contrasting the financial efficiency of agroforestry practices in buffer zone management of madhupur...
TRANSCRIPT
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Contrasting the financial efficiency of agroforestry practicesin buffer zone management of Madhupur National Park,Bangladesh
H. M. Tuihedur Rahman • Jiban Chandra Deb •
Gordon M. Hickey • Imrul Kayes
Received: 8 February 2011 / Accepted: 15 January 2013
� The Japanese Forest Society and Springer Japan 2013
Abstract This research contrasts the financial profitabil-
ity of different agroforestry practices in community-based
buffer zone management of Madhupur National Park
(MNP), Bangladesh. This park is the second largest in
Bangladesh and subjected to enormous anthropogenic
pressure and land rights-related conflicts. This paper
reports the different agroforestry practices of villagers in
different modules of the buffer zone of MNP, identified by
a participatory research approach. It then assesses the
profitability of each module on the basis of cost–benefit
analysis, net present value, internal rate of return, and
annualized income. Results indicate three agroforestry
systems were being practised in the buffer zone by the
participants: agro-silviculture, agro-silvo-horticulture, and
combined woodlot and agroforestry. Among these mod-
ules, agro-silvo-horticulture was the most profitable, fol-
lowed by agro-silviculture then combined woodlot and
agroforestry. We recognize that not all of the participants
can practise intensive agroforestry; our results suggest that
the community-based buffer zone management strategy for
MNP would benefit from prioritizing agroforestry practices
where possible. This will lead to more successful buffer
zone management for the conservation of natural forests
while supporting the development of local resource-
dependent communities.
Keywords Buffer zone management � Community
livelihoods � Financial analysis � Land-use strategy �Protected area
Introduction
Establishing buffer zones around national parks is a com-
mon land-management strategy to reduce anthropogenic
pressure on biodiversity (Heinen and Mehta 2000). In
many developing countries, establishing buffer zones to
reduce anthropogenic pressure on parks is seen as benefi-
cial for both government and the local community (Mehta
and Heinen 2001; Lynagh and Urich 2002). Here, gov-
ernment can create income-generation opportunities for
local communities through ecotourism, agroforestry-based
buffer zone management, social forestry, etc., providing
alternatives to the park’s natural resources for livelihoods
(Murniati and Gintings 2001).
Despite the common reasoning behind establishment of
park buffer zones in developing countries, buffer zone
management has been devised in different ways (e.g.,
agriculture-based, livestock-based, multiple use-based,
agroforestry-based) (Martin and Chehebar 2001; Lynagh
and Urich 2002; Stræde and Treue 2006). Agroforestry-
based buffer zone management is one approach that is
being practised in many areas (Michon et al. 1986; Ashley
et al. 2006; Bisong et al. 2009). As a result, a substantial
H. M. Tuihedur Rahman � J. C. Deb (&) � I. Kayes
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology,
Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]
H. M. Tuihedur Rahman
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Kayes
e-mail: [email protected]
G. M. Hickey
Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty
of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences,
McGill University, 21,111 Lakeshore Road,
Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue H9X 3V9, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
123
J For Res
DOI 10.1007/s10310-013-0392-3
amount of research has been conducted to analyse the
efficiency of different agroforestry systems in buffer zone
management from different perspectives (Garrity 2004;
Priess et al. 2007). Within this growing body of work,
financial analysis (FA) of agroforestry practices is impor-
tant because it serves as a decision-making tool and pro-
vides a basis for comparing different land-use practices
(Elevitch and Wilkinson 2000). However, as noted by
Franzel et al. (2004), there are two complexities associated
with conducting FA of agroforestry projects: product
multiplicity and the dependence of crop diversity on indi-
vidual participant’s preferences.
Recognizing these constraints, we used FA to assess the
financial profitability of agroforestry practices in buffer
zone management of Madhupur National Park (MNP) in
Bangladesh. MNP is the second largest national park in
Bangladesh, established in 1962. The peripheral area of the
park is home to both ethnic and mainland populations
(Farooque 1997). This park is subjected to much land
ownership conflict among tribal Garo and Koch commu-
nities, mainland Bengali settlers, and the government
(Rashid and Satter 2006). This conflict has resulted in
forest destruction and the illegal use of park land (Rashid
and Satter 2006). The Bangladesh Forest Department
(BFD) established the buffer zones and has been operating
agroforestry-based participatory buffer zone management
since 1993 to reduce the dependence of the local commu-
nities on the natural forests and also to regain forest cover
in denuded areas (Alam et al. 2010). It is, therefore,
important to identify the profitability of the existing buffer
zone management strategy of the BFD to further reduce the
dependence of local communities on natural forests while
promoting sustainable rural development objectives. To
date, limited research has been undertaken to understand
the state, nature, and efficiency of agroforestry practices in
the study area (Khaleque and Gold 1993; Rahman et al.
