assess the impact of training programme on the knowledgeand symbolic adoption levels of sericulturists regarding silkworm rearing practices. The respondents of the studyincludes 40 sericulturists from Chickballapur and Kolar districts who participated in the two days on-campustraining programme on silkworm rearing practices organized during January 2010 by Krishi Vigyana Kendra,Kolar. A structured interview schedule was prepared in Kannada language for collecting relevant information.The present study has made use of before and after design with single group (i.e. No control group). The resultsrevealed that the knowledge level of trainees after the training programme with respect to silkworm rearingpractices ranged between 30.43 and 59 per cent. High symbolic adoption level of silkworm rearing practices(ranging from 60.25 to 97.50 %) was registered by the trainees. Age had a negative and significant relationshipwith the knowledge level, while education had a positive and significant relationship with the knowledge level ofthe trainees regarding silkworm rearing practices. All the six personal and socio-economic characteristics oftrainees had contributed to the tune of 48 per cent to the knowledge level. It was also found that education of thetrainees had direct, indirect and largest indirect effects on the knowledge level of trainees with respect tosilkworm rearing practices.


GENERATION and diffusion of agricultural innovationsare the important factors in achieving food security.In this regard, Krishi Vigyana Kendra (KVK) aninnovative institution established at district level bythe Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)play a vital role. The first KVK was established in1974 in Pondicherry, since then KVKs have grownas a largest network in the country with number ofKVKs having a quantum jump in reaching to 569during 2009-2010. (Anon., 2009). They have theiradministrative control either under ICAR institutes,State Agricultural Universities, Deemed Universities,Non-government Organizations or State Departmentof Agriculture. The prime mandate of KVKs istechnology assessment, refinement and demonstration.KVKs also conduct training programmes to thefarmers and farm women, rural youths and extensionpersonnel to update their knowledge level and skillsto orient them in the frontier areas of technologydevelopment.

Training is an investment to upgrade the humanresource. It brings changes in knowledge and skillsrelated to one’s job and profession. Training providesdefreezing of old behaviour and refreezing of newbehaviour for application leading to their success in

managing enterprise as well as realizing increased andsustained profits. It is possible that the individualsattitude is moulded by training. It will also lead tosuccessful performance for better agriculture. Needbased on-campus and off-campus training programmesare formulated and conducted by KVKs to update thefarmers knowledge on improved farm technologiesleading to the adoption of the same in farmers’ fields.Evaluation of any training programme organized forthe farmers will help to empirically verify theknowledge gain for its further refinement. Keepingthis in view, the present investigation was carried outto study the impact of training programme conductedby KVK, Kolar with the following specificobjectives :

1. To know the personal and socio-economicprofile of trainees :

2. To study the impact of training programmeon knowledge and symbolic adoption levels of traineesregarding silkworm rearing practices.

3. To study the relationship between the personaland socio-economic characteristics of trainees andtheir knowledge level

4. To study the direct, indirect and largestindirect effects of personal and socio-economiccharacteristics of trainees and their knowledge level.

METHODOLOGY

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Kolar wasestablished during 2005-2006 and it represents EasternDry Zone of Karnataka State (Zone 5). The KVK isunder the administrative control of University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore rendering servicesto the farming community and others in Chickballapurand Kolar districts of Karnataka. Two days on-campustraining programme on silkworm rearing practices wasorganized by Krishi Vigyana Kendra, Kolar, on 4th and5th January 2010 at Conference Hall, College ofSericulture, Chintamani. Sericulture Scientists ofKrishi Vigyana Kendra, Kolar and College ofSericulture, Chintamani served as resource persons inthe training programme. Forty farmers practisingsericulture from Chickballapur and Kolar districtsparticipated in the training programme. A pre-structured schedule was prepared in consultation withthe resource persons of the training programme andthe same was translated into kannada language forcollecting relevant information.

The teacher made test as suggested byAnastasi (1961) was employed to measure theknowledge level of the trainees on silkworm rearingpractices. A set of 12 knowledge items on silkwormrearing practices were present to the trainees. Eachcorrect response was given a score of two and theincorrect response carried one score. Minimum scoreand maximum score one could get was 12 and 24,respectively. The raw knowledge score of each traineewas converted into knowledge index as follows :

Number of correctresponse

Knowledge index =Total number ofknowledge items

× 100

Data on knowledge level of trainees werecollected at two phases i.e., before training and aftertraining. The present study has made use of beforeand after with single group (i.e. No control group).

Symbolic adoption was worked out by asking thetrainees whether they will be adopting the twelvesilkworm rearing practices learnt in the trainingprogramme after they return to their villages. Data onsymbolic adoption was collected from the trainees afterthe training programme.

Information on age, education, caste, family size,farm size and socio-economic status of the traineeswere measured using structured schedule with suitablescales as followed by Lakshminarayan (1997).

In the present study, the knowledge level of thetrainees was taken as dependent variable, while thepersonal and socio-economic characteristics of thetrainees were considered as independent variables tofind out the relationship between them. The collecteddata was scored, tabulated and analyzed usingfrequency, mean, zero order correlation test, multipleregression analysis and path analysis.


Personal and socio-economic profile of trainees: The data in Table I depicts the personal and socio-economic profile of the trainees. It is observed that ashigh as 37.50 per cent of the trainees were young,whereas, 32.5 and 30 per cent of them were middleaged and old aged, respectively. As high as 45 per centof the trainees were having medium level of education,while, 40 and 15 per cent of the trainees had low andhigh levels of education, respectively. Majority oftrainees belong to general category (other castes)(57.50 %),while 42.5 per cent of the trainees were SC/ ST. More than half of the trainees had large families(60 %) and 40 per cent of them had small family. Mostof the trainees were marginal farmers (40 %), followedby small farmers (35 %) and big farmers (25 %). TableI also reveals that as high as 40 per cent of the traineeswere falling under medium level of socio-economicstatus, while, 37.5 per cent and 22.5 per cent of thetrainees were falling under low and high levels ofsocio-economic status. It can be inferred from thefindings that the most of the trainees who underwenttraining were marginal farmers (40 %), young (37.5%), having large family (60 %), belong to general

KNOWLEDGE AND SYMBOLIC ADOPTION OF TRAINED SERICULTURISTS 153

TABLE I

Personal and socio-economic profile of trained sericulturists

Age Young 15 37.50 42.61 6.16Middle 13 32.50Old 12 30.00

Education Low 16 40.00 2.94 1.61Medium 18 45.00High 6 15.00

Caste SC / ST 17 42.50 - -General (Other castes) 23 57.50

Family size Small (< 5 members) 16 40.00 - -Large (> 5 members) 24 60.00

Farm size Marginal farmers 16 40.00 - -Small farmers 14 35.00Big farmers 10 25.00

Socio-economic status Low 15 37.50 12.34 4.98Medium 16 40.00High 9 22.50

Personal andsocio-economiccharacteristics

CategoryTrainees

Number Per cent Mean Standarddeviation

(n=40)

category (other castes) (57.50 %) with medium levelsof education (45 %) and socio-economic status (40%).

Impact of training on knowledge and symbolicadoption levels of trainees on silkworm rearingpractices : The impact of training programme wasseen as acquiring knowledge and symbolic adoption,the extent to which is indicated in Table II. It is evidentfrom the findings in Table II that the knowledge onshoot rearing increased by 59 per cent between beforeand after the training programme. Similar increase isobserved in the knowledge level between before andafter the training programme with respect to silkwormrearing practices such as chawki rearing (46.66 %),maintenance of temperature and humidity in rearinghouse (45.45 %), bed spacing (41.66 %), silkwormdisease control (40.90 %), new silkworm races(38.88 %), mountages (37.50 %), separate rearinghouses (33.33 %), incubation (33.33 %), disinfectionof rearing house (32 %), bed cleaning (32 %) and

control of uzi fly (30.43 %). The improvement in theknowledge level of the trainees after the trainingprogramme with respect to silkworm rearing practicesranged between 30.43 and 59 per cent. Further, thedata subjected to ‘paired t test’ reveals that theimprovement in the knowledge level of the traineesbefore and after the training programme for all the 12silkworm rearing practices under study was foundhighly significant at one per cent level.

The symbolic adoption refers to the response ofthe trainees regarding the adoption of silkwormrearing practices learnt in the training programme aftergoing back from training programme indicated thatthe trainees were very much convinced and thusregistered high symbolic adoption levels (ranging from60.25 to 97.50 %) of 12 silkworm rearing practicesunder study. Majority of the trainers have expressedthat they will be adopting the following silkwormrearing practices viz., bed spacing (97.5 %), bedcleaning (95 %), maintaining temperature and

154 M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN et al.

TABLE II

Impact of training on knowledge and symbolic adoption levels of trainees regarding silkwormrearing practices

Separate rearing house 52.50 70.00 33.33 60.25 2.65**New silkworm races 45.00 62.50 38.88 80.00 3.86**Disinfection of rearing house 62.50 82.50 32.00 87.25 2.82**Incubation 52.50 70.00 33.33 90.00 2.99**Chawki rearing 40.00 75.00 46.66 85.00 4.99**Maintenance of temperature and 55.00 80.00 45.45 95.00 4.88**humidity in rearing houseMountages 60.00 82.50 37.50 90.00 4.55**Shoot rearing 55.00 87.50 59.00 92.50 5.10**Bed spacing 60.00 85.00 41.66 97.50 4.67**Bed cleaning 62.50 82.50 32.00 95.00 2.59**Silkworm disease control 55.00 77.50 40.90 85.00 4.25**Uzi fly control 57.50 75.00 30.43 85.00 2.89**

**Significant at 1 per cent level

(n=40)

humidity in rearing house (95 %), shoot rearing(92.50 %), incubation (90 %), mountages (90 %),disinfection of rearing house (87.25 %), uzi fly control(85 %), chawki rearing (85 %), silkworm diseasecontrol (85 %), new silkworm races (80 %) and shallhave a separate rearing house (60.25 %) in the orderof importance.

The improvement in the knowledge level andhigh symbolic adoption rate of silkworm rearingpractices by the trainees may be because of highmotivation and the participatory method of teachingemployed by the sericulture scientists during thetraining programme. Training of farmers directly bythe scientists has also helped the trainees on the spotclarification of doubts which has also lead to increasein the knowledge level of trainees.

More or less similar findings were reported byMuniraju et al. (2005) and Srinivasa et al. (2007).

Relationship between personal and socio-economic characteristics of trainees and theirknowledge level regarding silkworm rearing

practices : Correlation coefficient was worked outto find out the relationship between personal and socio-economic charteristics of trainees and their knowledgelevel regarding silkworm rearing practices are depictedin Table III. Out of the six variables, age of the traineeswas found to be having negative and significantrelationship with the knowledge level, whereas,education had positive and significant relationshipwith knowledge level of trainees regarding silkwormrearing practices. Other variables, viz., caste, familysize, farm size and socio-economic status did not havesignificant relationship with the knowledge level.Table III also reveals that, the six personal and socio-economic characteristics of the trainees hadcontributed to the tune of 48 per cent to the knowledgelevel of trainees regarding silkworm rearingpractices.

It is found that age of the trainees had negativeand significant relationship with the knowledge levelindicating that young farmers are prone to acquiremore knowledge than the aged farmers. Young farmerspossess dynamic energy, creative ability, more

Silkworm rearing practices Symbolicadoption (%)

Paired ‘t’test values

Knowledge (%)

Percentageof increase

Aftertraining

Beforetraining


TABLE III

Realationship between personal and socio-economic characteristics of trainees and their knowledgelevel regarding silkworm rearing practices

Age - 0.2012* 0.6678 0.3172 2.260 *

Education 0.3656 ** 0.8729 0.4156 2.740 **

Caste 0.1121 NS 0.3792 0.1126 0.091 NS

Family size 0.0178 NS 0.2211 0.1678 0.162 NS

Farm size 0.0098 NS 0.5814 0.1812 1.220 NS

Socio-economic status 0.2162 NS 0.2681 0.2681 0.917 NS

NS= Non-significant; *= Significant at 5 % level ; **= Significant at 1% level

(n=40)

Personal and socio-economic

characteristics

Standard error ofregression

coefficients‘t’ valuesRegression

coefficientsCorrelation

coefficients (r)

receptive to ideas and are very adventurous ingathering information from various sources (massmedia, participation in extension activities and contactwith the farm scientists and extension personnel) mighthave lead to increase in the knowledge level on farminnovations.

The findings indicated that education is havinga positive and significant relationship with theknowledge level which indicates that higher theeducation among farmers more will be knowledge onfarm innovations. Education widens the vision ofindividuals and minds of the people, orients them tooutside world and provides new opportunities of life.Schooling facilitates learning which in turn presumedto instill favourable attitude towards agricultureinnovations. The formal education of trainees mighthave helped them to understand the farm innovationswhich has lead to increasing knowledge level ontrainees.

Direct, indirect and largest indirect effects ofpersonal and socio-economic characteristics oftrainees and their knowledge level regarding silkwormrearing practices : Path analysis was employed forestablishing quantitative interpretation of direct,indirect and largest indirect effects of personal andsocio-economic characteristics of trainees and theirknowledge level regarding silkworm rearing practices(Table IV).

Ranking of independent variables, based on theirdirect effect on knowledge level of trainees revealedthat education (X2), age (X1) and socio-economicstatus (X6) have occupied first three ranks in that order,whereas, farm size (X3), caste (X3) and family size(X4) have obtained the last three ranks. As regards tototal indirect effect channeled through other variablesis also quite substantiate. Ranking of these effectsindicated that education (X2), social status (X6) andage (X1) were the first three ranks which had totalindirect effect on knowledge level, whereas, farm size(X5), family size (X4) and caste (X3) have occupiedlast three ranks.

The first largest indirect effect channelledthrough is education (X2) in the case of five variables,while, the second largest indirect effect channelledthrough is age in the case of three variables. However,the third largest indirect effect channelled throughsocio-economic status (X6) in the case of the threevariables. It can be inferred that education was foundto be having direct, indirect and largest indirect effectson the knowledge level of trainees with respect tosilkworm rearing practices.

The impact of the training programme organizedby Krishi Vigyana Kendra, Kolar could be seen onthe increase in knowledge level and high symbolic


TABLE IV

Direct, indirect and largest indirect effects of personal and socio-economic characteristics oftrainees and their knowledge level regarding silkworm rearing practices

Age (X1) 0.212 2 0.197 3 0.098 X2 0.068 X1 0.051 X5

Education (X2) 0.296 1 0.282 1 0.081 X5 0.062 X10.049 X3

Caste (X3) 0.068 5 0.026 6 0.122 X1 0.098 X2 0.049 X6

Family size (X4) 0.034 6 0.031 5 0.082 X2 0.077 X1 0.058 X6

Farm size (X5) 0.112 4 0.098 4 0.091 X2 0.078 X6 0.058 X6

Socio-economic status (X6) 0.126 3 0.198 2 0.093 X2 0.082 X3 0.069 X3

(n=40)

Personal and socio-economic

characteristics

Totalindirecteffect

Three largest indirect effectschannelled through

RankDirect effect Rank

adoption rates among the trainees with respect tosilkworm rearing practices. The findings revealed thatage of the trainees had a negative and significantrelationship with the knowledge level, hence morenumber of young farmers should be provided theopportunities to participate in the training programmeby the training centres for increasing the knowledgelevel of trainees on farm technologies.

REFERENCES

ANASTASI, A., 1961, Psychological testing. MacMillan andCo., New York : 25-28.

ANONYMOUS, 2009, Case studies on AgriculturalTransformation in District. Proc. of the IV National

Conference on Krishi Vigyan Kendras held from 6th

to 8th November, 2009 at Coimbatore.

LAKSHMINARAYAN, M. T., 1997, Adoption of sustainablefarming practices by sugarcane farmers – An Analysis.Ph.D Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agri. Sci., Bangalore.

MUNIRAJU, E., KRISHNA, M., RAO, P., ANANTHARMAN, M. N.AND BONGOLE, U. D., 2005, Impact assessment ofTransfer of Technologies in Sericulture atChamanalathanda, Gulbarga district, Karnataka. Bull.Ind. Acad. Seri., 9 (2): 48-53.

SRINIVASA, G., RAHMATHULLA, V. K., VINDHYA, G. S. AND RAJA,R. K., 2007, Training programme in Sericulture: Theirevaluation and impact on extension personnel andsericulturists. Indian J. Seric., 46(1) : 26-31.


(Received : May, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Economic Water Use Efficiency in Crops under Tank Rehabilitation Interventions ofJSYS in Chickballapur District

K. V. BHAGYALAKSHMI AND P. S. SRIKANTHAMURTHY

Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Chickballapur district to analyse the impact of intervention by JSYS, GOKand CBTMPCS, UAS, Bangalore on inter alia; water use efficiency, groundwater yield, returns from farmenterprises in the rehabilitated tank command areas. The study was based on the primary data collected from 40sample respondents each from Maralur (collective action by JSYS plus action research by CBTMPCS scenario- CAR), Kadalaveni (collective action only scenario - CAO) and Hosur (Control) tank command areas ofGauribidnur taluk for the period 2010-2011. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and linear productionfunction. The results revealed that, groundwater yield in CAR and CAO were higher by 89.36 and 60.11 percent, respectively, compared to control. Water use efficiency in terms of return per acre inch of water used washigher in case of CAO than in Control but less than that in CAR in all crops. Return per acre inch of water usedwas highest in case of maize (Rs. 1489) in all the three scenarios among all the major crops. Tank rehabilitationactivities in terms of infrastructure created by JSYS and technical know-how such as low water saving technologygiven through trainings, water management demonstration and direct incentives provided by CBTMPCS, UAS,Bangalore helped the farmers in obtaining increased farm income with efficient utilization of irrigation water.


THERE are several factors responsible for the lowproductivity of agriculture in India. One of the primefactors is inadequate and unsustainable irrigation waterfacilitie. In the situation of increasing populationgrowth, farming community has to go for intensive,cultivation of land which is interlinked with irrigationdevelopment, supplementing the monsoon rainfallwhich is confined only to three or four months in ayear. One of the earliest modes of surface waterharvesting was construction of small water bodies,called as tanks. However, in the recent years, there isa decline of tank system. Growing conflicts betweentank bed cultivators and command farmers, increasedcontrol by the government agencies with lowaccountability, sans participation and control by localcommunities, lack of government policy andprogrammes to support traditional water managementinstitutions and their neglected to further deteriorationof tank system.

With the breakdown of institutions governing thetank management, a vast majority of the tanks havebeen silted, thereby, reducing live storage capacity. In

the recent years, taking the contemporary requirementsfor rural development into account, efforts are beingmade to rejuvenate the tank systems in the country bythe concerned state governments through communityparticipation and to handover these rejuvenated,rehabilitated tanks to the local institutions which areformed for the tank management purpose. Efforts arealso being made to instil a sense of belongingnesstowards the tank among the stake holders. Against thisbackdrop, the Karnataka Community Based TankManagement Project (KCBTMP) was launched on apilot basis with the financial assistance from the WorldBank.

JSYS, a nodal agency of Government ofKamataka under the Department of Water Resources(Minor Irrigation), was set up to facilitate planningand implementing the task of rejuvenation of around2005 tanks with community participation in June 2002under KCBTMP. This is the first project designedand implemented in India for tank rehabilitation onsuch a large scale.

Part of M.Sc. Agricultural Thesis submitted by Senior Author to UAS (B).

UAS, Bangalore entered into an agreement withJSYS to render consultancy services to implement thesub-component of the KCBTMP viz., tank systemimprovement and production system development inthe Eastern and Central Dry Zones of Kamataka. Themajor objectives of the sub-component are (i) Toimprove productivity and production of on-farmsystems involving crops and livestock agriculture toincrease farmers’ income, (ii) To establish incomegenerating activities for those in the catchment areas,especially the landless and (iii) To develop newtechnologies to identify and optimize otheropportunities for diversification and intensification ofproduction systems.

The activities of the KCBTMP has spread overthree phases viz., (i) Ongoing Project covering 2005tanks in 10 districts, viz., Kolar, Chickballapur,Tumkur, Chitradurga, Raichur, Bidar, Bellary, Koppal,Bagalkot and Haveri during Phase-1, (ii) in Phase-IIwith additional financing the Project covers 1224 tanksin 8 districts including Belagavi, Bijapur,Chikkamagalur, Davangere, Dharwad, Hassan,Shimoga and Uttar Kannada districts and (iii) OngoingExtended Project covering 694 tanks in 8 districtsunder Phase-1 viz., Chickballapur, Bidar, Bellary,Raichur, Tumkur, Kolar, Chitradurga and Haveri.

The present study was taken up as part ofevaluation of KCBTMP, focusing on water useefficiency in major crops grown under command areaand sustainability of tank rehabilitation. The studycovered three tanks under this project, viz., Maralur,Kadalaveni and Hosur village tanks in Chickballapurdistrict.

METHODOLOGY

Study area and sample size : Chickballpurdistrict with a major portion of its cultivable land underrainfed agriculture and where tank rehabilitationprogramme is being implemented by JSYS in all thesix taluks under the ongoing extended project area offirst phase during the period 2009-10 was selected forthe study. To estimate the contribution of collectiveaction and collective action supported by actionresearch to farming under tank rehabilitation

programme, the study area was classified into threescenarios of interventions viz., i) CAR scenario withboth collective action by JSYS, OOK and actionresearch by CBTMPCS, UAS, Bangalore ii) CAOscenario with only collective action by JSYS and iii)Control scenario sans tank rehabilitation programme.The sample consisted of 120 farmers with 40 farmersfrom each of the three scenarios.

Data collection and analysis : Primaryinformation for the period 2010-11 was collected fromthe selected farmers by personal interview methodusing a pre-tested structured schedule. The analyticaltechniques used for evaluating the objectives of thecurrent investigation, include inter alia; to estimatewater yield of wells, amortized cost of irrigation, wateruse in each crop, water use efficiency of crops aresummarized below.

Economics of Irrigation : Gross cropped area iscalculated as the sum of area under crops in all seasons.The net cropped area is calculated as the sum of areaunder crops for one season (either kharif or rabi orsummer). Gross irrigated area is the sum of irrigatedarea under all crops in all seasons. Net irrigated areais the sum of irrigated area under all crops in Kharifseason and one season of perennials.

Yield of bore well is obtained through Tabularanalysis using averages and percentages to facilitateeasy comparison among different groups ofbeneficiaries.

Water use efficiency : In economic parlance,water use efficiency is the value of product or outputproduced per unit volume of water consumed. Tocalculate the water use efficiency in the study area athumb rule that 2 inch depth of water is used perirrigation for semi irrigated crops was considered. Incase of paddy, cultivated under traditional method, itwas considered to be 3 inch depth of irrigation waterused per irrigation.

The data on additional irrigations given to thecrops apart from rainfall was collected from thefarmers separately for individual crops

ECONOMIC WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN CROPS UNDER TANK REHABILITATION 159

Additional water applied through irrigation(inches) = Frequency of irrigation * depth of irrigation

Effective rainfall (inches) = 50 per cent of rainfallin the cropping period

Total water used by the crop (acre inches) =(Additional water applied through irrigation + effectiverainfall)* area in acres

A gross return for each crop is total value of theoutput at the prices realized by farmers in the market.

Economic water use efficiency was obtained bydividing gross return of crop by water used by the cropduring cropping period.

Return per acre inch ofwater (Rupees / acre inch)=

Gross return in(Rupees /acre)

Water used (in acreinches)

Output produced inkilograms / acre

Water used in acreinch

Water use efficiency(kg / acre inch) =


Economics of Irrigation : In the area whereCollective action by JSYS was complemented byaction research by CBTMPCS (CAR), croppingintensity was higher (189.19 %) than that in controlarea (107.73 %). The respondent farmers in controlscenario mostly grew only one crop a year as the areaunder irrigation was less because of the defunct tank.Whereas in CAR, most of the area was irrigated bytank and bore wells and water yield from bore wellswas also more by 89.36 per cent compared to controlarea due to good ground water recharge in thecommand area through tank rehabilitation. In CAD(Collective action only scenario) also, croppingintensity (137.26) was more than that in control area.And water yield from bore wells was also higher by60.11 per cent compared to control area due to goodground water recharge through tank rehabilitation.

Irrigation Intensity was more in CAR (145.31 %),followed by CAD (130.83 %) compared to that in

TABLE I

Economics of irrigation in farms undercommand areas under the three scenarios in

Chickballapur district (2010-11)

Particulars

Gross Cropped Area 144.03 62.91 86.13

Net Cropped Area 76.13 45.83 79.95

Cropping Intensity 189.19 137.26 107.73

Gross Irrigated Area 109.53 39.03 49.50

Net Irrigated Area 75.38 29.83 42.50

Irrigation Intensity 145.31 130.83 116.47

Yield of well (GPH) 2809 2375 1483(89.36) (60.11)

CAR(n=40)

CAO(n=40)

Control(n=40)

control scenario (116.47 %). In both these scenariosthe bore wells yielded more water and conjunctiveirrigation was possible due to de siltation work carriedout by TUG (Tank Users Group). This shows theimportance of institutions in tank rehabilitation workwhich enabled proper management of irrigation water.

Economic Water Use Efficiency of major crops :The economic water use efficiency of major crops inthe study area as mentioned in Tables II to VI isdiscussed below.

Paddy : In the Table III, the water use efficiency(WUE) of paddy crop was higher (61.66 Kg / acreinch) in CAR where farmers practiced SRI method ofcultivation of paddy, than in CAO scenario (38.43 Kg/acre inch) where the farmers practiced traditionalmethod of paddy cultivation. Return obtained per acreinch of water used in paddy was also higher in CARby 60 per cent compared to CAO. This was mainly

Note : CAR : Maralur Tank Command area representingCollective action + Action research scenario ;CAO : Kadalaveni Tank Command arearepresenting Collective action only scenario ;Control : Hosur Tank Command areaFigure in the parantheses indicates proportinatechange due to CAR, CAO over control.

160 K. V. BHAGYALAKSHMI AND P. S. SRIKANTHAMURTHY

TABLE II

Comparison of water use efficiency of paddyamong beneficiary farmers with respect toirrigation technology given by CBTMPCS

under JSYS

Particulars

Yield (Kgs / acre) 2360.68 13.49 2080.00Water used (acre inch) 38.04 32.86 56.66WUE 62.06 69.04 36.71Return (Rs.) 27048 18 22863Return per acre inch of 711 76 404water used(Rs. / acre inch)

SRI

Prosportinatechange due

to SRImethod (%)

Traditional

Note : CAR : Maralur Tank Command area representingCollective action + Action research scenario ;CAO :Kadalaveni Tank Command arerepresenting Collective action only scenario

Paddy was not cultivated in control commandarea as tank water was not available

TABLE III

Economic water use efficiency of paddy undertwo scenarios

Particulars

Yield (Kgs / acre) 2352.00 2100.00 12.00Water used (acre inch) 38.14 54.64 -30.19WUE (Kg.acreinch) 61.66 38.,43 60.43Return (Rs.) 27048 24150 12.00Return per acre inch of 709 442 60.00water used(Rs. / acre inch)

CAR CAOProportinatechange due

to CAR(%)

Note : CAR : Maralur Tank Command area representingCollective action + Action researchscenario ;CAO : Kadalaveni Tank Command arerepresenting Collective action only ScenarioPaddy was not cultivated in control command areaas tank water was not available

because; SRI method of paddy cultivation wasdemonstrated on the fields of CAR farmers byCBTMPCS, as part of water managementdemonstration for two seasons. There was a time gapgiven between irrigation schedules, called as on andoff method of irrigation in WMD (Water managementdemonstration), such that there was only one inch ofstanding water when compared to continuoussubmergence of paddy field with two to three inchesof standing water in traditional method followed inCAO. SRI method of irrigation technology provideswater at critical stage of crop growth and increasescrop yield with savings of water as water is a scarceinput in the dry zone. Along with reduced irrigationscheduling, there was wide spacing between the plantsthat increased good aeration and led to more tilleringper plant and hence more yield was obtained in SRImethod. Whereas, in the traditional method plantingwas done in puddled field with low spacing thatresulted in higher use of water and reduced water useefficiency. SRI method was very beneficial to smalland marginal farmers who don’t have access to ownirrigation source. Since SRI method used 30 per centless water the farmers could irrigate more area withthe available water.Within the CAR scenario itself(Table II), we found varying water use efficiency inpaddy crop with different irrigation technologies used.The return per acre inch of water used in paddy crop(Rs. 711) was higher by 76 per cent in beneficiaries ofWMD, undertaken by CBTMPCS, where farmerspracticed SRI method of c:ultivation of paddy, than infarmers who practiced traditional method of paddycultivation and got low returns per acre inch of wateruse (RsA04). SRI method used 33 per cent less watercompared to traditional method.

Maize: In case of maize crop (Table IV), theWUE was higher (165.41 kg / acre inch) in CARcompared to CAO (131.05 kg / acre inch) and controlfarmers (125.08 kg / acre inch), as they adoptedalternate furrow method of irrigation, providedirrigation at critical stages of crop (in case of rainfedfarmers) and used suitable hybrid varieties. Thus,return per acre inch of water was higher in CAR (Rs.1489) than in CAO (Rs.1179) and control (Rs.1126).Water management demonstration in maize fields andagriculture related training activities conducted by


TABLE IV

Economic water use efficiency in maize under three scenarios

Yield (Kg / acre) 2899 18.33 2702 10.29 2450

Water used (acre inch) 17.54 -10.53 20.62 5.26 19.59

WUE (Kg / acre inch) 165.41 32.25 131.05 4.77 125.08

Return per acre (Rs.) 26091 18.33 24318 10.29 22050

Return per acre inch of water used 1489 32.25 1179 4.77 1126(Rs. / acre inch.)

Note : CAR : Maralur Tank Command area representing Collective action + Action research scenario ;CAO : Kadalaveni Tank Command are representing Collective action only scenario ;Control : Hosur Tank Command area

Particulars CARProportinatechange dueto CAR (%)

CAOProportinatechange dueto CAO (%)

Control

CBTMPCS through TUG enabled this betterWUE. When compared to control farmers, the CARfarmers received 18.33 per cent more yield and used10.29 per cent less water. Thus, WUE increased by32.25 per cent in CAR compared to control. WhereasCAO farmers received 10.29 per cent more yield eventhough they used 5.26 per cent more water than controlfarmers who grew maize crop only with rain water,since they had no access to other sources of irrigation.CAO· farmers acquired knowledge throughagricultural training given by CBTMPCS regardingapplication of silt along with fertilizer in balancedproportion which enhances water holding capacity ofsoil and thus requires less water.

Sunflower: Table V shows that in sunflowerWUE varied across different scenarios. WUE washigher in CAR (44.60 kg / acre inch) than in CAO(36.11 kg / acre inch) and in control (34.53 kg / acreinch). Apart from WMD, use of hybrid (Ganga kaveri)seeds recommended by CBTMPCS in CAR resultedin reduced usage of water, increased yield of crop andhence the CAR farmers received more returns per acreinch of water used from this crop (Rs.1338) comparedto other scenarios, that is, Rs. 1083 and Rs.10 19 inCAO and Control, respectively. When compared tocontrol farmers CAR farmers received 26.98 per cent

more yield and used 1.69 per cent less water. Thus,WUE increased by 29.17 per cent in CAR comparedto control by adopting above mentioned irrigationtechnologies.

Brinjal : In case of brinjal crop (Table VI), theWUE was higher (634.23 kg / acre inch) in CARcompared to CAO (590.23 kg/acre inch) and controlfarmers (556.41 kg / acre inch), since they followedthe guidance of CBTMPCS. Thus, return per acre inchof water was higher in CAR (Rs. 2461) than in CAO(Rs.2361) and control (Rs.2170). WMD coupled withknowledge gained through IFSD (Integrated FarmingSystem Demonstration) and adoption of IPM(Integrated Pest Management) through application ofbio pesticides like neem seed kernel extract benefittedthe farmers. When compared to control farmers CARfarmers received 11.83 per cent more yield and used1.89 per cent less water. Thus, WUE increased by13.99 per cent in CAR compared to control. Whereas,CAO farmers received only 3.28 per cent more yield,eventhough they used 2.64 per cent less water thancontrol. Thus WUE in CAO was 6.08 per cent morecompared to control. This was made possible byknowledge acquired through agricultural traininggiven by CBTMPCS as mentioned above in additionto demonstration on silt application.


TABLE V

Economic water use efficiency in sunflower under three scenarios

Yield (Kg / acre) 800 20.98 670 6.35 630

Water used (acre inch) 17.94 -1.69 18.56 1.69 18.25

WUE (Kg / acre inch) 44.60 29.17 36.11 4.58 34.53



Note : 1. CAR : Maralur Tank Command area representing Collective action + Action research Scenario ; CAO : Kadalaveni Tank Command are representing Collective action only Scenario ; Control : Hosur

Tank Command area



Control

TABLE VI

Economic water use efficiency in brinjal under three scenarios

Yield (Kg / acre) 17000 11.83 15699 3.28 15201

Water used (acre inch) 26.80 -1.89 26.60 -2.64 27.32

WUE (Kg / acre inch) 634.23 13.99 590.23 6.08 556.41



Note : Research Scenario ; CAO : Kadalaveni Tank Command are representing Collective action only Scenario; Control : Hosur Tank Command area



Control

The overall water use efficiency in all the majorcrops of the study area, both in agronomic andeconomic terms, was higher in CAR scenariocompared to CAO. CAR farmers were beneficiariesof on field demonstrations conducted by CBTMPCSand JSYS and also recipients of critical inputs andagricultural education trainings. Where as, CAOfarmers did not receive direct benefit from CBTMPCSin the form of incentives and practical experience

through on field demonstrations. However, with thetechnology received through agricultural trainings andassured irrigation from tank and groundwater irrigationsource, CAO farmers achieved better WUE thancontrol farmers. The difference in WUE (agronomicand economic) between CAO and Control scenariosis the contribution of Collective action by JSYS, whilesimilar differences between CAR and CAO indicatesthe contribution of action research by CBTMPCS,UAS, Bangalore.


REFERENCES

ARUNKUMAR, Y. S., 1998, Economic evaluation of watersheddevelopment: a case study of Kuthanagere microwatershed in Karnataka. Ph.D. Thesis, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore.

MOLDEN, D., 1997, Accounting for water use andproductivity, SWIM Paper-I. International WaterManagement Institute, Sri Lanka.

MAMATHA, P., 2005, Externalities in groundwater use ondry land conventional irrigation farms in the SouthernTransition Zone of Karnataka. M.Sc. Thesis,University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.

NAGARAJ, N., SHANKAR, K. AND CHANDRAKANTH, M.G., 2003,Pricing of irrigation water in Cauvery Basin: case ofKabini Command. Economic and Political Weekly,38(43): 4518-4520.

