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Development of sand-plastic composites as �oortiles using silica sand and recycled thermoplasticsmixture from post-consumer products - Asustainable approach for cleaner productionAshish Soni  ( ashishsoni1209@gmail.com )

National Institute of Technology Agartala https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0807-412XPankaj Kumar Das 

National Institute of Technology Agartala

Research Article

Keywords: Environment, Hazardous material, Circular economy, Green building, Sustainability, Floor tiles

Posted Date: March 8th, 2022

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1376161/v1

License: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.  Read Full License

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AbstractStrict environmental concern, depleting natural recourses and increasing demand of building constructionmaterials has driven the scienti�c study towards alternative building materials. This research supportsthe idea of sustainability and circular economy via utilization of waste to produce value-added products.This research explores the potential of waste plastics and silica sand for the development ofthermoplastic composite materials as �oor tiles. The developed �oor tiles were characterized for waterabsorption compressive strength, �exural strength and sliding wear. The morphological analysis of thesand-plastic interfaces was coved under the umbrella of this study. The maximum compressive and�exural strength obtained to be 46.20 N/mm2 and 6.24 N/mm2 respectively. Moreover, the minimumwater absorption (%) and wear rate were found to be 0.039 and 0.143×10− 8 kg/meter respectively. Thestudy suggests the workability of the developed �oor tiles in non-tra�c areas of public places. Thus, thestudy provides a green building material through recycling of waste plastics for sustainable development.

1 IntroductionPlastics are widely used in household, industry, institution, construction, and vehicle, etc. and hadreplaced many conventional materials and products. Despite of several remedial efforts the use ofplastics can't be arrested due to its wide applications and bene�cial properties. The global plasticsproduction has increased signi�cantly, and a considerable part is used for packaging. Plastics wastecomprises of 8–12% of the municipal waste stream and approximately 190 million tons generatedannually [1]. In Australia alone 2.24 million tons of plastics waste was generated in 2008 whichcomprised 16% of the municipal waste stream [2]. Both informal and households sectors togethercovered a generation rate of 6.5–8.5 million tons/year of plastics waste in India. Thus, the plastics wasteis considered as one of the major environmental problems due to its hazards effects and di�culty fordisposing. Factors such as population growth, low production cost, wide varieties and applicationsresults in an increased production of plastics [3]. A large quantity of plastics is discarded and only afractional part of it is recycled as a result the effective management of plastics waste remains a globalchallenge for both the developed and developing countries [4]. The traditional approach of managingplastics waste as land�ll is unsustainable and has given the scarcity of land in urban precincts. Disposalof plastics waste as land�ll leads to remain locked the valuable resources consequently new materialsand energy are required for plastics production along with introducing more hazardous wastes into theenvironment. An e�cient waste management approach is required to manage such a large diversity ofplastics in an e�cient and environmentally friendly manner. Opportunities to recycle plastics wastes intoan alternative resource material are increasingly being sought by construction industries but there is nosuch work is conducted which demonstrates the development of sustainable polymer-based compositesby using the distinct plastics waste and investigates the effects of compositions on the workability of thedeveloped product. The research demonstrates the development of eco-friendly thermoplastic compositematerials as �oor tile. The study is imperative from socio-eco-environment point of view. The successfulrecycling of waste plastics for the development new material would signi�cantly improve the

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environment condition and reduce the demand for virgin quarry materials. The recycling of plasticswastes for the development of newer products is important from socio-eco-environment points of view. Itsaves and sustain natural resources which can’t be replenish, decreases the environment pollution, savesenergy and reduces requirement of fresh raw materials for the of building materials. The study provides adirection for the future research on sustainable polymeric composite materials.

