eco-development in orissa protected areas - a participatory approach

62 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

Eco-development in Orissa’s protected areas: a participatory approach to conserving forest biodiversity and alleviating poverty piloted in Satkosia

Michael J.B. Green 1*, Manoj Misra 1, Arun K. Bansal 2and R. Raghu Prasad 3

Abstract. Orissa State in East India has a wealth of natural forests that range from coastal mangroves in the Bay of Bengal to dry and moist types of tropical deciduous forests in the Eastern Ghats. Approximately 37% of the State is classified as forest, including a well-planned network of protected areas (PAs) that comprises 2 national parks and 18 sanctuaries. Much of the remaining forest is under huge pressure from forest fires, livestock grazing, slash-and-burn agriculture, wildlife poaching, and illegal or unregulated collection of fuel wood, timber and other forest products.

Major initiatives are underway in Orissa to conserve its natural forest biodiversity. The Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project (OFSDP), beginning in 2006, started to focus on providing inclusive support to local communities living within and around PAs by promoting and enhancing alternative livelihoods through community participation to reduce dependence on forest resources. The participatory processes that were piloted and upscaled in Satkosia Tiger Reserve have helped park managers and policy makers, for the first time in Orissa, to understand and value ‘Village Eco-development’ as an essential tool in PA management. The experience and lessons learnt have been formulated into guidelines and field manuals for use throughout the State’s network of PAs, paving the way for meaningful participatory eco-development.

This paper describes the participatory process and mechanisms evolved and upscaled to engage with local communities in eco-development partnerships; defines the principles and mechanisms that underpin such partnerships; and demonstrates how management interventions can be effectively and equitably prioritised towards those members of a community most dependent on forest resources in order to maximise biodiversity conservation. Lessons learned include the importance of developing a shared vision at the outset, joint government-community collaboration in building capacities, independent expert facilitation and long-term nurturing of participatory processes, provision of well-defined livelihood enhancement opportunities and experiential learning among all stakeholders.

* Corresponding author [email protected] Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project, Office of The General Consultants, M-76 Madhusan Nagar, Bhubaneshwar 751001, Orissa, India

2 Principal Chief Conservator of Forests & Project Director, Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project, SFTRI Campus, At/P.O. Ghatikia, Bhubaneshwar 751003, Orissa, India3 DFO Satkosia Wild Life Division, Angul 759143, Orissa, India

IntroductIonSituated in the Eastern Coast of India, Orissa has a wealth of natural forests ranging from mangroves in the Bay of Bengal to dry and moist tropical deciduous forests in the Eastern Ghats. Approximately 37% of the State’s area is classified as forest, much of which is under tremendous anthropogenic pressure, even within its Protected Area (PA) network that comprises two national parks and 18 sanctuaries. Major initiatives are underway in Orissa to conserve its forest biodiversity. Beginning in 2006, the seven-year Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project (OFSDP) focused on reducing the dependence of local communities on forests through participatory approaches to forest management and promoting alternative livelihoods. Village eco-development is a key strategic component of the Project that is being implemented in and around the four sanctuaries (Kotagarh, Kuldiha, Lakhari Valley, and Satkosia Tiger Reserve). It aims to enhance livelihoods of forest dependent communities, through initiatives such as community-based ecotourism, and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. The participatory processes that were piloted in Satkosia Tiger Reserve have demonstrated to park managers and policy makers, for the first time in Orissa, the relevance of ‘village eco-development’ to effective PA management.This paper describes the experiential (learning by doing) processes and mechanisms evolved and upscaled in Orissa to engage forest communities in planning for the sustainable use of resources within village lands, while protecting biodiversity in the adjacent or surrounding PA. Principles and mechanisms for prioritising the livelihood needs

of those most dependent on forest resources are defined, along with the processes necessary to forge robust and effective partnerships between the PA authority and village communities. Lessons learned are highlighted to inform the application of this emerging model to other PAs, both in Orissa and elsewhere.

threAts to bIodIversIty In orIssA’s PAsBefore embarking on community level participation, an initial assessment of key threats to biodiversity was undertaken in four sanctuaries within the Project area (Panwar et al. 2009). This shows that a major part of the PAs are impacted by forest fires, unregulated collection of timber, fuel wood, and non-wood forest products (NWFPs), livestock grazing, shifting cultivation and poaching (Table 1). Two overriding inferences from this rapid assessment are:

• Biodiversity in Orissa’s PAs is under huge threat from a plethora of largely inter-related pressures that are likely to continue to increase because current levels of resource use and disturbance are unsustainable.

