1

Effective use of mid-rib of coconut (Cocos nucifera) leaves for pulp and paper

industry evaluating pulp quality

Atanu Kumar Dasa. Subir Kumar Biswasb . Dr. Mousa Nazhadc

Pulp and Paper Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

aAtanu Kumar Das,

Technology, 58 Moo 9, Km. 42, Paholyothin Highway Klong Luang, Pathumthani

12120, Thailand, E-mail: atanufwt03ku@yahoo.com

bSubir Kumar Biswas, Laboratory Supervisor, Pulp and Paper Technology, Asian

Institute of Technology, 58 Moo 9, Km. 42, Paholyothin Highway Klong Luang,

Pathumthani 12120, Thailand, E-mail: subir36@gmail.com

cDr. Mousa Nazhad, Associate Professor & Coordinator, Pulp and Paper Technology,

Asian Institute of Technology, 58 Moo 9, Km. 42, Paholyothin Highway Klong

Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand, E-mail: mousanazhad@yahoo.com

Corresponding To:

Technology, 58 Moo 9, Km. 42, Paholyothin Highway Klong Luang, Pathumthani

12120, Thailand, E-mail: atanufwt03ku@yahoo.com

2

DEDICATED TO MY BELOVED LATE FATHER, BELOVED PARALYZED

MOTHER AND BELOVED ELDER BROTHERS

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.

Title Page 1

Dedication 2

Abstract 7

1. Introduction 8

1.1Back ground and justification of the study 8

1.2 Objectives of the study 10

2. Review of Literature 11

2.1 Pulp and Pulping 11

2.2 Types of Pulping 11

2.2.1 Mechanical pulp 11

2.2.2 Thermomechanical pulp 12

2.2.3 Chemithermomechanical pulp 12

2.2.4 Chemical pulp 12

2.2.4.1 Kraft Pulping 13

2.2.4.1.1 History 13

2.2.4.1.2 Process of kraft pulping 14

2.2.4.1.3 By products and emissions 19

2.2.4.1.4 Comparison with other pulping process 20

2.3 Some Information of coconut plant 21

2.3.1 General Description 21

2.3.1.1 Scientific Classification 21

2.3.1.2 Etymology 21

2.3.1.3 Natural habitat 22

2.3.1.4 Distribution 23

2.3.1.5 Climate 23

2.3.1.6 Size 23

2.3.1.7 Form 23

4

2.3.1.6 Leaves 23

2.3.1.7 Flower 24

2.3.1.7 Fruit 24

2.3.2 Harvesting 24

2.3.3 Uses 24

2.3.3.1 Coconut water 24

2.3.3.2 Coconut milk 25

2.3.3.3 Coconut oil 25

2.3.3.4 Culinary use 25

2.3.3.5 Medicinal uses 26

2.3.3.6 Toddy and nectar 26

2.3.3.7 Use in beauty products 27

2.3.3.8 Copra 27

2.3.3.9 Trunk 27

2.3.3.10 Husks and shells 28

2.3.3.11 Overview of uses 29

2.3.4 Role in culture and religion 29

2.3.5 Coconut in some countries 31

2.3.6 Diseases 36

3. Materials and Methods 37

4. Results and Discussions 38

5. Conclusion 48

Acknowledgement 48

Reference 49

List of Tables 5

List of Figures 6

5

List of Tables

Title Page No.

Table 1: Chemical analysis of mid-rib of coconut leaves 38

Table 2: Experimental design of kraft pulping of mid-rib of coconut

leaves

38

Table 3: Summaries of analysis of variance (95% level of

significant) of different properties of mid-rib of coconut leaves pulp

44

Table 4: Summaries of T-test (95% level of significant) of different

properties of mid-rib of coconut leaves pulp

47

6

List of Figures

Title Page No.

Fig.-1: Kappa number of different types of treated pulp without

beating

39

Fig.-2: Yield (%) of different types of treated pulp without

beating

40

Fig.-3: ISO Brightness (%) of different types of treated pulp

without beating

41

Fig.-4: Tear Index of different types of treated pulp without

beating

41

Fig.-5: Tensile Index of different types of treated pulp without

beating

42

Fig.-6: ISO Brightness (%) of different types of treated pulp

after beating

43

Fig.-7: Tear Index of different types of treated pulp after

beating

43

Fig.-8: Tensile Index of different types of treated pulp after

beating

44

Fig.-9: Comparison of ISO brightness (%) of different types of

treated pulp before and after beating

45

Fig.-10: Comparison of tear index of different types of treated

pulp before and after beating

46

Fig.-11: Comparison of tensile index of different types of

treated pulp before and after beating

46

7

Abstract

The paper summarizes results of a research aimed at assessing of the pulp properties

of Cocos nucifera (coconut) for using coconut as an alternative raw material for pulp

and paper industry. Total experiments were 9 and the pulping procedure was kraft

pulping. The pulp was cooked at 170, 160 and 1500C for 90 minutes. The active

alkali and sulphidity (%) for every constant temperature were 15 and 20%; 20 and

25% and 25 and 30%. The screened pulp was beaten at 3000 revolution. The pulp

properties were examined for both beaten and unbeaten pulp. . The cooked pulp at

1600C and 90 min with 25% active alkali and 30% sulphidity produced good result

after beating based on cooking temperature and properties. The yield, brightness

(ISO), tear index and tensile index were respectively 44.42%, 16.44%, 9.11 mN.m2/g

and 95.17 Nm/g. There is an opportunity to use it as an alternative raw material for

pulp and paper industry.

Key words: Cocos nucifera, Mid-rib, Tensile index, Tear index, Brightness (%),

Yield (%).

8

1. Introduction

1.1 Back ground and justification of the study

Paper and human being are powerfully bonded together for various types of purposes

from the ancient time. In 1990, the pulp production was more than 160 million metric

tons (Rowell et al. 1997). After 10 years, the demand was increased 370 million

metric tons in 2010 (Kaldor 1992). It is increasing day by day. About 91% demand of

pulp and paper is fulfilled by wood in the present world (Rowell et al. 1997). Annual

crops contribute only 10% pulp for the world (Sixta 2006). This causes destruction of

forest. Scarcity of raw material is a problem for the continuity of the production of

pulp and paper. Alternative raw material is important to save the forest and meet the

demand as well.

Chemical composition of the wood is the main important attractive point for choosing

wood as a raw material for pulp and paper by pulp maker. Hardwood and softwood

contain 40-44% cellulose (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996). Some non-wood species

contain same amount of cellulose or more than that type of amount. This thinking

helps the scientists to use agricultural crops as a raw material for pulp and paper

industry. There are more than 250, 000 known species of higher plants but

experiment was conducted on 500 species only (Rowell et al. 1997). Mid rib of

coconut is one of the non-wood raw materials.

The coconut palm is also called cocoanut. Cocos nucifera is a member of the palm

family Arecaceae. It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos (Anon 2013).