1.1 Solid waste management in Indian scenarioThis section observed the sources of origination of solid waste and the worriment associated with itsmanagement [5]. The huge population of the country is liable for the mammoth generation of solidwaste. The constituents of solid wastes mainly comprise of compostable items (51–53%) followed byrecyclable (17–18%) and having a moisture content of 46.76%. Figure 1 shows the rate of generation ofdifferent solid waste in India [6]. The generated solid waste contains a C/N ratio of nearly 32 with calori�cvalue of about 1700–1800 kcal/kg but only a fraction of generated solid waste is used for compostingas shown in Fig. 2. Although, there are plenty of technologies available for recovery of energy from wasteand treatment of municipal solid waste eco-friendly but a major part of generated solid wastes isunswervingly dumped over or into land in an undesirable manner. Therefore, the management ofmunicipal solid waste has been found inadequate, ineffective, and challenging [7, 8]. The report “Waste toEnergy and Waste Management Market in India-2018” deeply examines the underlying opportunitiesassociated with economies of scale, market trends, challenges and outlook of waste and energymanagement industry [9]. The report suggests approaches to monitor the waste plastics and highlightsthe methods for diverting the waste plastics from land�ll to safe disposal. Figure 3 shows the recyclingpotentials for various solid wastes. The study forecasts the danger associated with solid waste andsuggests measure for effective management of generating solid waste [6]. Some of the methods whichplays a pivotal role in managing plastics waste are synthetic lightweight aggregate technology, polymerconcrete, etc. are discussed [10–14]. Further, the studies suggests that the changes at the operation siteto industries engaged with disposal of plastics waste and analyze some of the parameters to execute inplastic manufacturing [15–17]. It was established that the collective effort of public, government andmanufacturing industries is required to minimize the hazardous effect of waste plastics that would leadsto green manufacturing in building sectors [18].

1.2 Challenges and issues for solid waste managementThe major challenges for solid waste management are associated with the different aspects of the wastesectors includes waste generation, inadequate waste collection, transport, treatment, and disposalprocesses. In the past few decades, there is a rapid increase in the rate of waste generation besides thepoor practice of waste collection. The logistic service for transportation of the generated wastes isinadequate and ine�cient. It requires overseeing the movement of the solid waste from the source to thesink. Ine�cient waste logistic channels cause di�culties in managing the ingress and egress of solidwaste from a waste dump to a treatment facility and vice versa. The waste to energy methods for energyrecovery suffers due to poor operational e�ciency as about 2–3% of the energy is consumed for

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treatment of waste. A signi�cant remedy to the problem is to change the mode of waste-treatment frommechanical to biological. The availability of trained and certi�ed personnel to manage the wastetreatment protocols is mandatory. The destination of any waste is a junkyard which also involves a cost-intensive process (e.g. Handling, logistics, and environmental safety considerations).

1.3 Impact assessment of solid wasteIf there ought to emerge an event of utilizing agro-industrial wastes in various structural materials anoption for asbestos �ber, timber, and mica a vital proportion of imperativeness can be saved [19, 20]. Thesullying decrease, saving imperativeness and social favorable circumstances are the basic records tocheck the central focuses in Sustainable Solid Waste Management (SSWM) system. Eventually, about28% of the total energy resources are accounted for building materials. Incorporation of 25% of �y ash or40% blast furnace slag in Portland-pozzolana cement can saves 30% energy and results in the product ofequivalent quality to that of original Portland cement. Similarly, for burnt clay bricks the addition of 25%�y ash with clay soil saves 15% energy. Cement/resin bounded board and particle board can be used as asubstitute for timber. The study reveals that around 20% of energy could be saved by introducing ricehusk or groundnut for manufacturing particleboard. The plastics waste is having a worthy potential formaking various things concerning imperativeness age. Stringent authoritative standards increase thecosts of waste exchange at present day in various countries. Exact information on the entireties and sortsof wastes conveyed their motivation and objective aren't extensively available. Considering thecharacteristics of wastes and regular hazard, multidisciplinary research work is astoundingly essential ina planned manner to review and grasp the potential employments of perilous and non-hazardous wastesto comprehend their motivating force for various applications in a natural welcoming manner.