• These threats are not appropriately addressed in current PA management plans.

This exercise convinced the Forest Department of the urgent need to engage local communities in eco-development through participatory, consensus-building approaches that would enable them to improve their livelihoods in ways that reduce their dependencies on forests. Importantly, in the longer term, the integration of biodiversity conservation requirements with the livelihood needs of village communities within these PAs will help to pave the way for sustainable coexistence of people and wildlife in and around protected areas.

eco-develoPment In the IndIAn contextThe term eco-development is used to describe an integrated, sustainable approach to environment and development. It has been defined as:

“. . . development at regional and local levels, consistent with

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KEY THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Kotagarh Kuldiha LakhariValle2y Satkosia Gorge

Forest fires

Podu (slash-and-burn agriculture)

Livestock grazing

Unregulated collection natural resources

Unregulated collection fuel wood

Illegal timber collection

Wildlife poaching

Water-stress for wildlife in dry season

Human-wildlife conflicts

KEY TO SCALE OF IMPACT: Extensive,

major impact

Some areas, moderate

impact

Few areas,

minor impact

Absent,

no impact

Table 1. Key threats to biodiversity in a selection of Orissa’s PAs identified from field visits and a workshop with the PA managers in May 2008.

the potentials of the area involved, with attention given to the adequate and rational use of natural resources, technological styles and organizational forms that respect the natural ecosystems and local social and cultural patterns.” (United Nations 1997)

In an Indian context, eco-development as a strategy recognises traditional dependencies of people on forests for domestic use as well as supplementing livelihoods. It seeks to rationalise the demands of communities by promoting efficient use of resources and alternative livelihoods. In essence, eco-development aims to strengthen nature conservation through participatory processes that empower local people to take responsibility for their socio-economic well-being in ways that do not reduce the biodiversity capital maintained within PAs (Sharma et al. 2004).

legAl And PolIcy frAmeworkThe National Forest Policy, 1988 provides the basis for involving local people in forest conservation and development. The Government of Orissa, through its Joint Forest Management (JFM) Resolution (2008), has adopted eco-development as a strategy for securing support from local communities in PA management. Eco-development activities provide a strong linkage between conservation and development; and they may include ecotourism and off-farm activities, as well as providing specific alternatives to local biomass dependence.

This policy provides for the institution of Eco-development Committees (EDCs) in villages located within and adjacent to PAs along the lines of Vana Samrakshyana Samitis (VSSs or Forest Protection Committees) for forest areas. However, there is a fundamental difference between VSSs and EDCs. VSS members may benefit from usufructs (the right to use and derive profit or benefit from property that belongs to another party - in this case the state - as long as the property is not damaged)., including fuel wood, fodder, bamboo, and a share in the timber produced from forests ‘assigned’ to the community, in return for forest protection and management duties. Such opportunities do not exist for EDC members since usufructs, except regulated grazing, are prohibited under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Eco-development initiatives must be consistent with this policy.

PIlotIng eco-develoPmentIn sAtkosIA tIger reservePrevious micro-planning exercises carried out in Orissa’s PAs had no community participation. Micro-plans were prepared and implemented

by PA managers but the community at large was neither aware of nor consulted on the various activities initiated in and around their villages. Gradually, during the last decade, managers have become increasingly aware of the need to engage local communities in PA planning and management. However, micro-plans continued to reflect the PA managers’ mindsets and failed to capture the community’s perspectives. Hence, there was a need to develop a truly participatory eco-development process and standardise the use of relevant Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools, thereby capturing the needs of communities and targeting forest dependency at household levels in order to conserve biodiversity.

mIcro-PlAnnIng ProcessEco-development was piloted in the 964 km2 Satkosia Tiger Reserve, of which 524 km2 is designated as core area comprising prime habitat for tigers and the rest is buffer zone having a large number of village enclaves (Figure 1). This pilot has paved the way for standardising the micro-planning process, which is now documented in guidelines (Panwar et al. 2009), and replicating elsewhere in Satkosia and more widely across Orissa’s large network of PAs.

Four clusters, comprising a total of 16 villages, were selected for piloting eco-development in the buffer zone of Satkosia Tiger Reserve (Figure 2), based on the identified priority need to protect the integrity of the core area. The main steps in village-level micro-planning, based on initial trials undertaken in the Purnakote cluster of villages, are summarised in Table 2. Some of these steps are illustrated in Figure 3 and key aspects are considered further below.