Coconut palms are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total

production of 61 million tonnes per year (FAO 2010). Coconut trees are classified

into two types. These are tall and dwarf (Pradeepkumar 2008). Coconut leaves are

called fronds and these are 4.5 to 5.5 m in length. Tall coconut trees produce 12 to 18

leaves per year whether dwarfs produce 20 to 22 leaves (Chan and Elevitch 2006).

Old leaves break away cleanly and it keeps the trunk smooth (Pradeepkumar 2008).

In every year, huge amount of leaves are collected from the plantation of coconut.

9

Mid-rib of coconut leaf contains 67.12% hollocelulose. Availability of coconut leaves

and chemical composition are the possibility to take it under consideration for a raw

material of pulp and paper mills.

Species were classified in five groups based on the chemical composition. Those

-cellulose are in under rating-1. Species of rating-2 contain

29- -cellulose and species of rating- -cellulose (Nieschlag et al.

1960). According to this classification, mid-rib of coconut leaves is under the group

of rating-1.

Mid-rib of coconut leaves are used for fuel and it has no effective use. The use of

mid-rib in pulp and paper industry is one of the economic uses. It will also help to

solve the problem of raw material for pulp and paper industry. In this study,

therefore, it was tried to identify the pulp quality of mid-rib of coconut leaves

considering the pulp properties.

10

1.2 Objectives of the study

Depending on woody materials is causing deforestation in the whole world. It is a

great impact on the healthy environment. Utilization of non-woody material will

study was carried out:

To identify the suitable treatments for the mid-rib of coconut (Cocos nucifera)

leaves based on properties of pulp.

To identify the suitability of mid-rib of coconut (Cocos nucifera) leaves as a raw

material for pulp and paper industry.

11

2. Review of Literature

2.1 Pulp and Pulping

Pulp may be defined as the crude fiber materials produced from cellulosic materials

by mechanical and/or chemical processes for subsequent manufacture of paper, paper

and fiberboard, pulp moulded products, plastic and other products after further

treatment and processing. Pulp consists of wood or other lignocellulosic materials

that have been broken down physically and/or chemically such that (more or less)

discrete fibers are liberated and can be dispersed in water and reformed into a web

(Biermann 1993) and the process of such breaking down is called pulping. It is the

process to separate individual fiber from each other mechanically or chemically with

a minimum of mechanical damage and to purify the fiber chemically to such a degree

that these will perform satisfactorily in subsequent manufacturing operation.

Chemical pulping is the most commonly used pulping method in the present world.

The sulphate or kraft process containing for ca. 80% of world pulp production is the

most applied production method of chemical pulping process and today only 10% of

the world production is obtained by the sulphite method (IPPAC 2001).

2.2 Types of Pulping

There are a number of different processes which can be used to separate the wood

fibers:

2.2.1 Mechanical pulp

Manufactured grindstones with embedded silicon carbide or aluminum oxide can be

used to grind small wood logs called "bolts" to make stone pulp (SGW). If the wood

is steamed prior to grinding it is known as pressure ground wood pulp (PGW). Most

modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates

instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is

called refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) and if the chips are steamed while being

refined the pulp is called thermomechanical pulp (TMP). Steam treatment

12

significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the

damage (cutting) to fibers. Mechanical pulps are used for products that require less

strength, such as newsprint and paperboards (Sixta 2006).

2.2.2 Thermomechanical pulp

Thermomechanical pulp is pulp produced by processing wood chips using heat (thus

thermo) and a mechanical refining movement (thus mechanical). It is a two stage

process where the logs are first stripped of their bark and converted into small chips.

These chips have a moisture content of around 25-30% and a mechanical force is

applied to the wood chips in a crushing or grinding action which generates heat and

water vapor and softens the lignin thus separating the individual fibers. The pulp is

then screened and cleaned any clumps of fiber are reprocessed. This process gives a

high yield of fiber from the timber (around 95%) and as the lignin has not been

removed, the fibers are hard and rigid (Sixta 2006).

2.2.3 Chemithermomechanical pulp

Wood chips can be pretreated with sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium

sulfite and other chemicals prior to refining with equipment similar to a mechanical

mill. The conditions of the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower

temperature, shorter time, less extreme pH) than in a chemical pulping process since

the goal is to make the fibers easier to refine, not to remove lignin as in a fully

chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known as

chemithermomechanical pulps (CTMP) (Sixta 2006).

2.2.4 Chemical pulp

Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood chips and chemicals in large vessels

known as digesters where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which binds

the cellulose fibres together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibers.

Chemical pulp is used for materials that need to be stronger or combined with

13

mechanical pulps to give product different characteristics. The kraft process is the

dominant chemical pulping method, with sulfite process being second. Historically

soda pulping was the first successful chemical pulping method (Sixta 2006).

2.2.4.1 Kraft Pulping

The word kraft came from German word Kraft and it was invented by Carl F. Dahl

in 1879 in Danzig, Prussia, Germany. U.S. Patent 296,935 was issued in 1884, and a

pulp mill using this technology started (in Sweden) in 1890 (Biermann 1993). The

advancement of the kraft process was possible by the invention of the recovery boiler

by G.H. Tomlinson in the early (Sjöström 1993). It enabled the recovery and reuse of

the inorganic pulping chemicals such that a kraft mill is a nearly closed-cycle process

with respect to inorganic chemicals, apart from those used in the bleaching process.

For this reason, in the 1940s, the kraft process surpassed the sulfite process as the

dominant method for producing wood pulp (Biermann 1993).

2.2.4.1.1 History

The kraft process was invented by Carl F. Dahl in 1879 in Danzig, Prussia, Germany.

U.S. Patent 296,935 was issued in 1884, and a pulp mill using this technology started

(in Sweden) in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler by G.H. Tomlinson in the

early 1930s, was a milestone in the advancement of the kraft process. It enabled the

recovery and reuse of the inorganic pulping chemicals such that a kraft mill is a

nearly closed-cycle process with respect to inorganic chemicals, apart from those

used in the bleaching process. For this reason, in the 1940s, the kraft process

surpassed the sulfite process as the dominant method for producing wood pulp

(Sjöström 1993, Biermann 1993).

2.2.4.1.2 Process of kraft pulping

Impregnation

Common wood chips used in pulp production are 12 25 millimetres (0.47 0.98 in)

long and 2 10 millimetres (0.079 0.39 in) thick. The chips normally first enter the

14

pre steaming where they are wetted and preheated with steam. Cavities inside fresh

wood chips are partly filled with liquid and partly with air. The steam treatment

causes the air to expand and about 25% of the air to be expelled from the chips. The

next step is to impregnate the chips with black and white liquor. Air remaining in

chips at the beginning of liquor impregnation is trapped within the chips. The

impregnation can be done before or after the chips enters the digester and is normally

done below 100°C (212 °F). The cooking liquors consist of a mixture of white liquor,

water in chips, condensed steam and weak black liquor. In the impregnation, cooking

liquor penetrates into the capillary structure of the chips and low temperature

chemical reactions with the wood begin. A good impregnation is important to get a

homogeneous cook and low rejects. About 40 60% of all alkali consumption in the

continuous process occurs in the impregnation zone (Woodman and Jocelyn 1993).