1.4 Statement of problemIndustrialization, rapidly growing population, urbanization, increased consumption level, etc. are theconsequences for an exponential increase in the rate of solid waste generation. Table 1 given belowsummarizes the generation and handling of solid waste in urban areas of Indian states. The global wastemanagement report had showed an increase in the global generation of municipal solid waste was raisedby 37.3% which is equivalent to an increase of 8% per year from 2007 to 2011. By 2015 the generationrate of solid waste reaches to 1.3 billion tons/year results in an increase of 13% annually. It furtherprojects that around 19 billion tons of solid wastes are expected to be generated annually by the year2025. Furthermore, by the year 2047 MSW generation in India is expected to reach 300 MT [20]. Amongthe generated solid waste 8–10% are found to have low biodegradability and can take more than 500years for its decomposition thus requires a vast land for disposal making it a remarkable factor for socio-economic development and environmental health [21]. In another context, shelter being a necessity forhuman beings thus is creating a huge demand for fresh raw materials in the sector of construction.Hence the recycling of waste plastic for the development of building materials is considered as a viablesolution. [22, 23]

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Table 1Generation and handling of solid waste in urban areas of different Indian States

State WasteGeneration(MT/

D)

WasteCollected

(MT/D)

WasteTreated

(MT/D)

Land�lled(MT/D)

Treatment Methods

Andhrapradesh

6525 6331 500 143 Vermi-Composting,Biomethanization, Wt E (63MWgeneration capacity)

ArunchalPradesh

181 11 500 143 Vermi-Composting,Biomethanization, WtE (63MWgeneration capacity)

Assam 1134 6336 200 143 WtE

Bihar 1192 6336 200 143 WtE, Land�lling

Chandigarh 340 360 200 143 WtE, Land�lling

Chhattisgarh 1959 2036.97 828.18 1294.97 Composting, Vermi-composting,

Delhi 10,500 2036.97 828.18 1294.97 Land�lling, WtE (52MWgeneration capacity),Composting

Goa 240 2036.97 828.18 1294.97 Land�lling

Gujrat 10,145 10480 2565 7730 Vermi-Composting, Biogas, RDF,WtE

Haryana 4514 3102.51 188 2163.18 Composting, Land�lling

Jammu &Kashmir

1792 1388.7 3.45 425 Composting, Land�lling

Jharkhand 2451 3238.65 65 3179.7 Composting, Land�lling

Karnataka 10,000 7716 3584 3946 Land�lling, Composting, Vermi-Composting, Biogas, RDF

MadhyaPradesh

6424 7716 3584 3946 Composting, Vermi-composting,WtE

Maharashtra 22570 21867.27 6993.2 14993.07 Composting, Vermi-composting,WtE (16MW generation

capacity), Biogas, Bio-reactorland�ll

Meghalaya 268 156 36 120 Composting, Vermi-composting

Orissa 2460 2283.9 30 120 Composting, Vermi-composting

Pondicherry 495 513 10 503 Composting, Vermi-composting

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State WasteGeneration(MT/

D)

WasteCollected

(MT/D)

WasteTreated

(MT/D)

Land�lled(MT/D)

Treatment Methods

Punjab 4100 4435 3.72 3214 Land�lling

Tamil Nadu 15547 210 3.72 207 Biomethanation, WtE, RDF,Compost, Recycling

Tripura 421 368.2 250.4 164.4 Composting, Vermi-composting

Telangana 7371 6625 3175 3050 RDF, WtE (30MW generationcapacity)

UttarPradesh

15,547 11394 1857 3050 Composting, RDF

Uttarakhand 1400 917.89 1857 3050 Composting, RDF

Others 18,050 917.89 1857 3050 Composting, RDF

Total 1,45,626 67903.8 20289 41133.3  

2 Literature SurveyAlthough various methods are available for recycling of solid wastes, the effective management of thegenerated solid wastes is still restricted. The recyclable materials consider the three signi�cant areas areeconomy, compatibility and material properties and recycling and is bene�cial when the recycled productis cost-effective with desirable properties. Table 2 shows the various recyclable hazardous wastes withtheir generating sources. The recyclable materials will be more combative in a condition where theproblem of fresh raw materials and land�lling subsists. This section excavates (i) various technologies ofwaste recycling and their viability (ii) identi�cation of upcoming opportunities for solid wastemanagement (iii) consideration for ethical, economic and technological points for recycling of plastic inIndia (iv) the organizations working for preventing and controlling pollution due to solid waste andvarious schemes for waste management (v) reviews the solid waste utilized for fabricating of roof tilesalong with characterizations and experimental validation. The study aims at achieving an acceptablestrength of concrete by using waste ceramic as an alternative of coarse aggregates. Concrete was madewith waste tiles at varying proportional. It was found that the ceramic waste should be deglazed, and alower cement ratio be adopted to achieve the desired strength [24]. The study for manufacturing of rooftiles using industrial waste along with natural �bers demonstrated that by mixing �brous compositesbetter mechanical properties and reduction in weight can be achieved [25, 26]. The academicians hadworked on the �bers from the PET bottle wastes to improve the �exural capacity of the concrete [27]. Thedamping property of concrete tile with the plastic �bers of 10% & 15% were found better thanconventional concrete. Manasi et al., 2007; experiments for the development eco- friendly tiles by utilizingwaste plastics and sand and showed that the addition of sand enhances its strength thus makes it moredurable to withstand the temperature and explores its suitability for use in a terrace. Moreover, the