2007; Alam et al. 2010). Previous research has emphasized
the significance of agroforestry in terms of crop selection
and its application in homestead gardens, soil conservation,
and community participation. For example, Alam et al.
(2010) conducted a study to identify sustainable financial
and socio-economic land-use practices in the tropical
deciduous forests of Bangladesh, and Muhammed et al.
(2008) compared the financial profitability of different
BFD-designed community-based land-use practices. Salam
et al. (2005) revealed the factors affecting the sustained
participation of farmers in forestry in Madhupur Sal for-
ests. However, no research has been conducted to analyse
the financial profitability of different agroforestry cropping
practices in the participatory buffer zone management of
MNP. Because the buffer zone land use patterns are
designed by the BFD, it is necessary to identify the most
suitable practices for future policy formulation and
implementation. There is also a need to recognize that
adaptive agroforestry practices can provide important
insights for policy makers seeking to promote financially
beneficial land-use practices (Folke 2004). However, this
important notion has been absent from previous studies. To
this end, the purpose of our research was to determine the
relative success of the existing buffer zone management
systems in terms of different agroforestry practices in MNP
while also considering some of the lessons for buffer zone
management and policy seeking to promote conservation
while supporting the development of local resource
dependent communities.
The objectives of this research were:
1. to identify the different types of agroforestry being
practised in modules in the MNP buffer zone area; and
2. to identify the most financially beneficial practices by
use of comparative financial analysis.
Methodology
Study area
MNP is located 80 km northeast of Dhaka, the capital city,
and falls in the Tangail forest division. The park covers an
area of 8,436 ha and falls geographically within 24�300–24�500N latitude and 90�–90�100E longitude. Average
temperatures vary from 28 to 32 �C in summer, falling to
20 �C in winter, with extreme lows of 10 �C. Rainfall
ranges between 1,000 and 1,500 mm annually. The park is
located in the largest tropical moist deciduous forest
(Bhawal–Madhupur Sal Forest) of Bangladesh where the
soil is based on Madhupur clay. This soil is poor in nutrients
and acidic, red to brown in colour. The topography of the
study area comprises low (Baid) and high (Chala) land, a
common feature of the Madhupur–Vhawal tract (Hoque
et al. 2008; Rahman et al. 2010). The forest is dominated by
Sal (Shorea robusta) trees in association with Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Ficus
benghalensis, and F. religiosa (Fig. 1) (Farooque 1997).
The park is inhabited both by the ethnic (Garo and
Koch) community and mainland (Bengali) people. Twenty-
two villages are located within the buffer zone of the park.
Among these villages, Arankhola was selected for the field
study. The average household size in the village is 5, and
the number of income-earning members within these
households varies from 2 to 4 persons. Agriculture is the
primary source of income for 75 % of the households in the
village. Most of the farmers work on their own farms;
others work as agricultural labourers. Small scale business
is the second-most important occupation of the villagers.
The literacy rate is approximately 71 %, which is greater
than the national rate of 62.66 %.
J For Res
123
Method
To identify the different agroforestry modules and also to
calculate the financial efficiency of these modules, we
selected the village of Arankhola deliberately. During the
selection process, we considered the area with the highest
diversity in agroforestry practices along with the corre-
sponding financial success of the various modules.
According to the BFD, Arankhola has been the most suc-
cessful village in adapting to the existing buffer zone
management strategy. Data were collected between mid
January and mid February 2011.
The field study consisted of two phases. In the first,
different agroforestry patterns were identified after a par-
ticipatory research approach, using two focus group dis-
cussions and three transect walks. The participants
identified different agroforestry practices on the basis of
their local knowledge. In the second phase, we conducted a
household survey. A total of 44 participants were involved
in buffer zone management projects with the BFD. Among
these, 12 were participating in agroforestry schemes,
whereas the remaining 32 participated in woodlot schemes.