Cooking

The wood chips are then cooked in huge pressurized vessels called digesters. Some

digesters operate in batch manner and some in continuous processes. There are

several variations of the cooking processes both for the batch and the continuous

digesters. Digesters producing 1,000 tonnes of pulp per day and more are common

with the largest producing more than 3,500 tonnes of pulp per day. In a continuous

digester the materials are fed at a rate which allows the pulping reaction to be

complete by the time the materials exit the reactor. Typically delignification requires

several hours at 170 to 176°C (338 to 349°F). Under these conditions lignin and

hemicellulose degrade to give fragments that are soluble in the strongly basic liquid.

The solid pulp (about 50% by weight based on the dry wood chips) is collected and

washed. At this point the pulp is quite brown and is known as brown stock. The

combined liquids, known as black liquor (so called because of its color), contain

lignin fragments, carbohydrates from the breakdown of hemicellulose, sodium

carbonate, sodium sulfate and other inorganic salts (Woodman and Jocelyn 1993).

15

One of the main chemical reactions that underpin the kraft process is the scission of

ether bonds by the nucleophilic sulfide (S2-) or bisulfide (HS-) ions (Sjöström 1993).

Recovery process

The excess black liquor is at about 15% solids and is concentrated in a multiple effect

evaporator. After the first step the black liquor is about 20 - 30% solids. At this

concentration the rosin soap rises to the surface and is skimmed off. The collected

soap is further processed to tall oil. Removal of the soap improves the evaporation

operation of the later effects.

The weak black liquor is further evaporated to 65% or even 80% solids (heavy black

liquor) and burned in the recovery boiler to recover the inorganic chemicals for reuse

in the pulping process. Higher solids in the concentrated black liquor increases the

energy and chemical efficiency of the recovery cycle, but also gives higher viscosity

and precipitation of solids (plugging and fouling of equipment). The combustion is

carried out such that sodium sulfate is reduced to sodium sulfide by the organic

carbon in the mixture:

1. Na2SO4 2S + 2 CO2

This reaction is similar to thermochemical sulfate reduction in geochemistry.

The molten salts ("smelt") from the recovery boiler are dissolved in a process water

known as "weak wash". This process water, also known as "weak white liquor" is

composed of all liquors used to wash lime mud and green liquor precipitates. The

resulting solution of sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide is known as "green liquor",

although it is not known exactly what causes the liquor to be green. This liquid is

mixed with calcium oxide, which becomes calcium hydroxide in solution, to

regenerate the white liquor used in the pulping process through an equilibrium

reaction (Na2S is shown since it is part of the green liquor, but does not participate in

the reaction):

16

2. Na2S + Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 2S + 2 NaOH + CaCO3

Calcium carbonate precipitates from the white liquor and is recovered and heated in a

lime kiln where it is converted to calcium oxide (lime).

3. CaCO3 2

Calcium oxide (lime) is reacted with water to regenerate the calcium hydroxide used

in Reaction 2:

4. CaO + H2 2

The combination of reactions 1 through 4 form a closed cycle with respect to sodium,

sulfur and calcium and is the main concept of the so-called recausticizing process

where sodium carbonate is reacted to regenerate sodium hydroxide.

The recovery boiler also generates high pressure steam which is fed to turbo

generators, reducing the steam pressure for the mill use and generating electricity. A

modern kraft pulp mill is more than self-sufficient in its electrical generation and

normally will provide a net flow of energy which can be used by an associated paper

mill or sold to neighboring industries or communities through to the local electrical

grid. Additionally, bark and wood residues are often burned in a separate power

boiler to generate steam (Jeffries 1997).

Blowing

The finished cooked wood chips are blown by reducing the pressure to atmospheric

pressure. This releases a lot of steam and volatiles. The steam produced can then be

used to heat the pulp mill and any excess used in district heating schemes or to drive

a steam turbine to generate electrical power. The volatiles are condensed and

collected; in the case of northern softwoods this consists mainly of raw turpentine

(Jeffries 1997).

17

Screening

Screening of the pulp after pulping is a process whereby the pulp is separated from

large shives, knots, dirt and other debris. The accept is the pulp. The material

separated from the pulp is called reject (Jeffries 1997).

The screening section consists of different types of sieves (screens) and centrifugal

cleaning. The sieves are normally set up in a multistage cascade operation because

considerable amounts of good fibres can go to the reject stream when trying to

achieve maximum purity in the accept flow (Jeffries 1997).

The fiber containing shives and knots are separated from the rest of the reject and

reprocessed either in a refiner and/or is sent back to the digester. The content of knots

is typically 0.5 - 3.0% of the digester output, while the shives content is about 0.1-

1.0% (Jeffries 1997).

Washing

The brown stock from the blowing goes to the washing stages where the used

cooking liquors are separated from the cellulose fibers. Normally a pulp mill has 3-5

washing stages in series. Washing stages are also placed after oxygen delignification

and between the bleaching stages as well. Pulp washers use counter current flow

between the stages such that the pulp moves in the opposite direction to the flow of

washing waters. Several processes are involved: thickening / dilution, displacement

and diffusion. The dilution factor is the measure of the amount of water used in

washing compared with the theoretical amount required to displace the liquor from

the thickened pulp. Lower dilution factor reduces energy consumption, while higher

dilution factor normally gives cleaner pulp. Thorough washing of the pulp reduces

the chemical oxygen demand (COD).

Several types of washing equipment are in use:

Pressure diffusers

18

Atmospheric diffusers

Vacuum drum washers

Drum displacers

Wash presses (Jeffries 1997).

Bleaching

In a modern mill, brownstock (cellulose fibers containing approximately 5% residual

lignin) produced by the pulping is first washed to remove some of the dissolved

organic material and then further delignified by a variety of bleaching stages (Jeffries

1997).

In the case of a plant designed to produce pulp to make brown sack paper or

linerboard for boxes and packaging, the pulp does not always need to be bleached to

a high brightness. Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced by about 5%,

decreases the strength of the fibers and adds to the cost of manufacture (Jeffries

1997).

Process chemicals

Process chemicals are added to improve the production process:

Impregnation aids. Surfactants may be used to improve impregnation of the wood

chips with the cooking liquors.

Anthraquinone is used as a digester additive. It works as a redox catalyst by

oxidizing cellulose and reducing lignin. This protects the cellulose from

degradation and makes the lignin more water soluble.[11]

An emulsion breaker can be added in the soap separation to speed up and improve

the separation of soap from the used cooking liquors by flocculation.

Defoamers remove foam and speed up the production process. Drainage of

washing equipment is improved and gives cleaner pulp.

19

Dispersing agents, detackifiers and complexing agents are keeping the system

cleaner and reduce the need for maintenance stops.

Fixation agents are fixating finely dispersed potential deposits to the fibers and

thereby transporting it out of the process (Goyal 1997).

2.2.4.1.3 By products and emissions

The main byproducts of kraft pulping are crude sulfate turpentine and tall oil soap.