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compressive strength and water absorption were comparable with normal tiles [28]. Ilkeret et al. 2007;investigated for the production ceramic tiles by mixing blast furnaces slag and clay, and furthercharacterized to obtain a suitable mixture and optimum temperature [29]. Li et al., 2019; estimated thedurability of the wood-plastic composites by conducting the absorption test, weathering by acceleratedxenon arc lighting and freeze-thaw cycling [30]. Raimondo et al. 2019; describe the production of sheetmolded compound roof tiles. The values for tensile strength and elastic modulus were 30 ± 3MPa and 10 ± 1 MPa and cracks were found at 94 Kg of static loading which is quite su�cient to carry the load of anormal person [31]. Setyanto, 2014; had discussed the preparation of roof tiles by using rice husk, M-sand, and soil. The test results suggest that �ne particles of rice husk in an appropriate proposition cansuccessfully replace M-sand [32]. Souza et al., 2010; describes the production of �oor tiles by using wastematerial producing during cutting of ornamental rocks. The tiles were found to meet the ISO 13006standard [33]. Verma et al., 2018; evaluate the possibility of making ceramic tiles by utilizing waste woodas a forming agent. The new technology contributes to sustainable construction and increases the rangeof application of stoneware tiles [34]. Novais et al., 2015; compared the properties roof tiles prepared byusing waste plastic and rubber with ceramic roof [35]. Makarichi et al., 2018; works for ceramics roof tilesby using sewage sludge in ceramic mass and suggests the addition of 4% of dry sludge meet thestandards [56]. The �exure strength was found to behave inversely with sludge content [37].Castellanoset al., 2017; demonstrated the fabrication of roof tiles by utilizing �y-ash cenospheres with anaim to enhance damage against impact loads to accomplish these four types of composites namely clay,clay + �ller, clay + �y-ash, and clay + �ller + �y ash was taken and evaluated under dynamic impact test asshown in Fig. 4 (a-b). Figure 5 (a-b) shows the force-time response for one trial of soil, mud + �ller, earth + �y-garbage, and mud + �y-�otsam and jetsam + �ller composite each for depiction [19]. Zhou, et al., 2016described the preparation of hardened tile by using waste Phosphogypsum as raw material through anintermittent pressing hydration approach for the preparation of tiles [38]. Ilankoon et al., 2018; reviews thechallenges with the generation of e-waste and strategies for management [17]. Huang et al., 2010;reported the frost behavior of manufactured roof tiles by performing freeze testing and calculation of thedurability index due to the change in density of the water [39]. Siddiqui et al., 2008; elaborates on thewaste management techniques for recycling of plastic in concrete [40]. A study was carried out about theconsequences of plastic wastes in the environment [41, 42]. William, 2006; proposed the use of plasticswaste for the sustainable development where waste plastics were incrementally substituted, and physicalproperties were determined [43]. The researcher concentrates on the utilization of molten scrap plasticsand broken glass to produce tile [44]. It is shown that composite tiles can be successfully produced byusing waste plastic bags which provides a newer approach to plastic waste management. Furthermore,experiments were conducted to develop mortar by using PVC waste materials as a composition of mortar.The improvement in �exural rigidity and tensile strength by using PVC plastic waste in mortar wasdemonstrated [45]. Turku et al., 2017; conduct an experiment intended to use plastic bottles with concreteto ensure it in the masonry unit. The investigation for the characteristics of plastic and concrete is carriedout [46]. The literature paves a way to partial substitution of the waste plastic to use with concrete [47].The work for utilization low-density polyethylene with incorporation of sawdust in proportions to evaluate

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the properties like the strength of compression, �ammability, etc. Turku et al., 2018; demonstrate the useof plastic waste for the development of composite �oor tiles [48].

