effectiveness of nutrition gardens in enhancing sustainable livelihood of orphans and vulnerable...

© 2014 Research Academy of Social Sciences

http://www.rassweb.com 209

International Journal of Management Sciences

Vol. 2, No. 5, 2014, 209-221

Effectiveness of Nutrition Gardens in Enhancing Sustainable

Livelihood of Orphans and Vulnerable Children: A Case Study of

Mkoba Nutrition Gardens in Gweru Urban, Zimbabwe

Mapira Nyasha1, Nhire Shiela

2, Chikozho Martin

3

Abstract

This research sought to find the effectiveness of nutrition gardens in enhancing the sustainable livelihood of

orphans and vulnerable children in Mkoba, Zimbabwe. The research used a case study approach in which a

sample of 128 OVCs out of a population of 306 was used. The targeted population was nominated from

Mkoba 1, 3 and 5s and a stratified random sampling procedure was employed to come up with 128 sample

elements. Questionnaires and interviews were used in triangulation to collect data on the sample. After

analyzing the collected data, it was found that nutrition gardens positively changed the livelihoods of OVCs

in Mkoba because they reduce the spread of diet related diseases. However, the research also found that

nutrition gardens are small scale gardens and are not benefiting the entire society but rather the selected few.

1. Introduction

Before the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the harsh economic conditions in Zimbabwe, adults within a

family clan successfully fended for their children and orphans including the vulnerable within the extended

family set up. Due to the increase in the numbers of HIV/AIDS orphans and the vulnerable, the extended

family system eventually failed to meet the ever increasing demand. Part of the solution was the introduction

of the nutrition gardens for food security for the orphans and vulnerable children. Robinson (2011:1)

Florence Nightangle, Booth and Rowntree (1901), understands that the right to food is one of the most basic

rights of human kind. Unfortunately in Zimbabwe and many other parts of the developing world, hunger

remains unacceptably widespread; many systems of food production in use are simply unsustainable

(Chambers 1984).

According to National Aids Council (NAC) Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe like any other Sub-Saharan African

country is faced with devastating effects of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. Regardless of the HIV prevalence

rate which is showing a downward trend, the burden and net effects of HIV/AIDS and poverty have

continued to have devastating effects on children and the families housing children.

In Mkoba, the Nutrition Gardens have been around since 2010 when they have been established. The

problem is that there does not seem to be any comprehensive report on the success and challenges of

nutrition gardens on OVCs living in the suburb. Thus the current study aims to fill the void; it evaluates the

effectiveness of Nutrition Gardens as an intervention for food security for orphans and vulnerable children.

According to Smith in Matunhu (2011), children especially those that are orphaned and vulnerable

(OVC) are among the most affected people in Zimbabwe. The concept OVC (Orphans and Vulnerable

Children) generally refers to orphans and other groups of children who are most likely to fall through the

cracks of regular programs or using social protection terminology. These groups of children experience

negative outcomes such as loss of education, morbidity and malnutrition, at higher rates than do their peers.

1 ZRP Gweru

2 ZRP Gweru

3 Bindura University of Science Education

M. Nyasha et al.

210

Tidball (2009:49) outlines that food can be a powerful metaphor for the way people organize and relate

to society and it acts as an entry point into larger debates and discourse around a multitude of issues.

Through food, people can understand their histories, cultures and shared future. Food can also be used as a

way of getting in touch with people’s desires or to examine political and social relations within society. It is

from this perspective that the researcher found the need to research on current community development

projects to find out if they are effective in ensuring the critical issues of food security and nutrition among

the OVCs.

This is in compliment to global and national commitments being done to provide care and protection for

OVCs. One of the poverty alleviation strategies as stated in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Zimbabwe is to reduce vulnerability through increased food security and equity thus the researcher wanted to

find out if nutrition gardens are an effective strategy. Zimbabwe also aims to reduce by two thirds, between

2002 and 2015, the proportion of malnourished children under five years. In the MDGs, urban agriculture

continues to be an important source of livelihoods for most households in Zimbabwe.

The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZimVAC) estimates that over 1.6 million people

will be food insecure between January and March 2013, the peak hunger months in Zimbabwe. This is a 60

percent increase from the one million people who needed assistance at the beginning of this year. World

Food Programme (WFP) and partners are planning to scale up operations to ensure vulnerable households

have enough food to sustain themselves until the next harvest (ZimVAC 2012:1).

The key aspects of the right to adequate food include availability of food in a quantity and of a quality

sufficient to satisfy dietary needs of individuals, free from adverse substances and acceptable within a given

culture. It is the accessibility of such food in ways that are sustainable and do not interfere with the

enjoyment of other human rights. The Nutrition Gardens in Gweru originated from the fact that urban

farming had increased and urban farmers wanted to have more organised activities. There is increment of

urban population through urbanization and high unemployment levels.