The availability of these is strongly dependent on wood species, growth conditions,

storage time of logs and chips, and the mill's process. Pines are the most extractive

rich woods. The raw turpentine is volatile and is distilled of the digester, while the

raw soap is separated from the spent black liquor by decantation of the soap layer

formed on top of the liquor storage tanks. From pines the average yield of turpentine

is 5 10 kg/t pulp and of crude tall oil is 30 50 kg/t pulp (Stenius 2000).

Various byproducts containing hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide,

dimethyl disulfide, and other volatile sulfur compounds are the cause of the

malodorous air emissions characteristic for pulp mills utilizing the kraft process.

Outside the modern mills the odour is perceivable only during disturbance situations,

for example when shutting the mill down for maintenance break. This is due to

practiced collection and burning of these odorous gases in the recovery boiler along

with black liquor. The sulfur dioxide emissions of the kraft pulp mills are much lower

than sulfur dioxide emissions from sulfite mills. In modern mills where high dry

solids are burned in the recovery boiler hardly any sulfur dioxide leaves the boiler.

This is mainly due to higher lower furnace temperature which leads to higher sodium

release from the black liquor droplets that can react with sulfur dioxide forming

sodium sulfate (Stenius 2000).

Pulp mills are almost always located near large bodies of water due to their former

substantial demands. Delignification of chemical pulps released considerable

amounts of organic material into the environment, particularly into rivers or lakes.

20

The wastewater effluent can also be a major source of pollution, containing lignins

from the trees, high biological oxygen demand (BOD) and dissolved organic carbon

(DOC), along with alcohols, chlorates, heavy metals, and chelating agents. Reducing

the environmental impact of this effluent is accomplished by closing the loop and

recycling the effluent where possible, as well as employing less damaging agents in

the pulping and bleaching processes. The process effluents are treated in a biological

effluent treatment plant, which guarantees that the effluents are not toxic in the

recipient (Stenius 2000).

2.2.4.1.4 Comparison with other pulping processes

Pulp produced by the kraft process is stronger than that made by other pulping

processes and maintaining a high effective sulfur ratio or sulfidity is important for the

highest possible strength. Acidic sulfite processes degrade cellulose more than the

kraft process, which leads to weaker fibers. Kraft pulping removes most of the lignin

present originally in the wood whereas mechanical pulping processes leave most of

the lignin in the fibers. The hydrophobic nature of lignin interferes with the formation

of the hydrogen bonds between cellulose and hemicellulose in the fibers needed for

the strength of paper.

Kraft pulp is darker than other wood pulps, but it can be bleached to make very white

pulp. Fully bleached kraft pulp is used to make high quality paper where strength,

whiteness and resistance to yellowing are important.

The kraft process can use a wider range of fiber sources than most other pulping

processes. All types of wood, including very resinous types like southern pine and

non-wood species like bamboo and kenaf can be used in the kraft process (Hubbe and

Lucian 2007).

21

2.3 Some information of Coconut plant

2.3.1 General Description

2.3.1.1Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Class: Monocots

Order: Arecales

Suborder: Commelinids

Family: Arecaceae

Subfamily: Arecoideae

Tribe: Cocoeae

Genus: Cocos

Species: C. nucifera (Anon 2013)

2.3.1.2 Etymology

One of the earliest mentions of the coconut dates back to the One Thousand and One

Nights story of Sinbad the Sailor; he is known to have bought and sold coconuts

during his fifth voyage. Tenga, its Malayalam name, was used in the detailed

description of coconut found in Itinerario by Ludovico di Varthema published in

1510 and also in the later Hortus Indicus Malabaricus.[15] Even earlier, it was called

nux indica, a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, taken from the

earliest description of the coconut palm known, given by Cosmos of Alexandria in

his Topographia Christiana written about 545 AD, there is a reference to the argell

tree and its drupe (Rosengarten 2004)

22

Historical evidence favors the European origin of the name "coconut", for no name is

similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit;

and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Malayalam name tenga,

and Canarese narle, expressly say, "we call these fruits quoquos", "our people have

given it the name of coco", and "that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga"

(Rosengarten 2004,).

The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying

the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco "grinning face, grin, grimace", also

"bugbear, scarecrow", cognate with cocar "to grin, make a grimace"; the name being

said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes.

According to Losada, the name came from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco

da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The coconut shell reminded

them of a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also côca). The first

known recorded usage of the term is 1555 (Losada 2004, Figueiredo 1940).

2.3.1.3 Natural habitat

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers

areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1500 mm to 2500 mm annually),

which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts

also need high humidity (70 80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are

rarely seen in areas with low humidity, like the southeastern Mediterranean or

Andalusia, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or

75.2°F) (Chan and Craig 2006)

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of

cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27 °C (81 °F),

and growth is reduced below 21 °C (70 °F). Some seasonal variation is tolerated,

with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C

(82 and 99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4 12 °C (39

54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost is usually fatal,

23

°F) (Chan

and Craig 2006)

2.3.1.4 Distribution

The coconut palm is native to coastal areas (the littoral zone) of Southeast Asia

(Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines) and Melanesia, and has wide pantropical

distribution, much of which is possibly anthropogenic (Harries 1990, 1992).

2.3.1.5 Climate

It is a ubiquitous sight in all the tropical and subtropical regions occurring 23° north

and south of the equator and thrives in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 1500

2500 mm and mean annual temperature 21 30°C (Chan and Elevitch 2006).

2.3.1.6 Size

It attains a height of 20 to 22 m (66 to 72 ft) at the age of 40 years. Again, 80 year old

tree attains a height of 35 to 40 m (115 to 130 ft). The canopy of diameter is 8 to 9 m

(26 to 30 ft) (Chan and Elevitch 2006).

2.3.1.7 Form

The fronds are evenly distributed in all directions from the growing trip. The weight

of nuts may push down on the horizontal fronds for heavily bearing palms and it

causes X shaped canopy (Chan and Elevitch 2006).

2.3.1.8 Leaves

Leaves are called fronds and these are 4.5 to 5.5 m (15 to 18 ft) in length, with the

petiole making up a quarter of its length. Leaflets are 0.15 to 0.50 m wide and 5 to 15

m long. The petiole provides firm attachment for the fronds to the stem due to the

presence of expand base of the petiole. The petiole and rachis may be green or

bronze. Tall trees produce 12 to 18 leaves and dwarf trees produce 20 to 22 leaves in

a year (Chan and Elevitch 2006).

24

2.3.1.9 Flower

The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence; thus,

the palm is monoecious (Thampan 1981). Other sources use the term

polygamomonoecious (Willmer 2011). The female flower is much larger than the

male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be

largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating (Anon

2013).

2.3.1.10 Fruit

Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut (Anon 2013). Like other fruits,

it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp

make up the "husk" of the coconut. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical

countries often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is

composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses.

The shell has three germination pores (stoma) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its

outside surface once the husk is removed (Chan and Elevitch 2006). A full-sized

coconut weighs about 1.44 kg (3.2 lb) (Bourke 2009).