Table 2Sources and types of generated recyclable hazardous wastes

S.No.

Processing activities Types of generated waste

1 Production or use of zinc, zinc oxide Zinc ashes, dross, �lter cake, jarosite

2 Production and use of copper oxide, Electro-re�ning & winning operations in coppersmelter

Exhaust dust, residues, sledges.

3 Iron and steel producing industries Dust, slag, sludge

4 Production of aluminium Filtered material, cathode residues

5 Production of asbestos and productcontaining asbestos

Residue containing asbestos

6 Metal surface treatment and hot dipgalvanizing

Sludge and residue with acidic alkali

7 Production of paints, dyes and pigment Blasting material contaminated with coatingresidues, sludge from waste water puri�cationin production

Processes

8 Production of made with silicones Residue containing Silicone

9 The activities for treatment of solid wastelike Incineration, distillation, separation andconcentration

Flue gases, ash and burned residue

10 Leather tanning and processing of wasteleather

Sludge and residue of chromium and leatherforming waste

11 Re�nery producing solvents Residue as solvent

3 Methodical ApproachThe present research initiates with the literature survey that summarizes the waste managementpractices from generation to utilization of various solid waste for constructive application in an economicand environment-friendly manner. The present work demonstrates the manufacturing of plastic-sandcomposite material as �oor tiles by using different kinds of waste plastics (includes low-densitypolyethylene, high-density polyethylene, and Polyethylene terephthalate) as a binding material inreplacement of cement with the incorporation of natural sand. The plastics available in various forms arefound to have binding quality with various other remarkable properties like lightweight, non-corrosive,toughness, durability, etc. thus making it suitable to use as a raw material for construction [49]. The test

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results on physical, mechanical and tribological properties suggests its application as �oor tiles in non-tra�c areas of public places that is potent for mitigating the problem related to the management of solidwaste thus improves the environmental condition. The study examines the need for future scopes ofinvestigations for establishing better-mixing proportions, compositions, and process variables.

3.1 Development of samples

3.1.1 MaterialsIn the present work waste plastics of distinct types includes low-density polyethylene, high-densitypolyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate are used as binding agents in replacement of cement for thedevelopment of �oe tiles samples. The commercially available silica sand having a grain size of 150 µmare taken as �llers material. The values for bulk density and speci�c gravity of the silica sand are foundto 1730 kg/m3 and 2.65 respectively at ambient condition. The properties of the waste plastics are listedin Table 3.

Table 3Typical properties of plastics

S.No

Property Low-densitypolyethylene

( LDPE)

High-densitypolyethylene

( HDPE)

Polyethylene

Terephthalate

( PET)

1 Density (g/ cm3) 0.915–0.92 0.94–0.96 1.39

2 Tensile modulus of

Elasticity (MPa)

200–400 600–1400 3500

3 Yield stress (MPa) 8–10 18–30 90

4 Meltingtemperature

(0C )

105–118 126–135 245

5 Water absorptionat

23°C (%)

< 0.05 < 0.05 0.25

3.1.2 MethodsFigure 6 shows the Process �ow chart for the preparation of specimens. Initially, waste plastics bags arecollected from different waste collecting points at the municipality. The collected plastics were cut toopen, washed to remove any impurities and dried completely. The processed plastics waste material isthen sorted and shredded into small pieces. The shredded plastics waste is mixed with sand as per the

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composition given in Table 4. The mixture is heated at elevated temperature up to the melting point of theplastics and is mixed continuously until a homogenous blend of sand and plastic waste is formed. Thesamples were casted through the static compaction technique under a constant pressure of 20.7 MPa.Once the mold is obtained its surface is �nished and the required dimensions are prepared for theevaluations. Figure 7 (a, b, and c) gives the images of the �oor tiles samples prepared by following thecomposition as proposed.

Table 4Compositions of composites

S.No.