2. Literature Review

Nutrition Gardens

Chandy (2012) defines a garden as a plot of land utilized to the growing of vegetables, flowers, fruits,

herbs, ornaments etc, often adjacent to the home. The size of the garden limits the number of fruit trees

grown in the nutrition gardens. Therefore a nutrition garden is meant to improve the living conditions of the

inhabitants. Nutrition gardens are also a source of revenue as well as pleasant and instructive pastime. In

most instances, nutrition gardens are referred to as community gardens because they will be in a community

or certain locality and thus for the purpose of this study, the two terms are used inter-changeably.

According to Chandy (2012), a low cost nutrition gardening system provides daily food requirements

for the household, produces different food crops all year round to minimize the risk of an overall crop failure.

It also provides a steady source of income and a good nutrition garden is harvested daily. Marturano (2008)

posits that Nutrition Gardens encourage health promotion through gardening by targeting the prevention of

diet related diseases such as cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, osteoporosis and diabetes of which

theme gardens focus on proactive plants. Any person infected with HIV/AIDS is vulnerable to those diseases

thus it relevant to have the nutrition gardens for OVCs.

Commercial vegetable growing is another type of nutrition gardening practiced in urban areas and is of

great importance for food supply of the urban population. Cultivation is generally intensive using plant beds

and improved seeds, paying special attention to watering, manuring and disease control. Thus, there is need

for thorough technical knowledge of the subject. Although community gardening and greening is often

undertaken with the intention of understanding and advancing the movement, discourse among community

gardening and greening practitioners, it reveal that the process often ends before findings are disseminated to

them in accessible and usable ways. Some community gardening and greening lack access to community


211

gardening and greening research and or the capacity to translate research speak into utilitarian applicable

language (Tidbal, Krasney & Faurest (2009).

According to Brazier (2012) schools can be an excellent venue for a nutrition garden campaign. The

school garden can become a productive food source for pupils, especially in urban areas where household

gardens are small or nonexistent. The nutrition garden can become a place where children can learn about the

environment, nutrition and income generation. Cohen (2003) supports the above in that community or

nutrition gardens should help residents and other low income consumers supplement their diets with home-

grown produce.

The researcher understands that the nutrition gardens are not the whole solution to food security in

support to Dirorimwe (1997) who outlined that projects like expansion of irrigation schemes does not

necessarily ensure attainment of the nutritional well-being of the community concerned, but special attention

must be given to the inclusion of nutrition concerns in food security programmes if communities are to attain

the ultimate objective of improved well being.

In Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, a project on nutritional gardens was started, coordinated by ZDDT, Scripture

Union in the suburb of Trenance, which was meant to fight hard to save and rehabilitate Bulawayo’s street

children, to entice children from the streets, to reunify them with their families and or introduce them to new

ones where necessary and assist them to reach their full potential (Sibanda 2012:1).

According to SIPA (2006), there is a link between agriculture and health by way of nutrition. Good

nutrition and good health requires production of and access to sufficient nutritious foodstuffs. Low

agricultural productivity exacerbates malnutrition. According to ZNASP (2010) posits that the food and

nutrition strategy highlights the importance of nutritional support at family and community levels, including

nutritional support to those enrolled in ART. The strategy emphasizes the importance of sustainable

livelihoods through access to clean water, sanitation, nutrition gardens, communal granaries and appropriate

income generating activities. It also encourages emergency assistance as a sub-strategy, which highlights the

importance of providing food, care and livelihood support to most vulnerable, AIDS affected households.

The plight of children affected and infected with HIV/AIDS is of particular concern. As mentioned

earlier, 3 million children are living with HIV. In addition the children who are living in households with

family members who are HIV-positive are seriously affected. Because parents are ill, have died or are caring

for ill relatives, less time is available for child-care. In many cases children themselves have to get involved

in caring for the sick and dying. Also reduced financial household resources have its toll on the survival,

growth and development of children. In severely affected families, there is no money to send children to

school and often children have to contribute to the household income. Less income also means that less

money is available for nutritious food.

WFP (2008) posits that to understand the relationship between HIV/AIDS and food security, analysis

should focus on the key issues that are usually considered in food security analysis such current food

consumption, dietary diversity, sources of food or food reserves.

Orphans and Vulnerable Children

The National Plan of Action for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Zimbabwe (2009) define OVCs as

children under the age of 18 who need some extra help to live better lives. The Zimbabwe National Orphan

Care Policy (NOCP) further defines an orphan as children aged between 0-18 whose parents have died. This

show that Zimbabwe is protective of children since other countries and other Non-Governmental

Organisations regards orphans as children aged between 0-17 (Byrant 2011) while others say 0-15(UNAIDS,

WHO and UNICEF). Like Zimbabwe, Zambia also defines orphan as between the age of 0-18 years age

(Kunda 2006). Byrant (2011) specifies that either the child would have lost one or both parents. For the

purpose of this study, the researcher agrees with the definition of orphan from the Zimbabwean perspective.

Maternal Orphans are defined as orphans whose mother has died while Paternal orphans are those

orphans whose fathers have died and Double Orphans are defined as children who have lost both parents

(UNICEF 2004). According to the Zimbabwe NOCP, vulnerability includes children with one parent

M. Nyasha et al.

212

deceased, children with disabilities, children affected or infected with HIV/AIDS, abused children, working

children, abandoned children, children on the streets, destitute children, married children, children in remote

areas, child parents, neglected children, children with chronically ill parents, working children and children

in conflict with the law.

