contribution of a tribe to cultural tourism
TRANSCRIPT
1
ABSTRACT
Culture is an important catalyst in regard to tourism
development. In the advent of the new millennium,
destinations started to embrace culture as an important
ingredient in cultural tourism development. The study will be
carried out in Eldoret town for a period of one month. The
study will seek to establish the extent of the contribution of
Maasai culture to cultural tourism. The research will also
seek to asses the factors that influence Maasai culture. The
researcher will finally seek to determine the challenges of
the Maasai culture in relation to cultural tourism.Study
results will aid government officials, policy makers, opinion
leaders, investors and scholars in the area of culture and
cultural tourism development. The research will employ
exploratory research design.Simple random sampling techniques
will be used to select the respondents for questionnaires. The
study will use semi-structured questionnaires to collect data
from a sample of 59 respondents.The researcher will use
descriptive statistics to analyze the collected data. The data
will be presented by the use of tables and graphs.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem statement
1.3 Research objectives
1.3.1 General objective
1.3.2 Specific objectives
1.4 Research questions
1.5 Justification and significance of the study
1.7 Scope of study
3
1.8 Conceptual framework
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Maasai Culture
2.1.1 The Maasai people
2.1.2 Definition of culture
2.2 Cultural tourism
2.3 Importance of culture in tourism development
2.4 Theoretical framework
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study area
3.2 Research design
3.3 Sampling procedures
3.3.1 Sample size determination
3.3.2 Sampling techniques
3.4 Type of data
3.4.1 Primary data
3.4.2 Secondary data
3.5 Data collection
3.6 Data analysis and presentation
3.7 Validity and reliability
4
3.7.1 Validity
3.7.2 Reliability
3.8 Ethical consideration
3.8 Limitation of the study
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire for residents
Appendix II: Work Plan
Appendix III: Budget
Appendix IV: Map of Eldoret
5
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Link between culture and cultural tourism
6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Table for determining sample size from a given
population
7
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
KNBS - Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
SPSS -Statistical Package for Social Science
8
DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
Community – It is a group of people, originating from the same
geographic area, who identify themselves as belonging to the
group (Lindberg, EplerWood, & Engeldrum, 1998).
Culture – The totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns,
arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work
and thought that are characteristic of the destination population
or host community (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2012).
Cultural tourism – It is a kind of tourism, which involves all
aspects of travel, whereby travellers learn about the history and
heritage of others or about their contemporary ways of life or
thought which means that cultural tourists learn about the
products and processes of other cultures (McIntosh and Goeldner,
1986).
Development – It is the modification of the environment to
whatever degree and the application of human, financial, living,
and nonliving resources to satisfy human needs and improve the
quality of human life (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2012).
Resource – It is anything, such as property, money, skills,
competence or knowledge, owned by an individual that ‘can be made
available to others as instrumental to the satisfaction of their
needs(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development ,
9
2009)
Tourism – The processes, activities, and outcomes arising from
the relationships and the interactions among tourists, tourism
suppliers, host governments, host communities, and surrounding
environments that are involved in the attracting and hosting of
visitors (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2012).
Tourism Development - It refers to an act of improving the socio-
cultural, economic and environmental aspects by expanding or
enlarging or refining a tourism product (OECD, 2009).
Tourism flow – This is the movement of tourists from specific
home areas to destinations (Tribe, 2006).
Tourist – He or she is someone who travels for 24 hours or more
outside their normal country of residence (Goeldner and Ritchie,
2012).
10
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
During most of the 20th century, culture and tourism were viewed as
separate entities in tourism destinations. While cultural resources
and attractions were viewed as part of the destinations‟ cultural
heritage, related mainly to the underpinning of local or national
cultural identities and the education of local populations, tourism
was largely seen as a leisure-related activity separate from everyday
life and the culture of the local population (Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009). These views have
however, changed in recent years and cultural resources and
attractions are now regarded as important components of tourism, and
more importantly cultural tourism.