Specimen Weight (%) of lowdensity Polyethylene

Weight (%) of highdensity Polyethylene

Weight (%)Polyethylene

terephthalate

Weight (%) ofsand particles

1 S1 50 - - 50

2 S2 - 50 - 50

3 S3 50 - 20 30

3.1.3 Structural analysisTo study the homogeneity and uniformity of the compositions the structural analysis was conducted byusing an optical microscope of Leica DMI 3000 M. The microscopic images of the specimen’s surfacesare shown in Fig. 8 (a-c). An intact morphology with completely encapsulated and mechanically bonded�llers into the plastic matrix was observed thus provides a high strength to the developed composites.Figure 8 (c) shows a non-homogenous morphology of the surface, the difference in properties of low-density polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate could be the possible cause. The specimen havinghigh-density polyethylene and sand as composition is shown in Fig. 8 (b) shows that the matrices �ll thesurface irregularities and holds the �llers together by forming a strong interfacial bond between the �llerand matrix thus provides a su�cient strength. Moreover, no holes are visible over the surfaces whichclears the complete encapsulation of �ller particles with the binding material. The obtained result formechanical strength elaborates its visco-elastic behavior. The behavior for mechanical strengths wasanalogous with study made for elastomeric systems where the particle of the �ller reinforced the matrixby diverting the path of rupture thus increasing the required energy for crack propagation [46].

3.2 Experimental evaluation of propertiesThe evaluation of properties is important for identifying the performance of the prepared specimens andto establish the workability of the developed composites. The developed �oor tiles samples are evaluatedfor physical, mechanical and tribological properties in term of water absorption, compressive strength,�exural strength and sliding wear.

3.2.1 Physical properties (water absorption)

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The water absorption determines the moisture content of the �oor tiles. It is expressed as a percentage ofdry weight. The water absorption was evaluated by 24 hours immersion procedure as per the ASTM D570 − 95 standard test method for water absorption [50]. The test identi�es the suitability of �oor tiles indifferent ambient condition. It indicates the degree of internal porosity, water holding capacity and qualityof a material. The water absorption indicates the moisture content which equivalent to the differencebetween the wet and dry weight of the specimen divided by the weight of the dry specimen and multipliedby 100 to express it as a percentage. The equation (i) gives the formula to �nd the water absorption ofspecimens.

Water absorption (%) = Wetweight−Dryweight

Dryweight × 100 equation (i)

Here, the reduced-size prepared specimens are immersed in water for 24 hours at 230C and weightedusing Mettler balance this gives the wet weight of the specimen. The specimens are taken out and putinto an oven for a speci�ed time at elevated temperature then allowed to cool in a desiccator.Immediately after cooling the specimens are taken out and reweighted which is the dry weight of thespecimen.

3.2.2 Mechanical strength (Compressive and Flexuralstrength)The compressive strength indicates the stability of a material against the external forces. The evaluationsfor compressive and �exural strength of the prepared specimens were carried out using a universaltesting machine of Model No. HL 590 20 having a capacity of 600 KN. The specimens were prepared asper the test requirement. The compressive strength of the specimen was evaluated by placing thesamples parallel to the surface between the compressive plates to provide the compressive load with auniform rate. The maximum load is recorded along with the stress-strain data. The evaluation of �exuralstrength was carried out using the same machine with different specimen and loading conditions. Here,the specimens of standards sizes for �exural test are kept in the form of cantilever beam and a bendingload is applied at the middle of the specimens to evaluate the value of �exural strength.

3.2.3 Tribological Property (wear rate)Wear resistance is the surface property to resist wear during rubbing and is the characteristic of anengineering materials which depends on load condition, speed of relative motion, hardness of thematerial, ambient conditions, and presence of foreign material. The wear rate (kg/meter) is expressed asloss in weight (Kg) divided by sliding distance (meter). In the present work, the evaluations for the slidingwear rate are carried out using Pin on disc Tribo tester built by Ducom Instruments Pvt. Ltd. as shown inFig. 9 (a-b). The specimen ball is made of 100 Cr steel having a diameter of 6 mm is �xed to the holderabove the rotating disc. The test is performed under a load of 3 Kgf. The rotational speed is kept constantto 200 rpm. The weight loss is calculated by subtracting the initial and �nal weight. The load on the armpushes it to maintain contact with the disc during the sliding wear of the specimen. The movement of the

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arm is sensed by the sensors provided below the arm and generates signals thus gives the value ofmaximum wear. The similar procedure is followed evaluation of wear rate for the given specimens.