We surveyed all 44 participants using structured ques-
tionnaires based on the feedback received in phase one.
Five officials from the BFD were also interviewed using
semi-structured questionnaires to understand the strategy of
the BFD as it implements the buffer zone management
policy.
For FA, conventional indicators, for example net present
value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), benefit/cost ratio
(B/C ratio), pay-back period, and annualized income (AI)
were used (Table 1). Sensitivity analysis was also con-
ducted at 9, 12, and 15 % interest rates for each of the
agroforestry systems. We selected these interest rates for
sensitivity analysis because the bank interest rate in Ban-
gladesh was 10 % per annum at the time of writing.
Because the interest rate does not fluctuate to a large extent
in Bangladesh, we believed these interest rates could be
used to forecast the sensitivity of the different agroforestry
interventions in our study area.
Fig. 1 Location of the studied
village
Table 1 Financial indicators and decision criteria
Financial indicator Formula Decision criterion
NPVNPV ¼
Pn
t¼1
Bt�Ct
ð1þrÞtNPV C0
B/C ratioBC ¼
Pn
t¼0
Btð1þrÞt
Pn
t¼0
Ctð1þrÞt
B/C ratio C1.0
IRRIRR ¼
ffiffiffiRC
t
q� �� 1
h i� 100
IRR Cr
AI D ¼ rðNPVÞð1þrÞtð1þrÞt�1
AI C0
Bt return receipt at the end of year ‘‘t’’, Ct cost at the end of year ‘‘t’’,r interest rate or discount rate, t number of years, R actual receipts
after years, C present value of cost incurred, D annualized income
J For Res
123
Agroforestry in MNP: a general overview
Buffer zone management in MNP is being conducted
under two land-use practices—conventional agroforestry
and woodlot plantation (Alam et al. 2010). Each of the
participants (both agroforestry and woodlot plantation)
has been allotted one hectare of land within the buffer
zone for 10 years, in accordance with the Social Forestry
Strategy of the BFD (Muhammed et al. 2005). The ben-
efit-sharing agreement involves 45 % of log selling
income going to participants, 45 % going to the BFD and
10 % being retained for a tree farming fund (Salam et al.
2005). The financial return from the first thinning and
agricultural crops are given to participants completely but,
the income from the second or last thinning is distributed
according to the previously described log selling income
arrangement. All of the terms and conditions of the
benefit-sharing agreement and land allotment are officially
documented (Salam et al. 2005). For both land-use
practices, the BFD provides tree seedlings and other
technical support, for example determining plantation
spacing, thinning time and techniques, pruning time and
techniques, etc.
Typology of agroforestry practice in the buffer zone
of MNP
The BFD designed the agroforestry practices in the study
area by following conventional agroforestry techniques in
which agricultural components are varied and a large
amount of land is retained for agro-crops. Lai (1991)
reported the development of different agroforestry modules
in Bangladesh and identified two different practices
designed by the BFD after experimentation—agroforestry
and woodlot (Manandhar 1986). Under the conventional
agroforestry practice, the participants can choose the agro-
components, but the trees are selected by the BFD. This
practice can be categorized in two modules—agro-silvi-
culture and agro-silvo-horticulture (Fig. 2).
The participants in woodlot plantations have adapted
management practices in their woodlots to generate inter-
mediate income, similar to conventional agroforestry. This
is local knowledge-based practice and the BFD has no
technical support or involvement with it. This adapted
practice has changed the income-generation potential of
woodlot plantations and rearranged the typology of agro-
forestry in the study area (Fig. 3). However, the partici-
pants of woodlots have very little choice in their selection
of agro-crops because the closed canopy cover resulting
from the greater number of trees in woodlots restricts them
to shade-tolerant crops, for example ginger, pineapple, and
turmeric. Despite these constraints, this adaptive technique
seems to be a potentially viable land-use practice in terms
of financial return.
Conventional agroforestry
The two distinct conventional agroforestry modules prac-
tised in the study area have different features in terms of
management practices. They do, however, share a few
common features, for example tree spacing and tending
operations. At the initial stage in every agroforestry garden,
780 trees per hectare are planted. During the first thinning
in the 4th year, 50 % of the trees are felled and in the
second thinning in the 7th year another 50 % of the
remaining trees are felled. Hence, after the 10-year rota-
tion, the total number of standing trees is 195. This is the
ideal number of trees as determined by the BFD. Obvi-
ously, because of natural and physiological disorder, some
seedlings may die over the rotation. When this occurs, the
participants fill the vacancies with trees on their own
initiative.