2.3.2 Harvesting

In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are

used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in

southern Thailand, and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan (Bertrand 1967).

2.3.3 Uses

2.3.3.1 Coconut water

Coconut water serves as a suspension for the endosperm of the coconut during its

nuclear phase of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the

coconut rind during the cellular phase. Coconut water contains sugar, dietary fiber,

proteins, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, and provides an isotonic electrolyte

25

balance. It is consumed as a refreshing drink throughout the humid tropics, and is

gaining popularity as a sport drink. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than

young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented to

produce coconut vinegar (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.2 Coconut milk

Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained primarily by

extracting juice by pressing the grated coconut's white kernel or by passing hot water

or milk through grated coconut, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. It

has a fat content around 17%. When refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will

rise to the top and separate from the milk. The milk can be used to produce virgin

coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil fraction (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.3 Coconut oil

Another byproduct of the coconut is coconut oil. It is commonly used in cooking,

especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other vegetable oils, or in

solid form as would butter or lard (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.4 Culinary use

The various parts of the coconut have a number of culinary uses. The seed provides

oil for frying, cooking, and making margarine. The white, fleshy part of the seed, the

coconut meat, is used fresh or dried in cooking, especially in confections and desserts

such as macaroons. Desiccated coconut or coconut milk made from it is frequently

added to curries and other savory dishes. Coconut flour has also been developed for

use in baking, to combat malnutrition. Coconut chips have been sold in the tourist

regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean. Coconut butter is often used to describe

solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as a name by certain specialty

products made of coconut milk solids or puréed coconut meat and oil. Dried coconut

is also used as the filling for many chocolate bars (Anon 2013).

26

2.3.3.5 Medicinal uses

Coconuts may help benign prostatic hyperplasia (de Lourdes et al. 2007). In rats,

virgin coconut oil reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, LDL, and

VLDL cholesterol levels and increased HDL cholesterol in serum and tissues (Nevin

and Rajamohan 2004). The hexane fraction of coconut peel may contain novel

anticancer compounds (Khonkarn 2010). Young coconut juice has estrogen-like

characteristics (Radenahmad et al. 2009). Inside a coconut is a cavity filled with

coconut water, which is sterile until opened. It mixes easily with blood, and was used

during World War II in emergency transfusions. It can also serve as an emergency

short-term intravenous hydration fluid (Campbell-Falck 2000). This is possible

because the coconut water has a high level of sugar and other salts that makes it

possible to be used in the bloodstream, much like the modern lactated Ringer solution

or a dextrose/water solution as an intravenous solution (IV). Coconut is also

commonly used as a traditional remedy in Pakistan to treat bites from rats. In Brazil,

coconut is known as coco-da-bahia, coco-da-baía or coqueiro-da-índia. The tea from

the husk fiber is widely used to treat several inflammatory disorders (Rinaldi 2009).

2.3.3.6 Toddy and nectar

The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera,

also known as toddy or tuba (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe

(fresh and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in Kiribati.

When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to

produce arrack. In the Philippines, this alcoholic drink is called lambanog or

"coconut vodka" (Porter 2005)

The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as te

kamamai in Kiribati or dhiyaa hakuru and addu bondi in the Maldives. It can be

reduced further to yield coconut sugar also referred to as palm sugar or jaggery. A

young, well-maintained tree can produce around 300 liters (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) of

27

toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around 400 liters (88 imp gal;

110 US gal) (Grimwood 1975).

2.3.3.7 Use in beauty products

Coconuts are used in the beauty industry in moisturizers and body butters because

coconut oil, due to its chemical structure, is readily absorbed by the skin. The

coconut shell may also be ground down and added to products for exfoliation of dead

skin. Coconut is also a source of lauric acid, which can be processed in a particular

way to produce sodium lauryl sulfate, a detergent used in shower gels and shampoos.

The nature of lauric acid as a fatty acid makes it particularly effective for creating

detergents and surfactants (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.8 Copra

Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces coconut oil and

coconut meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in cooking as an ingredient and for

frying, is used in soaps, cosmetics, hair-oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a

main ingredient in Ayurvedic oils. In Vanuatu coconut palms for copra production

are generally spaced 9 meters apart, allowing a tree density of 100 160 trees per

hectares (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.9 Trunk

Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges and huts; they are preferred for

their straightness, strength, and salt resistance. In Kerala, coconut trunks are used for

house construction. Coconut timber comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being

used as an ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has

applications in furniture and specialized construction, as notably demonstrated in

Manila's Coconut Palace (Anon 2013).

Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The

"branches" (leaf petioles) are strong and flexible enough to make a switch. The use of

28

coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community

on Choiseul in the Solomon Islands in 2005 (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.10 Husks and shells

The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of charcoal. Activated

carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered superior to those obtained

from other sources, mainly because of small macropores structure which renders it

more effective for the absorption of gas and vapor and for the removal of color,

oxidants, impurities, and odor of compounds (Anon 2013).

A dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is known as a bunot

in the Philippines and simply a "coconut brush" in Jamaica. The fresh husk of a

brown coconut may serve as a dish sponge or body sponge. Tempurung as the shell is

called in the Malay language can be used as a soup bowl and if fixed with a

handle a ladle. In India, coconut shells are also used as bowls and in the

manufacture of various handicrafts, including buttons carved from dried shell.

Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian aloha shirts. In Thailand, the coconut

husk is used as a potting medium to produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process

of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built

coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre

(ACFTSC) in 1986. Fresh husk contains more tannin than old husks. Tannin

produces negative effects on sapling growth (Somyos 1991). In parts of South India,

the shell and husk are burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes (Anon 2013).

Half coconut shells are used in theatre Foley sound effects work, banged together to

create the sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats. Dried half shells are used as the bodies

of musical instruments, including the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with the

Vietnamese and Arabo-Turkic rebab. In the Philippines, dried half shells are

also used as a music instrument in a folk dance called maglalatik (Anon 2013).

29

In World War II, coastwatcher scout Biuki Gasa was the first of two from the

Solomon Islands to reach the shipwrecked and wounded crew of Motor Torpedo Boat

PT-109 commanded by future U.S. president John F. Kennedy. Gasa suggested, for

lack of paper, delivering by dugout canoe a message inscribed on a husked coconut

shell. This coconut was later kept on the president's desk, and is now in the John F.

Kennedy Library (Anon 2013).

2.3.3.11 Overview of uses

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its

many culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be

used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts'

versatility is sometimes noted in its naming. In Sanskrit, it is kalpa vriksha ("the tree

which provides all the necessities of life"). In the Malay language, it is pokok seribu

guna ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly

called the "tree of life" (Anon 2013).

2.3.4 Role in culture and religion

In the Ilocos region of northern Philippines, the Ilocano people fill two halved

coconut shells with diket (cooked sweet rice), and place liningta nga itlog (halved

boiled egg) on top of it. This ritual, known as niniyogan, is an offering made to the

deceased and one's ancestors. This accompanies the palagip (prayer to the dead)

(Anon 2013).