NAVANEETH, B. S., PODDAR, R.S., KUNNAL,L.B., HUGAR,L.B.AND BIRADAR,D.P., 2007, Performance of minorIrrigation in Krishna basin : An Economic Analysis.Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences,21: 532-534.

NIRANJANRAM, B., 1995, Tattamachanahalli tank experimentin desilting, paper presented in the seminar onIrrigation tanks: strategies for development andmanagement, organized at Institute of Engineers(India), Sept 27-28, Bangalore.

OPPEN VON, M. AND SUBBA RAO, K.V., 1987, Tank Irrigationin Semi Arid Tropical India: Economic Evaluationand Alternatives Improvement. Research Bulletin No.

10, International Crops Research Institute for theSemi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh.

PURNIMA, K. S., 2001, A Study on the performance of WaterUser Associations (WUCs) in Khammam District ofAndhra Pradesh, M.Sc. Thesis, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

RAGHED, H. M., GAMESH, M. A., NAFADY, M. H. AND AHMED,A.D., 2000, Growth, yield, water use efficiency andnutrient contents of two bean varieties under trickleand sprinkler irrigation regimes in the New valley.Assiut. J. Agric. Sci, 31(2): 89-117.

SHARMA, B. R. AND CHAUDHARY, T. N., 1989, Watermanagement for rice production in eastern region.National seminar on constraints and prospects ofproductivity in rice based cropping system underirrigation agriculture. October 26-28, 1989 atPratapnagari, Orissa.

SIVASUBRAMANIYAN, K., 2000, Sustainable development ofsmall water bodies in Tamil Nadu. Economic andPolitical weekly, 35: 2854-2863.

SRIPADMINI, R., CHANDRAKANTH, M. G. AND CHANDRASHEKAR,H., 2001, Relative economic performance ofWatershed Development Projects under differentManagement Protocols in Kamataka, TOE-NRE,NATP, Department of Agricultural Economics, UAS,Bangalore.

THAMANADEVI, G. L., 2008, Economic impact of tankrehabilitation on groundwater recharge for sustainableground water use, M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore.



Perception of Paddy Farmers on Climate Change and Adaptation Measures Initiatedin Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka

M. H. SHANKARA, M. SHIVAMURTHY AND B. N. MANJUNATHA


ABSTRACT

The study was conducted to understand the perception and adaptation measures initiated by farmers’ inresponse to climate change. Two important climate change parameters viz., rainfall and temperature during thetime interval before and after the year 2000 were considered for the study. The data was collected from 120respondents in three districts of the Eastern Dry Zone (Zone-5) of Karnataka. The findings indicated that, about94.00 per cent of the farmers opined, there were less number of dry spells, no changes in the onset of timing inrainfall and the quantity of rainfall received was more before the year 2000 which was contrary to the actualrainfall received after the year 2000. With respect to changes in temperature before the year 2000, majority(98.33%) of farmers expressed undecided, that they were not in a position to perceive whether they have experiencedless extreme temperature. 95.83 per cent of the respondents agreed that temperature had not increased and afterthe year 2000, the farmers perceived that there was increase in the temperature, experiencing more extremetemperature and scorching sunshine, no one experienced less extreme temperature and thus indicated there waschanges in the temperature. Regarding adaptation measures initiated by farmers, they have initiated alternativefarming systems in the crop like paddy such as alteration in crop production, soil and water conservation measuresin order to manage the losses or to take advantage of changes in climate.


CLIMATE change is one of the biggest challenges facingthe world today. The effects of global climate changeare many folds and there is need to create awarenesson its impact on various sectors of economy.Agriculture and climate are mutually dependent. Thereis a need to understand the effect of climate changeon agricultural sector both at global and as well as atregional level especially from the point of view ofproviding food to vulnerable section of the population.Changing climatic conditions can have the big effecton human life and environment. According to IPCC(2001) report, increase of CO2 concentration can leadto an equilibrium warming of 2.0 to 4.8°C and alsoobserved that over the 20th century, the mean globalsurface temperature increased by 0.6 °C. Change inweather conditions can be best observed through theextreme rise in temperature, melting of glaciers andsudden rise in sea level. These changes are causingserious problems to human and other forms of life. Itis certain that the poor are likely to be hit hardest byclimate change and the capacity to respond to climatechange is lowest in developing countries. Climatechange will affect agriculture through their direct andindirect effects on crops, soils, livestock, fisheries and

pests. Tropical countries are likely to be affected morecompared to the countries situated in temperateregions. The brunt of environmental changes isexpected to be very high in India due to greaterdependence on agriculture, limited natural resources,alarming increase in human and livestock population,changing pattern in land use and socio-economicfactors that pose a great threat in meeting the food,fibre, fuel and fodder requirement. Winters et al.,(1998) analyzed the impact of global climate changein developing countries by using CGE (ComputableGeneral Equilibrium) multiple market models for threeeconomies representing the poor cereal importingnations of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Resultsshow that all these countries will potentially sufferincome and production losses because of climatechange. There is a likelihood of considerable impacton agricultural land-use due to snow melt, availabilityof irrigation, frequency and intensity of inter and intraseasonal droughts and floods, soil organictransformation, soil erosion and availability of energyas a consequence of global warming, impactingagricultural production and hence, the nations’ foodsecurity. Global warming due to greenhouse effect is

expected to impact hydrological cycle viz.,precipitation, evapo-transpiration, soil moisture etc.,which would pose new challenges for agriculture.

With unpredictable weather, farmers keepchanging crop management practices by growingresistant varieties and be prepared for constant changein the farming practices. Mendelsohn and Dinar (1999)reported that, adaptation was estimated to reduce thepotential damages from climate change from 25 to 15-23 per cent in Indian agriculture. A wide variety ofadaptive actions may be taken to lesson or overcomeadverse effects of climate change on agriculture. Atthe levels of farms, adjustment may include theintroduction of later maturing crop varieties or species,switching cropping sequences, sowing earlier,adjusting timing of field operations, conserving soilmoisture through appropriate tillage methods andimproving irrigation efficiency, Rosenzwieg andDaniel (1993). Impacts of climate change arediversified and need to be understood, so as to workoutpragmatic strategies to mitigate ill-effects of climatechange. With this background, this study wasconducted to understand the farmers’ perception andadaptation measures initiated in paddy crop due toclimate change in the Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka.

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted in the Eastern Dry Zone(Zone-5) of Karnataka. Based on the existence of highrange of variability in rainfall and temperature (since20 years), three taluks Ramanagar (kasaba),Chickballapur (kasaba) and Tumkur (kasaba) werechosen. From each of the selected taluks, four villageswere selected randomly. Thus, 12 villages wereconsidered for the study. From each of the selectedvillage ten respondents were selected by applyingproportionate random sampling. Thus, the data werecollected from 120 respondents with the help of a pre-tested schedule. For the purpose of data collection,respondents were selected between the age group of25 to 60 years with farming experience of 10 -40 yearsin order to elicit the accurate information regardingperception of climate change and their adaptationmeasures due to climate change. The respondents wereasked to indicate their responses for each of thestatements on three-point continuum viz., Agree,

Undecided and Disagree with a scoring pattern of 2, 1and 0, respectively for each of the statements, if it iscorrectly perceived by the farmers as per themeteorological data otherwise the scoring was reversedas 0, 1 and 2. The scores for adaptation measuresintroduced in terms of changing crops, varieties, timeof planting etc. was given. Three major aspects ofcrop production, soil and water conservation measureswere considered for assessing adaptation. Adaptationof farmers due to climate change was assessed for twotime period i.e. before and after 2000. There weretwo and three response categories as adaptationmeasures ‘Initiated’ and ‘Not initiated’ with a scoreof 1 and 0, respectively and ‘Increased’, ‘Decreased’and ‘No change’ with scoring of 2, 1 and 0, respectivelyunder before and after 2000 was given. The data werescored, tabulated and analyzed using percentage,mean, standard deviation and sign test.


Perception of farmers about changes in therainfall : Climate plays a crucial game withagriculture, particularly rainfall. Agriculture basicallydepends on monsoon and other climate parameters,even narrow fluctuation in normal rainfall can affectthe farming more severely. With this it is important toknow the perception of farmers about climate change.

Data presented in Table I, depicts the perceptionof farmers about changes in the rainfall between twotime intervals such as before and after 2000. 94.00per cent of the farmers opined, there were less numberof dry spells and only 5.83 per cent of them expressedas undecided on the same statement, while 90.00 percent of them opined that, there were no changes in theonset timing of rainfall and amount of rainfall wasmore before 2000. Similarly, about 88.34 per cent offarmers perceived that there was no change in therainfall pattern, majority (87.50%) of farmers opinedthat there was no change in the rainfall during cropgrowth period and 85.83 per cent of them agreed thatnumber of rainy days were more, before 2000. Theperception of farmers about rainfall pattern changebefore 2000 was on par with meteorological data. Theprobable reasons for this might be that in earlier days

166 M. H. SHANKARA et al.

TABLE I

Perception of farmers about changes in the rainfall pattern before and after 2000

farmers were growing more food grains and less waterrequirement crops as they never faced water shortage.

Contrary to the perception of rainfall pattern,after 2000 all farmers (100 %) perceived that therewas changes in the onset timing of rainfall, changesin the rainfall during crop growth period and therewas changes in the rainfall pattern. Majority (99. 17%)opined that dry spells were more and 97.5 per cent ofthem agreed that amount of rainfall and rainy dayswere less. The perception of farmers about rainfallpattern change after 2000 was opposite to themeteorological data. In recent years, farmers weremore interested on commercial and high water requiredcrops instead of food grains. This may be probablereason for expressing water shortage in spite ofincrease in quantity of rainfall after 2000 as perceivedby farmers.

Perception of farmers about changes intemperature : Farmers perception about changes inthe temperature between two time intervals such asbefore and after 2000 is presented in Table II. Withrespect to farmers perception of changes in thetemperature before 2000, a majority (98.33%) offarmers were expressed undecided, that they were notin position to perceive whether they have experiencedless extreme temperature. 95.83 per cent ofrespondents agreed that temperature had not increasedand majority (95.00%) of them opined that they hadnot experienced higher extreme temperature, scorchingsunshine followed by warm winters and there was nochanges in the temperature. 92.50 per cent of farmersagreed that summers were not warmer. The perceptionof farmers about temperature change before 2000 wascontrary with meteorological data. The probablereasons for this might be, farmers were more keen on

PERCEPTION OF PADDY FARMERS ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION MEASURES INITIATED IN EASTERN DRY ZONE 167

Statements Agree Un-decided

Disagree Agree Un-decided

Disagree

Before 2000 Before 2000

(n=120)

No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent

Number of rainy days 103 85.83 17 14.17 – – – – 3 2.50 117 97.50(>2.5 mm) were more

Amount of rainfall was 108 90.00 12 10.00 – – – – 3 2.50 117 97.50more

There was changes in the 5 4.17 7 5.83 108 90.00 120 100.00 – – – –onset timing of rainfall

More dry spells – – 7 5.83 113 94.17 119 99.17 1 0.83 – –

There was changes in the 9 7.50 6 5.00 105 87.50 120 100.00 – – – –rainfall during crop growthperiod (July -October)

There was no changes in the 106 88.34 6 5.00 8 6.66 – – – – 120100.00rainfall pattern

changes in the rainfall pattern before 2000 than onvariation in temperature. According to them, foodproduction to a large extent depend on rainfall whencompared to the effect of temperature.

After 2000, the farmers perceived that there wasincrease in the temperature, experienced more extremetemperature and scorching sunshine, no oneexperienced less extreme temperature. They furtherrepeated that there was changes in the temperature andthey agreed that summers were getting warmer.However, 97.50 per cent of farmers opined that winterswere getting warmer. The perception of farmers abouttemperature change after 2000 was on par withmeteorological data. The probable reasons for thismight be, they were experiencing extreme highertemperature and came to know that crop growth wasalso affected by temperature along with rainfall in thesame extent based on their experience.

Adaptation measures initiated by rice growersin response to climate change : A cursory look at theTable III reveals that, 120 respondents wereconsidered for the study, out of these there were only49 respondents had cultivated rice. The data werecollected with respect to adaptation measures initiatedby the rice growers and presented in the Table III. Itcould be observed that all farmers (100 %) have nottaken any adaptation measures like changing varietiesfrom long to short duration, from short to longduration, changing of rice crop to other alternativecrops, changing in the planting dates, spacing betweenrows and plants, quantity of fertilizer application,quantity of seeds, number of plant protection chemicalsprays and irrigation due to changes in the climatebefore 2000 in the rice production.

A further look in the Table, it could be seen thatafter 2000 in rice production, all the farmers (100 %)

TABLE II

Perception of farmers about changes in temperature before and after 2000


Statements Agree Un-decided

Disagree Agree Un-decided

Disagree


(n=120)

No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent

There was increase in – – 5 4.17 115 95.83 120 100.00 – – – –the temperature

Experienced more – – 6 5.00 114 95.00 120 100.00 – – – –extreme temperature

Experienced more 2 1.67 118 98.33 – – – – – – 120 100.00extreme temperature

Experienced scorching – – 6 5.00 114 95.00 120 100.00 – – – –sun shine

Summer was getting – – 9 7.50 111 92.50 100 83.33 – – – –warmer

Winter was getting – – 6 5.00 114 95.00 117 97.50 3 2.50 – –warmer

There was no changes 114 95.00 6 5.00 – – – – – – 120 100.00in the rainfall pattern

TABLE III

Adaptation measures initiated by rice growers in response to climate change

PERCEPTION OF PADDY FARMERS ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION MEASURES INITIATED IN EASTERN DRY ZONE 169

Particulars Initiated Not initiated


(n=49)

No. Per cent

1. Changed from long – – 49 100.00 29 59.18 20 40.82duration to short durationvarieties

i. Prakash to Rashi – – – – 5 10.20 – –

ii. Jaya to Mangala – – – – 4 8.16 – –

iii. Mandya Vijay to Rashi – – – – 18 36.73 – –

vi. Mandya Vijay to IR 20 – – – – 2 4.08 – –

2. Changed from shortduration to long duration – – 49 100.00 8 16.32 41 83.68varieties

i. IR 20 to Jaya – – – – 5 10.20 – –

ii. Rashi to Prakash – – – – 3 6.12 – –

3. Changed from rice to – – 49 10.00 20 40.82 29 59.18other crops

i. Paddy to Arecanut – – – – 3 6.12 – –

ii. Paddy to Ragi – – – – 11 22.45 – –

iii. Paddy to Redgram – – – – 6 12.24 – –

4. Changed in the planting – – 49 100.00 49 100.00 – –dates

5. Spacing between the – – – – 49 100.00 25 51.00 – – 24 49.00rows/plants

6. Quantity of seeds used – – – – 49 100.00 49 100.00 – – – –

7. Quantity of fertilizer – – – – 49 100.00 49 100.00 – – – –application

8. Number of irrigations given – – – – 49 100.00 49 100.00 – – – –

9. Number of times plant – – – – 49 100.00 49 100.00 – – – –protection chemicals sprayed

Initiated Not initiated

No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent

Increased Decreased No change Increased Decreased No change

No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per centNo. Per centNo. Per cent

have changed the planting dates of rice, increased thequantity of fertilizer, seeds, number of irrigations, plantprotection chemical sprays. 51.00 per cent of ricegrowers had increased the spacing between plants androws, while, 59.18 per cent had changed variety fromlong to short duration and most (62.06 %) of themshifted from Mandya Vijay variety to Rashi followedby Prakash to Rashi (17.24%), Jaya to Mangala (13.80%) and Mandya Vijay to IR 20 (6.90 %) and only 16.32per cent changed short to long duration varieties suchas IR 20 to Jaya (62.50 %) and Rashi to Prakash(37.50%). 40.81 per cent of farmers changed rice cropproduction to other crops like ragi (55.00 %) followedby redgram (30.00 %) and arecanut (15.00 %) due toclimate change after 2000 in rice production.

The study shows that, farmers were havingmedium to high level of perception about climatechange before the year 2000 and after the year 2000,and they are in the position to perceive the changes inrainfall pattern and temperature over a period of timeas well its impact on farming practices. Still there is ascope to improve the system which provides earlywarning and to create awareness among people aboutthe climate change in order to avoid the ill-effects innear future and it is a lightning call for the policymakers and development department officials toimplement suitable programmes to build confidenceand to improve status of farmers by making farmingas a profitable occupation. After perceiving the

changes in climate and its impact on agriculture, thefarmers have to play an important role of how toovercome the adverse affects by initiating manyalternate strategies in crop production. There is anemerging need to make their life stabilized andsustainable under such circumstances as farmers werefacing many problems or constraints to take upadaptation measures to overcome the ill effects ofclimate change.

REFERENCES

IPCC., 2001, Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability, MCCARTHY, J.J.,CANZIANI, O.F., LEARY,N.A., DOKKEN, D.J. AND WHITE, K.S., (eds.),Cambridge: Third Assessment Report: CambridgeUniversity Press.

MENDELSOHN, R. AND DINAR, A., 1999, Climate Change,Agriculture and Developing Countries: DoesAdaptation Matter? The World Bank ResearchObserver 14: p. 277-293.

ROSENZWIEG, C. AND DANIEL HILLEL., 1993, Agriculture inGreen House World: Potential Consequences ofClimate Change. National Geographic Research andExploration vol. 9, p. 208-221.

WINTERS, P., MURGAI, R, SADOULET, E., DE JANVERY, A. AND

FRISVOLD, G., 1998, Economic and Welfare Impactsof Climate Change on Developing Countries.Environmental and Resource Economics 12 : 1–24.


(Received : September, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Knowledge and Adopion of Recommended Technologies in Groundnut Cultivationamong FLD and non FLD Farmers

M. S. JYOTHI AND T. N. ANAND


ABSTRACT

The study was taken up to find out the extent of adoption of recommended technologies among FLD andnon-FLD farmers in groundnut cultivation. The study was conducted in Hassan district of Karnataka. Consideringthe demonstrations conducted on groundnut crop in the period 2000-2003, 30 FLD and 30 non-FLD farmerswere selected randomly, to serve as respondents for the study. The results revealed that, among FLD farmers 50per cent belong to high knowledge category followed by medium (46.6%) and low (3.3%). Whereas, 70 per centof non-FLD farmers belong to medium knowledge category followed by high (20%) and low (10%) knowledgecategory. Majority of FLD farmers fully adopted recommended technologies in groundnut cultivation. Whereas,majority of non-FLD farmers adopted the practices like land preparation, seed rate, season and interculturaloperations, while, majority of them not used rhizobium, PSB and gypsum this was because farmers had sufficientknowledge about the demonstration practices and coupled with force of the scientists to apply the recommendedamount of inputs may be motivating factors for adoption of these practices by FLD farmers.


GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea. L) is the major oilseedcrop of India occupying 7.5 million hectare with anannual production of about 6 million tonnes againstan acreage of 8.9 million hectares and a production ofabout 17.8 million tonnes in the entire world. There isneed to increase the groundnut production in ourcountry. Despite more than 70 per cent of area underoil seeds being rainfed, the productivity and productionhas to be increased by the development and adoptionof improved production technologies. (Anon., 2002).The transfer of technology projects sponsored by theIndian Council of Agricultural Research areresponsible for the implementation of frontlinedemonstrations as an unique type of demonstrationswith a view to demonstrate the yield potential withimproved technology and also in guiding the stateextension functionaries and other agencies involvedin the transfer of agricultural and allied technologies.

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted during 2004-05 inArasikere taluk of Hassan district, Karnataka whereKrishi Vigyana Kendra (KVK), Kandali, Hassan,conducted frontline demonstrations. Considering thenumber of frontline demonstrations conducted ongroundnut during 2000-2003, only one taluk from

Hassan district was purposively selected. During theperiod between 2000 and 2003, K.V.K. Kandali hadconducted as many as 35 frontline demonstrations ongroundnut in three villages of Arasikere taluk. Fromeach village, ten frontline demonstration farmers wererandomly selected and ten non-FLD (non participant)farmers who were also groundnut growers wererandomly selected as the control farmers. Thus, a totalof 60 farmers constituted the sample for the study.


Knowledge of farmers regarding specifictechnologies of groundnut cultivation : The Table Idepicts the knowledge of FLD and non-FLD farmersregarding specific technologies of groundnutcultivation. All the FLD and non-FLD farmers hadthe knowledge of land preparation and sowing season.Further, all the FLD farmers had the knowledge ofseed rate, improved variety, application of gypsum andavoiding intercultivation after 45 days. More than 90per cent of FLD farmers had the knowledge ofapplication of FYM three weeks in advance, spacing,PSB, application of entire fertilizer as basal dose,passing kunte at 30 and 40 days after sowing andspraying of plant protection chemicals. Whereas, 87per cent of FLD farmers had the knowledge of

TABLE I

Comparison of FLD and non-FLD farmers according to their knowledge of technologies ingroundnut cultivation

Technologies

Land preparation 30 100.0 - - 30 100.0 - -

Use of seed rate 30 100.0 - - 16 53.3 14 46.7

Use of improved variety 30 100.0 - - 20 66.6 10 30.0

Application of FYM three 27 90.0 3 10.0 26 86.7 4 13.3weeks in advance

Sowing season 30 100.0 - - 30 100.0 - -

Spacing: 30 × 15 cm 28 93.3 2 6.7 5 16.7 25 83.3

Rhizobium treatment to seeds 26 86.7 4 13.3 10 33.3 20 66.7

Application of PSB with FYM 29 96.7 1 3.3 5 16.7 25 83.3

Application of Gypsum 30 100.0 - - 15 50.0 15 50.0

Application of entire fertilizers 28 93.3 2 6.7 19 63.3 11 36.7as basal dose

Passing Kunte:30 days after sowing 28 93.3 2 6.7 26 86.7 4 13.3

40 days after sowing 27 90.0 3 10.0 22 73.3 8 26.

Avoiding intercultivation 30 100.0 0.0 0.0 23 76.7 7 23.3after 45 days

Chemicals spraying :at 48th day : 28 93.3 2 6.7 13 43.3 17 56.7

at 68th day 27 90 3 10.0 10 33.3 20 66.7

Use of 200 lit. solution per spray 28 93.3 2 6.7 3 10.0 27 90.0

(n=30)

FLDs

Known

No. Per cent

Not known

No. Per cent

Non-FLDs

Known

No. Per cent

Not known

No. Per cent

rhizobium treatment to seeds. Eighty seven per centof the non-FLD farmers had the knowledge ofapplication of FYM three weeks in advance andpassing at 30 days after sowing followed by avoidingintercultivation after 45 days (76.7%), passing kunteat 40 days after sowing (73.3%), improved variety(66.6%), seed rate (53.3%) and application of gypsum(50%). The possible reasons for this difference mightbe due to their involvement in the frontlinedemonstrations, educational activities as well asfrequent contacts with subject matter specialists wholaid out the frontline demonstrations. This is apart from

having better access for personal with the extensionstaff raising questions, getting clarifications etc., whichenable them to acquire more knowledge on newtechnology. These findings are in agreement with thefindings of Channabasavaiah (1981) Kamarudeen(1981) and Subramaniam and Sripaul (1978).

Mean knowledge score of FLD and non-FLDfarmers : The data presented in Table II indicates themean overall knowledge score of FLD and non-FLDfarmers regarding specific technologies in groundnutcultivation. The mean knowledge score was 15.30 for

172 M. S. JYOTHI AND T. N. ANAND

FLD farmers 15.30 3.97 14.32**

Non-FLD farmers 11.33


Farmerscategory

TABLE II

Mean knowledge score of FLD and Non-FLDfarmers regarding specific technologies in

groundnut cultivation(n=30)

Meanknowledge

score

Meandifference ‘t’ value

FLD farmers and 11.33 for non-FLD farmers.However, the difference in the mean score (3.97) wasfound to be highly significant. The possible reasonsmay be due to the training provided to FLD farmersduring demonstration period and contact withextension personnel.

Distribution of FLD and non-FLD farmersaccording to their level of knowledge : It is seenfrom the Table III that, among FLD farmers 50 percent belong to high knowledge category followed bymedium (46.6%) and low (3.3%). Whereas, 70 percent of non-FLD farmers belong to medium knowledgecategory followed by high (20%) and low (10%)knowledge category. The possible reason might be dueto involvement of FLD farmers in training programme.Whereas, 70 per cent of the non-FLD farmers have

Low 1 3.3 3 10.0

Medium 14 46.6 21 70.0

High 15 50.0 6 20.0

Total 30 100.0 30 100.0

Category

TABLE III

Classification of FLD and Non-FLD farmersbased on the knowledge of technologies in

groundnut cultivation

(n=60)

Per centNo.

Non-FLD (n=30)

Per centNo.

FLD (n=30)

medium knowledge may be due to interaction withthe neighboring FLD farmers and extension personnel.

Adoption of specific technologies in groundnutcultivation : It could be seen from Table IV, that centper cent of FLD and non-FLD farmers fully adoptedland preparation, used improved variety followed thecorrect sowing season and avoided inter-cultivationafter 45 days. Majority of the FLD farmers adoptedthe seed rate (60 %), spacing (70 %), rhizobiumtreatment to seeds (66.6 %), application of PSB (63.3%), application of gypsum (70 %), passing kunte after30 days (90 %) and passing kunte after 40 days (80%) fully, whereas, 56.6 per cent each of the FLDfarmers partially adopted the technology of applicationof FYM 3 weeks in advance and application of entirefertilizer as basal dose and 56.6 per cent of them hadnot sprayed the chemicals at 68th day. Further, themajority of the non-FLD farmers fully adopted theseed rate (86.7 %), grown during the correct season(63.3 %), passing kunte at 30 days (90%) and also 40days (66.6 %) after sowing and avoided inter-cultivation after 45 days fully, whereas, the majorityof the non-FLD farmers adopted the practices ofapplication of FYM 3 weeks in advance (63.3 %) andspacing (83.3 %) partially. The majority of the nonFLD farmers had not used improved variety, cent percent of them had not applied PSB with FYM. Majorityof them had not used rhizobium, gypsum and plantprotection chemicals. FLD farmers were fully involvedin the activities around demonstrations that motivatedthem to adopt the improved cultivation practices. It isquite natural that when the farmer had sufficientknowledge about the demonstration practices andcoupled with force of the scientists to apply therecommended amount of inputs may be motivatingfactors for adoption of these practices by FLD farmers,and also when their attitude towards a technology waspositive then they are prone for adoption. The findingsis in full conformity with those of Beher and Sahoo(1975), Kantharaj (1980)), Sharma and Daipuria(1989) and Subramaniam (1978).

Mean adoption score of FLD and non-FLDfarmers : Table V reveals the mean of adoption scoreof FLD farmers was 24.13 and 19.06 for non FLD

KNOWLEDGE AND ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED TECHNOLOGIES IN GROUNDNUT CULTIVATION 173

TAB

LE I

V

Dis

trib

utio

n of

FLD

and

non

-FLD

farm

ers a

ccor

ding

to th

eir a

dopt

ion

of te

chno

logi

es in

cul

tivat

ion

of g

roun

dnut

Land

pre

para

tion

3010

0-

--

-30

100

--

--

Use

of s

eed

rate

1860

1240

--

2686

.74

13.

3-

-U

se o

f im

prov

ed v

arie

ty30

100

--

--

930

--

2273

.3A

pplic

atio

n of

FY

M 3

wee

ks12

4017

56.6

13.

37

23.3

1963

.34

13.3

in a

dvan

ceSo

win

g se

ason

3010

00

00

019

63.3

13.

310

33.3

Spac

ing:

30

× 15

cm

2170

930

--

516

.725

83.3

--

Rhi

zobi

um tr

eatm

ent

2066

.65

16.7

516

.78

26.7

13.

321

70A

pplic

atio

n of

PSB

with

FY

M19

63.3

26.

79

30-

--

-30

100

App

licat

ion

of g

ypsu

m21

70

516

.74

13.3

930

310

1756

.6A

pplic

atio

n of

ent

ire fe

rtiliz

ers

1033

.317

56.6

310

310

1550

1240

as b

asal

dos

ePa

ssin

g K

unte

: at

30 d

ays a

fter s

owin

g27

90-

-3

1027

90-

-3

1040

day

s afte

r sow

ing

2480

--

620

2066

.6-

-10

33.3

Avoi

ding

inte

r cul

tivat

ion

afte

r 45

days

3010

0

--

-

-26

86.7

--

413

.3

Che

mic

als s

pray

ing

: at

48th d

ay12

4012

407

23.3

516

.76

2019

63.3

68th d

ay4

13.3

930

1756

.68

26.7

--

2273

.3

Use

of 2

00 li

t. pe

r spr

ay12

405

16.7

1343

.32

6.7

--

2893

.3

Tech

nolo

gies

FLD

(n=3

0)N

on F

LD (n

=30)

Parti

ally

adop

ted

No.

Per c

ent

Non

-ad

opte

d

No.

Per c

ent

Ado

pted

No.

Per c

ent

Parti

ally

adop

ted

No.

Per

cent

Ado

pted

No.

Per c

ent

Non

-ad

opte

d

No.

Per

cent

174 M. S. JYOTHI AND T. N. ANAND

FLD farmers 24.13 5.07 4.231**

Non-FLD farmers 19.06


Farmerscategory

TABLE V

Mean adoption score of FLD and Non-FLDfarmers regarding specific technologies in

groundnut cultivation(n=60)

Meanknowledge

score

Meandifference ‘t’ value

farmers. The difference in the mean score was 5.07,which was found to be highly significant. The possiblereason may be due to knowledge of all the technologiesamong FLD farmers as compared to non-FLD farmers.

Distribution of FLD and non-FLD farmersaccording to their level of adoption : Table VI revealedthat majority of FLD farmers belongs to medium(60%) adoption category followed by high and low.While, 66 per cent of non-FLD farmers belong tomedium adoption category followed by low and highthe possible reason may be due the guidance ofscientists to apply all the recommended technologiesand also motivational factors may influence them toadopt. Whereas, non-FLD farmers use their own seeds

Low 5 16.7 6 20.0

Medium 18 60.0 20 66.7

High 7 23.3 4 13.3

Total 30 100.0 30 100.0

Category

TABLE VI

Classification of FLD and Non-FLD farmersbased on the adoption of specific technologies

in groundnut cultivation(n=60)

Per centNo.

Non-FLD (n=30)

Per centNo.

FLD (n=30)

and locally available inputs may be due to lack ofknowledge.

It can be concluded from the results that a greatmajority of FLD farmers had the knowledge oftechnologies in cultivation of groundnut, whereas,majority of non- FLD farmers did not have theknowledge of spacing, rhizobium treatment,application of PSB, gypsum and plant protectionmeasures. Fifty per cent of the FLD farmers had highknowledge level followed by medium (46.60%) level,while, 70 per cent of the non-FLD farmers had mediumlevel of knowledge. Most of the technologies werefully adopted by FLD farmers. However, variationswere observed in non FLD farmers

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS, 2002-03, Annual Report, DARE / ICAR,New Delli : 169.

BEHERE, C. AND SAHOO, M. S., 1975, Impact of Nationaldemonstration on adoption of Agricultural practices,Indian J. Extn. Edn., 11: 32.

CHANNABASAVAIAH, 1981, Influence of redgramdemonstration on farmers of Bangalore district. M.Sc.(Agri.) thesis (unpub.), Univ. of Agric. Sci.,Bangalore.

KAMARUDEEN, M., 1981, A Study on the impact of Nationaldemonstration programme on paddy cultivation InTrichur district, M.Sc. Thesis (Unpub.) College ofAgriculture, Vellayani, Trivandrum.

KANTHARAJ, J., 1980, A study of knowledge, extent ofadoption and appropriateness of sunflowertechnology among growers. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis(unpub.), Univ. of Agric. Sci., Bangalore

SHARMA, R. P. AND DAIPURIA, O. P., 1989, Impact ofdemonstrations on oilseed crops. Maharashtra J.Extn. Edu.., 8 : 218-219.

SUBRAMANIAM, V. S. AND SRIPAUL, K. B., 1978, A study offactors influencing farmers in the adoption ofrecommended farm practices for milletes (cholamand cumbu) in irrigated and dryland. Researchprojects No. RI, Ag. Extn. 203, Dept. of Agri. Extn.,Agrl. College, Tamil Nadu Agril. University,Coimbatore.

KNOWLEDGE AND ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED TECHNOLOGIES IN GROUNDNUT CULTIVATION 175

(Received : October, 2012 Accepted : January, 2013)

Mysore J. Agric, Sci., 47 (1) : 176-179, 2013 Research Note

MAIZE (Zea mays, L.) has a greater significanceworldwide as human food, animal feed and finds usewith large hidden potential for exploitation led to therenowned Nobel literate Dr. Norman E. Borlaug tosay that after the last two decades which saw therevolution in rice and wheat, the next couple of decadeswill be known as the maize era. In India, the areaunder maize cultivation increased from about 3 millionha in 1949 to about 9.85 million ha in 2009-10, while,the production increase was from 2.05 million tonnesin 1949-50 to about 17.30 million tonnes in 2009-10(Govila et al., 2010). In India, about 35 per cent of themaize produced is used for human consumption, 25per cent each in poultry feed and cattle feed and 15per cent in food processing like corn flakes, pop cornetc., and in other industries mainly starch, dextrose,corn syrup and corn oil etc. Maize is known as Miraclecrop and “Queen of Cereals”, because of its highproduction potential and wider adaptability. InKarnataka maize is grown in an area of 0.93 m haproducing 2.63 m t with a productivity of 2970 kgha–1 (Anon., 2010). It has been made possible toharvest bumper yields of maize under rainfedconditions. Maize is grown during all the three seasonsof the year viz., kharif, rabi and summer seasons.Important maize growing districts in Karnataka areBelgaum, Dharwad, Davanagere, Mandya, Haveri,Bengaluru, Mysore, Hassan and Chikkamagalur. Therainfed crops of the region like cotton, tobacco,groundnut, ragi and sorghum have been replaced bymaize. In the last decade also this crop registeredincrease in area and productivity. The yield levels ofthe state are higher when compared to the nationalaverage, but, far below the levels of developed /temperate countries. It has been made possible toharvest bumper yields of maize under rainfedconditions. Maize is grown during all the three seasonsof the year viz., kharif, rabi and summer seasons. Foodgrain production has increased by 50 per cent due tofertilizer use. Green revolution in India witnessedphenomenal increase in fertilizer consumption and itmay not be desirable to spend huge sum of moneytowards the import of fertilizer. Moreover, the presenthike in the chemical fertilizers has compelled the

Performance of Hybrid Maize (Zea mays, L.) to Plant Density and Different Nutrientsunder Rainfed Condition

Indian farmers to resort to imbalanced nutrition ofcrops and thus, reduction in crop yields. At this criticaljuncture, there is an urgent need to optimize nutrientrecycling to sustain crop production without affectingsoil health and protecting environment from pollution.