Usually, tree species are planted with 50 9 50 spacing.
Three columns of trees form one tree component strip in
the agroforestry garden and then a 450 space is retained for
agro-crops, followed by the next strip of tree columns. This
450 space is cultivated with agricultural crops by following
different planting patterns, for example block plantation,
Typology of agroforestry practice in MNP
Conventional agroforestry Woodlot cum agroforestry
Agro-silvicultural Agro-silvo-horticulture
Fig. 2 Typology of
agroforestry practice in the
buffer zone of MNP
J For Res
123
strip plantation and scattered plantation. However, such
agro-crops as papaya and banana are always planted fol-
lowing a block plantation pattern for better yield. If the
participants cultivate such crops as ginger, turmeric etc.,
they follow strip cropping. In these cultivations 1.50 9 1.50
spacing is maintained. On either side of one ginger or
turmeric alley, one alley comprising two strips of pineap-
ples is planted (Fig. 3a).
(a) Agro-silviculture module
The agro-silviculture module is designed by the BFD.
Structurally, it is alley cropping. The module consists of a
450 wide alley of agricultural crops. One alley of agro-
crops is bounded by two alleys of timber crops. Each 100
wide alley of timber crops has three strips of trees. Usually,
alleys are started with tree components, because they can
work as a fence for agro-crops. The agro-crops (Table 2)
are usually partially shade-tolerant. Participants prune the
lateral branches of trees once a year in the winter. This
pruning facilitates straight bole formation of trees and light
penetration to the ground.
(b) Agro-silvo-horticulture module
This is an adaptive module. The spacing and other sil-
vicultural operations are similar to those of the agro-silvi-
culture module, except that horticultural species are
planted as additional crops (Table 2). The horticultural
species are planted at the boundary of a plot in a single
row. These crops are also planted maintaining 50 9 50
spacing (Fig. 3b).
Agro-silviculture module.
Legend
Strip for pineapple cultivation
Strip for papaya and banana cultivation
Boundary cropping with horticulture species
Strip for turmeric and ginger cultivation
Spot for tree plantation
6' space between two columns of trees
6' space between two rows of trees
1.5' stripe for turmeric and ginger
1.5' space between two strips of pineapple
5' space between two rows of trees
5' space between two columns of trees
45' space for agro-crops
5' space between two columns of trees
5' space between two rows of trees
45' space for agro-crops
Agro-silvo-horticulture module.
Woodlot cum agroforestry module.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 3 Agroforestry modules of the studied village
J For Res
123
Combined woodlot and agroforestry module
This, also, is an adaptive module. In woodlots, trees are
planted with 60 9 60 spacing. Agro-crops are cultivated in
the intermediate space between two rows of trees. Agro-
crops are cultivated in accordance with the crop cultivation
pattern of agroforestry plots (Fig. 3c). Pineapple, ginger,
and turmeric are usually cultivated in this space because of
their shade tolerance. Usually, two alleys of pineapples are
planted with one narrow mixed strip of ginger and turmeric
in the centre.
Results and discussion
Financial analysis
Cash-flow analysis
Cash-flow analysis is an important means of conducting FA
for any financial intervention. We conducted both undis-
counted and discounted cash-flow analysis for the three
agroforestry modules. In the study area, the participants
had a marginal cost for fixed capital because the BFD
provided both land and planting materials without any cost.
Consequently, the participants did not need to invest in
fixed assets. The summarized cash-flow analysis for the
three different modules is presented in Table 3. The prices
were estimated on the basis of the prices of the products
during the data-collection period. It is important to note
that the prices did not fluctuate drastically during and after
the data-collection period, and that the prices of the prod-
ucts were increasing linearly over time with marginal
deviation. It is evident from the analysis that agro-crops
have increased labour and other costs of the combined
woodlot and agroforestry module while also increasing
cash inflow. However, in comparison with the other two
land-use practices, the combined woodlot and agroforestry
module had the lowest cash inflow and outflow. Agro-sil-
vo-horticulture has higher expenses and receipts than the
other two modules, because of additional horticultural
components. From Table 3, it is also evident that the gross
return of agricultural crops from agro-silvo-horticulture is
higher than from the other modules. There are two
important reasons for this—crop selection and tending
operations. Usually, the tree crops in all of the modules can
be pruned to enable penetration of light to the ground.