A coconut (Sanskrit: narikela) is an essential element of rituals in Hindu tradition.

Often it is decorated with bright metal foils and other symbols of auspiciousness. It is

offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess. Irrespective of their religious

affiliations, fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers and seas in the hopes of

having bountiful catches. Hindus often initiate the beginning of any new activity by

breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods and successful completion of

the activity. The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, Lakshmi, is often shown

30

holding a coconut. In the foothills of the temple town of Palani, before going to

worship Murugan for the Ganesha, coconuts are broken at a place marked for the

purpose. Every day, thousands of coconuts are broken, and some devotees break as

many as 108 coconuts at a time as per the prayer. In tantric practices, coconuts are

sometimes used as substitutes for human skulls (Anon 2013).

In Hindu wedding ceremonies, a coconut is placed over the opening of a pot,

representing a womb. Coconut flowers are auspicious symbols and are fixtures at

Hindu and Buddhist weddings and other important occasions. In Kerala, coconut

flowers must be present during a marriage ceremony. The flowers are inserted into a

barrel of unhusked rice (paddy) and placed within sight of the wedding ceremony.

Similarly in Sri Lanka, coconut flowers, standing in brass urns, are placed in

prominent positions (Anon 2013).

The Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club of New Orleans traditionally throws hand-

decorated coconuts, the most valuable of Mardi Gras souvenirs, to parade revelers.

The "Tramps" began the tradition circa 1901. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by

Gov. Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed"

from a Zulu float (Anon 2013).

The coconut is also used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground

game "coconut shy". The player buys some small balls which he throws as hard as he

can at coconuts balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and

win it (Anon 2013).

It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese religion

in Ben Tre (Anon 2013).

31

2.3.5 Coconut in some countries

India

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu,

Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal

and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. Four southern states

combined account for almost 92% of the total production in the country: Kerala

(45.22%), Tamil Nadu (26.56%), Karnataka (10.85%), and Andhra Pradesh (8.93%).

Other states, such as Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the

northeast (Tripura and Assam) account for the remaining 8.44%. Kerala, which has

the largest number of coconut trees, is famous for its coconut-based products

coconut water, copra, coconut oil, coconut cake (also called coconut meal, copra

cake, or copra meal), coconut toddy, coconut shell-based products, coconut wood-

based products, coconut leaves, and coir pith.

Various terms, such as copra and coir, are derived from the native Malayalam

language. In Kerala, the coconut tree is called "Thengu" also termed as kalpa

vriksham, which essentially means all parts of a coconut tree is useful some way or

other (Anon 2013).

Maldives

The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the most important

plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's national emblem

or coat of arms. Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern

construction methods were introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material

for many houses in the islands, while coconut timber was used to build houses and

boats (Anon 2013).

32

Middle East

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman,

but they can be grown all along the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea and Red Sea coasts,

because these seas are tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater

evaporation) for coconut trees to grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed

and irrigated with drip pipes until they are old enough (stem bulb development) to be

irrigated with brackish water or seawater alone, after which they can be replanted on

the beaches. In particular, the area around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations

similar to those found across the Arabian Sea in Kerala. The reasons why coconut are

cultivated only in Yemen's Al Mahrah and Hadramaut governorates and in the

Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable areas in the Arabian Peninsula, may

originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had long dhow trade relations with

Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa and Zanzibar, as well as southern India and

China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch together

their traditional high seas-going dhow vessels in which nails were never used. The

'know how' of coconut cultivation and necessary soil fixation and irrigation may have

found its way into Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned

from those overseas areas.

The coconut cultivars grown in Oman are generally of the drought-resistant Indian

"West Coast tall" (WC Tall) variety. Unlike the UAE, which grows mostly non-

native dwarf or hybrid coconut cultivars imported from Florida for ornamental

purposes, the slender, tall Omani coconut cultivars are relatively well-adapted to the

Middle East's hot dry seasons, but need longer to reach maturity. The Middle East's

hot, dry climate favors the development of coconut mites, which cause immature seed

dropping and may cause brownish-gray discoloration on the coconut's outer green

fiber.

The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan

traveller Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla. The annual rainy season is

33

known locally as Khareef . Monsoon makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian

east coast.

Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of

the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however,

imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the

spread of pests to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees

poses a risk of cross-species palm pests, such as rhinoceros beetles and red palm

weevils. The artificial landscaping adopted in Florida may have been the cause for

lethal yellowing, a viral coconut palm disease that leads to the death of the tree. It is

spread by host insects that thrive on heavy turf grasses. Therefore, heavy turf grass

environments (beach resorts and golf courses) also pose a major threat to local

coconut trees. Traditionally, dessert banana plants and local wild beach flora such as

Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as humidity-supplying green

undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with sea almond and sea hibiscus. Due to

growing sedentary life styles and heavy-handed landscaping, there has been a decline

in these traditional farming and soil-fixing techniques (Halsall 2001, Kaakeh et al.

2001).

Sri Lanka

An early mention of the planting of coconuts is found in the Mahavamsa during the

reign of Agrabodhi II around 589 AD. Coconuts are common in the Sri Lankan diet

and the main source of dietary fat. Sri Lanka is home to the Coconut Research

Institute of Sri Lanka (Kaunitz 1986).

United States

The only places in the United States where coconut palms can be grown and

reproduced outdoors without irrigation are Hawaii, southern Florida, and the

territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (Anon 2013).

34

Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and St. Petersburg southwards

on Florida's west coast, and Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The

occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favored microclimates in the

Tampa and Clearwater metro areas and around Cape Canaveral, as well as the

Orlando-Kissimmee-Daytona Beach metro area. They may likewise be grown in

favored microclimates in the Rio Grande Valley area of southern Texas near

Brownsville and along the upper northeast coast of by Galveston Island. They may

reach fruiting maturity, but are damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in

these areas. While coconut palms flourish in southern Florida, rare cold snaps can

injure coconut palms there, as well. Only the Florida Keys and the distant southern

Atlantic coastlines provide safe havens from the cold for growing coconut palms on

the mainland (Anon 2013).

Australia

Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some

warmer parts of New South Wales (Anon 2013).

Bermuda

Coconuts can be grown with care in Bermuda, but cooler temperatures in winter

prevent most of them from successfully producing fruit (Anon 2013).

Cooler climates

In cooler climates, a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used

in landscaping. Its fruits are very similar to the coconut, but much smaller. The queen

palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was

later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii

from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and

can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can

35

only be grown in temperatures above 18°C (64°F), but need a daily temperature

above 22°C (72°F) to produce fruit (Anon 2013).

Indonesia

In 2010, Indonesia had produced more coconuts, it is the world's second largest

producer of coconuts. The gross production was 15 million tones (Anon 2013).

Philippines

The Philippines is the world's largest producer of coconuts, the production of

coconuts plays an important role in the economy. Coconuts in the Philippines are

usually used in making main dishes, refreshments and desserts. Coconut juice is also

a popular drink in the country. In the Philippines, particularly Cebu, rice is wrapped

in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage; these packets are called puso.