Byrant (2011) found out that in the South African set up, vulnerable children includes all of the above

and adds on to say some vulnerable children are children who are marginalized, stigmatized or discriminated,

suffer physical or mental disability and have been identified as vulnerable by the local Child Care

Committee, OVC committee or other community groups.

Vulnerabilities of children are further worsened by the fact that they are cared for by vulnerable families

and reside in equally vulnerable communities. Thembela (2007) suggests that to counteract these

vulnerabilities, mobilization and coordination of services at a community level is urgently required if people

are to effectively address the impact of HIV/AIDS on children, families and communities at large.

Vulnerability, according to Owuor (2006) is the insecurity of the well-being of individuals, households or

communities in the face of a changing environment. The more the assets people have, the less vulnerable

they are.

The researcher agrees with most researchers who are of the opinion that those children whose families

can no longer provide for their basic needs, the community should provide the second safety net thus

reducing their vulnerabilities and the risk of exploitation in order for them to survive. Foster and Williamson

(2000) states that there is need for programmes with a strong capacity building component to intervene for

children.

With an HIV prevalence rate of 24.6%, in Zimbabwe, AIDS has left an estimated 761 000 orphans in its

wake as outlined in NAP for OVCs. Although efforts by government and civil society are underway to

address the growing orphan crisis, responses have not been easy due to Zimbabwe’s difficult socio-economic

environment. Parents who are the breadwinners continue to lose their regular income as they fall ill with HIV

and AIDS and eventually die. In addition, the extended family, once the safety net for vulnerable children, is

fast disintegrating because of poverty, high rates of unemployment, hyper inflation, urbanization and the

HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Zimbabwe has made steady progress in its commitment to addressing the orphan crisis since UNGASS

declaration in June 2001. A broad-based, multi-sectoral consultative approach has been adopted, which

includes key government ministries, UN and bilateral donor agencies, international and national non-

governmental organisations (NGOs) and civil society, all actively seeking to effectively address the plight of

orphans and other vulnerable children.

Therefore the researcher combined the Bronfenbrenner’s theory with the Sustainable Livelihood

Framework in the sense that, vulnerable children are affected by their environment, which makes them more

vulnerable because of poverty thus the need for Sustainable livelihood approaches to intervene. Also taking

note that OVCs do not necessarily need to be pulled out of their environment, but need to appreciate their

environment and learn to be part of it thereby having a desire for participation in changing the environment

for the better.

Theoretical Framework

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework as propounded by DFID (2001) together blended with the

Ecological System Theory is used for the purpose of this study. The reason for blending the two theories is

that the sustainable Livelihood Framework generalises livelihood development to all age groups vulnerable

but the ecological systems theory is zeroed down to contextualisation of children’s development and what the

children’s environment need to be so as to support that development. Due to the HIV and AIDS pandemic,

there has been an increase in OVCs as well as increase in programs by the Government of Zimbabwe,

various Non-Governmental organisations, churches, private organisations and individuals care for the OVCs

and many other affected and vulnerable people.


213

In the particular town of case study, Gweru, most programs for OVCs range from psychological support

or mental health services, food provision, education and shelter. Most of the programmes targeted rural areas.

Nutrition Gardens are a new concept in urban areas which is less than five years old in Zimbabwe and the

researcher would like to find out if the programs are dealing with the plight of orphans and vulnerable

children in Gweru Urban. MASO (Midlands Aids Support Organisation) has some garden projects but they

only targeted nutritional herbs for those affected by HIV/AIDS.

Caritas Gweru has Nutrition Gardens meant to improve food access to those affected with HIV/AIDS,

women, child headed households, OVCs, people with disabilities and victims of political violence. The target

area for Caritas is Chirumanzu in Gweru rural areas since 2011(Gweru MI Zimbabwe, wow city update

Thursday, November 15, 2012)

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) is important to follow in this research and the Livelihood

Pentagon. This approach was adopted from United Kingdom’s Department for International Development

(DFID) and adjusted for use in Canada (DFID 2001). The framework is non sectoral, and applicable across

geographical areas and social groups thus the researcher saw it fit for this study. The Sustainable Livelihood

Theory was used by Jacobs (2009) in an African Set up, in South Africa and in an urban set up with greening

project, successfully in an attempt to alleviate poverty. It was also used by the School of International and

Public Affairs together with Catholic Relief Services (2010) in the rural areas of the Democratic Republic of

Congo and it was successful. However this research is an urban Nutrition Gardening.

The approach dates back to the work of Robert Chambers in the mid 1980s and it was further developed

by Chambers and others in the early 1990s. It originated from the need to promote human rights through

policy and practice as stated in DFID (2001). The Sustainable Livelihood Theory per se, connects the idea of

sustainable livelihoods with capabilities, equity and development. Sustainable Livelihoods suggests that

interventions (to alleviate poverty) have to be policy driven, with strategies that look at the mediating

policies that negate achievements of desired livelihood outcomes as stated by Jacobs (2009).