Critical to the success of the micro-planning process has been the establishment of a mixed-gender team (nine men and two women) of Forest Extension Officers and Village Forest Workers, trained in facilitation and supported throughout by an independent expert. This team is now very experienced, having facilitated the development of micro-plans for all 16 villages over the last one year.

The principle tools used in micro-planning with respect to PAs are social mapping (Figure 3b), visioning (Figure 3c), forest dependency and wellness ranking (Figure 3d), and household interviews. While some of these are well known PRA tools that have been applied elsewhere in Orissa (e.g. WORLP 2008), forest dependency and wellness rankings were designed specifically to target Project interventions at the most forest dependent and poorest households, respectively. Criteria for ranking these two attributes were developed by Chhotkei villagers during initial trials in Satkosia Tiger Reserve and, thereafter, adopted as part of


Table 2. Summary description of the main steps taken to plan eco-development in villages peripheral to PAs (Source: Panwar et al. 2009).

Micro-planning steps Brief description

Develop a common 1. vision among PA staff

Staff develop a common understanding of the long-term objectives for the PA (Figure 3a) to ensure that these are not obscured by the visions and aspirations of the community during the micro-planning process. A simple framework for developing a PA vision is to:

Identify existing and potential values (natural, cultural, social and other) of the PA.Identify key threats to the PA’s values.Identify how the threats can be addressed or mitigated.Anticipate what can be achieved over the longer term (10 or 20 years) to conserve and enhance the values (i.e. the vision).

How to achieve the vision provides the basis for defining the PA Management Plan objectives and activities, with which village micro-plans can be integrated at grassroots level.

Identify a conceptual 2. model and strategy for eco-development

A generic model for eco-development in and around PAs is deployed as follows:Clusters of villages that encircle core areas are prioritised for eco-development. Activities, such as anti-poaching and anti-fire patrolling, ecotourism and other income-generation activities (IGAs) are identified through the micro-planning process to alleviate pressures on biodiversity in core areas. Reduction of impacts on biodiversity should initially focus on reducing incidences of fire and poaching in core areas. Pressures from livestock will take longer to address, as alternative sources of fodder will first need to be grown within village lands or sourced externally. The effectiveness of eco-development activities in reducing pressures on biodiversity should be monitored via outcomes in core areas, as well as inputs to buffer zones. Baseline surveys and subsequent monitoring of biodiversity through key wildlife indicator species should be undertaken, along with incidences of fire, poaching and other anthropogenic disturbances.Ecotourism is a potentially important ingredient of eco-development, providing alternative sources of income for communities.

Build a facilitation 3. team

The micro-planning process must be facilitated by a team trained in participatory approaches and skilled in facilitation techniques. Members of the team should be available for the entire process to ensure consistency in approach and continuity, for purposes of building and maintaining trust.

Facilitate village 4. micro-planning

Preparation of micro-plans for eco-development comprises the following phases:Phase 1: Establish a rapport with the village community, explaining the purpose of the Project and gaining a preliminary understanding of their values and concerns.Phase 2: Reach out to individual hamlets or components of the community, with focused discussions about basic ‘well-being’ characteristics, such as access to water for drinking and irrigation, medical and educational facilities, electricity, employment opportunities, dependence on forest resources and human-wildlife conflicts. Encourage participants to map their village/hamlet, identifying each household by family name (Figure 3b). Specific household-level information can be collected gradually during subsequent visits. Identify a few natural leaders/interested participants who can be nurtured to support facilitators throughout the process. Phase 3: Establish a vision for the future of the village, using the framework in Step 1, through one or more meetings held with the entire village at a location socially accessible to all, such as a village school or community hall (Figure 3c).Phase 4: Assess relative ‘forest dependency’ and ‘wellness’ of each household in order to prioritise assistance for the most forest-dependent and poorest households in the village, based on the premise that enabling such households to adopt alternative livelihoods will have maximum effect in reducing pressures on biodiversity. This assessment must be undertaken (i) by villagers in (ii) an inclusive, transparent manner (Figure 3d). Phase 5: Collect socio-economic information from households. Such visits also provide an important opportunity to engage individually with all community members and gain a deeper insight into their livelihood concerns and other issues, as well as validate the social map and assessment of forest dependency and wellness. The following information is considered to be sufficient for prioritising households for support:

Basic household information (name, age of household owner)Extent of land holdingsSources of livelihood, skills, migration for livelihood purposesLevel of forest dependency Vulnerability of crops to damage by wildlife Energy needs and sourcesMonetary debtHealth-related issuesMembership of self-help group(s)

Phase 6: Form the EDC and elect the Executive Committee The establishment of the Eco-development Committee (EDC) and election of its Executive Committee must be undertaken in consonance with the JFM Resolution (Government of Orissa 2008). All adult villagers are eligible to be EDC members on payment of a nominal (Rs 1) enrolment fee. The Executive Committee comprises 11 persons elected by members, and 4 ex-officio members (non-voting). At least five elected members must be women, with a woman Chairperson or Vice-Chairperson (Figure 3e). Phase 7: Prepare the micro-plan document The EDC Executive Committee takes ownership of preparing the micro-plan document, with support from the Facilitation Team. The completed micro-plan is a comprehensive plan covering all aspects of the vision for the village. The plan is prepared irrespective of OFSDP budget available to the village; it may include interventions requiring convergence of other external funding sources.

Prioritise activities 5. in micro-plan and allocate resources

A range of eco-development activities are identified and prioritised for funding by the Project. Activities that fall outside the remit of the Project are earmarked for support from other government schemes and programmes

6. Establish mechanisms to sustain eco-development

In order for eco-development to be sustainable, the capacity of EDCs must be enhanced to ensure that social, economic and biodiversity (environmental) interests are met over the long-term through appropriate management regimes and benefit-sharing mechanisms at village and village cluster levels. This is achieved through the identification of reciprocal commitments and eligible benefits, and the establishment of mechanisms to ensure equitable sharing of benefits from IGAs such as eco-tourism.

Coordinate 7. and monitor micro-plan implementation at village cluster level

Coordination at village cluster level is overseen by the Cluster Coordination Committee, comprising the President, Vice President and Member Secretary of each EDC in the cluster, Gram Panchayat Sarpanch, Chairperson (Sarpanch) of the village governing body (Gram Panchayat), and invited members from other government agencies to help capitalise on convergence opportunities. Meetings are held quarterly, with the Range Forest Officer in attendance as the Convenor cum Member Secretary and the Assistant Conservator of Forests as Patron. Micro-plan implementation is coordinated and monitored at village cluster level with respect to the following:

Mitigation of human-wildlife conflict must be addressed in a manner that avoids pressures from wildlife being transferred from the area of intervention to other nearby villages.IGAs identified by all EDCs are reviewed and endorsed at cluster level, ahead of implementation, to maximise synergies from similar or complementary activities and minimise capital expenditures through bulk orders of materials and sharing of contracted expertise.Ecotourism activities are integrated at village cluster level and must conform to the ecotourism strategy planned for the entire PA.Mechanisms and good practices must be established to ensure that benefits from IGAs are shared not only among EDC members but also more widely between villages in the same cluster.Exploring opportunities for funding non-Project activities that are common to a number of villages within a cluster through convergence with other agency programmes.

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Table 3. Criteria for defining categories of forest dependency and wellness

Categories Criteria

Forest dependency

High Graze livestock, collect NWFPs/bamboo (commercially), collect fire wood and thatching materials for own use

Medium Graze livestock, collect fire wood and thatch materials for own use

Low Collect fire wood and thatching materials for own use

Wellness

Very poor Landless; no regular source of income (head male of household deceased); widow; separated woman; orphaned children

Poor Marginal land holder; day-to-day (hand-to-mouth) living.

Manageable Less land; barely enough for the year, with no savings

Well off Enough land; well established; government service or pensioner; running a good business; surplus food and money during the year

the micro-planning process (Table 3). The method is objective and easy to apply in a transparent and accountable manner, requiring only a few hours of animated, iterative discussion to reach consensus in an open forum. The inherent process of triangulation, whereby everybody is able to cross-check each other’s assessment of a household, ensures that the results are reliable (Figure 4).