Globally, cultural tourism has displayed a dynamic trend from the
beginning of the transformation period which dates back to the 19th
century, but was at first limited to a small number of extraordinary
attractions like Prague (Praha), Budapest and Cracow (Kraków) in
Europe, while other less important places in terms of heritage
richness were neglected. This was due to lack of accessibility,
insufficiently developed tourism infrastructure and lack of promotion
11
(Jansen-Verbeke, Priestley and Russo, 2008). This phenomenon however,
drastically changed towards the end of the century, as the role of
cultural assets in attracting tourists became more obvious. From the
1980s onwards, “cultural tourism” came to be seen as a major
instrument and source for promoting socio-economic development in
various destinations (OECD, 2009).
1.2 Problem statement
Cultural tourism has in recent years been described as the fastest
growing tourism sub-sector worldwide.Cutural tourism has been regarded
as an important type of tourism in the world today. In essence, all
tourism might be considered as “cultural tourism”, because “all
movements of persons…satisfy the human need for diversity, tending to
raise the cultural level of the individual and giving rise to new
knowledge, experience and encounters” (McIntosh & Goeldner, 1986).
Despite this amazing fact, culture is still not regarded as an
important ingredient in the development of this type of tourism. Hence
the purpose of the study is to assess how culture contributes to the
development of cultural tourism, looking at the view from residents of
Eldoret.
1.3 Research objectives
1.3.1 General objective
The main objective of this study is to establish the contribution
of Maasai culture to cultural tourism, looking at the perspective
12
from residents of Eldoret town.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
a) To establish the extent of the contribution of Maasai culture to
cultural tourism.
b) To asses the factors that influence Maasai culture.
c) To determine the challenges of the Maasai culture in relation to
cultural tourism.
1.4 Research questions
a) What is the extent of the contribution of Maasai culture to cultural
tourism?
b) Which are the factors that influence Maasai culture?
c) What are challenges of the Maasai culture in relation to cultural
tourism?
1.5 Justification and significance of the study
Study results will aid government officials in the area of planning
for cultural tourism development. The research findings will be
instrumental to the policy makers and opinion leaders of the tourism
sector in drafting policies that would benefit all stakeholders in the
tourism industry. It would enlighten both existing and potential
investors on key areas of investment in the cultural tourism. The
findings of the research will help scholars in the area of cultural
studies in tourism.
13
1.7 Scope of study
The research focussed on Eldoret as the study area where the
researcher concentrated on the perspective of residents in regard to
the contribution of culture on tourism development.
14
1.8 Conceptual framework
Figure 1.1: Link between culture and cultural tourism
Source: Researcher, 2013
From Figure 1.1,culture is the independent variable, while
cultural tourism is the dependent variable. It is to show that
culture has the potential to affect the sustainable development
of cultural tourism. The intervening variable from the figure is
the attitude towards cultural tourism, in the sense that it
determines how cultural tourism develops.
15
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Maasai Culture
2.1.1 The Maasai people
The Maasai are a Nilotic ethnic group of semi-nomadic people
located in Kenya and northern Tanzania. The Maasai are among the
best known of African ethnic groups, due to their residence near
the many game parks of East Africa, and their distinctive customs
and dress. They speak Maa, a member of the Nilo-Saharan language
family that is related to Dinka and Nuer, and are also educated
in the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania: Swahili and
English. The Maasai population has been reported as numbering
841,622 in Kenya in the 2009 census, compared to 377,089 in the
1989 census (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2010).
The Tanzanian and Kenyan governments have instituted programs to
encourage the Maasai to abandon their traditional semi-nomadic
lifestyle, but the people have continued their age-old customs.
Recently, Oxfam has claimed that the lifestyle of the Maasai
should be embraced as a response to climate change because of
16
their ability to farm in deserts and scrublands. Many Maasai
tribes throughout Tanzania and Kenya welcome visits to their
village to experience their culture, traditions, and
lifestyle(Amin, Willetts and Eames,1987).
2.1.2 Definition of culture
The term culture was originally derived from the Latin word,
cultura‟, which means to cultivate. The term refers to patterns
of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such
activities significance and importance (Reiseinger, 2009).
According to Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952:181), Culture consists
of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired
and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive
achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in
artifacts. This definition is consistent with Malinowski‟s more
concise definition which defines culture as „„the sum of goods,
of rights and duties, of ideas, beliefs, capabilities, and
customs (Malinowski, 1988:74).‟‟ Herbig and Dunphy (1998) defined
culture in terms of human experiences and their interpretation.