Cafedirect (2006) supports this as it shows that the SLF is concerned with people first, seeking to gain

an accurate and realistic understanding of people’s strengths and how they endeavour to convert these into

positive livelihood outcomes. Scoones (2011) used the framework on a research on the land reform and had

successful results.

The Approach believes that people require a range of assets to achieve positive livelihood outcomes, no

single category of assets on its own is sufficient to yield all the many varied livelihood outcomes that people

seek. This is particularly true for poor people whose access to any given category of assets tends to be very

limited. Scoones (2011) observed that people without start up assets are unable to accumulate and have assets

and they continue to live in poverty, rely on the support of relatives and friends.Bebbington (1999) argues

that assets are more than just resources with instrumental value for economic purposes.

According to Abalimi Bezekhaya as cited by Jacobs (2009), SL is understood as the third phase in

development continuum that has been identified from field experience of which the continuum runs through

four phases, from survival, subsistence then to livelihoods and finally into commercial. Therefore the

research could be a formative evaluation of the Nutrition Garden projects to find out if at least they are

managing to reach the livelihood level and heading to the commercial level.

The Sustainable Livelihood Approach provides a checklist of important issues and draws attention to

core influences and processes. It emphasises multiple interactions between the various factors which affect

livelihoods, Columbia/SIPA (2010). The SLF provides a simple but well developed way of thinking about

complex issues and it is people centred. The framework looks at what strategies can be employed in order to

achieve the well being of people and their communities. DFID states that the framework originated from the

need to promote human rights through policy and practice.

According to UNDP (2006) adopting the Human Right Based Approach is internalising human rights

values and principles organisationally, nationally and individually, developing a human rights sensitive

M. Nyasha et al.

214

culture. It also entails strengthening internal and national human rights capacities as well as expressing

institutional will in policies and demonstrating commitment in programming for the promotion protection,

and realisation of human rights. The approach builds upon the elements of traditional good programming

practice such as emphasising the outcome of programming, including the most marginalised in equitable

service delivery, extending and deepening participation, ensuring local ownership of development processes

and strengthening accountability of all actors.

Adopting the SLA provides a way to improve the identification, appraisal, implementation and

evaluation of development programmes so that they better address the priorities of poor people, both directly

and at policy level. Some concepts of the SLF include partnerships, where these are important at all levels.

However some debates are still on, as to the extent of partnerships. Partnerships opens up a new way of

relating to each other as plans are made on how to make use of development funds.

Therefore there are some levels of partnerships such as the local levels, chiefs, technical staff,

councillors, VIDCO, community members, network to share both knowledge and experience and a typical

work in partnership is the one given you car. However, some donor partners want to involve other partners at

some later stage or the implementation stage. Partnerships need to have clear, guiding principles in order to

achieve results and one of the major tools that can be used to alleviate partnership problems for all those

involved is the use of participatory approach top International Development. This research intends to reveal

the participation of OVCs in programmes that relate to their concerns.

Another concept is that the SLF is people centred. The approach respects people’s views according to

DFID (2001:42) where it focuses on different policy and institutional organisational arrangements upon

people, livelihoods and upon the dimensions of poverty. It supports people to achieve own livelihood goals

with consideration to sustainability. Bebbington (1994) adds on to say that the approach is citizen-driven.

A holistic approach is used in the SLF where it attempts to identify the most pressing constraints faced

by and promising opportunities open to people regardless of where these occur. The approach takes into

cognisance the multiple influences on people and seeks to understand the relationships between these

influences and their joint impact upon livelihoods. It also attempts to gain a realistic understanding of what

shapes people’s livelihoods and how the various influencing factors can be adjusted so that they produce

livelihood outcomes.

The SLF approach is also dynamic in that it takes into consideration some changes that can support

positive patterns of change and help mitigate negative patterns. Sustainability means being available for

future generations’ use as much as per capita or more is involved. This includes the natural capital, physical

capital, social capital. In terms of development, sustainability is an intra-and inter-generational development

process defined by sustained improvements in human health and well being, quality of life and ecosystem

health. Maunganidze (2011:23) views sustainable development as a process whereby generations receive as

much capital per capita or more than the current generation has available. This includes natural capital,

physical capital, social capital and human capital.

DFID (2001:44) views sustainability as having many dimensions which are important to SLA.

Livelihoods are believed to be sustainable if they are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses, are

not dependent upon external support, maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources and do not

undermining the livelihoods of or compromise the livelihood options open to others. This concept is

important to the view of livelihoods because it implies that progress in poverty reduction is lasting rather

than fleeting. Sustainable has to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs. Are the Nutrition Gardens going to survive for full use by the current

OVCs in next decades to come? This is what the research also reveals and that the OVCs should be aware

that those gardens are for their livelihoods.

Trade-Offs and choices found in the SLF are due to diversity. Some tensions may arise between locally

identified needs for greater livelihood security and wider concerns about environmental sustainability,

between maximizing production and guarding against vulnerability to external shocks in the longer term and


215

between achievement of individual household or community livelihood objectives and the requirement not to

compromise the livelihood opportunities open to others. DFID (2001:9) further states that an externality

occurs when one person’s behaviour automatically has effects on other people and this is common in case of

natural resources.