Experiments were conducted during kharif 2008and rabi 2008-09 at Zonal Agricultural ResearchStation, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,Bangalore. The soil of the experimental site was redsandy clay loam. Composite samples were drawn fromthe experimental site before the experiment was carriedout and analyzed for mechanical composition andchemical properties. The soil of the experimental sitewas slightly acidic in reaction (pH 6.54 and 6.60) andorganic carbon content was low (0.42 and 0.45 %).The soil was low in available nitrogen (189 and 200kg ha–1), medium in available phosphorus (29.45 and32.8 kg ha–1) and medium in available potassium(220.9 and 236.11 kg ha–1). DTPA extractable zinc(0.35 and 0.37 ppm) and hot water soluble boron were(0.5 and 6 ppm), and were found to be deficient. Theexperiment was laid out in split plot design with threereplications. There was 15 treatment combinationsconsisiting two levels viz., three main spacings levels(60 × 30 cm, 45 × 30 cm and 30 × 30 cm) and fiveleavels (N1-Recommended dose of fertilizer + FYMincluding Zinc, N2- Recommended dose of fertilizer+ FYM including Zinc + Azotobacter chroococcum,N3- 125 per cent Recommended dose of fertilizer +Aztobacter chroococcum, N4- 150 per centRecommended dose of fertilizer + Azotobacterchroococcum, N5- Recommended dose of fertilizer +FYM including Zinc + Boron). The hybrid maizeNAH 2049 (Nithyshri) was sown at different geometryon kharif 25th crop was sown during June 2008 andrabi crop was sown during 29th October 2008. Thefurrows were opened in between two pairs of maizerows and one row of intercrop was sown as pertreatment details with an intra row spacing asrecommended in the package of practices forrespective crops under pure stand treatments. Acommon dose of fertilizers @ 100:50:25 kg NPK perha was applied to maize both for pure crop.

A perusal of the data (Table I and II) indicatedthat growth yield and yield components of maize. Plantspacing adjustment is an important agronomicmanipulation for attaining higher yields. Maintenance

of optimum plant population helps to utilize availablemoisture, nutrients, solar radiation efficiently andenable the crop to produce higher yields. In the presentinvestigation, intra-row spacing of 30 cm with an inter

Main plot (M)S1 168.63 263.72 3.21 101.12 23.72 524.79 16.38S2 178.95 250.14 4.08 128.49 23.78 429.36 14.60S3 175.03 219.82 4.88 154.65 22.87 283.33 11.95SEm+ 1.54 4.28 0.31 9.79 0.04 28.78 0.43CD at 5 % 4.96 14.65 1.05 32.55 0.12 97.60 1.54Sub plot (S)N1 164.50 233.16 3.61 113.94 23.12 390.16 13.85N2 169.14 237.55 3.85 121.27 23.22 396.19 14.00N3 175.04 244.01 4.01 129.42 23.55 408.53 14.31N4 179.25 249.83 4.18 132.01 23.59 422.05 14.51N5 183.09 258.27 4.63 143.79 23.82 445.54 14.88SEm+ 2.58 2.16 0.24 4.94 0.09 12.89 0.36CD at 5 % 8.20 7.10 0.72 16.93 0.28 39.14 1.08Interaction (M × S)S1N1 158.17 252.27 3.39 103.86 23.33 507.13 16.04S1N2 162.83 257.80 2.93 95.46 23.53 512.08 16.19S1N3 169.32 264.71 3.15 102.86 23.83 515.24 16.36S1N4 173.83 269.01 3.21 100.75 23.92 536.86 16.60S1N5 179.00 274.83 3.36 102.65 24.02 552.65 16.72S2N1 169.17 236.42 4.13 125.95 23.60 403.08 14.18S2N2 174.40 245.12 5.27 151.58 23.52 409.50 14.21S2N3 179.50 247.14 5.21 135.10 23.87 422.68 14.48S2N4 184.43 256.22 2.27 112.48 23.77 433.91 14.65S2N5 187.28 265.82 3.51 117.33 24.14 477.65 15.47S3N1 166.17 210.78 3.32 112.01 22.43 260.27 11.33S3N2 170.18 209.73 3.35 116.76 22.60 266.98 11.59S3N3 176.30 220.16 3.67 150.31 22.95 287.68 12.10S3N4 179.50 224.28 7.06 182.80 23.08 295.39 12.27S3N5 183.00 234.16 7.00 211.39 23.29 306.32 12.46Sub plot at same level of main plotSEm+ 4.03 8.16 0.26 10.88 0.34 22.98 0.91CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS NSSub plot at same or different level of main plotSEm+ 3.95 7.00 0.28 9 .10 0.33 36.12 0.89CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS

TABLE IPlant height (cm), total dry matter (g), LAI, LAD, 100-grain weight (g), number of grains cob–1 and number

of rows cob–1 as influenced by plant spacing and nutrient levels (kharif and rabi 2008-09 Pooled)

TreatmentsPlantheight(cm)

Total drymatter(g/plot)

LAILAD

(Days)100-Grainweight (g)

Numberof grains

cob–1

Numberof rowscob–1

PERFORMANCE HYBRID MAIZE TO PLANT DENSITY AND NUTRIENTS 177

Main plot(M)S1 18.21 7.56 6535 7604 34701S2 16.32 6.87 6782 8293 36693S3 14.73 5.65 6663 7979 35580SEm+ 0.69 0.53 36.23 104.23 387.80CD at 5% 2.05 1.67 139.36 489.10 1147.00Sub plot (S)N1 15.40 6.40 6466 7566 34804N2 15.92 6.48 6504 7843 34863N3 16.46 6.66 6668 8076 35620N4 16.94 6.84 6786 8092 35101N5 17.40 7.08 6877 8217 37901SEm+ 0.36 0.13 67.84 76.99 698CD at 5% 0.98 0.45 217.14 236.9 2894Interaction (M × S)S1N1 16.87 7.33 6308 7294 33569S1N2 17.68 7.27 6360 7270 33744S1N3 18.36 7.60 6568 7698 34880S1N4 18.89 7.70 6639 7801 33963S1N5 19.27 7.90 6800 7958 37349S2N1 15.35 6.57 6585 7678 35812S2N2 15.74 6.68 6634 8354 35963S2N3 16.27 6.77 6751 8359 36324S2N4 16.83 7.00 6958 8436 36562S2N5 17.43 7.33 6984 8640 38803S3N1 14.00 5.30 6505 7725 35029S3N2 14.33 5.50 6518 7906 34883S3N3 14.75 5.60 6684 8171 35656S3N4 15.09 5.83 6760 8041 34779S3N5 15.50 6.00 6848 8053 37552Sub plot at same level of main plotSEm+ 1.09 0.26 131.4 233.8 111.6CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NSSub plot at same or different level of main plotSEm+ 1.07 0.48 128.8 229.2 1093.3CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS

Note :Maize grain: Rs.8.40 Kg-1

Stover : Rs.0.40 Kg-1

TABLE IICob length (cm), cob girth (g), grain yield, (kg ha–1) stover yield (kg ha–1) and net returns (Rs. ha–1) as

influenced by plant spacing and nutrient levels (kharif and rabi 2008-09 Pooled)

coblength(cm)

Cobgirth(cm)

Grainyield

(kg ha–1)

Stoveryield

(kg ha–1)

Netreturns

(Rs. ha–1)

row spacing of 60, 45 and 30 cm were maintained.Among the plant spacings, significantly higher plantheight (169.46 cm ), Decrease in plant spacing from60 × 30 to 30 cm × 30 cm and resulted in decrease in

yield components such as number of cob length (14.73cm), cob diameter (5.58 cm ), number of rows cob-1

(11.95) and number of grains cob-1 (283.33 ), grainyield ha–1 (6782 kg), stover yield ha–1 (8293 kg) and

178 K. P. ASHOKA et al.

net returns ha–1 (Rs.36693) were recorded in plantspacing of 45 × 30 cm (74,074 plants ha–1) over theother spacing levels. However, yield increase wasnoticed in spacing of 45 × 30 cm (74,074 plantsha–1) and further increase up to 30 × 30 cm of spacing( 1,11,111 plants ha–1 ) though there was decline inyield (Table I). This clearly indicates that the declinein yield components was more compensated withincrease in plant density per unit area. This is inaccordance with the finding of Maddonni et al. (2006)in maize; and Vishalu (2007). The results revealed thatthe differences in grain yield on maize due to nutrientlevels were significant. Application of RDF + FYMincluding Zinc + Boron recorded significantly higherplant height (183.09 cm ), total dry matter (258.27 gplant–1), LAI (4.63), LAD (143.79 days), hundred-grain weight (23.82 g), number of grains cob–1

(445.54), cob length, (17.40 cm), cob girth (7.08cm), grain yield (6877 kg ha–1), stover yield (8217 kgha–1) and net returns (Rs. 37,901 ha–1) followed by150 per cent RDF + Azotobacter chroococccum and125 per cent RDF with Azotobacter chroococccumwhich found significantly on par with each other.Similar results on increasing grain yield withincreasing nutrient source levels were reported byRajeshwari, et al. (2007), Ashoka Kumar et al. (2008)and Ali Yawar Seerat et al. (2012 ).The markedresponse in grain yield of maize due to Boronapplication may be attributed to deficiency of Boronin the experimental soil and major nutrientscombination of organics increased the grain fruitingin maize (reduced empty ears) as stated by Yiying Liand Hong Liang (2007).

Department of Agronomy P. ASHOKA,College of Agriculture, T. K. PRABHAKAR SETTY,UAS, GKVK, N. KRISHNAMURTHY,Bangalore-560065 K. R. SREERAMULU

REFERENCES

ALI YAWAR SEERAT, DHANAPAL, G. N., SHANKAR, M. A.,KRISHNAMURTHY, N., UMESH, M. R. AND MANJUNATHA,H. M., 2012, Effect of integrated nutrient managementon growth and yield of rained maize in Alfisols, MysoreJ. Agric, Sci., 46 (4) : 913-916, 2012

ANONYMOUS, 2010, Annual Report, published byDepartment of Agriculture and Co-operation, GOI,New Delhi.

ASHOKA KUMAR., 2008, Influence of varying plant populationand nitrogen levels on growth, yield, economicsand nitrogen use efficiency of popcorn. Crop Res.,37 (1, 2 & 3) : 19-23.

GOVILA, O. P., SINGH, A.K., SINGH, S.N. AND PRABHU, K.V.,2010, improving productivity of cereals throughgenetic enhancement. Indian Farming, 54(12): 8-13.

RAJESHWARI, R. S., HEBSUR, N. S., PRADEEP, H. M. AND

BHARAMAGOUDAR, T. D., 2007, Effect of integratednitrogen management on growth and yield of maize.Karnataka J. Agril. Sci., 20 (2) : 399-400.

VISHALU, 2007, Response of hybrid maize to plant densitiesand fertilizer levels under rainfed condition.M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore

YIYING LI AND HONG LANG, 2007, Soil boron content and theeffects of boron application on yields of maize,soybean, rice and sugarbeet in Heilogjiang Province,P.R. China, In : Boron in Soils and Plants. Ed. R.W.Bell and B. Rerkasem. Kulwer Academic Publishers.Netherlands. 17-21.

PERFORMANCE HYBRID MAIZE TO PLANT DENSITY AND NUTRIENTS 179



In vitro Evaluation of Botanicals, Bioagents and Fungicides against Alternaria solanicausing Early Blight on Tomato

EARLY blight [Alternaria solani (Ellis and Martin)Jones and Grout] is one of the most destructivediseases of tomato [Solanum lycopersicum]causing 35to 78 per cent reduction in yield. Although, severalchemicals are available for the management of cropdiseases, continuous and inappropriate use of toxicchemicals cause undesirable effects such as residualtoxicity, development of resistance, environmentalpollution and health hazards to human and animals.Hence, attention is now being focused on developingenvironmentally safe, economic and effectivealternative for the management of plant diseases. Anumber of plant species and antagonist micro-organisms known to possess fungi-toxicant properties.Keeping this in view, eight botanicals, fourteenbioagents and nine fungicides were evaluated againstthe pathogeninin vitro.

The pathogen Alternaria solani was isolated byfollowing standard tissue isolation method. Afteridentification they were transferred to PDA slants andincubated at 27±10C for further use.

In vitro evaluation of bioagents against A. solani:The efficacy of ten fungal and four bacterialantagonists was evaluated against A. solani using dualculture technique through radial growth inhibition onthe potato dextrose agar medium.

The data pertaining to the effect of bioagents onthe fungal growth taken at 4 and 9 days after incubationand the data are presented in Table I. The per centinhibition of the bioagents was higher at 9 days than 4days after inoculation. It ranged from 42.55 to 62.80at 4 days after inoculation and 63.97 to 100 at 9 daysafter inoculation. Among the fungal antagonists weretested, T. harzianum- BCRL, T. harzianum-IIHR 20,T. viride–BCRL, T. viride–NBAII, T. viride-IIHR 22,T. viride-IIHR 27 were completely inhibited the fungalgrowth (100 %) followed by T.harzianum-NBAII (92.21%), T. viride-UAS(78.97 %),Trichoderma harzianum–UAS (74.41 %) and T. viride-IIHR 56 (63.97 %) at 9 days after inoculation. Theresults are in agreement with the work of Babu et al.(2000a) who reported that, the six species T. harzianum

exerted the highest inhibition of the mycelial growthof early blight of tomato followed by T. viride.Martinez and Solano (1995) also reported theantagonism of ten Trichoderma strains against A.

TABLE I

In vitro evaluation of fungal antagonists againstAlternaria solani causing early blight disease

on tomato

Treatment

Trichoderma viride-IIHR 56 42.55 63.97

Trichoderma viride-UAS 62.25 78.97

Trichoderma viride-NBAII 62.80 100.00

Trichoderma viride-BCRL 53.14 100.00



Trichoderma harzianum-IIHR 20 59.67 100.00

Trichoderma harzianum-UAS 56.32 74.41

Trichoderma harzianum-NBAII 52.84 92.21

Trichoderma harzianum-BCRL 46.14 100.00

SEm ± 3.08 2.60

CD (1%) 11.63 10.04

*DAI : days after inoculation

Per cent inhibitionover control

solani.

Among the bacterial antagonists, Bacillus spp.-BCRL gave higher growth inhibition (61.65 %) thanP. fluorescens-BCRL (60.81 %), P. fluorescens-UAS(59.37 %) and Bacillus subtilis-UAS (58.10 %)(Table II). However, growth inhibition was on paramongstthe bacterial antagonists. Babuet al. (2000b)reported that all the six P. fluorescensstrains showedsignificant growth inhibition of A. solani.

In vitro evaluation of botanicals againstAlternariasolani: The present investigation wascarried out to evaluate the plant extracts collected fromdifferent plant species to know the possible presence

4 DAI* 9 DAI*

of fungi-toxicant properties against early blightpathogen. The poisoned food technique was followedto evaluate the efficacy of botanicals in laboratoryagainst A. solani at concentrations of 5, 10 and 15 percent with three replications.

The plant extracts inhibited the growth of funguswith increasing concentration in the medium. Amongthe eight plant extracts evaluated, garlic bulb extractat 15 per cent concentration, was found best ininhibiting the mycelial growth of A. solani (67.41 %)and found significantly superior over all the otherextracts, followed by Clerodendron leaf (65.19 %),Ginger rhizome (62.59 %), Eucalyptus leaf (55.93 %),Polyalthia leaf (53.33 %) and Neem leaf (48.15 %).The least inhibition of mycelial growth of A. solaniwas recorded with extracts of Communist weed leaf(8.52 %) followed by Bougainvilla leaf (10.37 %) at5 per cent concentration (Table III). The results werein agreement with the work of Arunakumara (2006)who reported that among ten plant extracts,Clerodendron inerme Gaertn leaf extract was foundeffective inhibiting mycelia growth of A. solanifollowed by Eucalyptus globules Labill andEupatorium oduratum L.

In vitro evaluation of fungicides againstAlternaria solani: The efficacy of three systemic andsix non-systemic fungicides were evaluated against

TABLE II

In vitro evalution of bacterial antagonistsagainst Alternaria solani causing early blight

disease on tomato

Pseudomonas fluorescens- BCRL 60.75 60.81

Pseudomonas fluorescens- UAS 56.86 59.37

Bacillus spp. - BCRL 60.79 61.65

Bacillus subtilis- UAS 58.68 58.10

Control 0.00 0.00

SEm ± 1.58 1.45

CD(1%) 6.04 5.51

*DAI : days after inoculation

TreatmentPer cent inhibition

over control4 DAI* 9 DAI*

TABLE IIIIn vitro evaluation of botanicals against Alternaria solani causing early blight disease on tomato

Botanicals

Bougainvilla leaf extract (Bougainvillea species L.) 10.37 19.26 44.07 24.57

Clerodendron leaf extract (Clerodendron inerme Gaertn) 29.26 49.26 65.19 47.90

Neem leaf extract (Azadirachta indica Juss) 18.52 27.78 48.15 31.48

Ginger rhizome extract (Zingiber officinale) 38.15 48.15 62.59 49.63

Communist weed leaf extract (Eupatorium oduratum L.) 8.52 13.33 23.33 15.06

Polyalthia leaf extract (Polyalthia longifolia L.) 28.15 40.00 53.33 40.49

Eucalyptus leaf extract (Eucalyptus globules Labill) 28.89 41.11 55.93 41.98

Garlic bulb extract (Allium sativum L.) 32.96 50.00 67.41 50.12

Botanicals Concentration B x C(B) (C)

SEm ± 0.92 0.53 1.06

CD (1%) 3.48 2.01 6.03

Per cent inhibition

5 per cent 10 per cent 15 per cent mean

IN VITRO EVALUATION OF BOTANICALS, BIOAGENTS AND FUNGICIDES 181

(C-T) I = ——————— × 100

C

A. solani at three concentrations on potato dextroseagar using poisoned food technique. Non systemicfungicides were tested in laboratory at concentrationof 500, 750 and 1000 ppm and systemic fungicides at100, 250 and 500 ppm with three replications in eachtreatment. The radial growth of the fungus on thepoisoned medium was recorded at 12 days afterinoculation. The per cent inhibition of mycelial growthof the fungus was calculated by using the formula byVincent (1927).

Where, I = Per cent inhibition

C = Radial growth in control

T= Radial growth in treatment (fungicide / botanicals / bioagents)

The data was analyzed for significant differencesby analysis of variance (ANOVA) with treatmentmeans comparison using the least significantdifference (LSD) (P=0.01) by Fisher’s protected LSDtest.

Among the six non systemic fungicidesevaluated, Avtar 72 WP at 1000 ppm, completelyinhibited the fungus growth (100 %) and significantlysuperior over other treatments, followed by Quintal50WP (88.89 %), Ridomil 68WP (86.30 %), Saaf75WP (82.96 %). Least growth inhibition wasobserved in Blitox 50WP (77.04 %) followed byIndofil M-45 75WP (77.79 %). Higher concentrationof the fungicides was found more effective against A.solani compared to lower concentrations. Avtar 72 WPwas found completely inhibiting the mycelial growthof A. solani at 1000 ppm and found significantlysuperior over the other lower concentrations (TableIV). The results are similar to the report of Arunkumar(2008) where the Carbendazim 25 per cent + Iprodione25 per cent (Quintal) and Carbendazim 12 per cent +Mancozeb 63 per cent (Saaf) were effective ininhibiting mycelia growth of Alternaria alternate.

Among the different systemic fungicides, per centinhibition of Tilt 25EC at 500 ppm (100%) gavecomplete inhibition of the fungus growth, followedby Contaf 5EC (93.70 %) (Table V). The leastinhibition of mycelial growth was observed in Beam75WP (64.07 %) at 500 ppm and it was not effectivein reduction of growth of the fungus at 100 ppm

TABLE IVIn vitro evaluation of non-systemic fungicides against Alternaria solani

Common name concentration

Blitox 50WP Copper oxy chloride 50WP 58.15 69.63 77.04 68.27

Saaf 75 WP Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63% 49.26 61.85 82.96 64.69

Indofil M-45 75WP Mancozeb 54.81 58.89 77.78 63.83

Quintal 50 WP Carbendazim 25%+ Iprodione 25% 55.93 67.04 88.89 70.62

Ridomil 68WP Metalaxyl 4% + Mancozeb 64% 55.56 71.85 86.30 71.23

Avtar 72 WP Hexaconazole 4% + Zineb 68% 84.07 87.78 100.00 90.62

Fungicide (F Concentration (C) F x C

SEm ± 0.66 0.43 1.15

CD (1%) 2.53 1.66 4.38

Per cent inhibition

500 ppm 750 ppm 1000 ppm meanTrade name

182 NGUYEN KHANH NGOC et al.

(Received : November, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)

TABLE VIn vitro evaluation of systemic fungicides against Alternaria solani

Common name concentration

Beam 75WP Tricyclazole 17.04 43.70 64.07 41.60

Contaf 5EC Hexaconazole 84.81 88.15 93.70 88.89

Tilt 25EC Propiconazole 85.19 90.37 100.00 91.85

Fungicide (F) Concentration ( C) F x C

SEm ± 0.47 0.41 0.83

CD (1%) 1.89 1.64 3.28

Per cent inhibition

100 ppm 250 ppm 500 ppm meanTrade name

(17.04%). Tilt 25EC was found less effective with85.19 per cent reduction in growth of A. solani at 100ppm than at 250 ppm (90.37%) and 500 ppm (100%).The results are in agreement with Arunakumara(2006),among the systemic fungicides evaluated against A.solani Propiconazole (84.57%) gave maximuminhibition of the mycelial growth of pathogen.

In conclusion, the study revealed that thebioagent, T. harzianum,botonicals of Garlic bulbextract and the fungicide Avtar were found best ininhibiting the mycelial growth of A. solani and theseproducts can exploit in the management of early blightof tomato after confirming in field evaluation.

Department of Plant Pathology NGUYEN KHANH NGOC,College of Agriculture, T.NARENDRAPPA,UAS, GKVK, USHA NANDINI

Bangalore-560065

REFERENCES

ARUNAKUMARA, K. T., 2006, Studies on Alternaria solani(Ellis and Martin) Jones and Grout causing early blightof tomato. M. Sc. (Agri) Thesis. Unvi. Agri. Sci.,Dharwad (India), 70pp.

ARUNKUMAR, G. S., 2008, Studies on leaf blight ofchrysanthemum caused by Alternaria alternata(Fr.)Keissler. M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agri. Sci.,Dharwad (India), 85pp.

BABU, S., SEETHARAMAN, K., NANDAKUMAR, R. AND JOHNSON,I., 2000a, Biocontrol efficacy of Pseudomonasfluorescens against Alternaria solanian tomato leafblight disease. Ann. Plant Protect. Sci., 8 (2): 252-254.

BABU, S., SEETHARAMAN, K., NANDAKUMAR, R. AND JOHNSON,I., 2000b, Efficacy of fungal antagonists against leafblight of tomato caused by Alternaria solani (Ell. andMart.). J. Biol. Control, 14 (2): 79-81.

VINCENT, J. M., 1927, Distortion of fungal hypae in thepresence of certain inhibitors. Nature, 159: 239-241.

IN VITRO EVALUATION OF BOTANICALS, BIOAGENTS AND FUNGICIDES 183


Training Materials used by Trainers in National Seed Project Training Programmes

TRAINING materials are appropriate instuctionalmaterials, equipments and aids. These should be : (a)suitable to the subject matter and physical situation,(b) available in time and (c) skillfully used. Trainingtools provide means to a trainer for achieving thetraining objectives by communicating subject mattercontent and related skills to the participants. Theseare very vital in the sense that without these, a trainerbecomes handicapped to impart the trainingeffectively. Most common methods are blackboard,charts, slides, transparencies, audio and video learningmodules.To use training materials effectively, trainersshould view using the materials as a means to an endand not the end itself. The basic purpose of trainingmaterial is to support the trainer or presenter, byensuring that their verbal presentation is as acceptableas possible with ensuring maximum learning. Thebenefits offered by training material, include varietyand retention, greater impact, recall reinforcement, aidto clarity and conciseness, consistency and quality ofthought (Leslie, 1998).

National Seed Project (NSP) located in theUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore wasstarted during 1979-80 with the financial assistanceof World Bank and with a grant in aid fromGovernment of India. One of the mandated activitiesof NSP is to organize educational activities (trainings,demonstrations, meetings, field days etc.) to thefarmers on seed production, processing, testing andstorage. With this background, the present study wascarried out to know the extent of use of trainingmaterials and the problmes faced by trainers in usingthe training materials in the training programmesorganised by National Seed Project.

The study was conducted in National SeedProject (NSP) located in University of AgriculturalSciences, Bangalore (UASB) during 2010-2011.Trainers included the research and teaching staffs ofUASB, who were offering trainings in the NSPconstituted the population of the study. Forty sixtrainers were regularly offering trainings in National

Seed Project. Of which, 30 trainers were randomlyselected to know the extent of use of training materialsused by them in the training programmes. Data werecollected using a pre-tested interview schedule fromthe trainers. Ex-post-facto research design wasfollowed in the present study.

Nine training materials viz., bulletin, flip charts,posters, transparencies, models, specimens, whiteboard, power point presentation and slide projectorwere selected for the purpose of the study to knowtheir extent of use by the trainers in the trainingprogrammes. The collected data were scored, tabulatedand analyzed using frequency, mean and percentage.

Table I reveals that a overwhelming majority oftrainers (93.33 %) were regularly using power pointpresentation, followed by posters (46.67 %) andspecimen (46.67 %) as materials for conducting thetraining programmes. More number of trainers hadoccasionally used models (53.33 %), white board(50.00 %), transparencies (50.00 %), bulletin (46.67%), flip chart (46.67 %) and slide projector (40.00%). About one third of the trainers had never usedslide projector (36.67 %), transparencies (33.33 %)and flip chart (33.33 %) in the training programmes.

It is heartening to note that the trainers have usedall the nine selected training materials (bulletin, flipchart, posters, transparencies, models, specimens,white board, power point presentation and slideprojector) in varied proportions for teaching andtraining the trainees in the training programmesorganized by National Seed Project. The differentialuse of training materials is due to various degree ofefforts put by the trainers in collecting and preparingthe training materials. The findings are in line withthe findings of Lakshminarayan (1992) andManjunatha et al. (1996).

Table II reveals that 36.67 per cent of the trainerswere belonging to medium users of training materials,whereas, 33.33 and 30.00 per cent of the trainers werelow and high users of the training materials,respectively in the training programmes organized by

Bulletin 8 26.67 14 46.66 8 26.67Flip chart 6 20.00 14 46.67 10 33.33Posters 14 46.67 9 30.00 7 23.33Transparencies 5 16.67 15 50.00 10 33.33Models 6 20.00 16 53.33 8 26.67Specimens 14 46.67 10 33.33 6 20.00White board 11 36.67 15 50.00 4 13.33Power Point presentation 28 93.33 2 6.67 0 0.00Slide projector 7 23.33 12 40.00 11 36.67

*Multiple responses possible

TABLE ITraining materials used by trainers in the training programmes

Training materials Regularly Occasionally Never

No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent

Extent of use of training materials

TABLE II

Extent of use of training materials by trainers

Category

High 9 30.00

Medium 11 36.67

Low 10 33.33

Total 30 100.00

Trainers

Number Per cent

(n=30)

National Seed Project. Lack of training materials andlack of time to prepare the training materials are thereasons for majority of trainers (70.00 %) belongingto low / medium users of training materials in thetraining programmes conducted by National SeedProject.

The data pertaining to the problems faced by thetrainers in using the training materials during trainingprogrammes organized by National Seed Project ispresented in Table III. Insufficient supporting staff,inappropriate timing of training, absence of feedbackmechanism, lack of appropriate incentives to trainers

TABLE III

Problems encountered by trainers in usingtraining materials during training programmes

Problems

Administrative constraints 17 56.67Facilitative constraints 20 66.67Financial constraints 18 60.00Technical constraints 16 53.33Social constraints 12 40.00

*Multiple responses possible

Trainers

Number Per cent

(n=30)

and too much administrative procedure in organizingthe training programmes were the administrativeconstraints faced by 56.67 per cent of the trainers. Thefacilitative problems faced by majority of the trainers(66.67 %) are lack of infrastructure facilities,inadequate supply of training materials, no properfacilities to store training materials and non -availability of live specimens and training materialson time. Lack of adequate funds to buy trainingmaterials was the financial problem faced by majority(60 %) of the trainers. More than half of the trainers

TRAINING MATERIALS USED BY TRAINERS IN NATIONAL SEED PROJECT TRAINING PROGRAMMES 185

(n=30)

(53.33 %) faced technical problems such as lack oftraining opportunities and guidance for trainers onthe use of training materials and lack of competentpersonnel in preparation or operating trainingequipments. Illiteracy of trainees, more number oftrainees in a training programme and lack ofparticipation of trainees in interaction and socialgathering are the social problems faced by 40 per centof the trainers while conducting the training organizedby National Seed Project.

It is a matter of concern that a majority of trainers(70 %) were low / medium users of training materialsin the training programmes. Periodic and intensivetraining programmes should help the trainers to acquirenecessary knowledge and skill in using trainingmaterials effectively. Besides, provision of adequatefunds by National Seed Project for purchase of trainingmaterials and deputing competent personnel to operate

training equipments will help the trainers for effectiveuse of training materials in the training programmes.

National Seed Project, GAPARAYI PROSPER

UAS, GKVK, S. M. PILLE GOWDA

Bangalore-560 065

REFERENCES

MANJUNATHA, B. N., LAKSHMINARAYAN, M. T. AND PILLEGOWDA,S. M., 1996, Use of extension teaching methods andjob performance of Agricultural Assistant. Mysore J.Agri. Sci., 30 (4): 300-303.

LAKSHMINARAYAN, M. T., 1992, Extension teaching methodsused by Agricutlural Assistants. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis(Unpub.), Univ. Agri. Sci., Bangalore.

LESLIE. R., 1998, Using training aids in training anddevelopment. Published by Kogan Page Limited

186 GAPARAYI PROSPER AND S. M. PILLE GOWDA

(Received : January, 2012 Accepted : February, 2013)


Influence of Growth Regulators on Growth and Flowering of China Aster[Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees]

CHINA aster belongs to the family Asteraceae and isone of the most popular flowering annuals, native toChina and has spread to Europe and other countriesduring 1731 AD (Desai, 1967). It is an importantcommercial ornamental annual, grown in many partsof the world. It is grown for its loose flowers as wellas cut flowers. It is also used as a dry flower. Thewide spectrum of colour ranges available in china asterare violet, deep pink, pink, light pink, creamy white,white, blue, purple, yellow, red, rose-pink and lavenderhave made it popular. Hardy nature, year roundproduction, ease in cultivation, short duration,applicability and long shelf-life has made it popularamong annual cut flowers. In recent years, the use ofsynthetic plant growth regulators have gainedmomentum as a practical tool for crop regulation, morepractically for cut flower production. Hence, thepresent investigation was undertaken to study effectsof growth regulators on growth and flowering of chinaaster.

A field experiment was conducted at theDepartment of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,GKVK, UAS, Bangalore during 2010-11. The soil ofthe experimental site was sandy loam.

The treatments included gibberellic acid (GA3@ 50, 100 & 150 ppm) and cycocel (CCC @ 1000,2000 & 3000 ppm) along with drip irrigation and blackpolyethylene mulch (40 μ), each replicated thrice in aRandomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Thegrowth regulators were sprayed at 15, 30 and 45 daysintervals after transplanting as foliar spray.Observations on growth traits and flowering traits wererecorded at 15 days intervals. Length of the leaf at 45days after planting was recorded by measuring it fromthe stalk of the leaf to tip of the leaf along the midriband width was recorded at the widest breadth of theleaf lamina. Leaf area per plant was computed bymultiplying length of leaf, width of leaf, number ofleaves per plant and conversion factor altogether andexpressed in square centimetre per plant (Rao andSwamy, 1984). Similarly average of the five randomly

tagged plants was calculated and expressed as squarecentimetre per plant.

Growth traits: Height of the plant differedsignificantly on 30th and 45th day after transplanting.On 30th day after transplanting, treatments T2, T4 andT3 which were on par with each other recorded higherheight of plant (11.33, 9.97 and 8.50 cm, respectively),while, the rest were on par with each recorded lowerheight of plant. On 45th day after transplanting,treatments T5, T4, T3 and T2 were on par with eachother recorded higher height of plant (27.31, 26.81,21.00 and 20.77 cm, respectively), while, the rest wereon par with each other recorded lower height of plant.Significant differences were observed between thetreatments in respect of number of leaves per plant on30th and 45th day after transplanting. On 30th day aftertransplanting, treatments T7 and T6 were on par witheach other recorded more number of leaves per plant(37.20 and 35.73, respectively), while, T1 (20.93)recorded the least number of leaves per plant. On 45th

day after transplanting, treatments T5, T7, T6, and T5(71.53, 76.00, 72.80, and 69.53, respectively) whichwere on par with each other recorded more number ofleaves per plant, while T2 and T1 (50.88 and 48.53,respectively) were on par with each other recordedlower number of leaves per plant. Number of lateralsper plant differed significantly between the treatmentson 45th day after transplanting. Treatments T5, T7 andT6 (11.30, 12.20 and 9.30, respectively) were on parwith each other recorded maximum number of lateralsper plant, while, the rest which were on par with eachrecorded minimum number of laterals per plant.Significant differences were observed between thetreatments on 45th day after transplanting in respect ofleaf area per plant. Treatment T7 (2245.55 sq. cm.)recorded the maximum leaf area per plant, while, T1recorded the minimum leaf area per plant (1442.51sq. cm).

It is evident from the results obtained that heightof plant was found to be negatively associated withnumber of leaves per plant, number of laterals per plantand leaf area per plant. The treatments which have

influenced in enhancing the height of plant haveeffected in producing lower number of leaves per plant,number of laterals per plant and leaf area per plant.Similarly, the treatments which have influencing inshortening the stature of plants have effected inproducing more number of leaves per plant, numberof laterals per plant and leaf area per plant. The resultshave clearly indicated that gibberellic acid hasproduced taller statured china aster plants with lowernumber of leaves per plant, number of laterals per plantand leaf area per plant. Whereas, cycocel has producedshorter statured plants with more number ofleaves per plant, number of laterals per plant and leafarea per plant. And, as expected, control hasrecorded the minimum values in all the attributes ofgrowth.