4 Results And Discussion

4.1 Water absorptionThe resulted values of water absorption for the developed samples are listed in Table 5. The results forwater absorption shows that the water absorption for the prepared specimens is less than 0.5% as theFig. 10 illustrates thus suggests the suitability of the developed composites for use as �oor tiles. Thewater absorption depends on the porosity present in the interior as well as in surface layer of theaggregate [51]. Moreover, the ratio of open to closed porosity and interconnectivity between the pores atthe surface and inner pores of the structure plays a signi�cant role in water absorption [52]. The reductionin water absorption for the composite having 50 wt. % of high- density polyethylene and 50 wt. % of sandas the specimen S2 compared to the composite with 50 wt. % low-density polyethylene and 50 wt. % ofsand as specimen S1 can be attributed due to relatively lower porosity which further reduces for thecomposite having 50 wt. % low- density polyethylene, 20 wt. % of PET and 50 wt. % of sand as specimenS3. Moreover, when substituting part of the natural sand by PET (with a different granulometry) the lattercreates a proper and different porosity to that is created by the sand due to its planer and elongated thisgives the minimum absorption with 0.0397%.

Table 5Properties of the developed composites

S.No.

Specimen Water absorption

(%)

Compressive strength

( N/mm2 )

Flexural Strength

(N/mm2 )

Wear rate

(Kg/m)

1 S1 0.1149 44.50 5.13 0.143 × 10− 8

2 S2 0.0634 46.20 6.24 8.133 × 10− 8

3 S3 0.0397 20.81 5.96 1.291 × 10− 8

4.2 Compressive strengthThe compressive strength indicates the resistance against the external compressive load. It wasestablished that the impact and abrasion resistance are associated with compressive strength [46]. Adissimilar tends for compressive strength with composition is obtained as shown in Fig. 11. The strengthof the developed composite �oor tile samples is found to in�uence by �ller/matrix ratio. The maximumvalue of compressive strength is found for the composite having compositions as 50% of high-densitypolyethylene and 50% of silica sand for the specimen S2 to 46.20 N/mm2 (as given in Table 5). Thesu�cient surface area provided by �llers and higher strength of high- density polyethylene compared tolow -density polyethylene [53] favors for an optimum compressive strength. Further, the compressive

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strength reduces to 44.50 N/mm2 for the composite having compositions as 50 wt. % of low-densitypolyethylene and 50 wt. % of sand particles as the specimen S1 the properties of the matrix as low-density polyethylene is responsible for the reduction in compressive strength which further reduces to20.81 N/mm2 for the specimen S3 having compositions as 70 wt. % of waste plastics (50 wt. % as low-density polyethylene and 20 wt.% as PET) and 30 wt.% of silica sand due to the insu�cient surface withreduced fractions of �llers particles.

4.3 Flexural strengthThe values of �exural strength for the developed samples is given in Table 5 which shows the values of�exural strength are in the range of 5.13 N/mm2 to 6.24 N/mm2. The maximum strength was found to6.24 N/mm2 for the specimen S2 having 50 wt. % of high-density polyethylene and 50 wt. % of sandparticles. The plots for the �exural strength as Fig. 12 shows the decrease in the value of �exural strengthto 5.13 N/mm2 with the replacement of high-density polyethylene by low-density polyethylene i.e. for thespecimen S1 due to lower strength of low-density polyethylene [28]. Further, the specimen S3 having ascompositions as 70 wt. % as plastic wastes (50 wt. % low-density polyethylene and 20 wt. % PET) and 30wt. % as silica sand particles is having insu�cient surface area due to reduced faction of �ller, but asigni�cant portion of strength is compensated due to incorporation of PET having enhanced properties(as shown in Table 3) this gives the value of �exural strength to 5.96 N/mm2. Thus, the study of the�exural strength suggests that the incorporation of PET improves the �exural strength and shows better�exural strength can be achieved with the incorporation of sand particles as �llers. For comparative studyof the mechanical strength, the resulted value for the compressive and �exural strength are plotted asshown in Fig. 13 that establishes the developed specimens are having su�cient mechanical i.e.,compressive strength and �exural strength making it suitable for application as �oor tiles. Moreover, animprovement in the mechanical strength was observed due to the addition of PET in replacement of silicasand also reduces the requirement of �ller material.