Some of the weaknesses include that there is no means of identifying those who are the poor in need of

assistance as stipulated by Krantz (2001:8). The informal structures of social dominance and power within

the communities themselves, affect the way resources are distributed locally. The Framework also do not

address the difficulties of genuinely giving the appropriate time and space to women and in this case OVCs.

The other weakness is that there need to start with a broad and open-ended analysis but this requires a

highly flexible planning situation which rarely exists and if applied consistently, might be beyond the

practical realities of many local development administrations with the risk that this approach remains an

initiative of donors and their consultants. Jacobs (2009:39) adds on to say that the other weakness is that of

over-emphasis on the technical nature of development on a micro-level while neglecting micro-macro policy

linkages. DFID Guidance Sheet (2000) discovered that the SLA is prone to information over-load.

There is collection and processing of data far in excess of what is required in order to make effective

decisions about poverty reduction projects. The many aspects of the SLA are complex without good analysis,

even the best data is of little value. However, the weaknesses can be countered if counterparts are involved

from the beginning when discussing how and if a strategy should be applied and to train them to use the

approach and or start with a simplified version of the approach. DFID (2001) communicates that a sense of

proportion is required and a broad scale of livelihood investigation is more appropriate for larger, multi-

faceted or policy-oriented projects and programmes. Common sense as well, must be used to ensure that the

resources and time are taken for livelihood investigations are proportional to the likely scale of the resulting

development activity.

Some of the strengths include the fact that SLF produces a more holistic view on what resources or

combination of resources are important to the poor as outlined by Krantz (2001:8). It facilitates an

understanding of the underlying causes of poverty by focusing on the variety of factors that directly or

indirectly constrain poor people’s access to resources or assets. Jacobs (2009:39) supports the fact as he

noted that the SLF is able to reflect on the range of assets and activities that people rely on for implementing

livelihood strategies.

The framework is also able to draw attention to the wide range of policy issues regulating poor people’s

access to livelihood assets. The framework provides a more realistic framework for assessing the direct and

indirect effects on people’s living conditions than one dimensional productivity or income criteria. It is based

on sound principles such as being people-centred, build on strengths, and promote sustainability, multi-level

partnerships as well as a dynamic and holistic approach. The SLF emphasises lesson learning thus it can be

enhanced by new ideas, technology and better ways of doing things by working in partnerships. Through

these partnerships, the approach builds on indigenous knowledge of those living in a particular vulnerability

context.

3. Research Methodology

The research adopted a case study research design in which both qualitative and quantitative techniques

were used. The case study was chosen because the researchers had insufficient funds to carry a census of all

nutrition gardens in Zimbabwe. Results of the Nutrition gardens in Mkoba will be used to infer to the

population of all nutrition gardens in Zimbabwe.

Study Site

The study was carried out in Mkoba, Gweru Urban. The researcher chose to be directly involved with

the project implementers, beneficiaries and OVCs. Mkoba Gweru is in Mashonaland West province of

Zimbabwe. Gweru is 300km south west of the Zimbabwean capital city of Harare. The population of Mkoba

M. Nyasha et al.

216

is approximately…………… million and grouped into …………….wards. The population of Mkoba is

generally poor and depends on vending for their livelihood. To sustain their livelihoods orphans and

vulnerable childrens in Mkoba get aid from nutrition gardens in the area.

Sampling methodology

The population of this study was approximated 306 orphans and vulnerable children in Mkoba. A

sample size of 128 orphans and vulnerable children was chosen as it is an ideal representation of the

population. This sample is approximately 10% of the whole population as noted by Best and Khan (2006),

who said that a sample equal or above 10% is valid to generalise results for the whole population. Mkoba has

49 nutrition gardens from which 3 gardens were selected for the convenience of the researchers. Mkoba

1,3,5……… gardens were chosen on the basis that they are close to each other and it became cheaper to

carry the research. The total sample elements were chosen using a stratified random sampling method. Ten

percent of each garden was randomly selected and added to the other randomly selected 10% slots from the

other two gardens to get the total sample. Thus, 44 OVC from Mkoba 1, 34 OVC from Mkoba 3 and 50 OVC

from Mkoba 7 were selected to give a total sample of 128 households.

Data Collection Tools

The research instruments used in this research were formal questionnaires, focus groups and key

informant interviews. Questionnaires were used as appropriate research tools to reveal sensitive issues which

respondents would otherwise feel uncomfortable to talk about in an interview. In addition, questionnaires

give respondents ample time to think through their responses. Focus Group Discussion Guide was used to

help facilitate open discussions with the OVCs so as to find out information as to whether they are benefiting

and participating in the projects. The focus group discussion guide helped the researcher to be focused during

facilitating the focus group discussions. The researcher had to stick to the discussion issues thus reducing

time costs. In this case the time was only limited to one hour of schools lunch period. Discussions were held

with 100 OVC from Mkoba 9 different from the three selected wards as a pre-test survey in order to evaluate

the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Questions that proved to be unclear to the respondents were

modified, rephrased or discarded. Edwards (2003) posits that pretesting of instruments in the field can serve

as a reality check indicating to the researcher how well conceptualisation of the problem matches the actual

experience of the practitioner. Self administration of the formal questionnaire was maintained to ensure total

response to all questions as there was a chance for probing techniques. Since the questionnaire was designed

in English, there was chance to translate it into Shona to ensure that respondents understood what was being

required of them.