Coconut milk, known as gata, and grated coconut flakes are used in the preparation of

dishes such as laing, ginataan, bibingka, ube halaya, pitsi-pitsi, palitaw, buko pie and

more. Coconut jam is made by mixing muscovado sugar with coconut milk. Coconut

sport fruits are also harvested. One such variety of coconut is known as macapuno. Its

meat is sweetened, cut into strands and sold in glass jars as coconut strings,

sometimes labeled as "gelatinous mutant coconut". Coconut water can be fermented

to make a different product nata de coco (coconut gel) (Anon 2013).

Vietnam

In Vietnam, coconut is grown mainly in Ben Tre Province, often called the "land of

the coconut". It is used to make coconut candy, caramel, and jelly. Coconut juice and

coconut milk are used, especially in Vietnam's southern style of cooking, including

kho and chè (Anon 2013).

36

2.3.6 Diseases

The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and

moth) species which feed on it, including Batrachedra spp.: B. arenosella, B.

atriloqua (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on C.

nucifera), and B. nuciferae.

Brontispa longissima (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages

seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a quarantine in

Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the pest and protect the

$800 million Philippine coconut industry.

The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis).

This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of

coconut production. The immature seeds are infested by larvae staying in the portion

covered by the perianth of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive

deformed. Spraying with wet able sulfur 0.4% or with neem-based pesticides can

give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor intensive.

In Kerala, the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red

palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar (Anon 2013).

37

3. Materials and Methods

Mid-ribs of coconut leaves were collected from Research Field of Agricultural and

Food Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand. The mid-rib was dried in

sunlight and it was chipped. The chip size was 2.50 cm × 1.25 cm × 0.60 cm.

The extractives, lignin and ash were determined by TAPPI standard T 204 cm-97, T

222 om-11and T 211 om-02 respectively. Modified chlorite method of Wise et al.

(1946) developed by Erickson (1962) was used to estimate the hollocellulose.

In this study, pulp quality was determined in two steps i. e. before beating and after

beating. The active alkali and sulphidity were 15 and 20%; 20 and 25% and 25 and

30%. The pulp was cooked for 90 minutes at 170, 160 and 1500C.

The ratio of chip to water was 1:4 for every type. After cooking, the pulp was washed

and dewatered properly. After homogenizer mixing, the pulp was kept for further

using and it was done for 15 minutes. The homogenized pulp was disintegrated for 15

minutes and it was screened using a vibrator flat screen of 0.80 mm. In the next, the

screened pulp was dewatered and mixed for 15 minutes using homogenizer mixer.

The pulp was stored in the cold storage to use in future for different types of tests.

The yield was determined on the basis of oven dry weight of raw material for both

cooking yield and screened yield. The kappa number was examined following the

standard of ISO:302:204. The pulp was beaten at 3000 revolution according to

SCAN-C24.

The hand sheets of 60 g/m2 of unbeaten and beaten pulp without bleaching were

prepared as per SCAN-C 26. Tensile index and tear index were determined according

to SCAN-P 67 and SCAN-P 11, respectively. The brightness test of pulp was done by

TAPPI T 452 om 87.

38

4. Results and Discussions

Table 1 represents the result of chemical analysis of mid-rib of coconut leaves. The

holocellulose, lignin, extractive and ash (%) were respectively 67.8, 20.0, 2.1 and

6.8%.

Table 1: Chemical analysis of mid-rib of coconut leaves

Holocellulose

(%)

Lignin

(%)

Extractive

(%)

Ash

(%)

67.8 20.0 2.1 6.8

Total experiments were 9 for this study and it was tried to identify the effect of active

alkali and sulphidity (%) at constant temperature (Table 2). Pulp properties were

determined by two steps. In the first step, it was done before beating whether the

effect of beating on pulp properties were examined in the second step.

Table 2: Experimental design of kraft pulping of mid-rib of coconut leaves

No. of

Experiment

Code Pulping Factors

Active

alkali (%)

Sulphidity

(%)

Temperature

(0C)

Time

(Minutes)

1 A1 15 20 170 90

2 A2 20 25 170 90

3 A3 25 30 170 90

4 B1 15 20 160 90

5 B2 20 25 160 90

6 B3 25 30 160 90

47

Table 4: Summaries of T-test (95% level of significant) of different properties of

mid-rib of coconut leaves pulp

Experiment Brightness (%) Tear Index (mN.m2/g) Tensile Index (Nm/g)

A1 Df=10, T=12.93,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-.04,

P>0.05

Df=10, T=-29.74,

P<0.05

A2 Df=10, T=45.66,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-28.82,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-14.64,

P<0.05

A3 Df=10, T=30.94,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-32.51,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-27.09,

P<0.05

B1 Df=10, T=5.91,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-21.24,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-8.24,

P<0.05

B2 Df=10, T=18.74,

P<0.05 e-0.13

Df=10, T=-42.27,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-11.17,

P<0.05

B3 Df=10, T=15.13,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-31.20,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-12.26,

P<0.05

C1 Df=10, T=16.09,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-27.99,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-2.96,

P<0.05

C2 Df=10, T=15.37,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-24.44,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-14.62,

P<0.05

C3 Df=10, T=51.00,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-30.50,

P<0.05

Df=10, T=-16.19,

P<0.05

Suitable experiments depend upon the properties and energy consumption. The

properties of pulp except brightness were increased after beating. The tear index was

the highest for B3. The tensile index, brightness (%) and yield (%) were close to the

highest value. The cooking temperature was 1600C. Therefore, considering all the

factors, B3 will be the suitable for producing pulp from mid-rib of coconut leaves.

48

5. Conclusion

Total experiments were 12 and B3 (active alkali-25%, sulphidity-30%, temperature-

1500C and cooking time-90 minutes) showed suitability to use it for making pulp

based on properties. This will help to reduce the problem of raw material for pulp and

paper industry as introducing a new raw material. Making pulp from mid-rib of

coconut leaves will increase the effective use of mid-rib. Coconut leaves are

produced continuously and it is possible to use as a cheap raw material for pulp and

paper industry. Further study is necessary to determine the effect of time on pulp

properties of mid-rib of coconut leaves.

Acknowledgement

Authors would like to thank Mr. Suchart Junteing, Senior Laboratory Technician and

Mr. Kanong Malaithong, Laboratory Technician for completing the work smoothly.

49

Reference

Anon(2013)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut

Bertrand M (1967) Training without Reward: Traditional Training of Pig-tailed

Macaques as Coconut Harvesters. Science 155 (3761): 484 486.

Biermann CJ (1993) Essential of Pulping and Papermaking. San Diego, Academic

Press, 32-50, 55-97, 123-134, 165-186, 283-294pp.

Bourke R, Michael, Tracy H (2009) Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea.

Australian National University. p. 327. ISBN 978-1-921536-60-1.

Campbell-Falck D, Thomas T, Falck TM, Tutuo N, Clem K (2000) The intravenous

use of coconut water. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 18(1):108-11.

Chan E, Elevitch CR (2006) Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry,

www.traditional tree.org.