AllocAtIon of resourcesA range of eco-development activities were identified as appropriate for Project support and levels of resourcing were based on provisions established for VSSs under the JFM policy. Approximately Rs 2.8 million (US $ 60,540) is budgeted per EDC for eight categories of intervention (Table 4) but there is considerable flexibility with respect to funding specific activities. For example, Chhotkei EDC will receive approximately Rs 3.75 million (US $ 81,520) for the construction of an eco-lodge facility comprising five cottages, dining hall, kitchen and services (water and electricity supplies) under the ecotourism category of intervention. Project assistance is much higher for EDCs than for VSSs (Rs 1 million or US $ 21,740). This reflects the additional support provided to EDCs to help communities inside PAs to enhance or develop alternative livelihoods, as opposed to communities outside PAs who are eligible for usufruct rights from surrounding forest areas.

Human-wildlife conflict is a major issue for most villages lying within or peripheral to Satkosia Tiger Reserve and many other PAs in Orissa. Quite apart from risks of injury and fatalities, crop-raiding accounts for sizable losses in livelihood. For example, 27% of farmlands in Chhotkei are regularly raided by elephant and wild boar, with up to 40% of a household’s crops lost, despite farmers being up throughout the night in machans scaring away marauding wildlife.Entry point activities are intended to be a tangible demonstration of the Project’s goodwill towards the village community at the outset of micro-planning. It is essential, therefore, that such activities are identified and prioritised by villagers at the beginning of the participatory planning process to ensure community ownership and benefits reach the majority of households. Common interest activities cover a wide range of priorities, additional to entry point activities, that are of relevance to the entire village but either they require higher levels of investment or fall within the purview of other government agencies, which can be approached to address them.

Income generation activities are targeted at households, based on forest dependence and wellness ranks, that stand most to benefit from them in ways that reduce their livelihood dependence on forests. Women’s Self-Help Groups already exist in most villages. They are eligible for small

loans for IGAs, which can be readily accessed, enabled and monitored by their members.Community-based ecotourism is promoted within an overall PA management strategy in an integrated, coordinated manner within individual clusters of villages. This is discussed further in the next section.

mechAnIsms to sustAIn eco-develoPmentReciprocal commitmentsIn return for support received from the Project, EDC members must reciprocate by way of various commitments to ensure that biodiversity is protected and conserved. These commitments extend to buffer zones and core areas of PAs that may be assigned to the EDC for protection duties to complement the enforcement work of Forest Department staff. They should include the following, for which the Executive Committee has responsibility:• No fire, poaching, illegal felling of timber or encroachment in

village forests or any other forests assigned to the EDC for use (e.g. grazing) or protection.

• No grazing by goats in plantations within village forests or any other assigned forests.

• Provision of intelligence, information and other assistance in the prevention and investigation of offences and offenders.

• 100% immunisation of village livestock (implemented in year one with Project funds and subsequently sustained by the EDC).

• Registration of all fire arms in the village.

Eligible benefitsIn return for successfully protecting forests, EDC members may be granted the following benefits on a quid pro quo basis: • Rotational grazing by cattle in ‘assigned’ forest areas within

sanctuaries (grazing in a sanctuary may be permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden in accordance with provisions under Sections 29 and 33 (d) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972). The rotation cycle may be defined by the EDC, in agreement with the authorities. Effective monitoring procedures should ensure that grazing is sustainable and not jeopardising forest regeneration.

• Rotational collection of fuel wood from village forests. • Regulated collection of NWFPs from village forests, for personal

consumption purposes only.• Regulated collection of bamboo raised in plantations in village forests. ecotourIsmEcotourism is an integral part of eco-development, designed to benefit


Figure 1. Map of Satkosia Tiger Reserve showing boundaries of its Satkosia Gorge and Baisipallai sanctuaries, within which are a large number of villages occupying enclaves of revenue land. Most revenue villages are located in the buffer zone, with the exception of five small villages having a combined total population of 397 persons in the core area (Popli et al., 2008).

Figure 2.. Map of Satkosia Tiger Reserve, showing the four clusters of 16 villages surrounding part of the core area and in which eco-development is being piloted.

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Figure 3. Chronological sequence of various steps and phases of the micro-planning process piloted in Chhotkei Village: 3a (1st row), Workshop with staff to develop a vision for Satkosia Tiger Reserve, in which the first exercise was to justify why it is branded as the Pride of Orissa at the main Pampasar entrance gate. (25 November 2008); 3b (2nd row). Villagers map their hamlet, Gate Sahi, and assign names to household numbers. (26 November 2008); 3c (3rd row), Visioning exercise with Chhotkei villagers in the school grounds (27 November 2008). 3d. Planning meeting with Facilitation Team - ahead of a well-ness ranking exercise with villagers

3A

3B

3C

3D


Table 4. Budget allocations for categories of eco-development intervention and types of activity eligible for Project support.