Key informant interviews were also used so as to capture data from key informants such as community

leaders, councilors and support groups. In this respect, interviews were conducted because they give the

interviewer room to adjust questions as necessary, clarify, and ensure that the questions are properly

understood by repeating or rephrasing them (Monton, 1996). Interviews also make it possible for the

researcher to take note of non verbal clues from the respondents, for example, frowns and nervous tapping

which can be used to determine the final result.

Data entry and analysis

The data was coded into the computer using SPSS, to allow analysis to be carried out. The analysis

carried out was largely descriptive and comparisons were made between the results. All data was presented

in tables and figures.

4. Results

The table below shows responses by ophans and vulnerable children to suggested statements on the

effectiveness of nutrition gardens.


217

Table 1: Responses to suggested statements (SS) on the effectiveness of nutrition

gardens in enhancing the sustainability and livelihood of OVC

SA A NS D SD TOTAL

FREQUENCY

SS1 25 36 25 6 8 100

SS2 43 28 18 6 5 100

SS3 30 34 18 10 8 100

SS4 27 43 16 7 7 100

SS5 13 6 10 16 55 100

SS6 11 9 23 30 27 100

SS7 6 1 41 25 27 100 Source of data: Raw Data

Key: SS on the effectiveness of nutrition gardens on sustainability of the livelihood of OVCs.

SS1: Nutrition gardens managed to produce the intended results of food security for OVCs.

SS2: Nutrition gardens have positively changed the livelihoods of OVCs and therefore should never be

stopped.

SS3: Nutrition gardens provide steady income to OVCs.

SS4: Diet related diseases are curbed by nutrition gardens.

SS5: Nutrition gardens promote dependency syndrome among OVCs rather than working for

themselves

SS6: Receiving aid from the community and donors through nutrition gardens lead to exploitation and

abuse of OVCs.

SS7: Nutrition gardens are not benefiting the intended OVCs.

Key: Responses to SS

SA: Strongly Agree; A: Agree; NS: Not Sure; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly Disagree

Analysis of table 1

The majority (61%) of the respondents agreed that nutrition gardens produced the intended results of

food security for OVCs in Mkoba while 14% of the respondents thought otherwise. On the statement that

nutrition gardens have positively changed the livelihood of OVCs and therefore should never be stopped, an

overwhelmingly 71% agreed with the statement with as big as 43% of the respondents strongly agreeing to it.

However, 11% of the respondents did not agree with the suggested statement. On SS3, the majority (64%) of

the respondents are in favour of the statement that nutrition gardens provide steady income to OVCs in

Mkoba while on the other hand only 18% of the respondents did not agree. On SS4, 70% of the respondents

attributed reduction in diet related diseases to nutrition gardens in Mkoba donations while only 14%

dissociated those reductions to nutrition gardens.

On SS5 (71%), SS6 (57) and SS7 (62), the majority, in each case, did not agree with suggested

statement on effectiveness of nutrition gardens in Mkoba. Fewer respondents associated nutrition gardens to

dependency syndrome.

The table below, which is derived from the responses table above, explores the extents to which each

statement was supported by respondents through the means of ranking the scores obtained by each suggested

statement.

M. Nyasha et al.

218

Table 2: Scores of Responses and Rankings of SS

SA(SA*2) A(A*1) NS(NS*0) D(D*-1) SD(SD*-2) SCORE RANK

SS1 50 36 0 -6 -16 64 4

SS2 86 28 0 -6 -80 98 1

SS3 60 34 0 -10 -16 68 3

SS4 54 43 0 -7 -14 76 2

SS5 26 6 0 -16 -110 -94 7

SS6 22 18 0 -30 -54 -44 5

SS7 12 1 0 -25 -54 -66 6 Source of Data: Raw Data

Key: scores attached to responses

Response SA A NS D SD

Attached score +2 +1 0 -1 -2

SS2 is the suggested statement to which the respondents significantly agreed to with a score of 98. The

order cascaded down through SS4 (score 76); SS3 (score 68); SS1 (score 64); SS6 (score -44); SS7 (score -

66) until the least agreed SS5 with a score of -94.

5. Discussion

The respondents to this study indicated that the nutrition gardens were successfully providing food for

orphans and vulnerable children when they started during the year 2010 to part of 2011. As of now, there is

enough food only to those beneficiaries who are managing to maintain their generators and these are the

gardens where the boreholes were properly drilled such that they can produce water throughout the year.