The role of gibberellic acid in increasing theheight of plant may be attributed to elongationresulting in increase in internodal length leading totaller statured plants due to enhanced elongation ofstem. Photosynthates might have diverted towards theprocess for the sustenance of the elongated stemresulting in reduced availability of photosynthates toother growth attributes such as number ofleaves per plant, number of laterals per plant andleafarea per plant which has decreased theirnumber or area as the case may be (Table I). Theresults are in accordance with Ramesh et al. (2001) inchina aster, Yang Zin Qiang et al. (2008), inchrysanthemum Mohariya (2003) in chrysanthemumand Talukdar and Paswan (1994) in chrysanthemum.

T1 : Control 3.35 7.97 16.70 10.73 20.93 48.53 8.67 1442.51T2 : BPM+DI 3.50 8.10 20.77 12.60 25.40 50.88 9.13 1512.37T3: GA3 @ 50 ppm 3.77 8.50 21.00 13.13 26.29 58.00 8.33 1706.03 +BPM+DIT4 : GA3 @ 100 ppm 3.70 9.97 26.81 13.33 29.53 65.33 7.77 1942.94 +BPM+DIT5 : GA3 @ 150 ppm 3.61 11.33 27.31 12.47 32.80 69.35 7.17 2048.58 +BPM+DIT6 : CCC @ 1000 ppm 3.50 8.13 19.52 12.80 35.73 72.80 9.30 2171.84 + BPM+DIT7 : CCC @ 2000 ppm 3.43 6.20 17.37 12.60 37.20 76.00 12.20 2245.55 + BPM+DIT8: CCC @ 3000 ppm 3.37 5.87 16.30 12.67 33.20 71.53 11.33 2115.96 + BPM+DI‘F’test NS * * NS * * * *S.Em± 0.22 0.95 2.31 0.60 1.15 2.89 1.00 7.26C.D. at 5% - 2.88 7.02 - 3.49 8.77 3.02 22.04

Note : * Significant at 5 % level NS : Non SignificantGA3 : Gibberellic AcidCCC : 2 Chloroethyl Trimethyl Ammonium ChlorideBPM : Black Polyethylene Mulch (40μ)DI : Drip IrrigationDAT : Days After Transplanting

TABLE IInfluence of growth regulators, black polyethylene mulch (40μ) and drip irrigation on growth of china aster

TreatmentHeight of plant (cm)

15thDAT

30thDAT

45thDAT

Number of leaves / plant

15thDAT

30thDAT

45thDAT

Number oflaterials /

plant

Leaf area/ plant(cm2)

45th DAT

188 L. G. SRIKANTH et al.

Flowering traits: Significant differences wereobtained between the treatments for days to firstflowering. Treatments T5, T4 and T3 which were onpar with each other took least number of days for firstflowering (69.00, 70.00 and 71.67 days, respectively),while, T8 took the maximum number of days for firstflowering (78.29 days). Similarly, days to fifty per centflowering differed significantly between thetreatments. Treatment T5 took least number of daysfor fifty per cent flowering (75.00 days), while T7 andT5 which were on par with each other took maximumnumber of days for fifty per cent flowering (84.33 and85.00 days, respectively). Likewise, significantdifferences were obtained between the treatments forduration of flowering. Treatment T5 recorded themaximum duration of flowering (36.00 days), while,T5 and T4 which were on par with each other recordedminimum duration of flowering (27.00 and 28.67 days,respectively).

It is quite evident from the results on floweringattributes that gibberellic acid and cycocel haveworked in opposite directions. But, interesting thingrevealed by the results is that earliness in floweringhas reduced duration of flowering and vice-versa.Whereas, days to first flowering or days to fifty percent flowering was found to be positively correlatedwith duration of flowering. Similar was the case ofdelayedness in flowering with duration of flowering.The growth regulators effects are also seen in theflowering behaviour like early and delayed floweringand duration of flowering.

Less number of days taken for first flowering andfifty per cent flowering in china aster in gibberellicacid treated plants might be due to the effect ofgibberellic acid which normally promotes floweringby reducing the juvenile period (Table II). The resultsare in accordance with Joythi and Seemanthini (1997)

T1:Control 76.00 81.33 30.00

T2:BPM+DI 74.00 80.67 32.00

T3: GA3 @ 50 ppm + BPM+DI 71.67 79.33 30.00

T4: GA3 @ 100 ppm + BPM+DI 70.43 77.67 28.67

T5: GA3 @ 150 ppm + BPM+DI 69.00 75.00 27.00

T6: CCC @ 1000 ppm + BPM+DI 72.00 79.00 31.00

T7: CCC @ 2000 ppm + BPM+DI 75.33 84.33 33.33

T 8: CCC @ 3000 ppm + BPM+DI 78.29 85.00 36.00

‘F’test * * *

S.Em± 0.83 0.86 0.69

C.D.at 5% 2.52 2.62 2.10

* Significant at 5 % levelGA3 : Gibberellic AcidCCC : 2 Chloroethyl Trimethyl Ammonium ChlorideBPM : Black Polyethylene Mulch (40μ)DI : Drip Irrigation

TABLE IIInfluence of growth regulators on flowering of china aster

Treatment Days tofirst

flowering

Days tofifty per

centflowering

Duration offlowering

(days)

INFLUENCE OF GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH AND FLOWERING OF CHINA ASTER 189

in chrysanthemum, Patel et al. (2010) inchrysanthemum, Nandre et al. (2009) in china aster,Dalal et al. (2009) in chrysanthemum and Katkar etal. (2003) in china aster.

For increasing the height of the plant andinducing early flowering gibberellic acid @ 150 ppm+ black polyethylene mulch (40μ) + drip irrigation ashas proved to be the best. Whereas, for extending theduration of flowering cycocel @ 2000 ppm + blackpolyethylene mulch (40μ) + drip Irrigation has provedto be the best.

Department of Horticulture, L. G. SRIKANTH,College of Agriculture, G. GOPINATH,GKVK, UAS, R. KRISHNA MANOHAR

Bangalore-560 065.

REFERENCES

DESAI, B. L., 1967, Seasonal Flowers, ICAR publ. NewDelhi, pp. 53-56.

DALAL, S. R., KARALE, G. D., KALKAME AND MOMIN, C. H.,2009, Effect of growth regulators on growth, yieldand quality of chrysanthemum under net houseconditions. Asian J. Hort., 4(1): 161-163.

JYOTHI AND SEEMANTHINI, 1997, Growth and floweringresponse of chrysanthemum to growth regulatortreatments. Orissa J. Hort., 25 (2): 81-86.

KATKAR, P. R., NAIK, D. M., BOODAMWAD, S. G. AND GHARAT,S. N., 2003, Influence of plant growth regulators onflowering, quality and yield of flower in china aster

cv. California Giant Mix. South Indian Hort.,53(1-6): 378-381.

MOHARIYA, A. D., PATIL, B. N., WANKHEDE, J. G., BAND, P.E., BOKEY, S. P. AND DORKAE, A. R., 2003, Responseof different varieties of chrysanthemum to growthregulators. Ad. Plant Sci., 16(1): 93-96.

NANDRE, D. R., NAVANDAR, U. O. AND ARCHANA D.WATANE,2009, Effect of growth regulators on growth, floweringand yield of china aster. Asian J. Hort., 4(1): 50-51.

PATEL, S. R., PAREKH, N. S., PARMAR, A. R. AND PATEL, H. C.,2010, Effect of growth regulators on growth, floweringand yield of chrysanthemum cv. “IIHR-6” undermiddle Gujarat conditions. International J. Agric. Sci.,6(1): 243-245.

RAMESH, K. M., SELVARAJAN, M. AND CHEZHIYAN, N., 2001,Effect of certain growth substances and salicylic acidon the growth and yield of china aster cv. Kamini.Orissa J. Hort., 29(2): 41-45.

TALUKDAR, M. C. AND PASWAN, L., 1994, Effect of GA3 andCCC on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum(Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev.) cv. Tumruli.Horticultural J. 7(2): 141-144.

YANG ZAI QIANG, LUOWEIHONG, CHENFADI, XIEYIPING AND

ZHANG MAOQIONG, 2008, Effect of Gibberllins ondevelopment and external quality of single flower cutDendranthema morifolium. Pl. Physiol. Comm. 44(6):122-127.

190 L. G. SRIKANTH et al.

(Received : September, 2011 Accepted : February, 2013)


Impact of Farmers Field School on Knowledge Level of Mulberry Growers aboutIntegrated Nutrient Management Practices

FARMERS field school (FFS) is basically a virtual schoolin-situ where the farmers are given hands-on trainingon various productivity enhancement technologieswith a primary focus on learning by doing. The FFSincludes, discussion, meetings, on-farm trials,demonstration, training and field day. The objectiveof FFS is to expose farmers on various agriculturetechnologies, test and validate them under their ownmanagement conditions so as to improve adoption oftechnologies by the farmers. FFS is a group activityinvolving 25- 30 farmers who learn continuouslyduring the cropping period. (Gopal et al., 2010). FFSapproach relies on participatory training methods toconvey knowledge to the participants and equip themtechnically (Nagaraja et al., 2008). In FFS, theextension worker serve as facilitator and a group of25-30 farmers serves as collaborator and participants.One farmer is selected as a collaborator (who conductsdemonstration in his field under the supervision offacilitator), while other farmers serve as participantsof the FFS.

The first ever farmers field school was startedon Integrated Pest Management to control brown planthopper pest in paddy during 1989 in Central Java ofIndonesia to reduce farmers reliance on pesticides.This approach was introduced by Food and AgricultureOrganization as an attempt to find solution forcontrolling brown plant hopper pest in paddy. FFSfurther spread to different countries in Asia. In recentyears, Farm Universities, Development Departmentsand Non-Government Organizations are promotingfarmers field schools as a potential extension tool toextend knowledge to farmers on various agriculturaltechnologies.

Mulberry (Morus indica L.,) is a perennial plantwhich constitutes the chief food for mulberry silkworm (Bombax mori L.,). An exclusive mulberrygarden to produce quality leaf continuously for youngsilkworm rearing is highly imperative. In order to

boost production of mulberry leaf, farmers are usingexcessive dose of fertilizers which has resulted in thedecrease in soil fertility over the years. In this regard,Krishi Vignana Kendra (KVK), Kolar establishedfarmers field school on ‘Integrated NutrientManagement in Mulberry (INM)’ during Kharif 2010in Bhakthrahalli village of Chintamani district inKarnataka state to popularize the INM practices amongmulberry growers. Thirty mulberry growers formedthe farmers field school group. Against thisbackground, the present study was carried out to knowthe impact of farmers field school on knowledge levelof mulberry growers about integrated nutrientmanagement practices and to find out the relationshipbetween personal and socio-psychologicalcharateristics of mulberry growers with theirknowledge level.

From among the 30 participants of the FFS, acollaborator was voluntarily selected for conductingdemonstration on INM practices in mulberry.Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signedbetween the collaborator, participants and the KVKstaff to create awareness about the role andresponsibilities of each of the stakeholders.Knowledge level of all the 30 mulberry growers wasassessed before and after the implementation of FFSon INM practices, that is, at the time of MOU andafter the harvesting of mulberry, respectively.

Integrated nutrient management is operationallydefined in the present study as the extent of applicationof right quantity of organic manure, fertilizers andamendments to the crop at proper time, method andcombination aimed at deriving maximum benefit andcausing minimum damage to the resource base.Eighteen items regarding recommended quantity, timeand method of application of amendments (lime/gypsum), organic manure (farm yard manure, compostand biofertilizers) and fertilizers were included in the

knowledge test . Each knowledge item had tworesponses. The correct response for each knowledgeitem was given a score of one and the incorrectresponse was given a score of zero. The minimum andmaximum score one could score was 0 and 18,respectively. Based on mean and half standarddeviation, the respondents were classified into threecategories as below :

TABLE I

Knowledge level of mulberry growersregarding INM practices before and afterthe implementation of farmers field school

Low 10 33.33 5 16.67

Medium 12 40.00 13 43.33

High 8 26.67 12 40.00

Total 30 100.0 30 100.0

Mean 8.08 - 13.09 -

Standarddeviation 2.13 - 4.10 -

Chi-square 11.59 **

**Significant at 1 per cent level

Knowledgelevel

(n=30)

school, while it was 43.33 per cent after the programmein the same knowledge category. The results alsoreveals an interesting trend of around 13 per centincrease in the respondents in high knowledge categoryfrom 26.67 per cent to 40 per cent before and afterfarmers field school. The results of chi-square testreveals that there exists a positive and significantdifference in the knowledge level of the respondentsbefore and after the implementation of farmers fieldschool. Thus it can be inferred from the above findingsthat there is a significant improvement in theknowledge level of FFS farmers on Integrated nutrientmanagement practices due to participation in thefarmers field school.

The results in Table II reveals that caste, farmsize and material possession of the FFS farmers hadno significant relationship with the knowledge levelon INM practices, whereas age had negativesignificant relationship and education had positivesignificant relationship with the knowledge level ofFFS farmers on INM practices. It can be inferred thatyoung and educated FFS farmers have gained moreknowledge on INM practices through farmers field


Category

Low (Mean – ½ Below 7.02 Below 11.04standard deviation)

Medium (Mean ± ½ 7.02 to 9.14 11.04 to 15.14standard deviation)

High (Mean + ½ Above 9.14 Above 15.14standard deviation)

Knowledge test score

Before FFS After FFS

Eight Agro-Eco System Analysis (AESA)sessions were conducted during the crop period,wherein the facilitator covered topics such as: (a)importance of INM practices, (b) different types ofmanures and amendments, and (c) quantity, time andmethod of application of manures. Demonstrationswere also carried out on the method of application ofmanures by the FFS farmers under the technicalguidance of the facilitator.

Information of age, education, caste, farm sizeand material possession of FFS farmers was collectedusing structured schedule with suitable scales. Thecollected data was tabulated and analyzed using mean,standard deviation, percentage chi-square test and zeroorder correlation test.

It is observed from Table I that 33.33 per cent ofthe respondents had low level of knowledge onintegrated nutrient management practices before theimplementation of FFS programme. However, only16.67 per cent of the respondents were found in thiscategory after the implementation of farmers fieldschool. The table also reveals that 40.00 per cent ofthe respondents were found in medium knowledgelevel before the implementation of farmers field

Before FFS After FFSNo. Per cent No. Per cent

TABLE II

Relationship between personal and socio-psychological characteristics of FFS farmerswith their knowledge level on INM practices

Personal andsocio-psychological

characteristics

1 Age -0.5543**

2 Education 0.6790**

3 Caste 0.0987 NS

4 Farm size 0.0899 NS

5 Material possession 0.1968 NS

NS=Non-significant;

**= Significant at one per cent level

Correlationco-efficient

Sl.No.

school.

The study has revealed that there is significantincrease in the knowledge level of respondents withrespect to Integrated nutrient management practicesafter the implementation of farmers field school. The

IMPACT OF FARMERS FIELD SCHOOL ON KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF MULBERRY GROWERS 193

farmers field school being a non -formal educationand a learner centered education process hastechnically empowered the mulberry growers inincreasing their knowledge level on integrated nutrientmanagement practices.

Project Planning M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN,and Monitoring Cell K. G. BANUPRAKASH,UAS, GKVK V. SHANKARANARAYANA,Bangalore-560 065 C. R. JAHIR BASHA

REFERENCES

GOPAL, Y. M., RAGHUPRASAD, K. P. AND KRISHNAMURTHY,B., 2010, Impact of farmers participation inFarmers Field Schools on adoption level ofcultivation practices of Maize. J. Extn. Edu.,22(4): 4524-4530.

NAGARAJA, N, KHADER KHAN, H. AND KRISHNAMURTHY,B., 2008, Training manual on Farmers FieldSchool. Published by Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangaloreand Zonal Coordinator Unit (ICAR-Zone-8),Bangalore

(Received : November, 2012 Accepted : Februarsy, 2013)


Utilization of Jackfruit and Sunflower Waste for Oyster (Pleurotus florida)Mushroom Production

MUSHROOMS are edible fruiting bodies of fungi, whichbelong to Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes.Mushrooms have the ability to transform nutritionallyvalueless substrates into protein rich food andcultivation of mushroom provide new avenues ofemployment, being a labour intensive (Anon., 2001).Cellulose rich organic substrates are found to be goodfor the cultivation of these mushrooms. Differentsubstrates generated from agriculture, which are burntor straight away used for composting instead of thatthe lignin and cellulose rich agricultural wastes orbyproducts of agro industry can be used as substratesfor cultivation of mushrooms. The jack fruit rind,leaves and skin of fruits are good source of cattle feed,most of the time goes as waste (Anon., 2001). Thesunflower crop generates enormous amount of cropwaste in the form of stalk, leaves and head after seedharvest. Sunflower plant waste is neither used as afodder nor it is a good fuel. Due to increasing demandfor oyster mushroom, there is need to explore thepossibilities of using different substrates for oystermushroom cultivation, so, present study wasconducted to use jackfruit and sunflower waste foroyster (Pleurotus florida) mushroom production.

Different substrates like paddy straw, sunflowerhead, sunflower stalk and jackfruit rind were used tostudy the effect of different substrates on growth ofPleurotus florida. The substrates were chopped,sterilized, cooled and inoculated with Pleurotusflorida culture and incubated at room temperature.The weight loss was recorded by recording the weightof different substrates at 7th, 14th and 21st day afterinoculation.

Cultivation of mushroom carried out on paddystraw, sunflower head, sunflower stalk and jackfruitrind by following the method of Desai (1982). Fullygrown mushrooms were harvested and fresh weightwas recorded. The bio-efficiency of mushroom fungiin each substrate was calculated using the followingformula.

The highest weight loss was observed insunflower stalk on 7 days (1.73 g), 14 days (2.51 g)and 21 days (3.87g) after spawning (Table I). Insunflower stalk there was a significantly more weightloss compared to jackfruit rind and sunflower head.The lowest weight loss was observed in jackfruit rindon 7 days (1.16 g), 14 days (1.91g) and 21 days(2.65 g) after spawning. This may be led to the processof decomposition which involves breakdown of largermolecules in to simpler molecules and due to loss ofcarbon content from the substrate in the form of CO2produced by the respiratory activity of mushroomfungi during cropping that reflect in the loss ofbiomass.

Bio-efficiency (%) =

Fresh weight ofmushroom (g)

Dry wt. ofsubstrate (g)

× 100

TABLE I

Effect of different substrates on weight loss ofsubstrate due to growth of oyster mushroom

fungus (Pleurotus florida)

Substrates

Paddy straw 1.55 2.35 3.43(4.84) (7.34) (10.71)

Sunflower stalk 1.73 2.51 3.87(5.40) (7.84) (12.09)

Sunflower head 1.2 2.09 2.78(3.78) (6.53) (8.68)

Jackfruit rind 1.16 1.91 2.65(3.62) (5.96) (8.28)

SE m ± 0.15 0.20 0.24

C.D at 5 % 0.5 0.65 0.77

DAS- Days After Spawning.Values in the parentheses are per cent weight loss.Initial dry weight of substrate taken (32 g).

Weight loss (g)

7 DAS 14 DAS 21 DAS

TABLE II

Effect of different substrates on yield and bio-efficiency of mushrooms

Substrates

Paddy straw 334.60 50.84 (44.80)Sunflower stalk 354.00 53.79 (47.18)Sunflower head 326.80 49.66 (45.48)Jackfruit rind 89.00 13.58 (22.29)SEm ± 7.02 1.06C.D at 5 % 21.63 3.28

Mean value of four replications,Values in the parentheses are sin transformed values.

Each value of yield is total of 3 pickings.

Yield (g /bag)

Among the different substrates tested, maximumyield (354 g / bag) and bio-efficiency (53.79 %) ofPleurotus florida was recorded in sunflower stalkfollowed by paddy straw and sunflower head(Table II). Minimum yield (89 g / bag) with bio-efficiency (13.58 %) of Pleurotus florida was observedin jackfruit rind. Similarly, Shah et al. (2004) reported

that among the different substrates used for cultivationof oyster mushroom, saw dust produced highest yield,biological efficiency and number of fruiting bodies.Yield of the mushroom varies with the differentsubstrates. Oyster mushroom yield was better insunflower stalk.

Department of Agricultural, M. N. PRABHAKAR,Microbiology, B. C. MALLESHA

UAS, GKVK,Bangalore-560 065

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS, 2001, Major crops of India, Annual Report,ICAR, New Delhi.

DESAI, A.V.P, 1982, Bio-efficiency, chemical andmicrobiological changes in different substrates usedfor cultivation of oyster mushroom Pleurotus sajor –caju (fr.singer). M.Sc. Thesis, UAS, Bangalore.

SHAH, Z. A, ASHRAF, M. AND ISHTIAQ, C. H., 2004,Comparative study on cultivation and yieldperformance of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)on different substrates. Pakisthan J. Agril. 3: 158-160.

UTILIZATION OF JACKFRUIT AND SUNFLOWER WASTE FOR OYSTER MUSHROOM PRODUCTION 195

Bio-efficiency(%)

(Received : August, 2011 Accepted : December, 2012)


Adoption Behaviour of Farmers on Chrysanthemum Technologies – An Analysis

FLORICULTURE is becoming a booming industry in theworld today. Flower crops have been identified as mostremunerative for replacing subsistence farming inrainfed dryland, hills, arid and coastal ecosystem.Relatively higher unit of production, higher net returns,employment generation and export earning favour indiversification of these crops provide a viable option.The important flower crops grown in India are jasmine,rose and chrysanthemum which take the position offirst, second and third, respectively accounting to anarea of 6630, 5498 and 3752 hectares, respectivelyfollowed by crossandra, marigold, tuberose, chinaaster, gladiolus, orchid, gerbera and carnation. Themajor flower growing regions of the country arelocated in Southern Peninsula. Karnataka has the prideof place both in terms of area and productionaccounting to 16,169 hectares and 93,533 tonnes,respectively followed by Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh (Chadha andBhattacharjee, 1995).

Chrysanthemum cultivation is highly profitablein India as compared to other countries in the worldand so in Karnataka. Among 30 districts of Karnataka,Mandya district ranks second with respect to area andfirst place in terms of production of chrysanthemum.In the district, the crop is being grown in an area of405 hectares with the production of 3,842 tonnes.Major chrysanthemum growing taluks in the districtare Krishnarajapet and Nagamangala. Keeping in viewof these facts, the present study planned to know theutility pattern of modern technologies by thechrysanthemum farmers in Mandya district.

The present research study was carried out inKrishnarajpet and Nagamangala taluks of Mandyadistrict, which were purposely selected for the studyas chrysanthemum flower growers are more in thesetaluks. An ex-post-facto research design was employedfor conducting the study. The data were collected from120 randomly selected respondents from 12 villages(6 villages from each taluk). The teacher made scalewas constructed to collect the data on utility behaviourabout cultivation practices and details were included

in the interview schedule and employed personalinterview method. Collected data were analyzed andresults were presented hereunder.

Adoption behaviour of chrysanthemum growersregarding specific recommended cultivation practiceshas been presented under separate headings.

The result furnishes that (Table I), cent per centof the respondents had fully adopted the practices like,planting season, type of planting material and methodof planting followed by varieties (23.33%) and soiltesting (10.83%). This may be due to the fact thatstudy area is well suited to the agronomic conditionsrequired for the chrysanthemum cultivation and alsodue to their practical experience in chrysanthemumcultivation. Whereas, ploughing (59.17%), soil testing(53.34 %) and varieties (35.00%) had partial adoption.Other items falls under the category of non-adoptionthat is varieties (41.67%), ploughing (40.83%) and soiltesting (35.83%). This could be due to their length ofexperience in chrysanthemum cultivation and theirkeenness about these practices which reflects in futurefor more years.

A glance of Table I highlighted that, cent per centof the respondents had fully adopted the weeding,followed by 33.33 and 25.00 per cent had full adoptionbehaviour about irrigation and spacing respectively.An equal per cent (50.00 %) of the respondents hadpartial adoption and non-adoption with respect topractice of nipping. While, spacing (44.17 %) andirrigation (40.84 %) had partial adoption categoryremaining 30.83 and 25.83 per cent hadnon-adoption regarding spacing and irrigation,respectively. This may be due to the lack of correctknowledge and also lack of conviction among thefarmers regarding the possible benefits of thesepractices.

The adoption behaviour of farmers on nutritionalpractices of chrysanthemum cultivation is concerned,67.50 per cent had partial adoption, 19.17 per centhad non-adoption and 13.33 per cent had full adoptionregarding farm yard manure. Pertaining to nitrogenfertilization 54.17 per cent had partial adoption, 26.67

1. Soil testing 43 35.83 64 53.34 13 10.832. Planting season 0 0.00 0 0.00 120 100.003. Varieties 50 41.67 42 35.00 28 23.334. Ploughing 49 40.83 71 59.17 0 0.005. Type of planting material 0 0.00 0 0.00 120 100.006. Method of planting 0 0.00 0 0.00 120 100.007. Spacing 37 30.83 53 44.17 30 25.008. Nipping 60 50.00 60 50.00 0 0.009. Weeding 0 0.00 0 0.00 120 100.00

10. Irrigation 31 25.83 49 40.84 40 33.3311. Farm yard manure 23 19.17 81 67.50 16 13.3312. Fertilizers

a. Nitrogen 32 26.66 65 54.17 23 19.17b. Phosphorus 28 23.33 66 55.00 26 21.67c. Potash 30 25.00 71 59.17 19 15.83

13. Identification of pests and diseases 24 20.00 95 79.17 1 0.8314. Control Measures of pests and diseases 47 39.17 71 59.17 2 1.66

TABLE IAdoption behaviour of farmers on chrysanthemum cultivation technologies

(n = 120)

Sl. No. Practice Non-adoption

No. Per cent

Partial-adoption

No. Per cent

Full adoption

No. Per cent

Adoption behaviour

per cent had non-adoption and 19.17 per cent had fulladoption followed by phosphorus fertilization, 55.00per cent had partial adoption, 23.33 per cent had non-adoption and 21.67 per cent had full adoption andregarding potash fertilization, 59.17 per cent hadpartial adoption, 25.00 per cent had non-adoption and15.83 per cent had full adoption. The possible reasonfor inadequate adoption of these practices might bedue to the lack of proper knowledge of technologies,high cost of fertilizers, non-availability of inorganicfertilizer on time and labour intensive.

It is interesting to note that, 3/4th of therespondents (79.17 %) had partial adoption categoryin cases of identification of pests and diseases and59.17 per cent had practical adoption category in theircontrol measures, followed by 20.00 and 39.17 percent falls under non-adoption regarding identification

of pests and diseases and their control measures,respectively. Only identification of pests and diseases(0.83%) and their control measures (1.67%) had fulladoption behaviour. Most of the farmers did not havethe correct knowledge about the plant protectionchemicals, their dosage and time of application. Alsothey were not fully aware about major pests anddiseases and their effects on the chrysanthemum.Hence, this type of results obtained.

The adoption of any technology in general andchrysanthemum cultivation practices in particulardepends upon various factors such as awareness aboutpractices, extent of change agency’s efforts,complexity of practices, timely availability of inputs,characteristics of farmers etc. However, it is true thatall recommended practices will not be adopted at samedegree by all the members in a given social system at

ADOPTION BEHAVIOUR OF FARMERS ON CHRYSANTHEMUM TECHNOLOGIES – AN ANALYSIS 197

a particular time of reference due to varied knowledgelevel of individual farmers. This might be the reasonfor findings related to adoption behaviour of farmersregarding specific recommended cultivation practices.

The study findings of Nikhade and Potdar (1989),Chandre Gowda (1997), Vijaya Kumar (1997), Ravi(2000), Thiranjan Gowda (2005), Vinay Kumar (2005)and Vinay Kumar et. al. (2009) favoured the presentstudy results.

Overall, the results indicated that majority of thefarmers had non-adoption and partial adoptionbehaviour of chrysanthemum cultivation regardingindividual practices. The practices pertaining to thecomplex in nature have not been adopted by thefarmers in the study area. To improve the adoptionbehaviour, a series of educational activities by thegovernment and non-government agencies shouldfocus on the practices which are complex and couldbe made available to the farmers through livedemonstrations. The practices showed that there is aneed of much skill oriented and skilled labourers. Theskill demonstrations to the chrysanthemum farmerswould help in bringing the farmers to improve theiradoption of modern technologies at large.

Dept. of Agril. Extension N. MAMATHALAKSHMI

College of Agriculture K. NAGABHUSHANAM

UAS, GKVKBangalore - 560 065

REFERENCES

CHADHA, K. L. AND BHATTACHARJEE, S. K., 1995, OrnamentalPlants Research in India – History, Infrastructure and

Achievements. Advance in Horticulture, 12 :Malhotra, Publishing House, New Delhi.

CHANDRE GOWDA, K. N., 1997, A Study on Extent ofAdoption of Improved Cultivation Practices ofChrysanthemum. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, (Unpublished),University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.

NIKHADE, D. M. AND POTDAR, N. K., 1989, Adoptionbehaviour of banana growers. Maharashtra J. Extn.Edu., 12 : 79 - 84.

VIJAYA KUMAR, C., 1997, A Study on Knowledge andAdoption of Improved Cultivation Practicesamong Rose Growers. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,(Unpublished), University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore.

VINAY KUMAR, R., 2005, Study on Knowledge and Adoptionof Rose Growing Farmers in Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.)Thesis, (Unpublished), University of AgriculturalSciences, Dharwad.

VINAY KUMAR, R., NATIKAR, K. V., NATARAJU, M. S., PANKAJA,H. K, AND DHANANJAYA, B., 2009, Knowledge level ofrose growers about improved cultivation practices,Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 43 (3) : 327 - 529.

RAVI, R. K., 2000, Knowledge, Adoption and Participationof Farm Women in Jasmine Production: A Study inTumkur District, Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,(Unpublished), University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore.

THIRANJAN GOWDA, B. T., 2005, A Study on Cultivation andMarketing Pattern of Selected Cut Flowers in BelgaumDistrict. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, (Unpublished),University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

198 N. MAMATHALAKSHMI AND K. NAGABHUSHANAM

(Received : July, 2011 Accepted : November, 2012)


Effect of Intercrop and Crop Geometry on Productivity and Economics of Maize(Zea mays L.) - Based Intercropping

THE population of India is increasing at an alarmingrate. The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences(NAAS) has estimated that India may need 301 milliontonnes of food grain by 2025 AD, if the present trendof population growth does not decline (Kanwar andKatyal, 1997). With increase in population and staticor decline in cultivated area, the per capita availabilityof land in India has decreased from 0.48 ha in 1951 to0.15 ha by 2000. In such a situation, to meet thegrowing human and livestock population is morecritical problem, where extensive cultivation cannotbe adopted due to pressure on the land. Crops grownin a sequence should aim at maintaining soil fertilityand productivity because of the large quantities offertilizer nutrients required and removed by intensivecropping systems. The practice of continuous rotationof cereal-cereal might have an adverse effect onphysico-chemical properties and fertility status of soil.Maize is one of the important crops among cerealsand it occupies third position in production next towheat and rice in the world. Maize is known as Miraclecrop and “Queen of Cereals”, because of its highproduction potential and wider adaptability. Theproductivity of maize is largely dependent on itsnutrient management. Maize is one such crop whichprovides opportunity for inclusion of intercrop becauseof the wide row space provided to the crop and alsobecause of the plasticity of the crop to row spacing. Inrecent years, vegetables are grown as intercrops forhigher income by the farmers in transitional tract ofBangalore rural areas. Garden pea, field bean, frenchbean (vegetables) and soybean (pulses) are shortduration high value protein rich leguminous vegetablepulses. Paired row planting of maize not helped inbetter utilization of natural resources, but,accommodated intercrops (vegetable pulses) in thepaired rows without affecting the main crop yield andthe yield of intercrop was bonus.

Experiments were conducted during kharif andrabi 2008-09 at Zonal Agricultural Research Station,University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Bangalore. The soil of the experimental site was redsandy loam. Composite samples were drawn from theexperimental site before the experiment was carriedout and analyzed for mechanical composition andchemical properties. The soil of the experimental sitewas slightly acidic in reaction (pH 6.54 and 6.60) andorganic carbon content was low (0.42 and 0.45 %).The soil was low in available nitrogen (189 and 200kg ha–1), medium in available phosphorus (29.45 and32.8 kg ha–1) and medium in available potassium(220.9 and 236.11 kg ha–1). The experiment was laidout in completely randomized block design with threereplications in 15 treatments (T1 : Maize normalplanting (60 × 30 cm) sole crop, T2: Maize paired rowplanting (90 × 45 cm) sole crop,T3: Maize paired rowplanting (120 × 30 cm) sole crop, T4: Maize normalplanting (60 × 30 cm) + soybean intercrop, T5: Maizenormal planting (60 × 30 cm) + field bean intercrop,T6: Maize normal planting (60 × 30 cm) + frenchbean intercrop,T7 : Maize normal planting (60 × 30cm) + garden pea intercrop, T8: Maize paired rowplanting (90 × 45 cm) + soybean intercrop, T9: Maizepaired row planting (90 × 45 cm) + field beanintercrop,T10: maize paired row planting (90 × 45cm) + french bean intercrop,T11 : Maize paired rowplanting (90 × 45 cm ) + garden pea intercrop, T12:Maize paired row planting (120 × 30 cm) + soybeanintercrop,T13: Maize paired row planting (120 × 30cm) +field bean intercrop, T14: Maize paired rowplanting (120 × 30 cm) + french bean intercrop,T15:Maize paired row planting (120 × 30 cm) + gardenpea intercrop with row intercrops and proportions.The furrows were opened in between two pairs ofmaize rows and one row of intercrop was sown as pertreatment details with an intra row spacing asrecommended in the package of practices forrespective crops under pure stand treatments.

A perusal of the data (Table I) indicated thatgrowth, yield and yield components of intercroppingmaize. Higher value of growth and yield componentsviz., in maize intercropping system significantly higher

TAB

LE I

Plan

t hei

ght (

cm),

tota

l dry

mat

ter (

g), l

eaf a

rea

(cm

2 pla

nt–1

), gr

ain

wei

ght (

g), N

o. o

f gra

ins p

er c

ob, m

aize

yie

ld (k

g ha

–1),

stov

er y

ield

(kg

ha–1

),in

terc

rop

yiel

d (k

g ha

–1),

mai

ze e

quiv

alen

t yie

ld (k

g ha

–1) a

nd n

et in

com

e as

influ

ence

d by

inte

rcro

ps a

nd ro

w p

ropo

rtio

ns o

f mai

ze(p

oole

d kh

arif

and

rabi

of 2

008-

09)

T 116

2.27

252.

883.

2827

.20

452.

6264

0876

59-

6408

3081

6T 2

159.

3324

7.67

1.52

26.2

248

7.97

6112

7269

-61

1228

584

T 315

7.52

244.

091.

7826

.81

496.