Interventions Eligible micro-plan activities

Mitigation of human-wildlife conflicts solar-powered fence around villagesanti-depredation squads

Entry point activities

creation/repair of school building, community hall, water harvesting structures, village roadsolar lanterns, street lights and water heatersprovision of cooking/eating utensils for community eventsrepair of religious or cultural featuresprovision of musical instruments for village cultural team

Common interest activity

EDC meeting hall cum officesolar power for entire villagepotable water supply for entire villagehealth clinic or ambulance servicecommunications (wireless, telephone, internet)non-formal adult educationveterinary clinics for livestockrevival of village orchards (e.g. mango)revival of village grazing lands

Income generation activities (Self-Help Groups)

cultivation of vegetables and/or fruit treesfisheries in village or private pondsbee keeping for honey productionpoultrynurseries for flowers, bamboo, medicinal plants, treeshandicraftsshops (for groceries, bicycle repairs, agricultural tools)revolving fund for self-help groups

Plantations fuel wood and fodder trees (native species)

Livelihood improvementsestablishment of health campsprovision of non-formal educationprovision/construction and maintenance of fuel-efficient stoves

Capacity building of EDC Executive Committee members

exposure visits to EDCs and VSSs in other areastraining in administration and management skills (e.g. managing and minuting meetings, consensus building,

maintaining accounts, preparing project proposals, managing projects)sensitisation in biodiversity conservation and PA managementpreparation of People’s Biodiversity Register

local communities and provide reciprocal commitments to biodiversity conservation. It is most simply defined as: responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people (The International Ecotourism Society, 1990 cited in TIES 2006). Orissa has considerable potential for ecotourism development, given the State’s natural beauty and wildlife, as well as cultural heritage that includes a wealth of tribal communities. However, many of the increasing numbers of destinations marketed as ecotourism are predominantly nature-based ventures, often in PAs, that do not:• promote conscientious low impact visitor behaviour;• provide support for local conservation efforts; or • provide benefits to local communities.Thus, a community-based approach to ecotourism, with substantial involvement and control by the community and the majority of benefits accruing directly to it (Wood 2002), is being promoted by the Project in line with the Orissa Forestry Sector Vision for 2020 (Government of Orissa 2005).

communIty-bAsed ecotourIsmIn sAtkosIA tIger reserveThe number of visitors to Satkosia has doubled since 2001 to more than 40,000 per year in 2005-06 and 2006-07. Many of these visitors are local, mostly coming for the day on picnics. Visitors from Bengal constitute the bulk (Popli et al. 2008). There are few foreign nationals.

In Orissa, community-based ecotourism has been initiated in some PAs, including Satkosia Tiger Reserve. Gorge Retreat, a seasonal, community-run nature camp accommodating up to 20 persons in tents on a sand bar beside the Mahanadi River, was initiated in 2006 as a joint venture between the Forest Department, which grant-aided its establishment, and TIPPS (Tikarapada Parivesh Paryatan Samiti), a registered society whose members belong to Tikarapada Village.

This has proven to be successful, with average occupancy during the peak four-month tourist period (November to February) being 51% in 2008-09. Visitors are charged Rs 1,100 per day for a package that includes overnight accommodation for two persons in a tent, meals and a boat ride. In 2009-10 gross income was approximately Rs 1.15 million (US $ 25,000) and net profit Rs 0.65 million (US $ 14,130). The weakness with this model is that none of the benefits is currently shared with other members of Tikarapada EDC because TIPPS is an independent society. Learning from this and other experiences in Orissa, mechanisms have been devised to ensure that future ecotourism ventures fall within the purview of respective EDCs. A vision for community-based ecotourism strategy has been developed for the pilot eco-development area in Satkosia Tiger Reserve, key elements of which are summarised in Box 1 and illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 5.Fundamental to this vision is the need to develop Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) between the PA authority and EDCs that define the relationship between the parties, their respective responsibilities and the sharing of financial benefits. It is particularly important to ensure that revenues benefit those running ecotourism ventures, other EDC members and the conservation of the resource (biodiversity) upon which such ventures depend. Guiding principles for such MoUs have been developed (Box 2).

conclusIons, lessons leArned And next stePsEco-development towards a more sustainable future for people and their environment requires engagement of all key stakeholders in the development of a shared vision at the outset of the process. This provides the foundation for developing a plan of action to conserve biodiversity through the alleviation of poverty by specifically targeting those most dependent on forest resources. Experience from piloting

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Figure 4. Completed social map of Chhotkei Village (left) with numbered locations of households, each of which is ranked (right) according to category of forest dependency (penultimate column) and wellness (last column).

eco-development in Satkosia Tiger Reserve has shown the following to be critical to success:• Ownership of the process by the community and other key

stakeholders, culminating in a shared vision and agreed micro-plan.