However, horticultural species (including mango and
jackfruit) (Table 2) are not pruned, to maintain high pro-
ductivity. These trees have moderate height (15–20 m) and
have a large canopy in comparison with the tree species.
Hence, these trees do not allow adequate sunlight pene-
tration to the ground crops. Consequently, the participants
usually cultivate papaya and banana, because these have
adequate height to receive sunlight. Interestingly, a good
harvest of these two crops can provide higher cash flow
than any other crops cultivated in the different modules.
The participants can also use the intermediate space
between two rows of banana and papaya for the cultivation
of ginger and turmeric, which can grow under shaded
conditions. Hence, the plot is managed with a three-storey
cropping pattern. The horticultural and agricultural crops
need tending operations such as the application of pesti-
cides and fertilizer, regular weeding, and mulching, etc.
(the cost items for agro-silvo-horticulture in Table 4) to
increase productivity. Further, if the participants determine
Table 2 Components of different agroforestry modules
Crop group Local name Scientific name Practice module
Silvicultural crops Acacia Acacia auriculiformis Timber component for combined woodlot and agroforestry,
agro-silviculture, and agro-silvo-horticulture
Eucalyptus Eucalyptuscamaldulensis
Timber component for combined woodlot and agroforestry,
agro-silviculture, and agro-silvo-horticulture
Gamar Gmelina arborea Timber component for combined woodlot and agroforestry,
agro-silviculture, and agro-silvo-horticulture
Bokain Melia azedarach Timber component for combined woodlot and agroforestry,
agro-silviculture, and agro-silvo-horticulture
Agricultural crops Ada (ginger) Zingiber officinale Agricultural component for agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-horticulture
Holud (turmeric) Curcuma longa Agricultural component for agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-horticulture
Kala (banana) Musa acuminate Agricultural component for agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-horticulture
Anarash (pineapple) Ananas comosus Agricultural component for agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-horticulture
Papa (papaya) Carica papaya Agricultural component for agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-horticulture
Horticultural crops Am (mango) Mangifera indica Horticultural component for agro-silvo-horticulture
Kanthal (jackfruit) Artocarpus heterophyllus Horticultural component for agro-silvo-horticulture
J For Res
123
that the tree crops are negatively affecting the productivity
of their agro crops they will thin the trees. Consequently,
this module retains the lowest number of trees compared to
the other modules, reducing the financial return from tree
crops.
The return from horticultural crops is generally not as
high as for agro-crops or tree crops, causing the partici-
pants to plant their horticultural crops at the boundary of
the plots. As a result, the total number of individual trees
(horticultural) is not large enough to provide homogenous
income in comparison with the other crops. However,
higher gross return is observed for this module, suggesting
the agro-silvo-horticulture module is the best land-use
practice in terms of cash flow. It is also observed that the
agro-silviculture module provides the second largest ben-
efit. Interestingly, cash flow from tree crops is highest in
this module. According to the participants, arrangement of
tree spacing and total number of trees are the underlying
reason for this outcome. In the agro-silviculture module, a
large amount of area is retained for agro-crops. Thus, fewer
trees can be planted in this plot resulting in less intense
competition for light and nutrients, which enhances the
growth of trees compared with the other two modules. It
can be deduced from our results that the greater crop
diversity increased both cash receipts and the costs of
production (Michon et al. 1986).
Utilization of plantation spacing in woodlots can
generate additional benefits for the participants without
causing deterioration of the government’s objective of
woodlot establishment. To obtain a more realistic com-
parison among the different modules, discounted cash-flow
analysis must be conducted.
Discounted cash-flow analysis
Yearly discounted (at 10 % interest rate which is the bank
money lending interest rate in Bangladesh) cost and
benefit plotting (Fig. 4) shows that among the three
agroforestry modules, the agro-silviculture and agro-silvo-
horticulture modules had a higher range of both cost and
benefit. It also shows the costs and benefits associated
with both are higher than for the combined woodlot and
agroforestry module. Participants in combined woodlot
and agroforestry induce agro-crops after 7 years of tree
plantation. As a result, the farmers of combined woodlot
and agroforestry benefit in fewer years. Usually, these
participants get their first benefit in the third year from
thinning. Later, in the seventh year, they get the benefit of
the other thinning regime. In contrast, the farmers using
more conventional agroforestry modules benefit from
crops from the first year of tree plantation which results in
more overall benefit.