1862

1373

27-

6213

3005

8T 4

154.

4322

9.68

3.14

24.2

540

0.35

5479

6944

987

7241

3076

4T 5

155.

5123

5.46

3.20

24.8

041

0.55

5812

7031

3960

1101

366

236

T 615

7.81

240.

373.

2324

.71

417.

0459

7371

7773

1716

472

1017

21T 7

160.

1924

7.02

3.25

26.6

943

7.47

6158

7411

4364

1554

511

1462

T 815

1.24

221.

661.

4323

.39

429.

4249

9664

7111

3270

1729

519

T 915

3.49

229.

021.

4423

.69

443.

4351

1767

8345

7111

107

6873

9T 10

154.

5423

4.92

1.46

24.0

045

3.79

5306

6750

8050

1681

210

9154

T 1115

7.23

240.

341.

4924

.93

470.

6658

2870

4748

4716

308

1139

31T 12

150.

3421

8.40

1.71

23.6

945

6.18

5112

6621

1306

7444

3795

7T 13

152.

3322

5.01

1.74

24.2

845

2.42

5444

6718

4907

1187

275

549

T 1415

3.72

226.

331.

7624

.48

462.

7356

0067

7088

2018

101

1239

10T 15

156.

0723

6.86

1.77

25.5

248

3.38

6030

7340

5603

1823

712

5691

SEm

+1.

864.

590.

080.

597.

4219

8.87

164.

4529

1.04

465.

3170

78C

D a

t 5 %

5.27

12.9

90.

231.

6622

.78

598.

1448

5.21

823.

0413

1623

115

T 1: Mai

ze n

orm

al p

lant

ing

(60

× 30

cm

) sol

e cr

opT 10

: M

aize

pai

red

row

pla

ntin

g (9

0 ×

45 c

m) +

fren

chbe

an in

terc

rop

T 2: M

aize

pai

red

row

pla

ntin

g (9

0 ×

45 c

m) s

ole

crop

T 11 : M

aize

pai

red

row

pla

ntin

g (9

0 ×

45 c

m )

+ ga

rden

pea

inte

rcro

pT 3:

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(120

×30

cm

) sol

e cr

opT 12

: M

aize

pai

red

row

pla

ntin

g (1

20 ×

30

cm) +

soy

bean

inte

rcro

pT 4:

Mai

ze n

orm

al p

lant

ing

(60

×30

cm)

+ so

ybea

n in

terc

rop

T 13:

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(120

× 3

0 cm

) +fie

ldbe

an in

terc

rop

T 5: M

aize

nor

mal

pla

ntin

g (6

0 ×

30 c

m) +

fiel

dbea

n in

terc

rop

T 14:

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(120

× 3

0 cm

) +fr

ench

bean

inte

rcro

pT 6:

Mai

ze n

orm

al p

lant

ing

(60

× 30

cm

) +

fren

chbe

an in

terc

rop

T 15

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(120

× 3

0 cm

)+ g

arde

npea

inte

rcro

pT 7

: Mai

ze n

orm

al p

lant

ing

(60

× 30

cm

) + g

arde

npea

inte

rcro

pT 8:

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(90

× 45

cm

) +

soyb

ean

inte

rcro

pT 9:

Mai

ze p

aire

d ro

w p

lant

ing

(90

× 45

cm

) + fi

eldb

ean

inte

rcro

p

Trea

tmen

tsPl

ant h

eigh

t(c

m)

Tota

l dry

mat

ter (

g)Le

af a

rea

(cm

2 pla

nt–1

)G

rain

wei

ght (

g)N

o. o

fgr

ains

per

cob

Mai

zeyi

eld,

(kg

ha–1

)

Stov

eryi

eld

(kg

ha–1

)

Inte

rcro

pyi

eld

(kg

ha–1

)

Net

inco

me

(Rs.

ha–1

)

Mai

zeeq

uiva

lent

yiel

d(k

g ha

–1)

200 P. ASHOKA et al.

plant height (160.19 cm), total dry matter (247.02 gplan–1), LAI (3.25), hundred grain weight (26.69 g),number of grains cob-1 (483.38), cob weight (178.11and 177.20 g), cob girth (7.97 and 7.94 cm), numberof grains per cob (29.03 and 27.83) and test weight(29.03 and 27.83 g) were recorded in normal planting(60 × 30 cm) with intercrop garden pea. Reduction inyield parameters of maize was such as cob size, numberof kernels and grain yield per plant were more in maize+ soybean intercropping systems. The highest maizegrain yield was obtained under sole crop of maize sownin normal planting (6403 kg ha–1) followed by pairedrow sown in 120 × 30 cm (6213 kg ha–1). In allintercropping systems, there was reduction in maizeyield due to intercropping. Padhi and Panigrahi (2006)have obtained higher yield in normal sown sole cropas compared to paired row system of sowing maize.Therefore, it is necessary to judge based on net returnsper hectare. In the present study, among intercroppingsystems, highest net return (Rs. 1,26,189) was realizedby maize + garden pea followed by intercroppingfrench bean with maize (Rs. 1,24,408 ha-1) over theothers and lowest net return was noticed in maize withsoybean (Rs. 33,406 ha–1) with normal planting of 60× 30 cm. The highest net return of maize basedintercropping system (vegetable pulses as intercropin maize) than their sole stands was also reported byearlier workers (Mandal and Mohapatra, 1990, Sharmaet al.,1998 and Sing and Singh, 2001).

Dept. of Agronomy P. ASHOKA,College of Agriculture T. K. PRABHAKAR SETTY,UAS, GKVK N. KRISHNAMURTHY,Bangalore - 560 024 K. R. SREERAMULU

REFERENCE

KANWAR, J. S. AND KATYAL, J. C., 1997, Proc. Symp plantnutrient needs, supply, efficiency and policy Issues:2000 – 2025, NAAS, New Delhi, pp 326.

MANDAL, B. K. AND MAHAPATRA, S. K., 1990, Barley, lentiland flax yield under different cropping systems.Agronomy J., 82 : 1066 – 1068.

PADHI, A. K. AND PANIGRAHI, R. K., 2006, Effect of intercropand crop geometry on productivity, economics and soilfertility status of maize based intercropping system.Indian J. Agron., 51(3): 174-177

SHARMA, V. M., CHAKOR, I .S. AND MANCHANDA. A .K., 1998,Effect of maize (Zea mays) based legumeintercropping on growth and yield attributes ofsucceeding wheat (Triticum aestivum) and economics.Indian J. Agron., 43(2) : 231-236.

SINGH, V. P. AND SINGH, V. K., 2001, Productivity potentialand economics of maize and soybean intercroppingpattern under rainfed low hill or valley situation ofUttaranchal. Indian J. Agron., 46(1): l27-31

TRIPATHY, R. K., PRADHAN, L. AND RATH, B. S., 1997,Performance of maize (Zea mays) and cowpea (Vignaunguiculata) forage intercropping system in summer.Indian J. Agron., 42(1): 38-41.

EFFECT OF INTERCROP AND CROP GEOMETRY ON PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMICS OF MAIZE 201



Morphological Variation and Delineation of Teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) Clones ofKerala through Leaf Character : Implication for Seed Orchard Management

TEAK is one of the most valuable and widely plantedspecies of southern India, where it has a long historyas plantation species due to its valuable timber. Inrecent years new planting in various regions is leadingto a significant net increase in plantations each year.More recent reports indicated that the existing areaunder teak plantation was about 2.6 million harepresenting a total sustainable yield of 12.8 millionm3 (ITTO, 2009; Blaser et al., 2011). Moreover, theteak harbors huge amount of ecotypic variations owingto its wide distributional range spanning across theIndian Peninsular.

Documenting variation among teak populationsfor morphology, phenology, habit, growth rate, relativeimmunity to insect pest / disease attack and timberquality is very essential for its fine-scale geneticimprovement. Such kind of variation among clonesof teak has been documented by several teak workers(Gunaga, 2008). There are several approaches tocharacterize the elite genotypes, where cytological andmolecular approaches are used at laboratory level;however, plant descriptor is another simplemorphological approach used in characterizinggenotypes at field level. This technique is very easy,cheaper and reliably adoptable at the field level ascompared to cytological and molecular approaches.Such descriptors would form the bases for roughingoperations to verify the clonal identity in a young seedorchard. In the present study, teak clones of Keralahave been characterized and delineated using differentqualitative characters of the leaf.

The present study was carried out in the clonalgarden of teak established during November 2001located at the central nursery, Chettikulam andChalakudy forest divisions of Kerala. These cloneswere developed following newly standardized cloningtechniques for teak (Surendran and Sharma, 2005).This clonal garden consists of 14 clones derived fromtwo broad provenances i.e., Nilambur (NorthernKerala) and Thenmala (Southern Kerala).

Total six fully expanded matured leaf samplesfrom five individuals (ramets) for each clone were used

to characterize teak clones based on leaf morphology.Leaf samples were collected from fourth node onwardsfrom the top of the plant. Each leaf was characterizedfor its leaf petiole, leaf tip, leaf shape, leaf texture,leaf pigmentation and leaf margin. Each leaf characterwas forked into number of sub types based on theoccurrence of genotypes following Nicolee (2003).The teak clones were delineated according to theirincreasing subjectivity as listed below.

Petiole Winged or TruncateShape Ovate, Obovate, Oblanceolate, Elliptical,

Rhombate or DeltoidTip Acuminate or AcuteMargin Wavy, Wavy + CrenateTexture Upper : smooth, rough

Lower: slightly rough or smoothPigmentation Above: Light green; Silvery green

LeafCharacters

Sub types

Results showed that there was a genetic variationfor leaf characteristics among teak clones. A completelist of descriptors for all the clones is presented inTable I. Based on six qualitative characters viz., leafpetiole, shape, tip, margin, texture and pigmentation,a few generalizations has been made on the prevalenceof the traits among the clone. Truncate leaf petiolewas the predominant character in 9 clones over thewinged petiole, which was represented in 6 clones.The elliptical leaf shape was most frequentlyencountered (40 %) amongst the five other shapes. Amajority of the clones, about 60 per cent, possessedacuminate leaf tip over acute tip (40 %).

There was also a pattern of predominancecharacters in a specific provenance. For instance, allthe clones from Thenmala (Southern provenance)showed smooth upper and lower leaf texture; whereasin Nilambur (Northern) provenance, all the clonesshowed smooth upper leaf surface with slightly roughtexture at lower surface except clone no. T13 that hadsmooth lower texture (Table I). All clones of southern

TAB

LE II

Mor

phol

ogic

al le

af d

escr

ipto

rs fo

r tea

k cl

ones

of K

eral

a

T 1N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aW

inge

dA

cum

inat

eW

avy+

Cre

nate

Ova

teSm

ooth

Slig

htly

roug

hLi

ght g

reen

Ligh

t gre

en

T 4N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aW

inge

dA

cute

Wav

y+ C

rena

teO

bova

teSm

ooth

Slig

htly

roug

hLi

ght g

reen

Ligh

t gre

en

T 5N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aW

inge

dA

cute

Wav

yO

blan

ceol

ate

Smoo

thSl

ight

ly ro

ugh

Ligh

t gre

enLi

ght g

reen

T 6N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aO

btus

eA

cute

Wav

yEl

liptic

Smoo

thSl

ight

ly ro

ugh

Ligh

t gre

enLi

ght g

reen

T 10N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aW

inge

dA

cute

Wav

yEl

liptic

Smoo

thSl

ight

ly ro

ugh

Ligh

t gre

enLi

ght g

reen

T 11N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aTr

unca

teA

cum

inat

eW

avy

Rho

mba

teSm

ooth

Slig

htly

roug

hLi

ght g

reen

Silv

ery

gree

n

T 13N

ilam

bur

Nor

th K

eral

aW

inge

dA

cum

inat

eW

avy

Ellip

ticSm

ooth

Smoo

thLi

ght g

reen

Silv

ery

gree

n

T 26Th

enm

ala

Sout

h K

eral

aTr

unca

teA

cum

inat

eW

avy

Ellip

ticSm

ooth

Smoo

thLi

ght g

reen

Silv

ery

gree

n

T 27Th

enm

ala

Sout

h K

eral

aTr

unca

teA

cum

inat

eW

avy

Obo

vate

Smoo

thSm

ooth

Ligh

t gre

enSi

lver

y gr

een

T 34Th

enm

ala

Sout

h K

eral

aTr

unca

teA

cum

inat

eW

avy+

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MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION AND DELINEATION OF TEAK CLONES OF KERALA 203

origin possessed silver green leaf pigmentation atlower surface, this pattern was not perfect amongnorthern clones, where 3 clones showed silver greenleaf surface and 5 clones recorded light green leafsurface (Table I). Such kind of leaf descriptor had beenadopted to describe inter-provenance and inter-clonalvariation in teak clones of Karnataka (Nicolee et al.,2006). Further, leaf characters have also been adoptedto describe intra-specific variation in different treespecies such as Poplars (Mohanty and Khurana, 2003)and Jamun (Prabhuraj et al., 2002).

The strength of the descriptors for any specieslays in its ability to delineate clones without idleness.Hence, a simple forking method was adopted todelineate studied clones (Fig. 1). It is indicated thatalmost all clones can be identified through leafdescriptor. It is also notable that each clone wasdifferent at least in one or two leaf characters such asleaf shape, tip, petiole, texture and pigmentation. Forexample, clones - T6 and T10 of Nilambur origin were

Fig. 1. Leaf morphological descriptors for the delineation of teak clones based on petiolate key viz., winged / obtuse /truncate

similar in many leaf characters except petiole i.e.,partially obtuse and winged obtuse, respectively.Similarly, leaf characters of T27 and T46 clones ofThenmala origin were found to be synchrony exceptleaf margin i.e., wavy in T27 and wavy + crenate inT46.

Clonal instability as mentioned in this manuscriptshould be considered with utmost importance whilecharacterizing the clones or while using the descriptorsas key to identify clones. This is a huge limitation sincemakes it impossible to identify clones throughout thegrowing season. It may be concluded that althoughleaf descriptors are simple to observe, but the selectionof traits should be done cautiously such that instabletraits could be avoided and it can be recorded whenthe leaf is completely matured.

Further, the practice to establish variation withinand between clones by advanced techniques such asiso-enzyme and DNA finger printing analyses (RAPD,

204 RAJESH P. GUNAGA et al.

RFLP, AFLP, etc.) are relatively expensive. Therefore,morphological / phenotypic features between clonesmay be used; moreover, it would be cheaper techniquefor quick identification of clones in the case of clonalmixtures, especially in young clonal orchard. Thistechnique may also be useful in DUS (DistinctivenessUniformity and Stability) testing. Hence, it issuggested to use leaf characters as one of themorphological descriptors to describe different clones/ varieties in teak.

College of Forestry, RAJESH P. GUNAGA

Dr. B. S. Konkan T. SURENDRAN,Krishi Vidyapeeth, H. NAGESH PRABHU

Dapoli - 415 712

REFERENCES

BLASER, J., SARRE, A., POORE, D. AND JOHNSON, S., 2011,Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO TechnicalSeries No 38. International Tropical TimberOrganization, Yokohama, Japan.

GUNAGA, R. P., 2008. Evaluation of seed production areasof teak (Tectona grandis Linn.f) in Karnataka for theirseed quality and nursery performance. Ph.D. Forestrythesis, Forest Research Institute University, Dehradun,India, Pp. 185.

ITTO, 2009. Encouraging Industrial Forest Plantations inthe Tropics: Report of a Global Study. Technical Series33. International Tropical Timber Organisation(ITTO), Yokohama, Japan.

MOHANTY, T. L. AND KHURANA, D. K., 2003, Morphologicalanalysis of selected clones of Populus ciliata ×Populus maximowiczii hybrid. Indian J. For., 26 (1):83- 89.

NICOLEE, L., 2003, Morphological and molecularcharacterization of teak clones of Karnataka. M. Sc.Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

NICOLEE, L., GUNAGA, R. P. AND VASUDEVA, R., 2006,Delineation of teak clones through leaf descriptor.Indian J. For., 30 (1): 21-28.

PRABHURAJ, S., SWAMY, G. S. K., ATHANI, S. I., PATIL, B. R.,HULAMANI, N. C. AND PATIL, P. B., 2002, Variability inmorphological characteristics of Jamun (Syzygiumcumini Skeels) trees. My For., 38 (2): 187- 190.

SURENDRAN, T. AND SHARMA, J. K., 2005, Clonal propagationof 1 trees of teak and field performance of ramets. In:Quality timber products of teak from sustainable forestmanagement. Eds. Bhat, K.M., Nair, K.N.N., Bhat,K.V., Muralidharan, E.M. and Sharma, J.K. KFRI, Pp.409-412. Bangalore - 560 024.

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION AND DELINEATION OF TEAK CLONES OF KERALA 205


206 ABSTRACT Mysore J. Agric.Sci., 47 (1) : 2013

AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

Pest Complex of Onion and their Management

SUDHIRKUMAR, S.THE survey on the seasonal incidence indicated the maximum population of Thrips tabaci (Lind.) and Agrotis ipsilon(Hufn.) during I fortnight of June. Whereas maximum population of Spodoptera litura (Fab.) and Helicoverpa armigera(Hub.) found during II fortnight of June during first season (June 2009 to August 2009). During second season(October 2009 to December 2009) the maximum population of T. Tabaci, S. litura and H.armigera found during IIfortnight of October while A. ipsilon found during I fortnight of October. During III season (June 2010 to August 2010)the maximum population of all four insects were found during I fortnight of June. In different cropping system theminimum thrips population found in the cropping system of onion+chilli+tomato compared to onion grown as purecrop. Among 18 accessions screened to T. Tabaci and A. ipsilon, an accession Arka pragathi found to be promisingaccession. Treatment vermicompost + biofertilizers + neem cake (Full dose) was found to be best among organicsource of nutrients and amendments against all four insects. The application Beauveria bassiana 1x109 spores/ml twotimes (20 & 30 DAP) against thrips and two times application of B.t. (30 & 40 DAP) against A. ipsilon, S. litura andH. armigera found to be best treatments among biocontrol agents. The treatment neem oil (3%) and treatmentcombination of VC+BF+NC+B. Bassiana+neem oil found to be best treatment among botanicals and integration oforganic source of nutrients, botanicals and biocontrol agents respectively in reducing all above said four insects.Among indigenous materials lowest population of all four insects found in the treatment NSKE (4%). In case ofinsecticides imidacloprid found to be best treatment against thrips. Whereas emamectin benzoate found to be besttreatment against A. ipsilon, S. litura and H. armigera. An avoidable loss of 69.26 per cent yield was observed inunprotected control where the crop was left for natural infestation compared to completely protected crop.

2012 C. T. ASHOK KUMAR

Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Fauna of Phytophagous Mites on Cultivated Crops in Kadapa District (Ap), SeasonalOccurrence and Natural Enemy Relationship of Certain Important Species

LAKKA VIJAYA BHASKAR

THE mites collected on cultivated crops in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, comprised Tetranychidae, Tenuipalpidae,Eriophyidae and Tarsonemidae from 22, 5, 4 and 4 crops, respectively. Tetranychidae was represented by ten speciesunder four genera, Eriophyidae by four species, of which citrus rust mite caused severe damage to sweet orange.Tarsonemidae by two species, chilli mite and rice sheath mite. Least abundant phytophagous family Tenuipalpidaewasrepresented by one species. Twenty six species ofnonphytophagous mites were recorded from 21 cultivated crops.Incidence of rice leaf and sheath miteson rice variety BPT 5204 revealed the leaf mite incidence peaked during NovemberI fortnight and October II FN during kharif2009 and 2010, respectively.Sheath mite incidence occurred at flag leafstage, peak incidence was recorded during first FN of December.

Citrus rust mite was more abundant in north-eastern portion of the plant canopy (1- 2 m from ground). This rustmite has four developmental stages viz., egg, protonymph, deutonymph and adult, developmental period from egg toadult was 54 - 96 hunder laboratory conditions. Incidence of rust mite on both leaves and fruits of sweet orangestarted on leaves from September onwards and remained almost uniform, except duringFebruary - March. Fruits werefound infested heavily from November to March. Mite damaged fruits showed significant reduction in fruit weight,size,juice volume, juice weight,but increase in rind thickness, total soluble solids, total sugars and ascorbic acid.Fenpyroximate@ 0.005% was effective against rust mite uptosix weeks,recording least number of mites and lower %fruit damage. On betel vine, Tetranychusurticae was more abundant between January and March. ReleasingNeoseiuluslongispinosus at predator: prey ratio of 1:50 and 1:100against T. urticaeon betel vine in polycarbonatehouse showed complete elimination of T. urticaeafter four weeks.

2012 B. MALIK

Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Abstracts of Ph. D. Theses submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

207Mysore J. Agric.Sci., 47 (1) : 2013 ABSTRACT

Insecticide Resistance in Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata Lugens (Stål)(Hemiptera : Delphacidae) and Strategies for its Management

BASANTH, Y. S.

THE brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) is one of the major pests of rice throughout Asia. Studieswere undertaken to ascertain the susceptibility of different BPH populations to insecticides, mechanisms of resistance,planthopper complex in rice growing areas, genotype screening and biochemical basis of host plant resistance and themanagement of BPH. Susceptibility to insecticides was investigated by collecting field populations of BPH fromdifferent locations of Karnataka (Gangavati, Kathalagere, Kollegala, Soraba and Mandya). The resistance ratios variedgreatly among the populations viz., chlorpyriphos (1.13 to 16.82), imidacloprid (0.53 to 13.50), acephate (1.34 to 5.32),fipronil (1.13 to 4.06), thiamethoxam (1.01 to 2.19), clothianidin (1.92 to 4.86), dinotefuran (0.82 to 2.22), buprofezin (1.06to 5.43) and carbofuran (0.41 to 2.17). The Gangavati, Kathalagere and Kollegala populations exihibited higher resistanceto some of the older insecticides and low resistance to newer molecules. The Mandya and Soraba populations weresusceptible to most of the insecticides. The activity of the MFO and GST enzymes was positively correlated to theobserved levels of resistance to insecticides in different BPH populations and reduced sensitivity of AchE to inhibitionby OP and carbamate insecticides. The Soraba population formed a distinct cluster being genetically more diverse andGangavati and Kathalagere populations showed a higher similarility. Studies on planthopper complex revealed thatBPH was dominant in most of the rice growing areas of Karnataka. A comparison of LC50 values revealed that WBPHis slightly more susceptible to some insecticides compared to BPH. In host plant resistance studies, fourteen ricegenotypes were identified as BPH resistant lines. Biochemical investigations revealed higher induction of phenols,proline and enzymes such as peroxidase and phenylalanine lyase in resistant genotypes after infestation by BPH.Field studies revealed that thiamethoxam, dinotefuran, fipronil and buprofezin are effective in suppressing the BPHpopulations.

2012 V. T. SANNAVEERAPPANAVAR

Dept. of Agril. Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Integrated Management of Whitefly, Bemisia Tabaci (Gennadius) on Tomato

RAMAZEAME, L.

AMONG the tomato cultivars, longest life cycle of whitefly was recorded on Arka Abha; however on Arka vikas theleast life cycle period was recorded. The highest adult male and female longevity were recorded on Arka abha andfollowed by Arka vikas. Among the weed species, longest life cycle of whitefly was recorded on Euphorbia sppfollowed by wild radish. The highest adult male and female longevity was observed on Euphorbia spp. followed bywild radish. Identification of whitefly biotype through RAPD-PCR analysis of whiteflies revealed the presence of Bbiotype in Bangalore area on tomato. Among these predator and parasitoids, Macrolophus pygmaeus and Axinoscymnusputtarudriahi and Encarsia transvena (Timberlake) found in large numbers and can be used to control this pest.Isolated the entomopathogenic fungi like Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii, Metarhizium anisopliae andPaecilomyces farinosus from the infected whitefly. In the varietal preference, the most preferred tomato cultivars foroviposition activity of B. tabaci were Pusa ruby, PKM-1 and Arka vikas. Whereas Nandi, Sankranthi, and Vybhav wereleast preferred cultivars. Vybhav and Nandi cultivars were relatively resistant to B. tabaci. In the border crops,tomato- baby corn combination was best. Among the botanicals Neem oil, NSKE and Pongamia oil were found to beeffective in bringing down whitefly population. Vertical and cylindrical yellow sticky trap above the ground levelproved to be effective monitoring devices of whitefly. Among the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana washighly effective in the laboratory.

2012 H. KHADER KHAN



Investigations on Damage by Chilli Yellow Mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks)(Acari : Tarsonemidae) and Resistance in Chilli, Capsicum annuum L.

GIRISH, R.

INVESTIGATIONS were carried out on the damage by yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) and resistance in chilligermplasms during 2008-2011. Mean loss in dry fruit yield due to yellow mite damage was 29.39 per cent. Mite colonizationfor 4 weeks period on chilli crop in the field also recorded more number of mites (361.90to200.10mites/6 leaves) associatedwith a more significant damage score of 2.36, particularly on 4weeks old plants. Such mite infestation treatments recordedthe lower yields of red ripe chilli fruits (533-933 kg/acre) compared to the highest yield of 3313 kg in a relatively mite freeconditions (control). Continuous mite infestation from 15or30or45 days after planting till maturity under glasshouse conditionsresulted in complete yield loss (100%) and in the field, due to continuous infestation (from 15or30or45or60or75 days afterplanting till maturity), the corressponding yield losses were 83 %, 75 %, 58 %, 46 % and 31 %.

Out of 107 chilli entries evaluated, 32 entries were advanced and based on the mean mite population data werecategorised as, Highly resistant (Aparna & S49 with<5 mites), Resistant (BVC47 with5to10mites), Moderately resistant(BVC53& Capsicum frutescence with 11 to 20 mites), Susceptible (CA 2, KDC 2 & CA 9 with 21 to 30 mites) and Highlysusceptible (22 entries including Byadgi kaddi with >30 mites). Susceptible chilli entries had higher total sugars and proteincontents to encourage the mite infestation, while chlorophyll and capsaicin contents in leaves did not show any relationshipwith mite infestation levels. Consequent to mite infestation, the levels of phenols, proline, peroxidase and PAL were foundenhanced (16.80 to 22.80 mg/g; 4.42 to 6.54 μ moles/g tissue; 825 to 1362 units/g of tissue; 3.20 to 4.67x103μmoles/min/ml),might be due to induced resistance or hypersensitive reaction, particularly in resistant entries namely, Aparna, S 49, BVC 47,BVC 53 and Capsicum frutescence.

2012 N. SRINIVASA


AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Implications of Income Generating Activities under KSFMBC Project on the Socio-Economicand Cultural Conditions of the Rural Women

JYOTHI, M. S.

THE study was conducted during 2010-11in Tumkur, Kolar, Chitradurga and Bangalore rural divisions of Karnataka.From each division, 30 KSFMBC beneficiaries were selected randomly. Thus, 120 respondents constituted the samplefor the study. The Income Generating Activities (IGAs) implemented under KSFMBC project has resulted in positivechange in income generation (88.66 %), followed by changes in employment generation (87.40 %), social change (79.93%) and cultural change (71.00 %). The additional employment was generated to the extent of 35 per cent due to IGA.The highest employment generation was from business & rural artisans (166%), followed by sheep rearing (117 %),diary (83 %) collection of NTFP (79%) and agriculture (6%). The annual income was increased to the extent of 25 percent due to IGA. The highest income was generated from business and rural artisans (393 %), followed by sheeprearing (184%), diary (174%) and collection of NTFP (143%). The IGAs has brought highest changes in cosmopoliteness(61%) followed by extension orientation (54 %), extension participation (24 %), mass media use (23 %), family education(22%) and organisational participation (16 %). The highest cultural change of IGA beneficiaries were observed indressing pattern (41 %) followed by celebration of ritual/ceremonies (14 %) and food habits (8 %). Family dependencyratio, family encouragement, material possession, level of aspiration, educations, family type, decision making,management orientation were found significant relationship with socio-economic and cultural conditions of IGAbeneficiaries. Inadequate loan (80.00 %), no market for the produce (58.33), lack of capital (55.83 %) and delay insanction of loan (45.83 %) were the major problems expressed by the beneficiaries. Increase in loan amount (79.16 %),entire loan should be released at a time (66.66 %) and provision should be made for livestock insurance (58.33 %) werethe major suggestions given by the IGA beneficiaries.

2012 N. R. GANGADHARAPPA

Dept. of Agril. Extension, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


Impact Analysis of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme inDhalai District of Tripura

JAYANTA ROY

THE National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was notified on 7th September 2005 and implemented in 200districts of the country during the year 2006-2007 and was extended to additional 130 districts in 2007-2008. It wasrenamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) on 2nd October, 2009. A total of615 districts in the country are covered under MGNREGA till 2010-2011. The basic objective of the Act is to enhancelivelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year toevery household creating rural assets for the sustainable development of an agricultural and natural resource basedeconomy. The study was conducted in Dhalai district of Tripura state during 2010-2011. Dhalai district was purposivelyselected for the study because MGNREGA programme was firstly implemented during 2006-2007 in Tripura. Totally,150 beneficiaries were randomly selected from three villages of Kulai Gram Panchayat in Ambassa block of Dhalaidistrict. It was found that 50 per cent of the respondents had favourable attitude towards MGNREGA programme. Onthe contrary, 36 and 14 per cent of the respondents had neutral and unfavourable attitude towards MGNREGAprogramme, respectively. The overall mean value of standard of living before MGNREGA was found to be 36.55 ascompared to 60.16 after the implementation of MGNREGA programme indicating an increase of 65 per cent after theimplementation of the MGNREGA programme. Out of different dimensions of standard of living, the employmentgeneration increased by 168 per cent followed by annual income (149 %), food consumption pattern (116 %), investmenton social function(96 %), investment on savings (91 %) and investment on assets (86 %). The most important problemsfaced by the MGNREGA beneficiaries were providing employment of hundred days was too less (72 %) in the presentsituation followed by lack of medical facilities (70%), delayed wage payment (69 %).

2012 K. Narayana GowdaDept. of Agril. Extension, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

AGRONOMY

Response of Brewable Crops to Brewery Wastewater Irrigation inCereal – Cereal Cropping Sequence

MANJUNATHA. B. N.FIELD experiments were conducted on sandy loam soils at the premises of M/s. United Breweries Ltd., Nelamangalaand Agronomy field unit, ZARS, GKVK, Bengaluru, located in Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka from 2009 to 2011. Theexperiments were laid out in RCBD with first two experiments in maize-paddy and paddy-barley sequence comprisingnine treatments and three replications. Out of which the best two treatments were selected and gypsum was includedas an amendment with four replications in the experiments three and four.

Results revealed that application of 150 per cent recommended N through treated brewery wastewater as 50%basal and 50 per cent in three irrigations (T8) recorded significantly higher grain yield of maize (39.6 q ha–1), growthparameters, yield components, quality, nutrients uptake, soil available nutrients, soil microbial population and B:Cratio (2.47) as compared to RDF with freshwater. Subsequently, residual and cumulative effect of the same treatmentrecorded higher grain yield of paddy (21.3 & 43.8 q ha–1, respectively), growth parameters, yield components, quality,nutrients uptake, soil available nutrients, soil microbial population and B:C ratio (2.26 & 2.20, respectively) as comparedto RDF along with freshwater in maize-paddy sequence. Similar trend was noticed in paddy-barley cropping sequence.

Further, application 150 per cent recommended N through treated brewery wastewater as 50 per cent basal and50 per cent in three irrigations with gypsum recorded higher grain yield of maize (50.3 q ha–1), growth parameters,yield components, quality, nutrients uptake, soil available nutrients, soil microbial population and B:C ratio (3.06) ascompared to RDF. Residual and cumulative effect of the same treatment recorded higher grain yield of paddy (19.0 &43.5 q ha–1, respectively), growth parameters, yield components, quality, nutrients uptake, soil available nutrients, soilmicrobial population and B:C ratio (2.00 & 2.16, respectively) as compared to RDF in maize-paddy sequence. Similartrend was noticed in paddy-barley cropping sequence.

2012 S. BHASKAR

Dept. of Agronomy, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


CROP PHYSIOLOGY

ROHITUKINE, a chromane alkaloid is reported to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-fertility, anti-implantation, anti-cancerand immuno-modulatory properties. Several semi-synthetic analogs of rohitukine have been developed, of whichflavopiridol is well known. Flavopiridol is a potent CDK inhibitor, it arrests the cell cycle at both G1 and G2 phases. Itis highly effective against breast, lung and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia cancers. Rohitukine was first reported fromAmoora rohituka(0.083% dry weight)followed by in Dysoxylum binectariferum(0.9% dry weight),both belonging tothe family Meliaceae and Schumanniophyton problematicum(Rubiaceae).Among the reported species, D. binectariferumis the richest source for rohitukine. The present study was undertaken to a)to assess the genetic diversity b)chemicallyprofile D. binectariferum populations and its phylogeneticlly related species for rohitukine c) to explore endophyticfungi as a possible alternative source for rohitukine.

Molecular analysis using SSR markers was carried out for six populations of D. binectariferum. The averageheterozygosity of overall populations was low compared(0.63)to other Meliaceae species. The significant allele losswas observed in seedling compared to adults. HPLC and LC-MS/MS analysis of D. binectariferum populationsshowed for the first time, nearly 2-3 fold higher rohitukine yields than hitherto reported in D. binectariferum. Besidesthis several other rohitukine analogues have been identified. Four new rohitukine producing species were identifiedbased on the phylogenetic relatedness. Pure rohitukine and crude extracts of the tree bark were subjected for anticancerassay. Both were found to be highly effective against ovarian and breast cancer lines tested. Besides this, the studyalso led to the isolation of 5 endophytic fungal isolates from D. binectariferum and one fungus from Amoora rohitukaas a possible alternate source for rohitukine. HRMS/MS and LC-MS/MS analysis of fungal extracts showed presenceof rohitukine in these isolates. The results from this study have important industrial implications in terms of developingthe sustainable rohitukine production system.

Assessing the Genetic Diversity of Dysoxylum binectariferum and Prospecting for AnticancerMetabolite Rohitukine from its Phylogenetically Related Species in the Western Ghats, India

MOHANA KUMARA, P.