Chan E, Craig RE (2006) Cocos nucifera (coconut) (version 2.1). In C.R. Elevitch

(Ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry

Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR).

Cowan WF (1995) Explaining handsheet tensile and tear in terms of fiber-quality

numbers. TAPPI Journal, Vol. 78. No. 1.

de Lourdes AM, Molina V, Más R, Carbajal D, Marrero D, González V, Rodríguez E

(2007) "Effects of coconut oil on testosterone-induced prostatic hyperplasia in

Sprague-Dawley rats". Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 59 (7): 995 999.

Desch HE, Dinwoodie JM (1996) Timber Structure, Properties, Conversion and Use.

7th edition, Macmillan press Limited, London. 216p.

Erickson HD (1962) Some aspects of method in determining cellulose in wood.

TAPPI 45: 710-719.

FAO (2010) Economic And Social Department. Statistics Division. FAOSTAT

Production Crops [Selected annual data]. Retrieved April 14, 2011 from the

FAOSTAT Database.

Figueiredo C (1940) Pequeno Dicionário da Lingua Portuguesa. Livraria Bertrand.

Lisboa.

50

Goyal GC (1997) Anthraquinone Pulping. A TAPPI Press Anthology of Published

Papers, 1977-1996. Atlanta: TAPPI Press. ISBN 0-89852-340-0.

Grimwood BE (1975) Coconut palm products. Their processing in developing

countries. FAO agriculture development paper No. 99 pp189-192.

Halsall P (2001) "Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa

1325 1354". Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies.

Harries HC (1990) Malesian origin for a domestic Cocos nucifera;in The plant

diversity of Malesia (eds) P Baas, K Kalman and R Geesink. Proceedings of the

Flora Malesiana Symposium com-memorating Professor CGGJ van Steenis

(Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers) pp 351 357.

Harries HC (1992) Biogeography of the coconut Cocos nucifera L. Principes 36 155

162.

Hubbe M, Lucian AL (2007) "The "Love-Hate" Relationship Present in

Lignocellulosic Materials". BioResources 2 (4): 534 535.

Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) (2001), Reference document on

best available techniques in the pulp and paper industry. European Commission.

Jeffries T (1997) "Kraft pulping: Energy consumption and production". University of

Wisconsin Biotech Center.

Kaakeh W, Fouad E, Mahmoud MAN, Ahmed AK (2001) "Management of the red

palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv., by a pheromone/food-based

trapping system" (PDF).

Kaldor AF (1992) Kenaf, an alternate fiber for the pulp and paper industries in

developing and developed countries, TAPPI, 75 (10), 141.

Kaunitz H (1986) "Medium chain triglycerides (MCT) in aging and arteriosclerosis".

Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology : official organ

of the International Society for Environmental Toxicology and Cancer 6 (3 4):

115 121

Khonkarn R, Okonogi S, Ampasavate C, Anuchapreeda S (2010) Investigation of

fruit peel extracts as sources for compounds with antioxidant and antiproliferative

51

activities against human cell lines. Food & Chemical Toxicology. 48(8-9):2122-

9.

Losada FD (2004) La tribuna del idioma. Editorial Tecnologica de CR. p. 481. ISBN

978-9977-66-161-2.

MacLeod M (2007) Paperi ja Puu Paper and Timber Vol.89/No. 4.

Nevin KG, Rajamohan T (2004) Beneficial effects of virgin coconut oil on lipid

parameters and in vitro LDL oxidation. Clinical Biochemistry. 37(9):830-5.

Nieschlag H J, Nelson G H, Wolff J A and Perdue R E (1960) A search for new fiber

crops, TAPPI, 43 (3), 193.

Porter JV (2005) "Lambanog: A Philippine Drink". Washington D.C.: American

University.

Pradeepkumar T, Sumajyothibhaskar B, Satheesan KN (2008) Management of

Horticultural Crops (Horticulture Science Series Vol.11, 2nd of 2 Parts). New

India Publishing. pp. 539 587. ISBN 978-81-89422-49-3.

Radenahmad N, Saleh F, Sawangjaroen K, Rundorn W, Withyachumnarnkul B,

Connor JR (2009) Young coconut juice significantly reduces histopathological

changes in the brain that are induced by hormonal imbalance: a possible

implication to postmenopausal women. Histology & Histopathology. 24(6):667-

74.

Rinaldi S, Silva DO, Bello F, Alviano CS, Alviano DS, Matheus ME, Fernandes PD

(2009) Characterization of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities

from Cocos nucifera L. (Palmae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 122 3: 541-6.

Rosengarten FJ (2004) The Book of Edible Nuts. Dover Publications. pp. 65 93.

ISBN 978-0-486-43499-5.

Rosli WDW, Mazlan I, Law N (2009) Effects of Kraft Pulping Variables on Pulp and

Properties of Acacia mangium Kraft Pulp Cellulose Chem. Technol., 43 (1-3), 9-

15

Rowell, Roger M, Young, Raymond A, Rowell Judith K (1997) Paper and

Composites from Agro-Based Resources, CRC Press, Inc., 2000 Corporate Blvd.,

N. W., Boca Raton, Florida 33431, p.138-141.

52

Sixta H (2006) "Preface". Handbook of Pulp 1. Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co KGaA.

pp. XXIII. ISBN 3-527-30999-3.

Sjöström E (1993) Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic

Press. ISBN 0-12-647480-X.

Somyos K (1991) "Handbook: Coconut husk as a potting medium". ASEAN-Canada

Forest Tree Seed Centre Project 1991, Muak-Lek, Saraburi, Thailand. ISBN 974-

361-277-1.

Stenius AoS (1961) Svensk Papperstidn., 64 (1), 20

Stenius P (2000) Forest Products Chemistry. Papermaking Science and Technology

3. Helsinki, Finland: Fapet OY. pp. 73 76. ISBN 952-5216-03-9.

Thampan PK (1981) Handbook on Coconut Palm. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

Woodman, Jocelyn (1993) "Pollution Prevention Technologies for the Bleached

Kraft Segment of the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry. U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency.

Willmer P (2011) Pollination and Floral Ecology. Princeton University Press. p. 57.

ISBN 978-0-691-12861-0.

bearing on summative wood analysis and on studies on the hemicelluloses. Paper

Trad. J., 122: 35-43.

Buy your books fast and straightforward online - at one of world’s

fastest growing online book stores! Environmentally sound due to

Print-on-Demand technologies.

Buy your books online at

www.get-morebooks.com

Kaufen Sie Ihre Bücher schnell und unkompliziert online – auf einer

der am schnellsten wachsenden Buchhandelsplattformen weltweit!

Dank Print-On-Demand umwelt- und ressourcenschonend produzi-

ert.

Bücher schneller online kaufen

www.morebooks.deVDM Verlagsservicegesellschaft mbH

Heinrich-Böcking-Str. 6-8 Telefon: +49 681 3720 174 info@vdm-vsg.deD - 66121 Saarbrücken Telefax: +49 681 3720 1749 www.vdm-vsg.de