Table 3 Cash-flow analysis of
different agroforestry modules
in the study area
1 BDT = $ 0.015 (during the
study period)
Item Agro-silviculture
(in BDT)
Agro-silvo-horticulture
(in BDT)
combined woodlot and
agroforestry (in BDT)
Receipts
Gross return
Agro-crops 636,500 1,354,890 334,315
Timber 212,500 125,630 132,034
Horticulture – 17,460 –
Total 849,000 1,497,980 466,349
Expenses
Labour cost
Clearing 21,000 42,720 9,070
Ploughing 16,000 31,740 12,847
Planting 4,000 22,320 7,965
Weeding 24,900 39,800 6,700
Harvesting 30,000 47,620 13,750
Carrying 18,500 29,780 10,800
Other costs
Seedlings 40,000 125,860 41,470
Fencing 8,000 8,540 2,882
Fertilizer and mulching 56,560 73,820 28,635
Pesticide 6,800 30,200 4,467
Total expenses 225,760 452,400 138,586
Net cash flow 623,240 1,045,580 327,763
J For Res
123
Use of different financial indicators (NPV, B/C ratio, IRR
and AI) revealed that all of the modules are beneficial at
10 % interest rate (Table 4). Among different agroforestry
modules, the NPV of agro-silvo-horticulture is higher than
the NPVs of the other two modules. Agro-silviculture is
second, followed by the combined woodlot and agroforestry
module in terms of NPVs. Both of the conventional agro-
forestry modules have higher benefit earning rates because
of multiple productivity and extensive land-use practice.
B/C ratios and IRRs for all three modules are similar with
little deviation. The main difference between the modules is
the AI (Table 4). Agro-silvo-horticulture ensures the highest
AI among the three modules followed by agro-silviculture.
Because of the AI, the participants have more interest in
developing agroforestry plots rather than woodlots. In the
study area, working capital (e.g., labour cost, seedling cost,
fertilizer cost, tending cost, etc.) is managed using kin and
neighbours without interest on borrowed money, and by
sharing the planting materials which reduce the cost of
production. As a result, imposing extra interest on the
working capital would overestimate the cost of production in
this analysis. In summary, therefore, it can be stated that the
participants’ preference is deeply related to profitability
rather than the cost-efficiency of the practice.
Sensitivity analysis
The financial efficiency of the agroforestry modules was
reassessed using sensitivity analysis to understand the
profitability of the modules under different interest rates
(Table 5). Here, the sensitivity analysis was performed
using different interest rates because of the production
uncertainty of agro-crops. Thus, at 9 % interest rate all of
the modules were profitable, with almost similar B/C ratio
and IRR. NPV and AI are higher in agro-silvo-horticulture
than the other two modules. Agro-silviculture and com-
bined woodlot and agroforestry are in second and third
positions, respectively, in terms of IRR and NPV. These
phenomena are also observed at 12 and 15 % interest rates
(Table 5). With increasing interest rates, the B/C ratio falls,
meaning that lower interest rates will make each module
more profitable. These results show that all of the modules
are beneficial but it is more profitable to practise agro-
silvo-horticulture than the other two modules.
Muhammed et al. (2008) also identified agroforestry as
being the most beneficial practice among different land-use
patterns for public-oriented forestry in the Tangail forest
division. However, our research has gone further by
revealing adaptive agroforestry practices as being signifi-
cantly profitable for participants operating in the commu-
nity-based buffer zone management in MNP. These
findings can be used to improve the planning and imple-
mentation of buffer zone management strategies and
practices in MNP and other NPs in Bangladesh.
Implication of the results in the buffer zone
management
In MNP, community-based buffer zone management was
initiated to reduce the dependence of the local people on
the forest. The participants in the study area have shown
that optimum utilization of the available land can ensure
better profit, which is necessary for their development. It
should be noted that this result is a common scenario in
buffer zone management of the park. In the ‘‘Methodol-
ogy’’ section we identified the studied village as the most
successful village in implementation of the community-
based buffer zone management strategy of the government.