2012 R. UMA SHAANKER

Dept. of Crop Physiology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

AN investigation was undertaken with 196 cowpea genotypes to study morphological and molecular diversity usingSSR markers and field screening of mosaic virus and bacterial leaf blight disease for the identification of DNA markerslinked to BLB. Analysis of variance revealed significant difference for all the nine quantitative traits. The estimatesof PCV and GCV were high for plant height, number of branches plantÉ1, pods plantÉ1, pod length, test weight andseed yield plantÉ1. High heritability and genetic advance was observed for plant height, number of branches plantÉ1,pods plantÉ1 pod length, seeds pod-1, test weight and seed yield. Genetic divergence study using Mahalanobis D2

statistic grouped 196 genotypes into 22clusters. Cluster XXII was the largest comprising of 133 genotypes followedby cluster I with 23 genotypes, and all other clusters had only two genotypes each. Intra cluster distance was highestin the cluster XXII followed by the cluster I and cluster XXI. The genotypes included are found to be very diverse innature as they showed maximum inter cluster distance (D2) between the clusters I and XIX, the minimum D2 value wasbetween the clusters II and VI.Molecular characterization with 60 genotypes revealed at 65 per cent similarity, sevenclusters were formed and II cluster had only one genotype i.e. EC 472252 and cluster V largest with 28 genotypes.Inheritance studies for CpMV and BLB diseases involving two crosses of susceptible with resistant parents revealedthe role of single dominant gene for both the diseases. Only three SSR markers were polymorphic out of 12 markersstudied for BLB resistance in the BSA of F2 cross (C-152 ×V-16). Markers CP-641/642 showed significant linkage on thebasis of single factor analysis of these three putative markers, which leads to conclude for the possible linkagebetween the markers and BLB resistance gene.

Assessment of Morphological and Molecular Diversity and Genetics of Resistance toBacterial Leaf Blight and Mosaic Virus in Cowpea (vignaunguiculata L. Walp)

HASAN KHAN

2012 K. P. VISWANATHA

Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGYIsolation of Photorhabdus luminescens and Cloning of its Toxin Complex (tcdA) Gene into

Escherichia coli

SAYEED WAJEED R MULLA

THE insect-parasitic nematode genus Heterorhabditis and its bacterial symbiont Photorhabdus luminescens havebeen shown to be effective agent in the biological control of many insect pests and plant diseases. Hence theinvestigation was carried out to study the isolation of Photorhabdus luminescens and cloning of its toxin complex(tcdA) gene into Escherichia coli The native entomopathogenic nematode (EPN), Heterorhabditis spp were isolatedby insect baiting method (Bedding and Akhurst, 1975), from Western Ghats of Karnataka viz., Nagarahole, Virajapet,Madikeri, Suliya, Nelvadi, and Sakaleshpura. The bacterial symbionts were isolated from Heterorhabditis spp, identifiedand confirmed using Microscopic observation, Biochemical, Physiological and Molecular level using 16S rDNA.Characters like Gelatin liquefaction, Catalase test, Lactose fermentation test, Urease test and Colony morphologystudies on different media viz., Nutrient bromothymol agar, Nutrient agar and Macconkey agar. In this study, the tcdAcoding gene of Photorhabdus luminescens was inserted in pET32a(+) plasmid with extra His-tag sequence. The DNAsequence of cloned toxin gene (7551 bp) has an open reading frame encoding 2506 amino acids with a predictedmolecular mass of 283kDa. The integrity of the constructed plasmid was confirmed using restriction digestion andPCR. tcdA was expressed after induction with IPTG in E. coli BL21(DE3). Recombinant tcdA was purified by Ni- NTAAffinity Chromatography and toxic activity of tcdA was determined on Galleria mellonella and Helicoverpa armigeralarvae by artificial diet method (Mahar et al., 2004). Second instar larvae of G. mellonella and H. armigera were fedwith artificial diet containing different concentrations of tcdA and mortality data was recorded after 48hrs underlaboratory conditions. The LC50 values, Chi2, Regression Fiducial limit and LC99 determined by probit analysis. LC50value of G. mellonella and H. armigera was 59.563ng/ml and 46.240ng/ml respectively. These results suggest that thetoxic activity to G.mellonella and H. armigera varied.

2012 C. K. SURESH

Dept. of Plant Biotechnology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Evaluation of Inhibitory Effect of shRNA Constructs in Bluetongue Virus (BTV) Replication

MANJU ELIZABETH, P.

BLUETONGUE is an economically important disease for the farming community however vaccines effective for all 26serotypes are unavailable. The present study was carried out for developing shRNA producing cassettes targetinggenes expressing VP1, VP3 and VP6 proteins of BTV to evaluate the inhibition of virus replication. Two siRNAs wereselected for conserved regions of each gene and corresponding shRNA producing cassettes were obtained on successfulcloning in psiRNA vector. Endotoxin free plasmid DNAs of positive clones were used for transfection in BHK21 celllines. Initial studies were carried out by transfection of the cells followed by infecting with four BTV serotypes [BTV1,10, 16 and 23; (8h post transfection)] at 100TCID50 and 1000TCID50 virus and harvested at 36h post infection. Upontitration, inhibition of replication was observed in cells transfected with shRNA producing cassettes of VP1 gene andVP6 gene whereas inhibition was limited with VP3shRNA forming cassettes. For time course study the cells weretransfected and infected with BTV1 (100TCID50) and harvested at 24, 48 and 72h p. i. Titration of samples indicatedinhibition of replication at 24h p. i. but not after 36h p.i. Transfection was carried out with 12 combinations of shRNAproducing cassettes and all of them were found to be effective even at 48h p.i. The Ct values on q RT PCR of the abovesample (24h p. i., 48h p. i. combinations) indicated that inhibition was achieved by both constructs of VP1 gene andone construct of VP3 gene (VP3shRNA1) at 24h p. i., while all the combinations of shRNAs could produced inhibitionof replication at 48h p.i. The results of the present study revealed that knocking down of VP1 and VP6 genes will beeffective for the control of BTV multiplication and transfection with combinations of shRNA producing cassettesshowed synergetic effect.

2012 S. M. BYREGOWDA



SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

Studies on the Effect of Repeated Application of Human and Cattle Urineon Soil Properties Growth and Yield of Vegetable Crops

YOGEESHAPPA, H.

THE urine from persons of different age group and diet and different categories of cattle was characterized andchanges in chemical composition when incubated under open and closed conditions was mentioned. Field experimentwas conducted in farmer’s field with ashgourd, french bean, pole bean and pumpkin as test crops and 14 treatmentcombinations at Nagasandra village, Doddaballapur, Bangalore rural district from 2009 to 2011.

The fresh urine from persons of vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet and of different age groups and of differentcategories of cattle were acidic in reaction, had appreciable amount of soluble salts, primary and secondary andmicronutrients. Urine from non-vegetarians had more nutritive value when compared to vegetarians. The pH of urinesamples of all category turned to alkaline reaction with time. In the field experiment, application of recommended doseof nitrogen through human urine in three split doses plus gypsum recorded higher yield (39.2,14.2,17.4 and 38.7 t ha-

1, for ashgourd,french bean, pole bean and pumpkin grown sequentially), soil available nutrients, soil microbialpopulation and B:C ratio as compared to other treatments.

In the green house experiment, application of 2 times the recommended dose of N through human urine to red andlaterite soils recorded higher tomato fruit yield (3.6 and 3.4 kg plant-1, respectively), soil available nutrients and soilmicrobial population as compared to other treatments. In black soil, all these components were found significantlyhigher in treatment receiving 2 times the recommended dose of N through chemical fertilizers as compared to othertreatments.

2012 C. A. SRINIVASAMURTHY

Dept. of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Studies on the Etiology, Yield Loss Assessment and Management of Powdery Mildew ofSunflower Helianthus annuus L. caused by Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.

KARUNA, K.

SUNFLOWER is an important oil seed crop of India. The pathogen causing powdery mildew of sunflower was identifiedas Oidium state of Erysiphe cichoracearum. Hybrid KBSH 53 was resistant to powdery mildew and Hybrid KBSH 44was highly susceptible to powdery mildew and recorded higher sized conidia. The temperature range of 20-30ÚC andrelative humidity range of 70-100 per cent is required for good germination of conidia under laboratory conditions andgermination was enhanced by using 1 to 2 per cent sucrose solution. The conidia of powdery mildew pathogen wereshort lived on the host debris under natural conditions. The disease severity reduced during rainy days and getsaggravated when there was dry spell after rain. The reduction in the disease severity was to the extent of 91.26 to 93.33per cent, when sprayed 3 to 4 times with difenoconazole @ 0.05 per cent while, it was 72.89 to 83.86 per cent with oneand two sprays, respectively. The reduction in the disease due to fungicide application resulted in increased yields,maximum per cent increase in yield over control was recorded in plots which received four sprays(12.00 %) and threesprays(11.33 %). Highly susceptible hybrid KBSH 44 showed more damage to leaf structures than the resistant hybridKBSH 53. There was less reduction of chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’ and total chlorophyll in resistant hybrid when infected byE. cichoracearum than in highly susceptible hybrid. In the present study chlorophyll ‘b’ was found to be moresensitive for infection. There was less reduction of total sugars, total phenols and total proteins in resistant hybridwhen infected by E. cichoracearum than in highly susceptible hybrid. Difenoconazole @0.05% recorded significantlylowest per cent disease severity of 18.33 and highest seed yield. Illeis cincta was found to be associated with thedisease by feeding upon the fungal mass of powdery mildew.

2012 NAGARAJU

Dept. of Plant Pathology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

PLANT PATHOLOGY


Abstracts of M. Sc. Theses submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

Performance of Beef Exports from Namibia – An Econometric Analysis

NATHINGE, I. V. I. N.

NAMIBIA has been a net exporter of beef, primarily to the European Union (EU) as carcass, processed beef and as livecattle to South Africa. The study analyzes performance of beef exports with respect to growth, direction of exporttrade and competitiveness as well as forecasting of beef producer prices in Namibia. Time series data from 1996 to2009 was analyzed using the Exponential Growth Model, Markov Chain Analysis, Constant Market Share Analysis,Holt-Winters Additive Model and Artificial Neural Networks. Beef exports confirmed positive compound growth ratesin both quantity and value except in quantity of carcass exports to South Africa. Further, South Africa and Greece werethe most stable markets for Namibian beef exports, whereas United Kingdom and Germany were the most unstablemarkets during the study period. Norway and other countries pooled under “Others” marginally retained their previousmarket shares of Namibian beef exports. Export of live cattle and processed beef to South Africa were competitive,however Namibia was not competitive in the export of carcasses to South Africa and EU during the study period. Beefproducer prices will rule high during the last quarter of 2012 and indicated a tendency to increase with some volatility.Namibia has potential to increase beef exports by increasing carcass weight and encouraging communal farmers to selltheir marketable cattle to the export abattoirs. Appropriate measures should be taken to further promote beef andexplore new markets in order to spread the risk of depending on existing markets.

2012 G. S. MAHADEVAIAH

Dept. of Agril. Economics, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

A Comparative Study of Cooperative and Private Sugar Factory in Belgaum District- An Economic Analysis

NARENDRA N NADONI

THE present investigation is aimed at studying the relative economics of private and cooperative sugar factories andopinion of sugarcane growers towards respective factories in Belgaum district of Karnataka State. The overall averagesof liquidity ratios, solvency ratios, turnover ratios, efficiency and profitability ratios, financial strength ratios, andfixed assets ratios analysis revealed that the cooperative sugar factory performed better than private sugar factory.The capacity utilization analysis revealed that Private sugar factory (67.71%) was more efficient as compared toCooperative sugar factory (58.38%). The discriminant analysis revealed that the ratio of working capital turnover ratiocontributed 182.95 per cent to the total distance followed by fixed assets to total assets ratio with 51.21 per cent. Totalassets turnover ratio and Total liabilities to owned funds ratio reduced the difference between two factories by 107.94per cent and 54 per cent respectively. It was found that the overall average of total cost of processing in Private andCooperative sugar factory were found to be ‘ 1650.65 and ‘ 1564.08 per quintal respectively. Both Private and cooperativesugar factory sold three byproducts namely molasses, baggase and press mud. In both private and cooperative sugarfactory, the average share of molasses (6.42% and 5.41% respectively) to total sales was highest followed by pressmud(0.77% and 0.82% respectively) and bagasse (10%) respectively. The opinion survey revealed that the major problemsfaced by the farmers were frequent power cut, lack of mechanization, high labour cost, and poor yielding varities.

2012 G. S. ANANTH



Comparative Economics of Organic and Inorganic Jaggery Preparation in Mandya District

DHANANJAYA SWAMY, P. S.

THE study was undertaken in Mandya district to assess economics of organic vis-a-vis inorganic jaggery preparationand consumer willingness to pay premium for the organic jaggery. The study based on the primary data from 30processors and 64 consumers each of organic and inorganic jaggery was elicited through survey method. The resultrevealed that average investment of ‘ 933254 and ‘ 988080 were required to set up organic and inorganic jaggeryprocessing unit with a capacity of 9 quintals per Pday. The average per quintal cost of inorganic jaggery preparationwas more (‘ 2392.24) compared to organic jaggery units (‘ 2187.00). Net return in organic jaggery was higher thaninorganic jaggery at ‘ 1411.40 and ‘ 725.50 per quintal, respectively. The consumers’ survey revealed that on anaverage consumer were willing to pay ‘ 56.12 per kg of organic jaggery it implies a premium of ‘ 22.62 per kg of organicjaggery than the price of inorganic jaggery in the market. Average probability of WTP of consumer for organic jaggerywas 0.8529. A unit change in age and education of consumer above mean level lead to increase in the consumer WTPfor organic jaggery by ‘ 251 and ‘ 961 per year, respectively. All the sample processors (100.00 %) expressed theproblem of lack of market opportunities followed by non- availability of separate market (53.33 %). Majority of thesample consumers (82.81 %) expressed the problem of market network.

2012 HONNAIAH


Livelihood Security of Farm Households Under Different Farming Systemsin Kolar District of Karnataka – An Economic Analysis

HARISHKUMAR, H. V.

THE study was undertaken in Kolar district of Karnataka state to assess Livelihood security of farm households andtheir dependence on market for consumption of food and to see the extent of utilization of benefits from developmentalprogrammes. Four major farming systems viz, Crop+Dairy, Crop+Sericulture, Crop+Dairy+Sericulture and Crop+Sheepwere identified based on preliminary survey and previous studies in the area. The study based on primary data from120 farmers covering equal samples under major farming systems elicited for the period 2010-11 through surveymethod. The data was analyzed using Cobb-Douglas production function, Garret ranking and Gini co-efficient analysis.Results revealed that net annual income realized by a household was highest in C+D+S (Rs 3,58,880) farming systemof which 43.78 per cent was from sericulture enterprise alone and least in C+Sh (Rs 46,281) farming system of which59.95 per cent was from non-farm activities. Area under vegetable crops (ha) was found highly significant against netannual income in all irrigation based farming systems (C+D, C+S and C+D+S). Area under Field crops (ha) was foundhighly significant in rainfed based farming system (C+Sh). Irrigation based farm households are on par with ICMRnorms in cereal consumption but not rainfed based households. The market dependence for cereals and millets washighest in C+S farming system (55.00 %). Public Distribution System contributed to food security of households ofrainfed farming system. The overall livelihood security was better among C+D+S farm households. Benefit derivedfrom developmental programmes was highest in C+D+S (Rs 22,105) households.

2012 K. B. UMESH



Utilization of Benefits from Governmental Programmes / Schemes by Farmers in Karnataka -An Institutional Economic Analysis

SOWNDARYA, D. C.

GOOD governance is crucial for inclusive growth. Here is a modest attempt to analyze reach of governmental programmesfor farmers in Tumkur district, Karnataka. With the hypothesis that benefits from governmental programs depend onsize of holding, number of programs, access to irrigation and net returns from farming, field data were obtained from arandom sample of 35 farmers each in canal irrigated area (CIA), groundwater irrigated area (GIA) and only rainfed area(RFA) in Kunigal taluk.

Among 43 programmes listed as operative by Government departments, farmers identified 22 (51%) in CIA, 12 (28%) in GIA and 16 (37 %) in RFA as in vogue. The annual benefit per farm family in CIA was Rs. 5039 from 6, Rs. 8499in GIA from 5, and Rs. 7682 in RFA from 7 programmes. Regression results indicated that if a farm family does not applyfor benefit from programmes, RFA family would lose Rs. 4500; GIA loses Rs. 481 and CIA loses Rs. 5392 worth ofbenefit per year. Thus, farmers have to be proactive in obtaining programme benefits. Therefore, benefits fromprogrammes formed only two per cent of net return in CIA, one per cent in GIA and four per cent in RFA. For one rupeeincrease in transaction cost benefit increased by Rs. 3. For every programme, farmer participated, benefit increased byRs. 938. Elasticity of benefits received with respect to transaction cost was 0.72 per cent and that with respect tonumber of programmes participated was 1.25 per cent.

2012 M. G. CHANDRAKANTH


Utilization of Benefits from Governamental Programmes or Schemes by Farmersin Andhra Pradesh – An Institutional Economic Analysis

SRAVANTHI KOLLA

ANDHRA PRADESH has been a role model in designing and implementing several types of innovative Governmentalprogrammes for alleviation of poverty in rural areas. This study focused on estimating annual benefit received byfarmers from Governmental programmes. A sample of 35 farmers each having access to canal irrigation (CIA), groundwater irrigation (GIA) and rainfed (RFA) from Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh had chosen for analysis.

The results indicated that 39 programmes were listed as being operative at the village level. The farmers howeverlisted 17 (44%) programmes in CIA, 17 (44%) in GIA and 15 (38%) in RFA. The annual benefit received per farm familyis Rs. 8732 in CIA from 6, Rs. 7518 in GIA from 5 and Rs. 11202 in RFA from 6 programmes. The benefits fromgovernmental programmes formed three percent of net return from all sources in CIA, GIA (4%) and RFA (16%).Transaction cost incurred per family in CIA was Rs. 1439, Rs. 1383 in GIA and Rs. 1351 in RFA.

A RFA farmer gets at least Rs. 1260 but a CIA and GIA farmer losses an amount of Rs. 3604 and Rs. 2484respectively if s/he does not participate in any governmental programmes. For every increase or percentage change ingovernmental programme in which the farmer participate the benefit received increases by Rs. 1558 or 1.18 percent. Toenhance the reach of benefit it is necessary for development departments to bring out a guide book in Teluguhighlighting all the governmental programmes.

2012 M. G. CHANDRAKANTH



AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

Pest Complex of Jatropha (Jatropha Curcas L.) and Simarouba (Simarouba Glauca Dc.) withSpecial Reference to Biology and Management of Major Insect Pests

VEERESHKUMAR

TOTAL of 22 species of insect and mite pests have been recorded on jatropha. Six species of defoliators, fourteenspecies of sucking pests and two species of bark / stem feeders were observed. Of which Pempelia morosalis andParacoccus marginatus caused serious damage. The peak incidence of P.morosalis was observed during September-November; while, low during June-August and January on jatropha. The peak incidence of P. marginatus was observedduring January- May; While, very low during June- December on jatropha. A total of 10 species of insect and mitepests found feeding on simarouba. Six species of sucking pests, three species of bark / stem feeders and a seed feederwere observed. Of which Aleurodicus dispersus and Indarbela quadrinotata caused serious damage.

Studies on the biology of P.morosalis revealed that the incubation period of 5.9 ± 0.80 days. First, second, third,fourth and fifth instar larval occupied duration of 2.3 ± 0.48,4.2 ± 0.91,5.8 ± 0.78,6.9 ± 0.87and8.1± 0.87 days, respectively.Pupal period lasted for 6.9 ± 0.73 days. Male and female had longevity of 5.6 ± 0.5and7.5 ± 0.5 days, respectively, withfecundity 66.5 ± 17.8 per female. Life cycle of P.marginatus indicated that the female exhibited three nymphal instarswithout pupal stage, while the male had three nymphal instars besides, prepupal and a pupal stage. The total nymphalperiod lasted for 17.32 ± 1.6and18.9 ± 1.3 days in female and male, respectively, with an Fecundity of 618.9±19.Evaluation of new insecticides revealed that the lowest larval population and highest per cent reduction was recordedin flubendiamide @0.19 per cent and lamda [email protected] per cent against P.morosalis. Whereas, the lowestP.marginatus populations and highest per cent reduction was observed in [email protected] per cent [email protected] per cent.



Influence of Abiotic Factors on the Incidence of Leaf Folder, Cnaphalocrocis Medinalis(Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Cauvery Command Area and Biochemicals Associated

with Resistance in Rice

VANITHA, B. K.

INVESTIGATION on the impact of weather parameters, field evaluation of rice genotypes, biochemical basis for resistanceand chemical control aspects of rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) wereconducted in V.C. Farm, Mandya during kharif 2011 and Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra, University of AgriculturalSciences, Bangalore. Seasonal incidence of leaf folder in a popular variety Tanu revealed that, the larval populationduring the crop growth period varied from 0.00 to 0.81 larvae per hill. The maximum activity of larvae observed duringAugust-September with significant negative correlation with sunshine hours. The per cent leaf damage varied from0.00 to 18.20 per cent. Maximum leaf damage of 18.20 per cent was recorded during second fortnight of September. Percent leaf damage exerted a significant positive correlation with morning relative humidity and significant negativecorrelation with sunshine hours. Of the 100 genotypes screened under field conditions one genotype (NP-218) showedhighly resistant reaction, 21genotypes reacted as resistant and 78 genotypes showed moderately resistant reaction.None of the genotypes screened are susceptible. Biochemical basis for resistance revealed that the amount of totalsugars, crude protein and total free amino acids were higher in all susceptible varieties. Higher amount of total phenolwas observed in all the resistant genotypes compared to susceptible varieties. Among the insecticides evaluated fortheir bio-efficacy revealed that acephate 75SP @ 675 g a.i. ha-1 recorded lowest larval population and per cent leafdamage, and also, acephate is the best insecticide in getting highest net profit and cost benefit ratio.




Studies on the Interrelationship Between Soil Mesofauna and Nematodes inOrganic Farming System

NARASA REDDY, G.

To studies on the interrelationship between soil mesofauna and nematodes in organic farming was carried out at theZonal Agriculture Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore during 2011-12. Soilapplication of 20 t of FYM ha–1 + introduction of native soil fauna recorded significantly higher soil mesofauna (71.67/ 400 g soil), nematodes (2491 / 400g soil), soil organic carbon (0.76 %), Av. Phosphorous (67.26 kg / ha), Av. Potassium(312 kg / ha), Ex. Calcium (6.43meq / 100g), Ex. Magnesium (3.40 meq / 100g) and microbial biomass carbon (4153.57 μ/ g soil) compared to recommended fertilizer alone treatment during cropping season. Significantly higher availablenitrogen was obtained in package of practices followed plot. Peak mesofaunal population (47.46 / 400 g soil) and soilnematodes (2237 / 400 g soil) was recorded on 105 and 75 DAG, respectively during cropping season. Similarly, leastmesofaunal abundance (3.86/400 g soil) and soil nematodes (139 / 400 g soil) was recorded on 240 DAG during non-cropping season. Higher production of leaf biomass and root biomass was observed in plots treated with 20 t of FYMfollowed by FYM+fertilizer compared to fertilizer alone treated plot. The abundance of soil mesofauna exhibited asignificant positive relation with Av. phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, exchangeable magnesium, soil pH, maximumRH, minimum RH and soil moisture. Significant negative relationship existed between the abundance of soil mesofaunaand maximum temperature of the atmosphere and soil temperature. Soil application of 20 t of FYM+native faunarecorded higher grain yield (32.33 q / ha) compared to chemical fertilizers alone (26.78q / ha) and package of practicesfollowed treatment (27.26 q / ha).

2012 N. G. KUMAR


Studies on The Host Range, Efficacy of Select Insecticides and Parasitoid, AcerophagusPapayae Noyes and Schauff Against Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus Marginatuswilliams and

Granara De Willink (Hemiptera: Psuedococcidae)

BASANA GOWDA, G.

THE present investigation was conducted at Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra,University of Agricultural Sciences and National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII), Bengaluru. Atotal of 60 plant species belonging to 29 botanical families were recorded as host plants of this mealybug. Eightspecies of ants belonging to three subfamilies (Hymenoptera:Formicidae). Three kinds of insecticides were evaluatedfor their efficacy tested under glasshouse conditions viz., chemical insecticides, physical agents and botanicals andcombination of physical agents and botanicals with the least effective chemical insecticide. Among the chemicalinsecticides tested, acephate 75 SP (0.075 %) and profenophos 50 EC (0.05 %) recorded the highest pest mortality of90.24 and 84.69 per cent, respectively at 7 days after spray. Among the physical and botanial agents Lastraw™ (5 ml/l) and neem oil 300 ppm (0.5ml / l) were found promising in suppressing the mealybug population. The combinations ofphysical and botanical agents with least effective chemical insecticide (dichlorvos) revealed that lastraw + dichlorvosrecorded the highest pest mortality (93.83 %). Efficacy of encyrtid parasitoid Acerophagus papayae in parasitizingpapaya mealybug across different locations and hosts revealed that the highest mean per cent parasitisation (42.42)was recorded on papaya at Hebbal, Bengaluru. Regarding the toxicity of different insecticides to A. papayae, physicaland botanical agents were found to be relatively safer than chemical insecticides. Among the chemical insecticidesbuprofezin 25 SC recorded the maximum of cumulative parasitoid emergence (65.52 %). Among physical and botanicalagents, the maximum cumulative emergence was recorded in wood ash (95.21 %).

2012 A. K. CHAKRAVARTHY



Studies on Mechanism of Resistance to Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata Lugens (Stal.)in Select Landraces of Rice

DHARSHINI, G. M.

STUDIES were undertaken to evaluate the select landraces of rice against BPH populations under glasshouse and fieldconditions, determination of mechanism of resistance to brown planthopper and few biochemical factors associatedwith BPH resistance in select landraces of rice at Zonal Agricultural Research Station, V. C. Farm, Mandya during 2011-2012. Among 280 landraces screened, 10 landraces viz., Baiganmanji, Honasu 1, JBT 36/14, Kottayam, Manila, Nazarbatta,PS-339, Ratnachoodi 1, Raibhog, and Rajamudi were found resistant to BPH with a damage score of 1, whereas 5landraces viz., Anilamanil, Kalakolli, Ratnachoodi 2, Selamsanna and Moradde were found moderately resistant toBPH with a damage score of 3. Studies on days to wilting, per cent unhatchability of eggs, nymphal survival and adultfeeding in the form of honeydew excretion indicated that landraces such as PS 339, Kottayam, Ratnachoodi 1, JBT 36/14, Ugibatta, Karpoorakeli, Ratnachoodi 2, Akkalu 2 and Kalakolli showed resistance to BPH populations compared tosusceptible check TN 1. The resistant landraces had relatively higher amount of total phenol, potassium, calcium, ironand zinc and lower content of total soluble sugar, total reducing sugar, crude protein, total soluble protein andnitrogen compared to susceptible check TN 1. Based on these findings, it may be concluded that the landraces viz.,Anilamanil, Baiganmanji, Honasu 1, JBT 36/14, Kalakolli, Kottayam, Manila, Nazarbatta, PS 339, Ratnachoodi 1,Ratnachoodi 2, Raibhog, Rajamudi, Selamsanna and Moradde could be added as new resistant donors and utilized inresistance breeding programme against brown planthopper in rice.

2012 D. K. SIDDE GOWDA


Studies on the Impact of Climate Change on Soil Macro-faunal Abundance and Diversityin Organic Farming System

SHILPA V. AKKUR

STUDIES on the impact of climate change on soil macro-faunal abundance and diversity in organic farming system wascarried out at the Zonal Agriculture Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, from july2011 to june 2012. Soil application of 20 t of FYM ha–1 + introduction of native fauna recorded significantly higher soilmacro-fauna during both cropping and non-cropping season (13.51 & 9.31 macro-fauna/trap), soil organic carbon(0.76 %), available Phosphorous (67.26 kg / ha), available Potassium (312 kg / ha), exchangeable Calcium (6.43meq /100g), exchangeable Magnesium (3.40 meq / 100g) and microbial biomass carbon (4153.57 μg / g soil) compared torecommended fertilizer alone treated plot during cropping season. Significantly higher available nitrogen was obtainedin package of practices followed plot. Higher macro-faunal population was recorded at 90 (45.03 macro-fauna / trap)and 210 DAG (14.03 macro-fauna/ha trap) during cropping and non-cropping season, respectively. Camponotuscompressus Fabricius and Pheidole sp. were more abundant among 10 and 12 species of ants both during croppingand non-cropping season, respectively. The abundance of soil macro-fauna exhibited a significant positive relationwith soil pH. Ex. calcium showed positive non-significant correlation with soil macro-fauna. Positive non-significantrelationship existed between the abundance of soil macro-fauna and maximum, minimum temperature, minimum RH,total rain fall and soil moisture. Soil application of 20 t of FYM recorded higher grain yield (32.33 q / ha) compared tochemical fertilizers alone (26.78 q / ha) and package of practices followed treatment (27.26 q / ha).

2012 N. G. KUMAR



Bio-ecology and Management of Coconut Moth, Batrachedra arenosella Walker (Lepidoptera:Gelichoidea: Batrachedridae)

PRASHANTHA, C.

INVESTIGATION on the biology, seasonal incidence, loss estimation, natural enemies and evaluation of select insecticidesagainst B. arenosella was undertaken at V.C. Farm, Mandya and Chinnamballi, Mysore during 2011-12. The meanincubation period was 2.95 days. Larva had four instars and the mean duration of first, second, third, fourth instarlarvae, total larval and pupal period were 2.55, 2.75, 3.40, 4.10, 12.80 and 7.20 days, respectively. Adult females livelonger than males. Larvae feed on the mesocarp of immature nuts, under the perianth, forming a silken web withexcretory pellets and leads to immature nut fall and caused 7 to 15 per cent of nut damage. Incidence of B. arenosellawas observed throughout the year but most abundant during August. The trap catches of adults exhibited a negativeassociation with maximum temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall and positive correlation with minimum temperature,morning relative humidity and afternoon relative humidity and it was significantly positively associated with windspeed. The attraction of adults was observed highest at inflorescence and 3rd to 5th bunch and its infestation washigher in Arsikere tall variety. It was found in all coconut growing area of southern Karnataka. The host range studyshows that it was specific to Cocos nuciferae. No parasitoids were recorded on B. arenosella larvae and adults.However, many predatory fauna were recorded especially, spiders and lizards, indicating a possibility of theirpredation on B. arenosella. None of the chemical insecticides evaluated were effective in suppressing the larvae ofB. arenosella.

2012 T. SHIVASHANKAR


AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Performance of Gender Specific Self Help Groups in Bidar District of Karnataka: AComparative Analysis

SANGAPPA

THE present study was conducted in Basavakalyan taluk in Bidar district of Karnataka state during the year 2011-12.The findings of the study revealed that, majority of respondents from men SHG (35.56%) and women (40.00%) SHG hadmedium level of participation in group activities, both men (40.00%) and women groups (55.54%) were having mediumlevel of awareness about developmental programme. Nearly 43.00 per cent of the men SHG and 53.33 per cent of thewomen SHG members had received low mass media exposure. Nearly half (46.67%) of the men members had high andmajority (42.22%) of the women SHG members had low level of social participation. Majority (37.78%) of the menmembers had high and more than half (53.33%) of the women SHG members had medium level of extension contact.Majority of the respondents from men (40.00%) had high and nearly half of the women members had medium level ofachievement motivation. Nearly half of the respondents from both men and women groups had medium level of creditorientation. Considerable percentage of SHG members adopted dairy (27.75%), followed by sheep/goat rearing (14.43%).The SHG formed by women performed significantly better than that of the groups formed by men. Participation ofmembers from women groups was significantly better than that of the members from men SHG. Lack of training and skilldevelopment facility were the major constraints and Loan and subsidy amount should be increased, training programmeshould be conducted on a need oriented basis were the major suggestion given by both Men and women SHG.

2012 N. NARASIMHA



An Analysis of Adoption level and Economic Performance of Bt Cotton growers inGadag District of Karnataka

LAXMI B. BALAGANOORMATH

BT COTTON, one of the widely adopted and effective transgenic crops grown worldwide. In India it occupies an area of10.90 lakh ha with a production of 32.2 lakh tons (2011-12). This significant increase in cotton area and production inIndia is attributed to better returns realized by farmers during the last few years. Hence, the present study was carriedout to know the adoption level and economic performance of Bt cotton growers in Gadag district of Karnataka. Thestudy was conceptualized with the objectives, to ascertain the level of adoption of recommended technology, toanalyze the economic performance, to know the association and influence of socio personal/psychological and economiccharacteristics of Bt cotton growers with their adoption level and economic performance, to document perception andconstraints and suggestions for promoting adoption of recommended technology. The findings of the study revealedthat 45.00 per cent of respondents belonging to low adoption category, followed by 29.17 and 25.83 per cent of therespondents belonged to high and medium adoption categories, respectively. Nearly 35.83 per cent of respondentshad medium economic performance, followed by 33.33 and 30.83 per cent of the respondents belonging to low andhigh economic performance, respectively. The chi-square analysis value depicts that, age and cropping intensity hadsignificant association at one per cent level with their adoption level. While the variables like risk orientation, massmedia exposure, management orientation, innovativeness, scientific orientation, training received, deferred gratification,cropping intensity, had significant association at one per cent with their economic performance. Farmers Perceptionabout benefits of cultivating Bt cotton growers reveals that great majority (87.50%) of the respondents fully agreedthat “Bt cotton fetches higher price in market than non-Bt cotton”. Most (90.20%) of the participants perceived highincidence of diseases as the constraint in production, followed by non availability of technical guidance (83.1%). Thesuggestions given by the farmers are, promote contract farming (77.5%), availability of quality seeds at affordableprice (73.61%), provide timely market information (72.5%), fixing of minimum support price (67.7%).

2012 N. S. SHIVALINGE GOWDA


Impact of Community Based Tank Management Project on Socio-Economic Status and CropProductivity of Beneficiary Farmers in Tumkur District

VINAYA KUMAR, H. M.

THE study entitled Impact of Community Based Tank Management Project(CBTMP) on socio-economic status andcrop productivity of beneficiary farmers in Tumkur district was carried out during 2011-12. Totally 120 respondentswere selected by random sampling method from six villages and data were collected by personal interview method. Theresults of the study revealed that the CBTMP has resulted in significant increase in socio-economic status ofbeneficiaries like agriculture occupation from 71.67 to 80.00 per cent. There was an increase in small and medium landholding farm families from 34.17 to 43.33 per cent and 23.33 to 28.33 per cent respectively, from marginal land holding.Whereas, the annual income increased with respect to semi medium and medium income group farmers from 16.67 to20.83 per cent and 26.67 to 51.67 per cent, respectively. The project has resulted in significant increase in cropproductivity, the yield of paddy increased (40%), red gram (66.66%) and groundnut from (88.33%). The results onpersonal characteristics showed that majority belonged to middle age (36- 50years), high risk orientation (41.67%),medium achievement motivation (45.83%), medium innovativeness (46.67%), high economic motivation (54.17%) andmedium scientific orientation (41.67%). Time unsuitability and equal importance and recognition need to be given toall members were the major constraints and suggestions offered by the beneficiaries of the Project. Therefore, thestudy revealed positive impact on its beneficiaries and hence, the financial assistance coupled with technical guidancewould increase the standard of living of the rural people.