They referred to culture as „„both explicit and implicit rules
through which experience is interpreted‟‟ (p. 11). Pizam and
Mansfeld (1999) referred to culture as „„an umbrella word that
encompasses a whole set of implicitly, widely shared beliefs,
traditions, values, and expectations that characterized a
particular group of people‟‟ (p. 393).
17
Kessing and Kessing (1971) defined culture as an organized system
of knowledge and belief whereby people structure their experience
and perceptions, formulate acts, and make choices between many
alternatives. Frow and Meaghan (2000) whose works draw a lot from
cultural studies define culture as a network of embedded
practices and representations (texts, images, talk, codes of
behaviour, and narrative structures organizing these) that shapes
every aspect of social life.
Hofstede (1980:21-23) defines culture as “the collective
programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one
group from another”, which is passed from generation to
generation, and it is changing all the time because each
generation adds something of its own before passing it on. It is
a set of shared and enduring meaning, values, and beliefs that
characterize national, ethnic, or other groups and orient their
behaviour (Mulholland, 1991). It is a set of shared norms and
values which establish a sense of identity for those who share
them (Tribe 2006).
2.2 Cultural tourism
The diversity of approaches to the relationship between tourism
and culture underlines the problems of definition which exist in
this field. Because culture touches on every aspect of human
life, it can be argued that everything is cultural. Richards
18
(1996) suggested that early approaches to the relationship
between tourism and culture tended to be based on the “sites and
monuments” approach, where the cultural attractions of a country
or region were basically seen as the physical cultural sites
which were important for tourism. This approach informed the
compilation of the Cultural Tourism Inventory for Europe in the
1980s, for example. Gradually, however, a broader view of culture
in tourism emerged, which included the performing arts (Hughes,
2000), crafts (Richards, 1999), cultural events, architecture and
design, and more recently, creative activities (Richards and
Wilson, 2006) and intangible heritage (UNESCO, 2005). According
to McIntosh and Goeldner (1986), cultural tourism whose origin is
embodied in the concept of culture can be defined as all aspects
of travel, whereby travellers learn about the history and
heritage of others or about their contemporary ways of life or
thought.
2.3 Importance of culture in tourism development
Tourism has been instrumental in the development of destinations
around the world. In most cases, culture has been the main asset
for tourism development as well as one of the beneficiaries of
this development. Furthermore, culture is a crucial factor in the
attractiveness of most regions and destinations, not only in
terms of tourism, but also in inward investment and attracting
residents (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2012). Consequently, it has been
increasingly marketed as a tourism product and a strategy of
19
destination imaging. Tourism has been incorporated into cultural
development strategies as a means of assisting and supporting
cultural heritage and production. As a result, the synergy
between culture and tourism has been viewed as one of the most
important reasons for encouraging a more direct relationship
between these two elements (Garcia, 2005).
2.4 Theoretical framework
The study will use Social Exchange Theory (SET) is a theory that
explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated
exchanges between parties (in this case the local people and the
tourism industry). The theory posits that all human relationships
are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and
the comparison of alternatives (Homans, 1958). The theory posits
that the residents willing to engage in an exchange in cultural
if they are sure that they are likely to gain benefits without
incurring unacceptable costs(Allen, Hafer, Long, & Perdue, 1993).
20
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study area
The study area is Eldoret municipality which is the capital and
administrative centre of UasinGishu County, Kenya. It is one of
the fastest growing urban centres in the entire republic in terms
of population and physical expansion as indicated in the 2002-
2008 UasinGishu District Development Plan (Republic of Kenya,
2002). In addition, the municipal population was recorded as
197,449 people and 38,766 households according to the plan. The
total district population was indicated as over 500,000 people
according to the 2009 population and housing census (Kenya
National Bureau of Statistics, 2010).
3.2Research design
A research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and
reporting research in quantitative and qualitative research (Creswell,
2012). The researcher employed exploratory research design because of
the cause and effect nature of the study. Exploratory research design
involves broad-ranging, intentional, systematic data collection
designed to maximize discovery of generalizations based on description
and direct understanding of an area of social or psychological life
21
(Stebbin, 2008).