Table 4 Summary of cash-flow at 10 % interest rate
Agroforestry
module
NPV
(Tk ha-1)
Benefit-
cost
ratio
IRR
(%)
Annualized
income
(Tk ha-1)
Agro-silviculture 325,126 3.17 23.56 52,913
Agro-silvo-horticulture 577,364 3.06 23.60 115,864
Combined woodlot
and agroforestry
160,463 3.41 23.77 26,115
Fig. 4 Discounted cash flow
J For Res
123
Despite similar soil types (this soil is part of the Vawal–
Madhupur tract) and following the conventional farming
system, participants in this village benefited more than
those on other villages (as reported by BFD officials). On
the basis of our study, conventional agroforestry and
woodlot modules developed by the BFD are not as bene-
ficial as the locally adapted agro-silvo-horticulture and
combined woodlot and agroforestry modules. As a result,
the BFD may wish to disseminate the locally adapted
techniques used in the studied village to other participants
in different villages and possibly incorporate this knowl-
edge into the government’s policy for buffer zone man-
agement by emphasizing extensive agroforestry practice
(e.g., agro-silvo-horticulture) (Kumar 2006). This could
promote more efficient land use and generate higher ben-
efits for participants, thereby furthering the policy objective
of buffer zone management for the reduction of forest
dependence in local communities and community
development.
It should be noted that the improvisation of the local
community in developing agroforestry practices was
facilitated by the existing policy of the BFD (Ajayi et al.
2009), which does not impose any restrictions over the
land-use practices. Although the tree species were selected
by the BFD, selection and cultivation of agro-crops in
woodlots were not. As a result, local people have had
opportunities to experiment with the land and adapt prac-
tices to maximize financial success. This policy approach
could also be beneficial in the community-based buffer
zone management strategies of other National Parks in
Bangladesh.
Conclusion
This study revealed that the success of agroforestry par-
ticipants in the buffer zone of MNP has encouraged the
woodlot participants to adopt a new module of agroforestry
practice. This hybrid module is compatible with the closed
canopy of trees in woodlot plots. Although this practice is
not as beneficial financially as the other two agroforestry
modules being practised in the buffer zone of MNP, it still
generates additional income for the participants. In this
study we found that greater crop variety ensured greater net
benefit to the participants in the study area. This is because
continuous product flow provides the participant with a
more consistent flow of money. Although we recognize
that not all of the participants can practise intensive agro-
forestry, because the buffer zone management authority has
distributed plots in either ‘‘agroforestry’’ or ‘‘woodlot’’
categories, our results suggest that the BFD should re-
assess their community-based buffer zone management
strategy with a view to prioritizing agroforestry practices
where possible. This will lead to more successful buffer
zone management for conservation of natural forests while
supporting the development of local resource-dependent
communities.
References
Ajayi OC, Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, Kanjipite W (2009) Labour
inputs and financial profitability of conventional and agrofor-
estry-based soil fertility management practices in Zambia.
Agrekon 48:276–292
Alam M, Furukawa Y, Harada K (2010) Agroforestry as a sustainable
land use option in degraded tropical forests: a study from
Bangladesh. Environ Dev Sustain 12:147–158
Ashley R, Russell D, Swallow B (2006) The policy terrain in
protected area landscapes: challenges for agroforestry in inte-
grated landscape conservation. Biodivers Conserv 15:663–689
Bisong FE, Andrew-Essien EE, Animashaun AI, Utang PB (2009)
Indigenous agroforestry initiatives for protected area manage-
ment: a study of ‘support zone’ villages of the Cross River
National Park, Nigeria. Eur J Sci Res 25:165–173
Elevitch CR, Wilkinson KM (2000) Economics of farm forestry:
financial evaluation for landowners. Agroforestry guides for
pacific island #7, Sustainable Education Research and Education
Farooque M (1997) Law and custom on forest of Bangladesh: issues
and remedies. Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association,
Dhaka
Folke C (2004) Traditional knowledge in social–ecological systems.