This is in compliment to global and national commitments being done to provide care and protection for

OVCs. One of the poverty alleviation strategies as stated in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Zimbabwe is to reduce vulnerability through increased food security and equity thus the researcher wanted to

find out if nutrition gardens are an effective strategy. Zimbabwe also aims to reduce by two thirds, between

2002 and 2015, the proportion of malnourished children under five years. In the MDGs, urban agriculture

continues to be an important source of livelihoods for most households in Zimbabwe.

The findings on production of intended results of food security brought about by nutrition gardens are

consistent with the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) and the Livelihood Pentagon. The Sustainable

Livelihood Theory used by Jacobs (2009) in South African urban set up with greening project in an attempt

to alleviate poverty and providing food security. It was also used by the School of International and Public

Affairs together with Catholic Relief Services (2010) in the rural areas of the Democratic Republic of Congo

and it produced the intended result of food security.However, these findings are in contrast with Abalimi

Bezekhaya as cited by Jacobs (2009) who postulates that if the sustainable livelihoods continuum is not

followed properly, nutrition gardens will not produce the intended results.

The findings in Mkoba that nutrition gardens positively changed the livelihoods,provide steady income

and curb diet related diseases among OVCs concurs with Chandy’s (2012) proposition that nutrition gardens

are meant to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. He further outlines that, a well maintained

nutrition garden helps assure food to the people at low cost, help make diet more balanced and tastier, people

become less dependent on shops and markets where supplies are often irregular and prices are high and this

will positively change the livelihoods of OVCs.He further outlined that nutrition gardens are also a source of

revenue as well as pleasant and instructive pastime. In most instances, nutrition gardens are referred to as

community gardens because they will be in a community or certain locality and thus for the purpose of this

study, the two terms are used inter-changeably. Sharing the same sentiments Brazier (2012) argues that

nutrition garden in form of a school garden provide a productive food source for pupils, especially in urban


219

areas where household gardens are small or nonexistent. He further postulates that nutrition garden can

become a place where children can learn about the environment, nutrition and income generation. Cohen

(2003) supports the above in that community or nutrition gardens should help residents and other low income

consumers supplement their diets with home-grown produce. Marturano (2008) also posits that Nutrition

Gardens encourage health promotion through gardening by targeting the prevention of diet related diseases

such as cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, osteoporosis and diabetes of which theme gardens focus

on proactive plants. Any person infected with HIV/AIDS is vulnerable to those diseases thus it relevant to

have the nutrition gardens for OVCs.

The above findings are in contrast with Dirorimwe (1997) who outlined that projects like expansion of

irrigation schemes and small nutrition gardens does not necessarily ensure attainment of the nutritional well-

being of the community concerned, but special attention must be given to the inclusion of nutrition concerns

in food security programmes if communities are to attain the ultimate objective of improved well

being.Additionally,SIPA (2006) argues that there is a link between agriculture and health by way of

nutrition therefore good nutrition and good health requires production of and access to sufficient nutritious

foodstuffs under commercial schemes rather than nutrition gardens.

The majority of OVCs from Mkoba disagree with the statement that nutrition gardens promote

dependency syndrome, lead to exploitation and are not benefiting the intended OVCS.This concurs with the

proposition of Thembela (2007) who argues that the idea of community based intervention programme give

children the experience that there exist external support systems at meso-systemic level which will in turn

encourage children to look for and use those systems. He also observed that this helps children to be able to

ask for help when help is required without creating dependency needs. Using the idea of community based

intervention, community members are alerted of the psychosocial needs of children and empowered to meet

the needs. Thembela (2007) supports the notion by Bornstein (1991) and Foster (2006), that family and

communities’ culture sensitive and pro-active intervention strategies determines whether a vulnerable and

needy child’s living circumstances changes, remain the same or becomes worse, which is factual.

In contrast, Dirorimwe (1997) who states that programme design and extension methodologies require

people with skills, knowledge and active community involvement in problem identification and planning

interventions. The participatory approach in development programmes has brought with it the need to modify

the practices and attitudes of the experts and extension workers towards the community and the challenge of

encouraging people to express openly their views on issues pertaining to their community’s development.

6. Conclusion

The research findings show that nutrition gardens positively changed livelihoods of OVCs in Mkoba.

The weight of each statement has been shown on the Scores of Responses and Rankings of SS table in which

SS2 topped the rank while SS5 last.

Acknowledgements

The researchers would like to acknowledge the patience and dedication of the people of Mkoba who

participated in this research. Special thanks also go to the ward councilors, sponsors and local leaders

without whom our work would have been a mammoth task to perform

References

Brazier (2012), Healthy Harvest, A training Manual for Community Workers in Good Nutrition and the

growing, preparing and processing of healthy harvest food, Harare

Bornstein D (2005), How to Change the World, New Dehli

Byrant N (2011), Evaluating the effectiveness of educational block grants to orphans and vulnerable

children, Messachusetts, USA

M. Nyasha et al.

220

Café direct plc (2006), Bringing the poor into the export process, linkages and strategic implications, ‘The

fair trade initiative, sustainable commercial opportunity or development trap?’ United Kingdom