4.3 Wear rateTable 5 illustrate the wear rate for the prepared specimens for �oor tiles. The wear behavior of a materialsduring sliding is complex due interdependency of several encountering forces and varying properties. Thewear rate dependent on hardness, ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness andviscosity [54, 55]. The wear rate (kg/m) indicates loss in weight (Kg) for unit sliding distance (meter). Thevalues of the wear rates are illustrated as Fig. 14 that shows the specimen S1 is having compositions as50% of low-density polyethylene and 50% of silica sand particles is having minimum wear rate of0.143×10− 8 kg/meter which reveals that wear resistance is improved by incorporation of silica sandparticles as �llers. The possible wear mechanism can be plowing or wedge formation. It is believed thatthe hard sand particles play an important role for improving the sliding wear resistance between therubbing pairs. The wear rate is further increases to 1.291×10− 8 kg/meter for the specimen S3 with thereduced fraction of �llers having 30 wt. % of sand particles and 70 wt. % as waste plastics (50 wt. % ofLDPE and 20 wt. % of PET) with wear rate of 1.291×10− 8 kg/meter. Furthermore, despite of the better

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mechanical properties the maximum wear rate is found for the specimen S2 to 8.133×10− 8 kg/meterhaving compositions as 50 wt. % of the high-density polyethylene and 50% of sand particle, the highfriction coe�cient at the surface of the specimen could be the possible cause of the behavior.

5 ConclusionsThe study highlights the challenges and issues associated with solid waste management and examinesthe opportunities for effective utilization of generated solid wastes. The experimental work successfullydemonstrates the manufacturing of �oor tiles by using different types of waste plastics and silica sandat proportions. It is from the literatures that various characterization techniques are important forsuccessful recycling of plastics waste for the development of sustainable building material as �oor tiles.The method of utilizing waste plastics in construction industries reduces the requirement for fresh rawmaterial thus brings down the cost of construction, besides improving the environmental condition. Theconclusions made from experimental investigations are as follows:

1. The microstructural analysis observes a su�cient interfacial adhesion, and the distribution of silicasand is uniform which con�rms the homogeneity of mixture.

2. The percentage of water absorption for the developed �oor tiles specimens are quite low waterabsorption thus making it suitable to use under different ambient conditions i.e., dry, wet or moisture.

3. The maximum compressive strength and �exural strength were obtained for the specimen having 50wt. % of high-density polyethylene and 50 wt. % of sand as composition to 46.20 N/mm2 and 6.24N/mm2 respectively. The increased interfacial bonding due to increased surface area could be thepossible cause for the improvement in mechanical strength.

4. The results for mechanical strength for the tile specimens were found su�cient for use as pavingmaterial in non-tra�cs areas of public places.

5. The tribological behavior is satisfactory for its use as �oor tiles however, invariability is existing dueto the interdependency of several encountering forces and varying properties.

DeclarationsCon�ict of interest

There is no con�ict of interest regarding the publication of the article.

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Figures

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Figure 1

Solid waste generation in India (Million tones/year)

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Figure 2

Elements of integrated solid waste management 

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Figure 3

Recycling and utilization potential of solid waste 

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Figure 4

(a) Schematic of the impact �xture (b) Typical energy-time response to dynamic impact loading 

Figure 5

(a) Normalized force-time response for one set of samples at 1J.  (b) Energy-time response for one set ofsamples at 1J [19]

Figure 6

Process �ow chart for development of specimens 

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Figure 7

Images of prepared Specimens (a) 50% of low- density polyethylene (b) 50% of high- density polyethylene(c) 50% of low-density polyethylene and 20% Polyethylene terephthalate

Figure 8

Surface image of specimens (a) 50% LDPE (b) 50% HDPE (c) 50% LDPE & 20% PET

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Figure 9

Wear test (a) Sliding Disc (b) Pin on Disc setup

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Figure 10

Water absorption (%) of the specimens

Figure 11

Compressive strength of the specimens

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Figure 12

Flexural strength of the specimens

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Figure 13

Mechanical strength of the specimens 

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Figure 14

Wear rate of the specimens