2012 K. N. RAMANNA



A Comparative Study on Knowledge and Perception of Agro-met Advisory Service (AAS) onClimate Change in Chickballapur District

PREETHI

THE present study was conducted in the chickballapur district of Karnataka during 2011-12 by selecting 180respondents. The findings revealed that, nearly 51.11 per cent of AAS farmers had high followed by medium (40 %)and low (8.89 %) levels of knowledge about climate change whereas 36.67 per cent of non-AAS farmers had mediumfollowed by low (34.44 %) and high (28.89 %) levels of knowledge. The results indicated that, about 53.33 per cent ofAAS farmers had medium followed by high (35.56 %) and low (11.11%) levels of perception. Nearly 68.89 per cent ofnon-AAS farmers had medium followed by low (17.78 %) and high (13.33 %) levels of perception. Independentvariables like landholdings, cosmopoliteness, extension participation, mass media exposure, irrigation potential andscientific orientation were significantly associated with knowledge levels of AAS farmers and variables like landholdings,cosmopoliteness, extension participation and mass media exposure were significantly associated with knowledgelevels of non-AAS farmers. Regarding the association of Independent variables with perception of climate changevariables like landholdings, cosmopoliteness, extension participation, mass media exposure and farming experiencewere significantly associated with AAS farmers perception and mass media exposure, farming-experience and irrigationpotential were significantly associated with non-AAS farmers perception. The major constraints experienced by afarmers to initiate adaptation measures were lack of technical skills and capacities for adoption of technologies, lackof awareness and sensitization to the development and utilization of new technologies, non-availability of timelyinputs, lack of information about long term climate change, high cost in adoption of new technology, lack of extensionservices in technology dissemination and lack of investment capital and land tenure issues.

2012 CHANDRASHEKAR S. VASTER


Comparative Analysis of Integrated Farming Systems Practiced by Farmers In MandyaDistrict

SHWETHA, B. M.

A research study was undertaken at Mandya and Nagamangala taluks of Mandya District of Karnataka during 2011-12. The selected 120 respondents were interviewed by using pretested structured schedule. The study revealed thatmajority of the farmers were under middle age group, nearly half of the farmers had medium extension participation,40.00 per cent had favorable attitude towards farming system, 40.83 per cent falls under medium cropping intensitycategory, nearly two-fifth of the farmers belonged to medium market accessibility, one-third of farmers had mediumland use efficiency. In irrigated condition 35.00 per cent of farmers practiced agriculture + sericulture +dairy and in dryland condition 35.00 per cent of farmers practiced agriculture + horticulture +dairy +forestry. In case of economicviability, in irrigated condition agriculture + sericulture + dairy + goat rearing + Vermicompost produced highest returnand whereas in dry land condition horticulture + dairy+ goat rearing + forestry produced highest net return. Highestemployment generation was found in agriculture + sericulture + dairy + poultry in irrigated condition, whereas cropproduction+ horticulture + dairy +forestry (201 man days/year) in dry land condition. In irrigated condition nonavailability of quality planting materials/breeds/species and in dry land lack of technical knowledge regarding cropharvest were the major constraints expressed by farmers.

2012 S. V. SURESHA



A Comparative Study on Performance of Participant and Non Participant Farmers of FarmersField Schools (FFSs) in Bangalore Rural District

SUNITHA, A. B.

FARMERS Field School is a non-formal, learner centered educational process, which focuses on capacity buildingactivities among farmers. A sample of 120 respondents consisting of 60 participants and 60 non participants in the FFSfrom Doddaballapur Taluk of Bangalore Rural District was purposively considered. The findings revealed that majorityof the respondents were middle aged, big farmers, had high school education, medium family size and low familydependency ratio. Majority of the participants were found to have medium level of socio-psychological characteristics,while non participants had low levels of them. Nearly 60 per cent of the participants and 67 per cent of the nonparticipants had high and low knowledge levels respectively regarding cultivation practices of maize. As regards tothe cultivation practices of maize majority of the participants (75%) and non participants (67%) had high and lowadoption levels respectively. A majority of the participants and non participants possessed high and low knowledgeand adoption levels respectively in cultivation practices of finger millet and aerobic rice. The Cost Benefit ratio wasfound to be higher in case of participants as compared to non participants. The relationship was found to be significantfor age, education, mass media exposure, extension participation, extension contact, achievement motivation andinnovative proneness with knowledge and adoption levels of farmers. The predominant factor contributing toparticipation in FFS was of achieving higher yield. The major constraint faced by the participants was lack of trainedextension workers for conducting FFS.

2012 K. C. LALITHA


AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY

Microbial Fermentation of Silage for Enhancement of Nutrients

RAVINDRA, S. N.

The experiment was laid out in CRD which had 14 treatments and 3 replications. The substrate used for silage makingwas Maize (Aft-ican tall) and Napier grass. The silage pit was dimension of 3 × I × I m. LAB (Lactobacillus acidophilus,1. plantarum, Lactococcus lactis) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast) was used as silage inoculants. The efficiencywas tested individually and in combination. 10 % of the inoculum was added having a population of 2 × 10 6 cfu / mlbroth.

The research results revealed that application of Lactobacillus acidophilus -+ Lactobacillus plantarum +Lactococcus lactis + Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast) showed significant difference in silage quality between maizeand napier silage. Maize silage was better than napier grass in nutritional quality like crude fibre (216.50 g / kg DM),crude protein (17.93 g / kg DM), neutral detergent fibre (468.29 g / kg DM), acid detergent fibre (257.30 g / kg DM), Drymatter (292.39 g / kg) and ash content (44.46 g / kg DM). The maximum microbial population of bacteria (58.4 × 106 cfug -J sample), LAB (50.8 × 106 cfu g -I sample) and yeast (5.7 × 103 cfu g -J sample) was recorded in maize silage. The N(2.87 %), P (0.40 %) and K (1.56 %) was also recorded in maize silage. The palatability test conducted at ZARS, VAS (B)showed that silage of Maize (African tall) was more acceptable and preferred by livestock compared to Napier grasssilage. In both consortial application of Lactobacillus acidophilus + Lactobacillus plantarum + Lactococcus lactis+ Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast) improved nutritional quality, palatability.

2012 J. RAJ

Dept. of Agril. Microbiology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


Development of Fluid Bed Dried (FBD) Inoculant Formulation of Consortium of AgriculturallyImportant Microorganisms (AIM)

PRAMOD KUMAR SAHU

AN investigation was carried out to prepare a novel fluid bed dried (FBD) inoculant formulation containing microbialconsortium and study survival of constituent microorganisms Pseudomonas fluorescens, Acinetobacter sp. andAzotobacter chroococcum in different consortial combinations up to 180 days. Growth curves determined revealedthat stationary phases were 48 h, 24 h and 72 h for P. fluorescens, Acinetobacter sp. and A. chroococcum respectively.Survival of these microorganisms was highest in triple inoculant consortium in talc. A dual inoculant consortium of P.fluorescens and A. chroococcum recorded higher number of cells initially. Per cent survival of cells on log values wasrecorded highest in triple inoculant formulation followed by dual and single inoculant formulations. No contaminationwas recorded from all FBD inoculant formulation by the end of 180 days at 10-5 dilution. Effectiveness study of theseinoculant formulations was carried out in finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.) in a green house investigation.This study revealed maximum number of leaves, plant height, nitrogen content, phosphorus content, root dry weight,shoot dry weight, and total dry weight in plants receiving triple inoculant consortium followed by dual, single anduninoculated control. Chlorophyll content was highest from plants containing dual inoculant consortium of P.fluorescens + Acinetobacter sp. and Acinetobacter sp. + A. chroococcum and least was observed in uninoculatedplants. Results were more pronounced when inoculation done along with nutrient (+NPK) than without nutrient (-NPK). Performance of plants receiving triple inoculant consortium without nutrients was on par with uninoculatedplants with nutrients.

2012 G. P. BRAHMAPRAKASH


Role of Biocontrol Agents and PGPR’s in the Production of Cabbage and Cauliflower

SUDHARANI, M.

GREENHOUSE and field studies were undertaken to assess the effectiveness of selected biocontrol agents in combinationwith PGPR’s against damping-off and wilt pathogens of cole crops. The wilt pathogens of cole crops from infectedplants and soil samples were identified as Pythium sp and Fusarium sp. In pathogenicity test conducted undergreenhouse condition they were found to cause 50-85 per cent seedling loss of cole crops.

Under greenhouse condition the biocontrol agents and PGPR’s were evaluated for their growth promoting anddisease suppressing abilities.The combination of Azotobacter chroococcum + Bacillus megaterium + Pseudomonasfluorescens + Bacillus subtilis + Trichoderma harzianum showed enhanced seedling vigour, total biomass, leastdisease incidence, and more biocontrol efficiency. In field experiment also inoculation of the above combination ofthree biocontrol agents and two beneficial microorganimsms have resulted in increased plant height (29.45 and 57.95cm respectively), number of leaves per plant (26.45 and 25.98 respectively), head and curd weight per plant (1.65 and1.45 Kg respectively), head and curd diameter per plant (46.7 and 23.33 cm respectively) and number of leaves coveringhead and curd (26.45 and 25.98 respectively) in cabbage and cauliflower. It also has resulted in minimum diseaseincidence.

2012 M. K. SHIVAPRAKASH



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

AN attempt has been made to understand growth in production and area under cultivation of coconut and arecanutcrops in Tumkur district. In order to analyse the growth trends in area and production of coconut and arecanut crops,the secondary data from Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Karnataka for the period 1981-2009 were utilized.

The results indicated that the cubic polynomial explains the production and productivity under coconut, whereaslinear growth was observed in area under coconut. The linear models were suitable for explaining growth in area andproduction of arecanut crop during the study period, whereas the productivity showed no/ negligible change. In orderto analyse the growth trends in both the crops, decade wise analysis was carried out. Decomposition analysis revealedthat during the first decade of study period, area under coconut crop was the factor, whereas in the third decade bothincrease in area and productivity were factors for increase in production. Coconut production during the seconddecade had very little variation. Multiple regression analysis was carried out to envisage the influence of rainfall onthe production, considering the rainfall of different periods. It was observed that the rainfall during June-Sept has asignificant effect on production of both coconut and arecanut crops. An attempt has also been made in the study tounderstand the association of rainfall pattern on productivity of coconut based on a contingency table developedusing cluster analysis technique. It clearly depicted the productivity variations for different annual rainfall patterns.

2012 V. MANJUNATH

Dept. of Agril. Statistics Applied Mathematics & Computer Sciences Major AdvisorUAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065

Production Analysis of Coconut and Arecanut in Tumkur District of Karnataka

SUDHA, B. R.

AGRONOMY

Standardization of Maize (Zea Mays L.) and Field Bean (Dolichos Lablab L.) IntercroppingSystem in Southern Transitional Zone of Karnataka

MOHAN KUMAR, R.

A field experiment entitled ‘Standardization of maize and field bean intercropping system in Southern TransitionalZone of Karnataka,’ was conducted at the Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Navile, Shimoga on sandy loam soilsduring kharif 2010. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with nine treatments replicatedthrice. The treatments comprised of maize + field bean (4:1, 4:2 and 8:2) with 100 per cent NPK to only main crop, maize+ field bean (4:1, 4:2 and 8:2) with 100 per cent NPK to both the crops, farmers practice (8:2 with 200 kg DAP + 50 kgurea ha-1), sole crop of maize and field bean.

Higher maize equivalent yield was recorded in maize + field bean (4:2) intercropping with application of 100 percent NPK to both the crops (4888 kg ha-1) compared to the farmers practice and sole crop of maize. Further, Maize +field bean (4:2) intercropping with application of 100 per cent NPK to both the crops accounted for maximum landequivalent ratio (1.37), area time equivalent ratio (1.68), land equivalent coefficient (0.43), modest competitive ratio(0.89) and minimum aggressivity (0.002), hence the treatment proved to be the most efficient system productivity. Thesame treatment obtained highest net returns and B:C and was more beneficial with respect to soil fertility as it recordedsignificantly higher soil available nitrogen.

2012 G. K. GIRIJESH



Performance of Fingermillet and Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry System

ANUSHA, S.

FIELD experiment was conducted at ZARS, GKVK, Bengaluru during kharif 2011, to study the “Performance of fingermilletand carbon sequestration in agroforestry system”, laid out in RCBD with eight treatments replicated thrice, comprisingof fingermillet as intercrop with Simarouba, Melia dubia, Neem, Melia azedarach, Pongamia, Madhuca, Calophyllumand sole fingermillet. The results revealed that sole fingermillet recorded significantly higher grain and straw yield(3257 and 5865 kg/ha, respectively) due to higher number of productive tillers, total drymatter, earhead weight and1000 grain weight. Fingermillet as intercrop under Madhuca recorded higher grain (2838 kg/ha) and straw (5104 kg/ha)yield as compared with other trees. The per cent reduction in yield of fingermillet in agroforestry system was 12.9, 15,19.6, 24.7, 30, 31.84 and 50.6 in Madhuca, Calophyllum, Pongamia, Simarouba, Melia azedarach, Neem and Meliadubia, respectively and attributed to shading effect of trees resulting in reduction in light availability and soilmoisture. Fingermillet towards southern side of tree row recorded significantly higher grain and straw yield. As thedistance increased from tree row there was significant increase in grain and straw yield.

Melia dubia as compared to other trees, recorded higher biomass (39.95 t/ha) resulting in higher carbonsequestration (21.43 t/ha). Soil fertility was significantly better in association with trees. Among different trees, Meliadubia based agroforestry system recorded higher net returns and B:C ratio.

2012 NAGARAJU


Response of Multicut Fodder Sorghum (Sorghum Sudanense L.) to Different Seed Rates andNitrogen Levels

SOMASHEKAR, K. S.

A field experiment entitled “Response of multicut fodder sorghum (Sorghum sudanense L.) to different seed rates andnitrogen levels” was conducted during kharif 2011 at ZARS, V. C. Farm, Mandya. The soil was red sandy loam intexture and medium in available N, P and K. The experiment consisted of three seed rates (5, 7.5 and 10 kg ha-1) and fourlevels of nitrogen (15, 30, 45 and 60 kg ha-1) and was laid out in randomized complete block design with factorialconcept with three replication. Seed rate of 7.5 kg ha-1 recorded significantly higher plant height (153.3 cm), number oftillers m-1 row length (77.5), leaf stem ratio (0.26), green fodder yield (79.88 t ha-1), dry matter yield (18.51 t ha-1), crudeprotein yield (1.45 t ha-1), crude fiber yield (6.12 t ha-1) and total nitrogen uptake (243.8 kg ha-1) of multicut foddersorghum (CoFS-29). Among nitrogen levels, application of 30 kg N ha-1 for each cut recorded significantly higher plantheight (149.5 cm), number of tillers m-1 row length (72.3), leaf stem ratio (0.25), green fodder yield (76.46 t ha-1), drymatter yield (17.04 t ha-1), crude protein yield (1.35 t ha-1), crude fiber yield (5.75 t ha-1), total nitrogen uptake (220.1 kgha-1). Seed rate of 7.5 kg ha-1 with the application of 30 kg N ha-1 for each cut in multicut fodder sorghum (4 cuts)recorded higher net returns (Rs. 34665) and B: C ratio (2.32).

2012 B. G. SHEKARA



Response of Aerobic Rice Genotypes (Oryza sativa L.) to Irrigation Schedules

NOOR ASMA, S.

FIELD experiment was conducted in red sandy loam soils, ZARS, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore during summer 2011 to assessthe performance of aerobic rice genotypes under different irrigation schedules, to identify most suitable irrigationschedule for efficient use of water in aerobic rice cultivation and to estimate water requirement and water use efficiencyin aerobic rice production. Experiment comprised of two genotypes viz., MAS 26 and MAS 868 and five irrigationschedules viz., delayed irrigation scheduled at 0.6 IW / CEP ratio throughout (I1), irrigation scheduled at 0.8 IW/CPEratio throughout (I2), delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and 0.8 IW / CPE ratio from 46 DAS toharvest (I3), delayed irrigations at 0.6 IW / CPE ratio from 46-75 DAS (I4) and delayed irrigations at 0.6IW/CPE ratiofrom 76 DAS to harvest (I5) in RCBD with three replications. The genotype, MAS 868 found superior in grain yield(82.67qha–1), growth and yield attributes, water used (80.88cm) and WUE (62.21kg ha-cm–1). Irrigations scheduled at0.6 IW / CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and 0.8IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest recorded significantly higher yieldparameters, grain yield (78.49 qha–1), water used (84.02 cm) and water use efficiency (99kg ha-cm-1) as compared toother irrigations. On an average 50.66, 22.94, 15.88 and 10.52 per cent of soil moisture was extracted from 0-15, 15-30,30-60 and 60-90cm soil depths, respectively.

Significantly higher grain yield (96.02 qha–1), number of productive tillers hill-1 (24.48), 1000 seed weight (26.78 g)and WUE (120.2 kg ha-cm–1) were recorded in MAS868 with irrigations at 0.6IW/CPE ratio from 15-45 DAS and 0.8IW/CPE ratio from 46 DAS to harvest compared to other treatments.

2012 B. K. RAMACHANDRAPPA


CROP PHYSIOLOGY

Identification of Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajana) Genotypes for High Phosphorus Uptakethrough Acid phosphatase Activity: A Biochemical Approach

ARUN, N.

AVAILABILITY of Phosphorus (P) is one of the major constraints limiting the productivity of crop plants, due to itsfixation and binding with other elements in the soil. The bound P can be utilized by growing crop genotypes throughincreased organic acids exudation or by increasing the activity of acid phosphatase, both of which are known tosolubilize the bound P. Keeping this in view, thirty six pigeonpea genotypes were grown with normally available P,organically and inorganic bound P and without P under greenhouse conditions. Based on the leaf P content andenzyme activity, six contrasting genotypes were selected to investigate the physiological or biochemical basis of Puptake and utilization. It was observed that leaf P, shoot and root P, root volume, plant height, root and shoot biomass,R-S ratio and enzyme activity increased when P was provided in organic form and it was noticed that the P uptakeefficiency increased under +P conditions whereas, the utilization efficiency increased under –P conditions. Selectedgenotypes like ICP3226, ICP8477 and ICP 12764 produced more root dry weight, root length and root volume, under Pdeficiency. There was an increase in root to shoot ratio and enzyme activity under P deficient condition. There was aconsiderable increase in root acid phosphatase activity in high P uptake types under organic P source and P underdeficient conditions also . There was a strong correlation between root acid phosphatase activity and leaf P contentin these contrasting types.

2012 I. S. AFTAB HUSSAIN



Physiological and Molecular Characterization of Putative Transgenic Finger Millet (Eleusinecoracana (L.) Gaertn.) Overexpressing OsZIP1

PAVITHRA, G. J.

ZINC is an essential micronutrient, deficiency known to cause several health hazards in humans and decrease in cropyield. Low zinc content in soils leads to deficiency in human being because majority of the population depends onstaple foods obtained from crops. In order to overcome this disorder several strategies are being employed includingsupplementation, fortification, diversification and biofortification. Among these, biofortification is considered to bethe best.

In this regard an attempt was made to biofortify finger millet with zinc. Finger millet is a predominant staple foodcrop grown in southern parts of India. OsZIP1, a zinc transporter was overexpressed in finger millet driven by constitutive(CaMV35S) and endosperm specific (Bx17) promoters independently. The independent putative transformants (T1)were PCR confirmed and analyzed zinc content was high in leaf and seed compared to wild type. The best lines wereadvanced to T2 generation to evaluate physiological and growth parameters. A few transgenics showed higherphotosynthetic rate, better growth and yield compared to wild type. The RT-PCR was done to analyse the expressionpattern of OsZIP1 under both promoters and showed high leaf and seed zinc content in transgenics. Further to assessthe role of OsZIP1, the T2 plants were grown under three different levels of zinc. Bx17:OsZIP1 transformants showedhigher seed zinc content at recommended and double the recommended dose when compared to wild type and35S:OsZIP1 transgenics. It is a win-win situation because through biofortification both the crop yield and humannutrition can be improved.

2012 A. G. SHANKAR


FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

Extraction of Total Polyphenols and Dietary Fibre from Mango Peel and its Application inSelected Food Products

JAYALAXMI BADDI

MANGO (Mangifera indica) the “King” of fruits, its production and consumption gradually increased. Mango peel isnot utilized, discarded as waste, becoming source of pollution. It contains total polyphenols(TPP) and dietary fibre(DF)needs to be exploited as natural phyto- nutrients. Present study on mango peel utilisation revealed that, mango peelwas safe from microbes, heavy-metals and pesticide residue. Nutrient composition of mango peel powder(MPP) formoisture 3.9 per cent , protein 3.8g, fat 2.6, crude fibre 8.9, carbohydrate 86.4, ash 3.3g/100 respectively, energy 384Kcal/100g and â-carotene 5600 μg/g. Mineral content of peel was 4.15 calcium, 0.45 phosphorous, 4.62 iron and 2.85zinc mg/100g respectively. TPP and DF were extracted from MPP; recovery of TPP 4.5g/100g and DF was 69.86 g/100.Antioxidant activity was 76.96 μg Vit-C Eq/100g. Formulated biscuits with TPP extract at 0.5 per cent and macaroni DFextract 10 per cent were best accepted. Incorporation of TPP 0.5 per cent in biscuits reduced peroxide and free fattyacids than control. During storage retention of polyphenols (520 μg GAE /g), â-carotene (13.56 μg/g), antioxidantactivity (194 μg Vit-C Eq/100g) was higher in TPP 0.5 biscuits. Macaroni with 10 per cent DF incorporation hadpolyphenols (3570 μg GAE /g), â-carotene (6.58 μg/g) and antioxidant activity (586μg of Vit-C Eq/100g) higher thancontrol. Stored products showed better shelf life in biscuits with TPP and macaroni with DF extracts of MPP comparedto control. Hence mango peel can be utilized for polyphenol and fiber extraction and product development.

2012 D. VIJAYALAKSHMI

Dept. of Food Science and Nutrition, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


FORESTRY

Study of Seed and Seedling Characteristics in Dendrocalamus brandisii (Munro) Kurz.

THIRTHA, P. A.

THE present study was undertaken in College of Forestry, Ponnampet with an objective to determine the effect ofstorage on viability of the seeds and influence of different potting media on the growth performance of the seedlingsof Dendrocalamus brandisii. The results of the study revealed that, there was marginal variation in the seedmorphological characters like weight, length and width. The effect of storage on viability of the seeds showed significantdifferences for all the germination parameters. Out of the different storage period treatments tried, seeds stored for 30,60 and 90 days after collection recorded the best results of all the treatments. The maximum germination (77.44 %) wasrecorded in storage period of 30 days, while the minimum (20.25 %) was registered in 240 days after collection. Theeffect of different potting media on the growth performance of the seedlings showed significant variation for most ofthe growth parameters. The potting mixture consisting of soil, sand and FYM in the proportion of 2: I: 1 (T2) showedthe best growth performance among all the treatments closely followed by soil, sand and neem cake in 1: 1: 1 proportion(T 7) and soil, sand and FYM in 1: 1: 1 proportion (T]). Among all the treatments, the media containing paddy huskrecorded significantly lower values for all growth parameters. The treatment combinations of soil and sand with FYMand neem cake provided sufficient nutrients to the plants.

2012 N. M. POONACHA

Dept. of Forestry, College of Forestry, Ponnampet - 571 216 Major Advisor

Studies on Population Structure of selected RET tree Species in the Western Ghats ofNorthern Karnataka

KRISHNAMOORTHI HEGDE

WESTERN GHATS are considered as one of the hottest hotspots of the world and harbours many endangered andthreatened species which are rated as RET (Rare, Endangered and Threatened) under IUCN category. Nearly a thirdof the endemic plant species of the Western Ghats are threatened and are believed to be on the verge of extinction.Lack of quantitative data on the baseline information on the population status of such important species in the naturalforests is a barrier to plan for the future conservation and management. Hence, density, population structure andregeneration status of selected RET tree species were carried out in the Western Ghats of northern Karnataka. For thestudy Dipterocarpus indicus, Artocarpus hirsutus and Calophyllum apetalum was selected. Study revealed thatamong the three species, A. hirsutus found to be widely distributed followed by C. apetalum and D. indicus was foundto be distributed only in some pockets of Western Ghats studied. The density, population structure and regenerationstatus of D. indicus, A. hirsutus and C. apetalum were found to vary among different locations. In most of thelocations trees of lower girth class were in lesser number compared to higher girth class in case of A. hirsutus andC. apetalum and in case of D. indicus, reverse J shape growth curve observed in most of the locations studied. Theinformation on density, population structure and regeneration status of identified species could be useful for demarcatingnew conservation areas for appropriate conservation initiatives.

2012 RAMAKRISHNA HEGDE



Quantification and Consumption Pattern study of Fuelwood in Coffee Based Agroforestry

SHWETHA, B. A.

THE present study was carried out in the coffee agroforests under Cauvery watershed area of Kodagu district. Fromthe findings it was revealed that average energy consumption norm varied significantly for cooking and water heatingin various season across zones. A survey of 108 households from 12 villages / town revealed that majority ofhouseholds (83 %) depend on fuelwood for their domestic energy needs. Landholding and distance from town/villagewas considered as the primary criterion for selection of households. Average consumption of fuelwood for cookingand water heating was high in monsoon (17.236±3.525 Kg / household / day) followed by winter (10.933 ± 2.498 Kg /household / day) and summer (8.884 ± 1.484 Kg / household / day). Fuelwood requirement was higher among the Kg/ household/day Western zone (13.614 ± 4.194 Kg/household / day) followed by Central (12.383 ± 5.224 Kg / household/ day) and Eastern zone (11.057 ± 3.837 Kg / household / day). Fuelwood consumption increased with villages fartheraway from the town. Smaller landholding category had relatively higher consumption rate of fuelwood than landless,medium and large. Analysis of other sources of energy for domestic purposes shows that usage of electricity (9 %)for lighting stood next to fuelwood followed by LPG (7 %) which is being used mainly for cooking and kerosene (1 %)for lighting purpose. Productivity of fuelwood obtained from coffee agroforests ranged from 15 m3 / ha to 60 m3 / haworth of Rs. 3,736 / hectare. Out of the 34 preferred fuelwood species, Cassine glauca, Acrocarpus fraxinifolious,and Grevillea robusta, Legerstroemia microcarpa etc., were the most preferred fuelwood species.

2012 C. G. KUSHALAPPA


The Effect of Canopy Gaps on the Floristic Diversity and Regeneration inEvergreen Forests of Kodagu

MOHAN, S.

THE present investigation was undertaken to study the floristic diversity and regeneration dynamics as influenced bycanopy gaps and gap size. In addition, the study was also aimed at understanding the effect of canopy gaps on themicroclimate. The results revealed that the seedling density of regenerating species was found to be high in canopygaps as compared to adjoining forest continuum. On the contrary, both species richness and species diversity wasfound to be high in canopy gap edge followed by adjoining forest continuum as compared to canopy gaps. Thespecies richness and species diversity index was more in small canopy gaps as compared to large canopy gaps.Significant difference was observed between the canopy gaps and adjoining forest continuum for all the climatic andsoil parameters except for soil phosphorous and nitrogen content and also between large gaps and adjoining forestcontinuum except soil pH and phosphorous and also for small canopy gaps and adjoining forest continuum for all theparameters except for soil moisture and nitrogen content in soil. Results indicated the occurrence of more number ofindividuals are in girth class of 60 to 90 cm girth class followed by 90 to 120 cm and the distribution followed reverse‘J’ shape curve. Highest tree density (224 stems/plot) was recorded in Matre section were recorded. Lowest treedensity (46 stems/plot) was recorded in Makutta section. Basal area of 27.83m2/plot area was recorded in Matresection. The Least basal area (4. 20 m2/plot) was recorded in Kolimakki section.

2012 P. VENKATESHA MURTHY



Selection of Candidate Plus Trees (Cpt’s) in Garcinia Gummi-gutta (L.) Robson UsingMorphometric and Biochemical Traits from Kodagu District

GEETA CHAVHAN

AN investigation on Garcinia gummi-gutta was carried out to select Candidate Plus Tree’s and assess the variationamong locations as well as between Candidate Trees (CT’s) within the locations for various fruit and seed parameters.The experiment was conducted at College of Forestry, Ponnampet during the year 2010-2011. With respect to fruitdimensions, B Shettigeri and Kunda were found to be best trees and these sources could be considered for identifyingCPT’s with heavier and thicker fruits. Maximum Ash and Fat content was recorded from Chettimani location whilehighest HCA recorded from Kunda location. Based on the values recorded for fruit, seed and biochemical parametersit is apparent that CT1 from Karike, CT2 and CT3 from Chettimani, CT1 Mekeri, CT3 from Kaggodlu, CT1 from Arji, CT1and CT2 from Kunda, CT3 from Badaga, CT2 and CT3 from Kuttandi, CT1 and CT3 from Badagarakeri, CT3 from TShettigeri and CT1 and CT3 from Birunani location. On the basis of individual scoring, Candidate Trees from Kunda(CT1, CT2 and CT3) and B Shettigeri (CT1 and CT2) location selected as CPT’s. These CPT’s could be used in futureTree Improvement Programme in these species. Coefficient of variation of phenotypic, genotypic and environmentallevel was assessed for fruit, seed and biochemical traits. Maximum PCV, GCV and ECV were observed in seed dryweight and ash content. Fresh fruit weight exhibited significant positive correlation with seed fresh weight, seed dryweight. HCA content exhibited significant positive correlation with seed dry weight.

2012 G. M. DEVAGIRI


GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

Comparative Assessment of Genetic Variability in F2, F3 and Biparental Mating Progenies inCowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp).

ANANDA, M.

AN investigation was carried out during kharif and summer seasons of2011-12at Main ResearchStation,Hebbal,Bengaluru to study the nature and magnitude of variability generated and character association fordifferent quantitative traits in F2,F3and biparental progenies of the crossC152×IC-202778.

In general, among all the populations(F2,F3andBIP F3)the magnitude of GCVwas low as compared toPCV for allthe quantitative characters indicating apparent variability was not only due to genotype but also due to interaction ofenvironment. High variability was observed for number of clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, pod lengthand seed yield per plant indicating that there is greater scope for selection. High heritability was observed for plantheight, days to flowering, number of clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster,100seed weight and seed yield perplant in biparentalF3 progenies, it indicates that variation generated is mainly due to genetic and improvement of theabove traits can be obtained by simple selection. The correlation studies revealed that number of clusters per plant,podlength, number of seeds per pod exhibited high significant positive correlation with seed yield in all thepopulations,suggesting that these characters should be considered while selecting plants for seed yield improvement.Clusters per plant showed higher direct and indirect effects among all the traits. Total percentage of superior progenieswere more inBIPF3 population indicating better scope for isolation of superior progenies in this population. Thecomplete absence of dominance for most of the traits viz., plant height, pods per cluster,pod length and100seed weightwitnessed inBIPF3 progenies.

2012 M. S. UMA



Identification of Sterility Mosaic Disease Resistant Recombinant Inbred Lines in HighYielding Background and Localizing Genomic Regions Controlling its Resistance in

Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]

NEETHA JAYARAM

DEVELOPMENT and deployment of cultivars resistant to Sterility Mosaic Disease (SMD) is considered as most economicaland eco-friendly option to mitigate the losses due to SMD. Identification of easily assayable, crop-stage non-specificand environment-neutral surrogates such as DNA markers linked to genomic regions controlling SMD is a steptowards this. In the present study, 120 RILs derived from SMD susceptible (TTB 7) and resistant parents (ICP 7035),their parents (TTB 7 and ICP 7035) and two checks (BRG 1 and BRG 2) were screened for response to SMD followingLeaf Stapling technique for use in locating genomic regions controlling SMD resistance at All India Co-ordinatedResearch Project (AICRP) on pigeonpea, University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra(GKVK), Bengaluru during 2011. The RILs were phenotyped for economic traits at the experimental plots of theDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru during 2011. The RILs 14, 92 and 107 wereimmune to the disease (0.00 % SMD incidence) and transgressed their resistant parent, ICP 7035 (06.67 % SMDincidence). The RILs 03 (10.00 % SMD incidence) and 32 (06.67 % SMD incidence) were found resistant to SMDinfection with pod and seed yield potential better than the better parent (TTB 7). One (ICPMIE04) of the eleven SSRmarkers polymorphic to parents of RILs could differentiate SMD resistant and susceptible bulks and their constituentindividuals of RILs. However, single marker analysis indicated lack of evidence for its association with genomicregions conferring SMD resistance.

2012 S. RAMESH


HORTICULTURE

RAPD Marker Assay Based Genetic Diversity in Aonla (Emblica officinalis L.)

RANE ABHIJIT ARJUN

AONLA (Emblica officinalis L.) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. The chromosome number of Aonla is 2n=28.Aonla is indigenous to tropical south eastern Asia particularly in central and southern India. The fruit is highlynutritive and it is a rich source of vitamin C. It is valued as antiscorbutic, diuretic, laxative and antibiotic.

The investigation was comprised of estimation of genetic diversity of Aonla by using Random AmplifiedPolymorphic DNA marker. The light green coloured leaves harvested from 20 different germplasm were used for DNAextraction by CTAB method. Isolated genomic DNA subjected to PCR amplification using 40 RAPD decamer primers.The data from molecular profiling using RAPD primers were analyzed mainly by scoring for the presence or absence ofpolymorphic bands through visual interpretation and this binary data was used for statistical analysis. The data wasused to generate genetic similarity coefficient similarity matrix on the basis of Jaccard’s coefficient. The Dendrogram(cluster diagram) generated by unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) algorithm usingSequential Agglomerative Hierarchial and Nested (SAHN). Dendrogram revealed that the genotypes could be groupedinto four clusters. The dendrogram showed two (A and B) major clusters at 57 per cent similarity while C and Ddepicted 59 per cent and 60 per cent of homology respectively within the cluster. The cluster information thus enablesus in selecting the parent for breeding programme.

2012 B. N. SATHYANARAYANA

Dept. of Horticulture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


Inheritance of Yield, Yield Components and Resistance to TOLCV in Tomato(Solanum lycoperseicen Mill)

JAFARSHAREEF SUTAR

INVESTIGATION on Inheritance of yield, yield components and resistance To TOLCV in Tomato (Solanumlycopersicon, L.) was undertaken during 2006-07 in Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences,Bangalore. The study was mainly contemplated to know the genetics of yield, yield components, resistance toTOLCV. The entries under the investigation comprised Arka Abha, Arka Alok and Vybhav as parents, respective F1

hybrids, F2 generation and their back cross generations.