Ecol Soc 9(3):7
Franzel S, Denning GL, Lillesø JPB, Mercado Jr AR (2004) Scaling
up the impact of agroforestry: lessons from three sites in Africa
and Asia. Agrofor Syst 61:329–344
Garrity DP (2004) Agroforestry and the achievement of the millen-
nium development goals. Agrofor Syst 61:5–17
Heinen JT, Mehta JN (2000) Emerging issues in legal and procedural
aspects in buffer zone management with case studies from
Nepal. J Environ Dev 9:45–67
Table 5 Sensitivity analysis of different agroforestry modules
Economic
indicator
Agro-
silviculture
Agro-silvo-
horticulture
Combined woodlot
and agroforestry
Interest rate at 9 %
NPV 345,370.3 599,992.88 172,057.90
B/C ratio 3.22 3.00 3.44
IRR 22.55 21.51 23.20
AI 53,815.64 94,510.82 27,210.37
Interest rate at 12 %
NPV 288,921.70 509,198.86 139,163.38
B/C ratio 3.06 2.918 3.34
IRR 25.28 24.52 26.19
AI 51,134.57 91,028.46 25,000.41
Interest rate at 15 %
NPV 243,593.7 435,539.72 113,269.97
B/C ratio 2.91 2.84 3.24
IRR 28.00 27.50 29.17
AI 48,536.55 87,590.06 22,921.55
J For Res
123
Hoque AE, Nazrul-Islam AKM, Huq SMI (2008) Seasonal variability
of edaphic features of Madhupur sal forest of Bangladesh.
Ecoprint 15:7–14
Khaleque Q, Gold MA (1993) Pineapple agroforestry: an indigenous
system among the Garo community of Bangladesh. Soc Nat
Resour Int J 6:71–78
Kumar BM (2006) Agroforestry: the new old paradigm for Asian food
security. J Trop Agric 44:1–14
Lai CK (1991) Design of agroforestry systems: some examples and
lessons from Bangladesh. For Ecol Manag 45:193–198
Lynagh FM, Urich PB (2002) A critical review of buffer zone theory
and practice: a Philippine case study. Soc Nat Resour 15:129–145
Manandhar PK (1986) Plan of action of agroforestry programme in
Community Forestry Project in 1986 (RR). ADB/FAO Project
BDG/81/028, Bogra
Martin CE, Chehebar C (2001) The national parks of Argentinian
Patagonia—management policies for conservation, public use,
rural settlements, and indigenous communities. J R Soc N Z 5:845–
864
Mehta JN, Heinen JT (2001) Does community-based conservation
shape favorable attitudes among locals? An empirical study from
Nepal. Environ Manag 28:165–177
Michon G, Mary F, Bompard J (1986) Multistoried agroforestry garden
system in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Agrofor Syst 4:315–338
Muhammed N, Koike M, Sajjaduzzaman M, Sophanarith K (2005)
Reckoning social forestry in Bangladesh: policy and plan versus
implementation. Forestry 78:373–383
Muhammed N, Koikea M, Haquea F, Miah MD (2008) Quantitative
assessment of people-oriented forestry in Bangladesh: a case
study in the Tangail forest division. J Environ Manag 88:83–92
Murniati GDP, Gintings AN (2001) The contribution of Agroforestry
systems to reducing farmers’ dependence on the resources of
adjacent national parks: a case study from Sumatra, Indonesia.
Agrofor Syst 52:171–184
Priess JA, Mimler M, Klein AM, Schwarze S, Tscharntkr T, Steffan-
Dewenter I (2007) Linking deforestation scenario to pollination
services and economic return in coffee agroforestry systems.
Ecol Appl 17:407–417
Rahman MM, Vacik H, Begum F, Nishad A, Islam KK (2007)
Comparison of structural diversity of tree-crop associations in
peripheral and buffer zones of Gachabari sal forest area,
Bangladesh. J For Res 18:23–26
Rahman MM, Motiur MR, Guogang Z, Islam KS (2010) A review of
the present threats to tropical moist deciduous Sal (Shorea
robusta) forest ecosystem of central Bangladesh. Trop Conserv
Sci 3:90–102
Rashid M, Satter F (2006) Indigenous people’s land right: Bangladesh
perspective. Presented in international conference on land,
poverty, social justice and development. Institute of Social
Studies, The Hague
Salam MA, Noguchi T, Koike M (2005) Factors influencing the
sustained participation of farmers in participatory forestry: a case
study in central Sal forests in Bangladesh. J Environ Manag
74:43–51
Stræde S, Treue T (2006) Beyond buffer zone protection: a
comparative study of park and buffer zone products’ importance
to villagers living inside Royal Chitwan National Park and to
villagers living in its buffer zone. J Environ Manag 78:251–267
J For Res
123