• Strengthening the capacity of community members to participate actively in planning and implementation of eco-development.

• Trusting in the process and the ability of communities to find their own solutions, such as the simple method of classifying forest dependency and wellness developed by Chhotkei villagers.

• Training, supervision and long-term mentoring of those facilitating participatory processes.

• Integration of multidisciplinary specialists having expertise in natural and social sciences to define the framework for eco-development and provide technical guidance throughout the planning process.

•Well-facilitated, participatory micro-planning generates understanding and trust that cements good relations between PA authorities and local communities.

• PA management involves multidisciplinary approaches to biodiversity conservation. Experiential learning through the process of piloting eco-development provides the opportunity for lessons learnt to be taken into account during replication elsewhere.

Models and methodologies generated in Satkosia Tiger Reserve are now being replicated elsewhere, while recognising that the process and protocols will continually evolve with experience and in response to new challenges.

An important and outstanding next step is to design and implement a monitoring programme to benchmark and subsequently monitor the status of biodiversity within the core area and extent of poverty within the buffer zone in response to the significant investments in eco-development by the Project and village communities. Only then will the

value and effectiveness of these investments be known. It is anticipated that monitoring and evaluation should be undertaken by the Village Cluster Coordination Committee, given that eco-development activities are coordinated and decisions are taken at this strategic level.

AcknowledgmentsThe Project is funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. We thank members of Chhotkei, Badakheta, Gopalpur, Purnakote and Salor villages in the Purnakote Range of Satkosia Tiger Reserve; the facilitating team and staff of Satkosia Tiger Reserve; S.P. Behera (Range Officer, Purnakote); H.B. Udgata (Assistant Conservator of Forests, Satkosia Wildlife Division); S.K. Popli (Conservator of Forests, Angul) and; the General Consultants of OFSDP for sharing their time, knowledge, expertise and aspirations in this pilot venture.

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Panwar, H.S., M.J.B. Green, and M.K. Misra, 2009. Conceptual framework for eco-development including community-based ecotourism and its application

in Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary. Orissa Forestry Sector Development Project, Bhubaneshwar, India. 118 pp.Popli, S.K., R.R. Prasad and H.B. Udgata, 2008. Tiger Conservation Plan for Satkosia Tiger Reserve (2008-2009 to 2012-2013). Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme. Forest and Environment Department, Government of Orissa. 202 pp.Sharma, A., A. Kabra, G.A. Kinhal, H.S. Panwar, M. K. Misra, S. Upadhyay, S. Mohan and V. Upadhyay, 2004. Lessons Learned from Eco-Development Experiences in India: A Study. PEACE, ELDF and SAMRAKSHAN, Mayur Vihar Phase - 1, New Delhi 110091. 312 pp.TIES (2006). Fact sheet: global ecotourism. Update edition, September 2006. The International Ecotourism Society, Washington DC. 5 pp. http://http://www.ecotourism.org/webmodules/webarticlesnet/templates/ http://www.ecotourism.org/webmodules/webarticlesnet/templates/eco_template.aspx?articleid=351.United Nations, 1997. Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods. Series F, No. 67. United Nations, New York.Wood, Megan Eplar, 2002. Ecotourism: principles, practices and policies for sustainable development. United Nations Environment Programme and The International Ecotourism Society, Paris, France and Burlington, Vermont, USA. 64 pp.WORLP, 2008. User manual on micro level planning. Western Orissa Rural Livelihoods Project. Orissa Watershed Development Mission, Government of Orissa, Bhubaneshwar. 42 pp.

2 - Net income is practicable if there is a high degree of integrity among those managing the eco-lodge.3 - The basic wage should be comfortably above the minimum wage, currently c. Rs 2,000 per month.

Figure 5.