CattermouI B etal (2008) Sustainable Livelihoods Enhancement and Diversification (SLED), A Manual for

practitioners, IMM LTD

Chambers R (1994), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Challenges, Potentials and Paradigm, Brighton,

UK

Cohen B (2002), Community Food Security Assessment Kit, EFAN

Cullen AE, Coryn CLS & Rugh J (2011), The Politics and consequences of including Stakeholders in

International Development Evaluation, An |American Journal of Evaluation, SAGE

CONCERN (2006), Mainstreaming HIV within a Livelihood Programme (Nutrition Gardens), A case study

from Concern Zimbabwe

Dey I (2003), Qualitative Data Analysis, A User-Friendly Guide for Social Scientists

Dirorimwe (1997), Participatory development of a household Food Security and Nutrition Improvement

Programme in Kano State, Nigeria

DFID (2001), Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheet, London

Farlam P (2005), Working together, Assessing Public Private Partnerships in Africa, NEPAD Policy Focus,

Pretoria

FAO (2003), Incorporating HIV/AIDS Consideration into food security and Livelihood Projects, London

Helpsheet (2003), RDSU, Peninsula Research & Development Support Unit

Horowitz CR, Robinson M & Seifer S (2009), Community Based Participatory Research from the Margin to

the Mainstream: Are Researchers Prepared? A journal of the American Heart Association

Institute of Social Work (2009), Learning to work with Orphans and Vulnerable Children, A Training

Manual for Para-Social Workers, Tanzania

IPDET (2007), Data Collection Methods, Module 8, International Program for Development Evaluation

Training

Jacobs (2009), The role of Social Capital in the Creation of Sustainable Livelihoods, A case Study of the

Siyazama Community Allotment Gardening Association (SCAGA), University of Stellenbosch

JI (2012), Community Based Support to Vulnerable Urban Populations, A Symposium Report on Challenges

of Urbanisation, Poverty Reduction and National Development in Zimbabwe, www.jizim.org

Koohafkan P & Altieri M (2011), A Methodological Framework for the Dynamic Conservation of

Agricultural Heritage System, GIAHS Initiative, FAO, UN

Krantz L (2001), The Sustainable Livelihood Approach to Poverty Reduction, SIDA

Kunda R (2006), Vulnerable Children, Schooling and the Feminisation of the AIDS Pandemic in Zambia,

University of Western Cape

Makore-Rukuni MN (2001), Introduction to Research Methods, Zimbabwe Open University, Harare.

Matunhu J (2012), Rural Development, Putting Agriculture First in South Africa, Gweru

Millennium Development Goals (2010), Status Report, Zimbabwe

NAO (1999), A Practical guide to Sampling; Statistical and Technical Team

National Plan of Action for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (2004), Harare

Notshe YM (2007) A Dissertation on factors affecting Non-Disclosure by HIV Positive Parents to their

children, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, RSA

http://www.jizim.org/


221

Owuor OS (2006), Bringing the Urban-Rural divide, Multi-spatial Livelihoods in Nakuru Town, Kenya

Paquette D & Ryan J (2001), Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, National-Louis University

PDAC (2009), Excellence in Social Responsibility e-toolkit (ESR), An Initiative of the Prospectors and

Developers Association of Canada

Plan International (2005), Child Participatory Methodologies, A case study of Silobela and Zhombe

Communities in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Rukuni M& Eitcher (1994), Zimbabwe’s Agricultural Revolution, University of Zimbabwe

Scoones etal (2011), Zimbabwe’s Land Reform; Challenging myths, UK

Shah M etal (2006), Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation of Community and Faith Based Programs, Core

Initiatives, USAID

SIPA (2010), Agrofoods Sector Development Opportunities for Small farmers in the DRC, A Katanga

Perspective

Smart R (2003) Policies for Orphans and Vulnerable Children, A Framework for Moving Ahead, USAID

Takayanagi T (2010), Orphans and Vulnerable Children’s views to Education in an urban slum of Zambia,

University of Sydney

Taylor-Powell E & Renner M (2003), Analyzing Qualitative Data, Program Development & Evaluation,

Wisconsin

Tidbal Keith G, Kransy Marianne & Faurest S (2009), Community Greening Review, The case for a

community greening Research Agenda, ACGA, East Broad East

Thembela LP (2007), An Evaluation of a Psychosocial Support Intervention for Vulnerable Children, A

Thesis submitted in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of PHD in Community

Psychology, University of Zululand

Theron G (2012), Food Security in Zimbabwe, Land reform in Zimbabwe: Impact of food Production self

sufficiency, Zimbabwe

UNICEF (2003), Nutrition & HIV/AIDS- UNICEF’S Priority Actions, Working Paper, New York

UNDP (2006), Applying Human Rights Based Approach to Development Cooperation and Programming,

UNDP

White S (2010), Depoliticising Development, The Uses and abuses of participation, SDS, Norwich

WFP (2008), HIV/AIDS Analysis, Integrating HIV/AIDS in Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis,

United Nations

effectiveness of nutrition gardens in enhancing sustainable livelihood of orphans and vulnerable...

Documents