Higher estimates ofphenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variability, heritability and genetic advance wereobserved for number of primary branches, number of fruit per plant, number of locules per fruit, average fruit weight,TSS of fruit, symptoms expression and disease score for TOLCV.

TOLCV disease resistance was governed by completely dominant gene in history gene action for both thecrosses (Vybhav × Arka Alok and Vybhav × Arka Abha). In the present investigation Vybhav × Arka Alok and Vybhav× Arka Abha performed better for the reason that no plants of Fl were susceptible till the end of cropping period andthere was enhanced fruit weight with reduced fruit yield. Futher, this cross leed to identification of more number oftransgressive segregants for fruit yield and resistance to TOLCV.

2012 T. B. PUTTARAJU

Dept. of Horticulture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

Standardizing In Vitro Propagation and Transformation Protocols for the Development ofTransgenic Dolichos (Lablab Purpureus L.)

DEEPAK B.

DOLICHOS, (Lablab purpureus L.,) is important as a popular nitrogen-fixing green manure, cover crop, an importantlegume vegetable. Pod borer attack is one of the major constraints in the cultivation of Dolichos and to overcome this,standardization of in vitro regeneration and transformation of dolichos is essential. An efficient multiple shoot inductionfrom four different explants (single cotyledon with embryo, node, cotyledons with node and shoot tip) was obtained.MS medium (5 mg L-1 BAP and 0.1 mg L-1NAA) induced a maximum number of shoots from single nodal explant (2.75).BAP, 4 mg L-1 induced highest number of multiple shoots from single cotyledon with embryo, cotyledons with nodeand shoot tip with an average of 3.20, 3.40 and 2.00 multiple shoots respectively. Even though IBA ( 2 mg L-1 ) inducedmaximum average number of roots from single cotyledon with embryo and node, explants in BAP media with Augmentinfor an extended period gave rise to roots from cotyledons with nodal explants and shoot tip. Rooting was followed byhardening. Callus induction was obtained from leaf explants with highest frequency of callus induction from MS media(5 mg L-1 BAP and 0.1 mg L-1NAA). Then standardized the Agrobacterium mediated transformation and gene gunmethod of transformation of Dolichos using GUS gene. Molecular characterization was carried out using GUShistochemical assay.

2012 P. H. RAMANJINI GOWDA



Molecular and Phenotypic Characterization of Elite Aerobic Rice (Oryza Sativa L.)Accessions for Drought Resistance and Productivity

SHIKHA DIXIT

RAINFED lowland rice accounts for approximately 28 per cent of world total rice growing area. Drought is an abioticstress which has a directly effects in the rice production in rainfed lowland condition. Drought is highly heterogeneousin time and space in most of the rainfed agricultural areas of world. The level of damage to crop due to drought stressdepends on genotypic ability to withstand drought and this genotypic variation also leads some morphologicaldifferences out of which variation in root morphology has been found to directly affect the survivability of a plantunder drought conditions. Genotypic differences for root mass, root length and distribution across lowland varietieswere reported. Evaluation of some elite rice selections in field as well as PVC pipes under aerobic conditions forproductivity,root characters and growth rate was done. Periodic observations were recorded like plant height,tillernumbers,days to 50 per cent flowering,maximum root length,root volume, biomass of root and shoot,growth rate ofroot and shoot and grain yield. All the elite rice selections were screened for amplification with trait specific markersassociated with drought resistance, biotic stress and grain yield. The marker data and the phenotypic data were foundto be correlated with ANOVA and the linkage between trait and markers was established. Thus the root morphologicalcharacters and genotypic variation shows direct correlation.So as stated above that existing variability in rice is agreat source of alleles related to drought resistance and superior root characters and can be exploited for developmentof new drought resistant varieties of rice.

2012 H.V. VIJAYAKUMAR SWAMY


Purification and Characterization of an Antiviral Protein from the Silkworm Bombyx mori L.

ASHISH MARATHE

SERICULTURE is an important agrobased industry. India stands second next to China among the silk producing countriesof the world. Silkworm is susceptible to fungal, bacterial, viral and protozoan diseases. The Bombyx morinucleopolyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) is the most harmful virus in the sericulture industry. The Antiviral Red FluorescentProtein from the silkworm was purified from the digestive juice and the excreta of the silkworm. The red fluorescentprotein (RFP) was isolated and purified by ammonium sulfate saturation, organic solvent precipitation and gel filtrationchromatography on sephadex G-100 column. The fractions that fluoresce red in U.V were used for further analysis. Theprotein from the digestive juice and excreta were subjected to Native and Denaturating PAGE. The electrophoregramof the purified protein from the digestive in native PAGE has shown two bands and the SDS – PAGE pattern for the RFPfrom the gut fluid revealed the presence of four different bands. The electrophoregram of the purified protein form thefeacal matter in native PAGE showed a single band which coincided with the first band in the protein from the gut juice.The SDS-PAGE pattern revealed two bands of which one was found to be around 28 kDa and the other band wassmaller than 14.4 kDa. Dot Blot was carried out to detect the specificity between the antigen and the antibody. ELISAwas also done to fix the titre of the antigen and antibody. The titre obtained was 1:25 of antigen and 1:2000 of primaryand secondary antibody dilutions.

2012 ANITHA PETER



Exogenous dsRNA Mediated Silencing of Chitin Synthase (Chs) Gene of Diamondback Moth,Plutella Xylostella L. (Yponomeutidae: Lepidoptera)

VINOD KUMAR JANGID

RNAI is the sequence-specific gene silencing pathway that is trigger by exogenously introduced dsRNA. The RNaseIIIenzyme Dicer initiates the RNAi pathway by generating siRNAs triggers of 21 to 24 nucleotides length with 2-nucleotides overhangs at its 3’ end of each strand, and then siRNAs are loaded onto RISC complexwith its RNaseHcore enzyme Argonaute that contains PAZ and PIWI-domains. RISC complex with guide strand of siRNA recognizesandultimately cleavage of complementary single-stranded RNAs, such as mRNAs or viral RNAs. The main objective ofstudy was to design an RNAi mediated management strategy against diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L.(Yponomeutidae: Lepidoptera) in vitro by targeting chitin synthase (chs) gene that encodes chitin synthase enzyme,a member of the family2 of glycosyltransferases (GT2). This enzyme is involved in biosynthesis of chitin, which isintegral component of insect cuticle and peritrophic membrane (gut epithelium). The chs gene was cloned, sequencedfrom P. xylostella. Suitable off target minimized, dsRNAs region was identified based on the online software dsCheck.dsRNAs of 500 bp length were in vitro transcribed for the chs gene and quantified spectrophotometrically. siRNAswas identified and designed for silencing gene expression using online software siRNA Finder. RNAi shows tremendouspotential because of its high specificity and is employed against pest-insects which are continuously developingresistance against current insect control products and techniques.The wide applicability of the technique is illustratedby the successful testing of insects from different orders and targeting different genes.

2012 R. ASOKAN

Dept. of Plant. Biotechnology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Cellulolytic Fungi Used for Conversion ofSugarcane Biomass for Bioethanol Production

CHETAN, A. M.

ONE of the major alternatives to fossil fuels that received major attention is bioethanol derived from biomass. Thecellulosic material are potential sources of ethanol. Cellulolytic fungi are capable of degrading cellulose to smallersugar components like glucose units. The aim of this research was to isolate and screen fungi capable of producingcellulases and to convert pre-treated lignocellulosic material to fermentable sugars for the production of ethanol usingSaccharomyces cerevisiae. The lignocellulosic material such as sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane trash were used assubstrates for ethanol production. Fungi were isolated from soil and compost samples collected from various regions.The pure cultures were screened for the ability to degrade cellulose. The cellulolytic activity was determined bymeasuring the clearing zone created by the fungi. The cultures were further characterized using five random primers.The fungi capable to produce cellulases were identified as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Trichodermaviride, Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma reesei based on colony characters, microscopic observation andidentification at molecular level based on DNA coding for 18S rRNA. The substrates were powdered and pretreatedwith fungal isolates using Mandels’ and Reese media. The substrates were used as a carbon source. Sugarcanebagasse and trash treated with Trichoderma reesei have shown highest concentration of reducing sugars of 45.95mg/g and 40.56mg/g respectively and ethanol yield of 11.56g/l and 10.92g/l respectively. From this study the fungalcultures having the potential to degrade cellulosic material were identified and they can be used for bioethanolproduction from lignocellulosic wastes.

2012 K. M. HARINIKUMAR



Screening Efficient Strains of Yeast for Production of Ethanol by Using Sugarcane Juice

MANOJ KUMAR, H. B.

THE investigation was carried out to isolate yeast strains from their natural habitats and to screen them for ethanoltolerance and ethanol production. Out of 40 microbial culture 10 were identified as Saccharomyces strains based oncolony type and budding characters. Saccharomyces species were screened for the ability to tolerate different ethanolconcentrations from 0-18%. Growth in different ethanol concentrations varied from one strain to another. Yeast strainsshowed tolerance level from 7-16%. Even though some strains had tolerance at 16% but the growth was less. Yeastfrom molasses and grapes showed highest tolerance among 10 isolates up to 16%. Isolated yeast strains were mutatedby UV light with time intervals of 1, 3 and 5 minutes at 25 and 50 cms distance were subjected to screening underdifferent ethanol concentrations. Mutants showed decreased growth and tolerance under high ethanol stress comparedto their original isolates. Analysis was employed to characterize yeast isolates. Ten Saccharomyces strains weresubjected to ADH specific primer analysis using eight primers. Cluster diagram was divided into 2 major cluster and 3sub cluster, two major cluster showing 30% dissimilarity. There was correlation between ethanol tolerance and geneticrelatedness shown by ADH specific primer analysis.

2012 H. V. VIJAYAKUMAR SWAMY


Validation of SCAR Markers Associated with Anthracnose Resistance in French bean(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Germplasm

MANJULA, V.

FRENCH bean is one of the major leguminous crop grown in the world. It is gaining lot of importance due to its highnutritive value, short duration and high production potential. The bean production is affected by a destructive seedborne fungal disease anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magn.). Therefore to evolvebean varieties resistant to anthracnose and to identify the source of disease resistance using markers, the knowledgeon genetic resistance sources available is very important. Thus, the experiment on “Validation of SCAR markersassociated with anthracnose resistance in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) germplasm” was taken up. Fortyaccessions obtained from NBPGR, New Delhi, two resistance genotypes viz., D-line, L-line and two susceptiblevarieties viz., Kanchana and Jwala were used for evaluation. Thirty days plants were inoculated with Colletotrichumlindemuthianum spore culture and disease scoring was done using 0-9 scale, 15 days after inoculation, genotypeswere rated as highly resistant, resistant, moderately resistant, susceptible and highly susceptible based on diseaseseverity. Fifteen SCAR markers were used for screening, out of which six markers SAS13, SBB14, SC08, SF10, SW12and SZ04 showed good amplification between resistant and susceptible genotypes. The product size varied from 567bp to 1150 bp with different genes viz., Co-42, Co-4, Co-10, Co-3/Co-9 and Co-6 linked to anthracnose resistance. Thegenotypes which showed resistance against anthracnose were Arka Anoop, EC500474 and IC328848 with good podcharacteristics.

2012 S. SHYAMALAMMA



Response of Aerobic Rice to Mycorrhizal Fungi and Molecular Diversty of PhosphateTransporter Genes

JOY DAS

RICE cultivation under aerobic conditions not only saves water but also opens up a splendid scope for effectiveapplication of beneficial root symbionts in rice crop unlike conventional puddled rice cultivation where water loggedcondition acts as constraint for easy proliferation of various beneficial soil microorganisms like arbuscular mycorrhizal(AM) fungi. Keeping this fact in view, glasshouse investigations were designed to study the response of aerobic riceinoculated with Glomus fasciculatum, an AM fungi, and Piriformospora indica, a beneficial root endophytic fungi.This was followed by in silico study of phosphate transporters from various mycorrhizal fungi and Piriformosporaindica. Inoculation of aerobic rice either with G. fasciculatum or P. indica or both significantly enhanced the plantgrowth, biomass and yield of aerobic rice with higher contents of phosphorous, nitrogen, potassium, chlorophyll andsugar, compared to uninoculated ones, P. indica inoculated plants being superior. A significantly enhanced activity ofdehydrogenase, acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase along with increased microbial population in the rhizospheresoil of fungal (G. fasciculatum or P. indica or both) inoculated rice plants were noticed. Computational studies usingClustalW tool revealed several conserved motifs between the phosphate transporters from Piriformospora indicaand various AM fungi used in this study. Phylogenetic tree analysis shows that the phosphate transporters fromvarious mycorrhizal fungi are closely related with each other. A 3D model of phosphate transporter protein fromPiriformospora indica was generated and successfully docked onto hydrogen phosphate, indicating the activeinteraction between P. indica phosphate transporter and phosphorus.

2012 C. K. SURESH


PLANT PATHOLOGY

Studies on Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid Causing Dry Root Rot Disease ofChickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

GOWDRA NAGAMMA

CHICKPEA is one of the major grain legume crop widely grown in the Indian sub continent. Chickpea dry root rot causedby Macrophomina phaseolina is the most important soil borne disease and main constraint in boosting the yield.Keeping in view, dry root rot pathogen was isolated by standard tissue isolation method and was identified asMacrophomina phaseolina. Pathogenecity was proved by blotter paper technique and sick pot method and theculture was compared with original culture.

Among the eight media used, Potato dextrose agar and Czapek’s agar showed maximum radial growth with meancolony diameter of 90 mm. PDA and carrot media supported good mycelial growth and sclerotia production. Maximumdry mycelial weight was recorded eighth day of incubation (150mg). Among chickpea genotypes screened for dry rootrot, thirteen genotypes showed resistant reaction under field condition. Whereas, none of the genotypes were foundresistant in blotter paper method.

Among the systemic fungicides evaluated, hexaconazole, carbendazim, difenoconazole and propiconazolerecorded cent per cent inhibition of mycelial growth at all concentrations tested. Cent per cent inhibition was recordedby thiophanate methyl at 500 ppm. Among contact and combi-product fungicides evaluated, mancozeb, carboxin37.5+thiram 37.5 and carbendazim 12 per cent+mancozeb 63 per centWP showed cent per cent mycelial inhibition at allconcentrations. Among bioagents tested, maximum inhibition was recorded in Trichoderma harzianum (Th-55) (81.48%) followed by Bacillus subtilis (75.85). Among ten botanicals tested, NSKE recorded maximum mycelial inhibition of85.18, 92.58 and 97.40 per cent at 5, 10 and 15 per cent respectively.

2012 M. SAIFULLA



Bio-management of Root-Knot Nematode [Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White, 1919)Chitwood, 1949] on Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

SYEDA SAMINA ANJUM

ROOT-KNOT nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) is one of the important plant parasitic nematode on sunflower that cancause severe economic damage. In order to avoid excess use of chemicals, investigations were carried out on isolationof bioagents from sunflower rhizosphere in and around Bengaluru, in vitro evaluation of isolated bioagents against M.incognita and its bio-management using bioagents singly and in combinations with organic amendments under fieldconditions.

Important bioagents viz., Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Aspergillus niger, Pseudomonas jluorescens andBacillus subtilis were identified and pure cultures were maintained. Isolated bioagents were tested both under in vitroand field condition for their efficacy on egg hatching and larval mortality of M. incognita in addition to growth,development and yield of sunflower. Among bioagents tested, maximum inhibition of egg hatching recorded in T.viride and B. subtilis and maximum larval mortality in T. viride and T. harzianum under in vitro. In field studies,maximum plant height, root length, fresh and dry root weights and seed yield were recorded in combination treatmentsof T. viride@ 20gjm2 (2 xl06 Cfujg) with neem cake @ lOgjm2 followed by B. subtilis@ 20gjm2 (lxl08 Cfujg) withpongamia cake @ lOgjm2 treated plants than individual treatments. Minimum nematode population in soil and root andmaximum reduction of galls, egg masses per root system and eggsjeggmass recorded in combination treatments of T.viride @ 20gjm2 (2 xl06 Cfujg) with neem cake @ lOgjm2 followed by B. subtilis @ 20gjm2 (lxl08 Cfujg) with pongamiacake @ lOgjm2 treated plants than individual treatments.

2012 B. M. R. REDDY


Studies on Leaf Spot of Greengram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]caused by Cercospora canescens Ellis and Martin

RAHEESA KHATIB

GREENGRAM is an important pulse crop. Among several diseases affecting greengram, leaf spot caused by Cercosporacanescens is an important disease in the major greengram growing areas. The studies were conducted on survey,morphological, cultural characters, physiological and nutritional requirements of pathogen, in vitro evaluation offungicides and botanicals and screening of germplasm. The survey conducted in major greengram growing districts ofsouthern Karnataka revealed that the maximum disease severity was prevealed in Bangalore Urban taluk (29.33%)during September 2011, followed by Malavalli taluk (15.56%) in May 2012. The conidia of the pathogen were hyaline,straight to curved, multiseptate (2-16) and measure 2.0-6.9 X 10-103 μm in size. The radial growth of the pathogen washighest in potato dextrose agar, host extract dextrose agar, host extract agar, Sabourd’s agar, Asthana and Hawker’sagar and oat meal agar. The pathogen preferred sucrose and sodium nitrate as carbon and nitrogen sources, respectivelyfor their better growth. The growth of the pathogen was highest at a temperature of 250C. The optimum pH for thegrowth of the pathogen ranged from 6.0 to 8.0. The different fungicides tested against C. canescens under in vitrorevealed that, Hexaconazole + Zineb and Carbendazim + Mancozeb among combi-products and Hexaconozole,Propiconazole, Difenoconozole and Tebuconazole +Trifloxystrobin among systemic fungicides were effective ininhibiting the growth of pathogen. Among plant extracts, Neem seed kernel extract was found to be effective underlaboratory conditions. Among fourty five genotypes screened, two genotypes viz., LGG-460 and KKM-3 were resistantto the disease.

2012 NAGARAJU



Influence of Seed Sizes, Seed Treatments and Mother Plant Nutrition on Seed Yield andQuality of Sweet Corn (Zea mays var. Rugosa) cv. Priya

BEERAPPA, K. T.

STUDIES on influence of seed sizes, seed treatments and mother plant nutrition on seed yield and quality of sweet corn(Zea mays var. Rugosa) cv. Priya during 2011-12 both field and laboratory experiments were conducted at the Departmentof Seed Science and Technology, UAS, GKVK Bengaluru. Study comprises of 18 treatment combination and replicatedthrice. The following are the treatment combinations with two seed sizes viz., small -S1 (seeds passed through the 5.2R mm sieve) large-S2 (seeds retained on the 5.2 R mm sieve), three priming treatments and three fertilizer levels(F1-150:75:40 kg NPK ha–1 -+ 10 kg ZnSO4, F2-187.5:93:50 kg NPK ha–1+ 12 kg ZnSO4 and F3-225:112:60 kg NPK ha-1 + 15kg ZnSO4).

Among the seed treatments, P3 has recorded significantly highest final field stand, plant height at harvest, coblength, seed density and graded seed yield (92.78 %, 195.3 cm,16.76 cm, 0.94 g / cc, 3668 kg ha–1 respectively) and takenminimum days to 50 per cent flowering (49 days ). It has also recorded highest seed germination percentage, seedlingvigour index and dehydrogenase activity (96, 3283 and 2.043 respectively). Hence, the study could be concluded thatlarge sized seeds, 1 per cent KH2PO4 priming and NPK @ 225:112:60 kg ha–1 + ZnSO4 15 kg ha–1 were optimum treatmentcombination for the highest seed yield and quality of sweet corn cultivar priya.

2012 B. C. CHANNAKESHAVA

Dept. of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SERICULTURE

Efficacy of Serimore, an IGR on the Performance of Silkworm, Bombyx mori L.

RASHMI, S.

THE experiment was carried out with two insect growth regulators viz., Serimore and Samrudhi applied topically on 24hold fifth instar larvae of CSR2× CSR4 and 48h old fifth instar larvae of PM × CSR2 @ 12.5ml / 100 worms. The consumptionindices like food consumption, digestion, growth rate, efficiency of conversion of ingested food, efficiency of conversionof digested food, approximate digestibility and reference ratio were significantly maximum when silkworms weretreated topically with Serimore in both hybrids. But, the consumption index was minimum in the silkworms treated withSerimore and maximum in control batch. Similarly, Serimore treated silkworms exhibited significantly maximum differenceswith respect to economic parameters such as larval weight (40.92 and 36.94g / 10 larvae), larval duration (9.10 and 10.03days), spinning rate (90.60 and 97.10 %), pupation rate (74.98 and 87.75 %), single cocoon weight (1.78 and 1.90g), shellweight (0.38 and 0.35g), pupal weight (1.38 and 1.52g), shell ratio (21.29 and 19.28 %), leaf cocoon ratio (19.86 and 21.40%), leaf shell ratio (34.04 and 32.76 %) and filament length (875.31 and 912.01m) the economic parameters were foundminimum in the control batch as they didn’t give any treatment besides reduction in denier (2.56 and 2.72) in Serimoretreated CSR2× CSR4 and PM×CSR2, respectively. The larval mortality was minimum (1.30%) in PM×CSR2 treated withSerimore. Large scale field testing of Serimore on PM×CSR2 under farmers conditions revealed the positive effect ofSerimore on cocoon weight (1.95g), shell weight (0.37g), shell ratio (19.18%) and cocoon yield (79.02kg/100 DFLs),besides reduced number of cocoons per kg (520.25).

2012 K. C. NARAYANASWAMY

Dept. of Sericulture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 Major Advisor


Investigations on Management of Mulberry Mealybug Maconellicoccus Hirsutus (Green)using Plant Products

MADHURI THINNALURI

THE study on the Investigations on Management of Mulberry Mealy bug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) usingplant products was carried out during 2010-12 at the Department of Sericulture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 65. Thefinding revealed that, the repellent property of seed kernel extracts exerted better experimental results than theircorresponding leaf extracts. In most of the case, seed kernels found effective and promising viz neem (96.53%),Pongamia (84.73%) and Mahua (74.87 %). The same trend was observed even after 48 hours of spray. In all the othertreatments, repellent property of botanicals against mealy bug was increased significantly with increased exposureperiod. Seed kernel extract of neem was found effective in recording highest (78.67%) nymphal mortality followed byPongamia (56.00%) and Mahua (46.67%). There was no significant decrease in tukra incidence in pre treatment countafter 7 days of spray. However, the effect was found significant after 14 days of spray (2nd spray) and it was decreasedmore in seed kernel extracts of neem (13.12%) and Pongamia (10.67%). On the other hand in control plots, theincidence of tukra was noticed from 31.59 to 41.27 per cent which was comparatively more than botanical spray.Further, after botanical spray the affected leaves did not show any variation in moisture content, moisture loss andmoisture retention capacity of M5 mulberry leaves and there was no significant difference due to botanicals sprayedon morpho-physiological parameters in the affected mulberry leaves.

2012 R. N. BHASKAR


Response of Different Mulberry Cultivars to Azotobacter Bioinoculum underRainfed Condition

SOWMYA, P.

APPLICATION of nitrogen through biological means in the form of biofertilizers is the key to sustain sericulturalproductivity. A field experiment was carried out to study the “Response of different mulberry cultivars to Azotobacterbio-inoculation under rain fed condition”. In this experiment six mulberry varieties and three treatments were used.Among the treatments application of 50% N + 100% PK through chemical fertilizer + 50% N through Azotobacter +vermicompost (T3) have been found to be highly beneficial for rainfed mulberry cultivation. The physical andbiological properties of the soil was significantly improved due to this treatment indicating lower Ec (0.21 dsm-1),higher organic carbon content (0.52%) and higher population of Azotobacter (10.59 CFU/10-5/gm of soil). Growth andyield of mulberry was also significantly higher with this treatment recording 21 per cent higher yield compared to thecontrol plot where 100 per cent nitrogen was applied through chemical fertilizer. The quality of leaf was also significantlyimproved in this treatment recording higher moisture percentage (83.69%), higher moisture retention capacity (91.98%),higher crude protein (19.39%). The cost of production per kg of leaf was lower in this treatment (1.50 Rs) compared toT1 (1.60 Rs/kg). Among the varieties the performance of RFS175 and S13 was significantly superior recording higherleaf yield (30.62 and 29.24 ton) on par with each other. Hence, the use of Azotobacter biofertilizers in six mulberryvarieties proved that it can be used effectively for all the varieties under rainfed condition besides curtailing nitrogenapplication by 50 percent.

2012 G. GEETHA DEVI



Study of Soil Variability for Assessment of Soil Quality in Selected Agro-eosystems ofSouthern Karnataka

SUVANA, S.

SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

AN investigation was carried out to assess the soil variability and to identify suitable indicators for soil qualityassessment across the east-west agro-climatic gradient in Southern Karnataka. NARP agro-climatic zones Eastern DryZone, Southern Dry Zone, Southern Transition Zone, Hill Zone and Coastal Zone are represented in southern Karnataka.The sampling sites were Chintamani, Turuvekere, Hassan, Sakleshpur and Brahmavar. At each site uplands withdominant land use system of the zone was sampled.

The soil reaction was near neutral in soils of plateau region (Chintamani, Turuvekere and Hassan) as expectedunder semi-arid and sub-humid climate. Soils at Sakleshpur and Brahmavar developed under humid climate had moderateand strong acid soil reaction. Organic carbon content was maximum in soils from Sakleshpur and Brahmavar, the formercontaining highest, due to least disturbance by conversion to crop production system. The organic carbon levelswere substantially low in intensive crop production systems of the plateau region, hovering around 0.5 per cent. Soilacidification in soils under potato-maize cropping system was substantial and is a cause for concern. In the plateauregion soils under potato-maize production system exhibited maximum deterioration in soil quality. Except for deficiencyof few plant available nutrients soil quality was not seriously impaired in cardamom plantations of Sakleshpur in theHill zone. Both inherent soil properties and those affected by land use change adversely affected soil quality incoastal region.

2012 K. M. NAIR


Quantification of Nutrient Addition Through Maize and Finger Millet Root Biomassin Long Term Fertilizer Experiment

PUSHPA, H. M.

THE effect of long term fertilizer application on root biomass and nutrient content, soil nutrient status, soil microbialpopulation and activities were studied in Alfisol of Bangalore. Root biomass addition and root length were highest inthe treatment 150 per cent NPK (T3) both in maize and finger millet. Major, secondary and micro nutrients content anduptake by roots were also highest in the treatments which received 150 per cent NPK and 100 per cent NPK + FYM +Lime respectively over control.

Grain and straw yields of both maize and finger millet crops were significantly highest in the treatments 100 %NPK + FYM + Lime (T10) and 150 per cent NPK (T3). Nutrient content and uptake (major, secondary and micronutrients) by both maize and finger millet crops were also highest in the treatments T10 and T3.

A decline in soil pH was noticed with increase in the dosage of N fertilizers and only nitrogenous fertilizers.Significant decrease in OC and TOC of soil were noticed in the plots treated with inorganic fertilizers than the plotstreated with FYM along with inorganic fertilizers. Available nutrient NPK status, after harvest of both the crops washighest in T3 and T10. The plots treated with lime (T10 and T5) were recorded significantly higher amount of exchangeableCa in the soil than the rest of the treatments. Soil microbial population, enzyme activities and microbial biomass carbonwere also higher in treatments receiving FYM and Lime along with inorganic fertilizers (T8 and T10).

2012 R. C. GOWDA


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PART II. RESEARCH NOTESPERFORMANCE OF HYBRID MAIZE (Zea mays, L.) TO PLANT DENSITY AND DIFFERENT NUTRIENTS

UNDER RAINFED CONDITION

— P. Ashoka, T. K. Prabhakar Setty, N. Krishnamurthy, K. R. SreeramuluIN VITRO EVALUATION OF BOTANICALS, BIOAGENTS AND FUNGICIDES AGAINST Alternaria solani

CAUSING EARLY BLIGHT ON TOMATO

— Nguyen Khanh Ngoc, T. Narendrappa and Usha NandiniTRAINING MATERIALS USED BY TRAINERS IN NATIONAL SEED PROJECT TRAINING PROGRAMMES

— Gaparayi Prosper and S. M. Pille GowdaINFLUENCE OF GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH AND FLOWERING OF CHINA ASTER [Callistephus

chinensis (L.) NEES] — L. G. Srikanth, G. Gopinath and R. Krishna ManoharIMPACT OF FARMERS FIELD SCHOOL ON KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF MULBERRY GROWERS ABOUT

INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES — M. T. Lakshminarayan,K. G. Banuprakash, V. Shankaranarayana and C. R. Jahir Basha

UTILIZATION OF JACKFRUIT AND SUNFLOWER WASTE FOR OYSTER (Pleurotus florida) MUSHROOM

PRODUCTION — M. N. Prabhakar and B. C. Mallesha

ADOPTION BEHAVIOUR OF FARMERS ON CHRYSANTHEMUM TECHNOLOGIES – AN ANALYSIS

— N. Mamathalakshmi and K. NagabhushanamEFFECT OF INTERCROP AND CROP GEOMETRY ON PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMICS OF MAIZE

(Zea mays L.) - BASED INTERCROPPING

— P. Ashoka, T. K. Prabhakar Setty, N. Krishnamurthy and K. R. SreeramuluMORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION AND DELINEATION OF TEAK (Tectona grandis L. F.) CLONES OF

KERALA THROUGH LEAF CHARACTER : IMPLICATION FOR SEED ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

— Rajesh P. Gunaga, T. Surendra and H. Nagesh Prabhu

PART III. ABSTRACTS OF THESESABSTRACTS OF PH. D. THESES

ABSTRACTS OF M. SC. THESES

(Contd. from page iv)IMPACT OF RURAL BIO-RESOURCE COMPLEX PROJECT ON ANNUAL INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT

GENERATION OF ITS STAKEHOLDERS

— R. Vinay Kumar, K. Narayana Gowda, T. N. Anand and M. S. NatarajuKNOWLEDGE AND SYMBOLIC ADOPTION OF TRAINED SERICULTURISTS — M. T. Lakshminarayan,

K. G. Banuprakash, V. Shankaranarayan and C. R. Jahir BashaECONOMIC WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN CROPS UNDER TANK REHABILITATION INTERVENTIONS OF

JSYS IN CHICKBALLAPUR DISTRICT — K. V. Bhagyalakshmi and P. S. SrikanthamurthyPERCEPTION OF PADDY FARMERS ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION MEASURES INITIATED IN

EASTERN DRY ZONE OF KARNATAKA

— M. H. Shankara, M. Shivamurthy and B. N. ManjunathaKNOWLEDGE AND ADOPION OF RECOMMENDED TECHNOLOGIES IN GROWUNDNUT CULTIVATION AMONG

FLD AND NON FLD FARMERS — M. S. Jyothi and T. N. Anand

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EFFECT OF PROCESSING TECHNIQUES ON THE BIO-ACCESSIBILITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN SELECTED

GENOTYPES OF HORSEGRAM (Macrotyloma uniflorum)— Anwara A. Khatun, Sunanda Sharan, K. P. Viswanatha and B. Veena

SHELF LIFE AND QUALITY OF TOMATO (Solanum lycopersicum L.) AS INFLUENCED BY

1-METHYLCYCLOPROPENE (MCP) UNDER COLD STORAGE CONDITION

— M. Anjanappa, G. S. Jayaramana Gowda and B. Suresh KumaraEFFECT OF MICRONUTRIENTS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF MUSHROOMS

— S. Raja, B. C. Mallesha and P. A. GowdaDEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A MECHANICAL POMELO FRUIT PEELER

— P. Navya Yadav, B. Ranganna and V. PalanimuthuDETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL, COOKING AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF ELITE COWPEA

(Vigna unguiculata (L.) WALP) GENOTYPES

— Deepa Terdal, Usha Ravindra and R. ChandruSTUDIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF ACCELERATED AGEING AND SEED PRIMING ON SEED QUALITY

PARAMETERS OF SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus L.) HYBRID KBSH-41 AND ITS

PARENTS — Sharanappa, P. J. Devaraju, R. Siddaraju, Parashivamurthyand Rame Gowda

SURVEY, TRANSMISSION, FARMERS PERCEPTION AND PRACTICES FOR MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW

MOSAIC DISEASE OF POLE BEAN IN SOUTHERN KARNATAKA

— V. Jyothi and N. NagarajuEFFECT OF IRRIGATION SCHEDULES ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF AEROBIC RICE (Oryza Sativa L.)

GENOTYPES — S. Noor Asma, B. K. Ramachandrappa, H. V. Nanjappa,Mudalagiriyappa, B. C. Shankaralingappa and Shailaja Hittalamani

INFLUENCE OF AZOTOBACTER BIO-FERTILIZER ON YIELD AND YIELD ATTRIBUTING PARAMETERS OF

DIFFERENT MULBERRY CULTIVARS UNDER RAINFED CONDITION

— P. Sowmya, T. Geetha Devi, K. Vasudha Prabhakar and S. Harish BabuEFFICACY OF SEED BIO-PRIMING IN ENHANCING SEEDLING VIGOUR OF CUCUMBER (Cucumis

Sativus L.) UNDER BIOTIC STRESS CONDITIONS

— T. Sivasankari Devi, M. K. Shivaprakash and C. C. MainaEFFECT OF CONTINUOUR MANURING AND CROPPING OF FINGER MILLET AND MAIZE ON PLANT AND

SOIL CONTENTS OF AND CONTENTS OF AND ZINC, COPPER, IRON AND MANGANESE

— Nasir Ahmad Nasrat, S. Anil Kumar, R. C. Gowda and K. SudhirANIMAL SCIENCEGROWTH PERFORMANCE OF AMUR STRAIN OF COMMON CARP IN SOUTHERN KARNATAKA

— Y. Basavaraju and A. Narasimha ReddySOCIAL SCIENCEPROFILE AND PROBLEMS OF MGNREGA BENEFICIARIES : A STUDY IN DHALAI DISTRICT OF

TRIPURA STATE

— Jayanta Roy, K. Narayana Gowda, M. T. Lakshminarayan and T. N. AnandFACTORS AFFECTING AGRO-BIODVERSITY (LANDRACES)

— G. Swathi, R. Vasantha and S. KiranUTILIZATION OF BENEFITS FROM GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES OR SCHEMES BY FARMERS IN ANDHRA

PRADESH – AN INSTITUTIONAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

— Kolla Sravanthi and M. G. Chandrakanth

(Contd. on page iii)

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(Contd. from page i)

establishment of tomato seedlings raised in the substrate enriched consortia of biocontrol agents...

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