Box 1 - ECOTOURISM VISION FOR SATKOSIA TIGER RESERVE

A variety of destinations, accommodation and activities are available to visitors, sufficient for at least a week’s duration that can be filled with different experiences.The pilot area is kept free of visitors’ vehicles in order to enhance the visitor experience of quiet enjoyment of the landscape, avoid disturbance to wildlife and villagers, and minimise the ‘carbon footprint’. This policy also provides local employment for those engaged in porterage.Visitors enter the Sanctuary by vehicle and alight at Purnakote, Tikarapada or Baliput where accommodation is available in eco-lodges. Those wishing to visit other parts of the Tiger Reserve may travel between destinations by non-polluting, quiet forms of transport. Potential options available for travel, developed as part of the ecotourism experience, are by foot, bicycle, rickshaw, traditional fishing boat, elephant and bullock cart. Personal luggage is carried in backpacks, using locally hired porters if required, in the case of travel on foot or in panniers if cycling (mountain bikes).A variety of accommodation is available, notably eco-lodges, local guest houses and home-stays, all of which are run by members of local communities. A centralised on-line booking system is available at http://www.satkosia.org/. Tea/curio shops, providing drinks, snacks, picture postcards and prints of the local natural/cultural heritage, maps, guide books and local handicrafts, are to be found in villages, especially those located strategically between destinations.A range of activities in and around destinations are available to visitors, including: guided nature walks/treks on foot or by elephant, guided visits to sites of cultural interest, cycling, traditional angling by boat with local fisherman, paddling/travelling with fisherman in their traditional boats, learning local handicrafts, teaching skills to villagers, sitting up at night with villagers in machans to see wildlife or scare off elephant and wild boar from raiding their crops, and being received as guests in village homes.Ecotourism facilities are run by EDCs in accordance with a Memorandum of Understanding with the Forest Department that incorporates standards and criteria to be met, in conformity with ecotourism principles and the policies and regulations pertaining to the Tiger Reserve. Ecotourism, as a component of eco-development, is coordinated by a federation of EDCs that works in partnership with the management authority.Local guides are knowledgeable in natural history and local culture, trained in interpreting such knowledge, accredited and licensed; and they are able to converse with visitors in Hindi or English.Visitors are made aware on entering the Tiger Reserve that it is a special place where littering, use of vehicle horns (emergencies apart) and excessively noisy behaviour out-of-doors are prohibited and enforced by effective measures. Forest and Environment Department staff and villagers are exemplary in their own behaviour.Day visitors similarly access the Tiger Reserve via the two metal roads that terminate at Baliput and Tikarapada, respectively. They may picnic in designated areas along/adjacent to these routes and on the banks of the Mahanadi River. Quiet walks or cycle rides may be enjoyed along the forest road (unmetalled) between Baliput and Tikarapada, which is closed to motor vehicles.

Box 2 - MoU GUIDELINES FOR COMMUNITY-MANAGED ECO-LODGES

A MoU should define the relationship between the Forest Department and EDC, whereby ownership and/or management of an eco-lodge is entrusted to an EDC in return for providing certain facilities and services to agreed standards and principles of ecotourism.It may be complemented by a Service Level Agreement in which services are quantified in more detail and reviewed annually.Both parties are partners sharing a common interest: to protect the natural resource base upon which ecosystem services and, therefore, local livelihoods depend.The responsibilities of each partner are defined, the role of the Forest Department being advisory and facilitative, while that of the EDC is to oversee management of the eco-lodge. Gross income generated from the eco-lodge and ancillary facilities and services, or net income after deduction of running costs (e.g. food, fuel, cleaning materials etc)2, may be shared as suggested below: 20% lodge maintenance, development and staff training fund;10% PA welfare/development fund;10% EDC fund for distribution among EDC members for promotion of other IGAs; and60% wages of eco-lodge employees. Where wages exceed Rs 2,5003 per employee in a month, the balance may be shared equally (33.33%)

between the PA welfare/development fund, EDC fund and employees.The accounts should be professionally audited annually.Provisions should include certain reciprocal conservation management commitments on the part of the EDC, such as recording/monitoring wildlife encountered while guiding nature walks, reporting incidences of poaching and fire, and protecting an area adjacent to the facility from encroachment and fire.Services provided by the EDC additional to running the eco-lodge should include guided trips (by boat, non-mechanised vehicle, on foot or elephant) with interpretation of the local history, culture and biodiversity.

eco-development in orissa protected areas - a participatory approach

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