3.3 Sampling procedures
3.3.1 Sample size determination
The researcher determined the sample size with the help of the
Morgan table shown below where N is the population and S is the
sample size.The study targets 70 persons which will translate to
a sample size of 59 according to the table.
N S N S N S N S N S10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 33815 14 110 86 290 165 850 265 3000 34120 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 24625 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 35130 28 140 103 340 181 100
0278 4500 351
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100
285 5000 357
40 36 160 113 380 181 1200
291 6000 361
45 40 170 118 400 196 1300
297 7000 364
50 44 180 123 420 201 1400
302 8000 367
55 48 190 127 440 205 1500
306 9000 368
60 52 200 132 460 210 1600
310 10000 373
22
65 56 210 136 480 214 1700
313 15000 375
70 59 220 140 500 217 1800
317 20000 377
75 63 230 144 550 225 1900
320 30000 379
80 66 240 148 600 234 2000
322 40000 380
85 70 250 152 650 242 2200
327 50000 381
90 73 260 155 700 248 2400
331 75000 382
95 76 270 159 750 256 2600
335 100000 384
Table 3.1: Table for determining sample size from a given
population
Source: Krejcie and Morgan, 1970.
3.3.2 Sampling techniques
The researcher will use simple random sampling technique will be used
to select the respondents for the questionnaires.
3.4 Type of data
3.4.1 Primary data
The primary data from respondents will be collected using
questionnaires. A primary data is a kind of data which is collected
afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in
23
character (Kothari, 2004).
3.4.2 Secondary data
Secondary data is the already available data that has already been
collected and analyzed by someone else. In other words, it is a type
of data which has already passed through the statistical process. It
may either be published data or unpublished data. The researcher will
use published data that are available in books, magazines and
newspapers; publications of the central and local governments for
example county development plans; publications of foreign governments
or international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; public
records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information and; reports prepared by research scholars,
universities, economists and so on in different fields. The sources of
unpublished data are numerous and may be found in diaries, letters,
unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available
with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus
and other public/ private individuals and organisations(Kothari,
2004).
3.5 Data collection
The researcher will use questionnaires which are a set of questions
that are carefully designed and given in exactly the same form to a
group of people in order to gather data about some topic(s) which is
of interest to the researcher (McLean, 2006).Questionnaires which are
semi-structure in nature comprising of both open and closed-ended
24
questions was used (see appendix I). The unit of analysis using the
questionnaires will be residents of Eldoret town. The questionnaires
will be administered by the researcher herself.
3.6 Data analysis and presentation
Data analysis is the conceptual interpretation of the dataset as a
whole, using specific analytic strategies to convert the raw data into
logical information(Kothari, 2004). The researcher will use
descriptive statistics to address the research objectives. This was
achieved with the assistance of Statistical Package of Social Science
(SPSS) version 20 which is a quantitative data analysis software. The
data will be presented by the use of tables and graphs.
3.7 Validity and reliability
3.7.1 Validity
Validity refers to the bridge between a construct and the data. In
the field of research, it refers largely and broadly to the
“soundness” or “goodness” of a study. There has been an emergency of a
multitude of approaches to and conceptualizations of validity, being
differentiated significantly by the research methodologies and
paradigms that guide each particular research project. For the
quantitative data, the researcher will consider face and content
validities in the research process. Face validity is a judgment by the
scientific community that the indicator really measures the construct.
Content validity addresses issues to do with content of a definition
25
and how representative it is in a measure (Neuman, 2000).
3.7.2 Reliability
It is broadly described as the consistency, dependability, and/or
repeatability of a project’s information and data collection,
interpretation, and/or analysis. It means that the numerical results
produced by an indicator do not vary because of the characteristics of
the measurement process or measurement instrument itself. As it
relates to the quantitative data, the researcher intends to carry out
a test retest method to examine an indicator’s degree of stability
reliability. Stability reliability is reliability across time while
test retest method involves retesting and re-administering the
indicator to the same group of people. If what is measured is stable
and the indicator has stability reliability, then the same results
will be realized. Subpopulation analysis will be used by the
researcher to test for representative reliability. (Ibid, 2000).
3.8 Ethical consideration
The researcher will endeavour to make interpretation of the results
consistent with the data. The study will respect and honour all
guarantees of privacy, confidentiality and anonymity in carrying out
the research. The research will consider the gender issues and that
the sample is representative.The researcher will not humiliate coerce,
exploit or subjects in the process of the research.
3.8 Limitation of the study
26
The research anticipates issue of some respondents not willing to
respond to some questions for example level of income.
27
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Goeldner, C., & Ritchie, B. (2012). Tourism: Practices,
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31
APPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire for residents
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a student in the department of tourism management, Moi
University, Eldoret, carrying out a research on “Contribution of
Maasai Culture to Cultural Tourism. A View from Residents of
Eldoret Town”. I wish to kindly request your voluntary
participation in the study by providing information requested
below. I appreciate your participation and your responses will be
confidential and will be used only for the purposes of this
study.
Thanks
I. Socio-demographic information (Tick where appropriate).
1. What is your gender?
Male ( ) Female ( )
2. What is your age?
18 – 30 years ( ) 31 – 40 years ( ) 41 – 50 years ( ) 51 – 60
years ( ) Over 60 years ( )
3. What is your marital status?
Single ( ) Married ( ) Separated ( ) Divorced ( )Widowed
32
( )
4. What is your level of education?
Primary ( ) Secondary ( ) Tertiary ( ) None ( )
5. What is your religion?
Christian ( ) Muslim ( ) Traditional ( ) None ( )
6. What is your monthly level of income?
Below Kshs. 10,000 ( ) Kshs. 10,000 – Kshs. 20,000 ( ) Kshs.
20,001 – Kshs. 30,000 ( )
Kshs. 30,001 – Kshs. 40,000 ( ) Kshs. 40,001 – Kshs. 50,000 (
) Above 50,000 ( )
II. Extent of the contribution of Maasai culture to cultural
tourism
7.a)According to you, does Maasai culture contribute to cultural
tourism?
Yes ( ) No ( )
b)If yes, what is the extent of this contribution ?
Always ( ) Moderately ( ) Rarely ( )
33
c)If no, explain.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
8. The following are items onMaasai culture that can contribute
to cultural tourism development. Use the 5-level point likert
scale given to indicate your answer in the table below (1 =
strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree and 5 =
strongly disagree. Tick where appropriate).
Item 1 2 3 4 5
Clothing
Foods
Medicine
Artifacts
Architecture
Rituals
III. Factors influencingMaasai culture
9. The following are factors that influence Maasai culture. Use
the 5-level point likert scale given to indicate your answer in
the table below (1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 =
disagree and 5 = strongly disagree. Tick where appropriate).
Factor 1 2 3 4 5
34
Education
Globalization
Availability of resources
Technology
Intermarriage
Community relationship
IV. Challenges of theMaasai culture in relation to cultural
tourism
10.a)According to you, are there the challenges of theMaasai
culture in relation to cultural tourism?
Yes ( ) No ( )
b)If yes, to what extent?
Always ( ) Moderately ( ) Rarely ( )
c)If no, explain.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
10. The following are the challenges of theMaasai culture in
relation to cultural tourism. Use the 5-level point likert scale
given to indicate your answer in the table below (1 = strongly
agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree and 5 = strongly
35
disagree. Tick where appropriate).
Challenge 1 2 3 4 5
Cultural erosion
Globalisation
Lack of other resources
Commoditization of culture
Lack of proper policies
36
Appendix II: Work Plan
2013
-
2014
TASK SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
Proposal writing
Data collection
Data analysis
Project writing
Project presentation
Table 1: Work plan
37
Appendix III: Budget
Expenses Description (kshs.) Cost(ks
hs)
Transport 1 month @
5,000/=per month
5,000
Flash disk 4 GB One @ 1,000 1,000
Digital audio
recorder
One @ 5,000 5,000
Printing Papers 10 ream @300 each 3,000
Photocopy ,printing
and binding
2,000 2,000
Subtotal 16,000
Miscellaneous 10% 1,600
Total 17,600
Table 2: Research budget
38