Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction

One popular definition of education is the change for the better. In

which every individual must acquire to evade illiteracy that hinder

prolificacy of man-power in the country. As this days past by, teachers

encounter difficulties in facing multifaceted lifestyle of students. Demands

to update teacher’s competence play a very important role in combating

this notion.

Educational system involving Mathematics and technology is

continuously changing. It helps in preparing the young generation for more

advancement that they would encounter in the future. In this present

technological world, the scientific application of knowledge results to

progress in physical and economic status of the country. Likewise,

understanding Mathematics is a tool in developing love of nature and

concern for the conservation of natural resources. Technology is suppose

to be one that should develop and guard the nature and not to destroy.

Mathematics is one of the core subjects in the secondary level that

have concern on Mathematics and Technology that must be given enough

attention to achieve the goal of quality education in every educational

2

institution. The changing emphasis on the subject matter and on the use

of techniques or approaches in the light of objectives towards scientific

discovery caused alterations in Mathematics instruction today. Therefore,

a Mathematics educator should be well acquainted with current

researches in Mathematics education and understand the trends and

issues therein. Hence, Mathematics teachers must be competent.

On the other hand, increased national interest and emphasis on

Mathematics raised the question of the quality of Mathematics teaching in

the schools. The government has to attend seriously to the dismal state of

Mathematics education and technology in the country. Thus, observance

in all levels of schools and every community to create greater impact on

environmental awareness as mandated by Presidential Proclamation No.

975 that must be implemented by the different agencies. Everybody is

now encouraged to think globally along ecology, health, nutrition and

productive environmental management and technology.1

The investigation and exploration reading made by the researcher

revealed the dismal state of Pinoy Mathematics and Technology and even

the sorrier situation of Mathematics and Technology education in the

country. Just how bad is the situation? When Filipino students took part in

the Third International Mathematics and Mathematics Study (TIMMS), out

of 41 countries worldwide, the Philippines ranked 38th in Mathematics and

3

40th in Mathematics. By comparison, Singapore topped both categories,

closely followed by Korea and Japan.2 It doesn’t take a genius to conclude

that Filipino students were lagging far behind our Southeast Asian

neighbors and much of the rest of the world. What’s truly scary is that this

student represents not the past that was left behind, but the futures that

were about or were suppose to enter.

In their landmark study of Mathematics Education in the

Philippines, issued by the UP-CIDS Chronicle, Dr. Milagros D. Ibe and Dr.

Ester B. Ogena cited that “the absence of Mathematics culture” as one of

the main factors of retardation of Mathematics and Technology

development in the country. 3 Obile4 provides another thought provoking figure:

“For every million Filipinos, there are only 150 or so scientists and engineers. In comparison, Japan has 4,000 per million people. The United States recommended that developing countries such as ours should have at least 380 scientist and engineers for every million inhabitants. We’re not even halfway there.”

They said that problems begin with the Mathematics and Technology

teachers themselves of whom the country do not have enough, and even

fewer good ones.

With this in view something must be done. Ibe and Ogena5 have a

long list of prescription for the government, which come down to “cohesive

action and shared goals”. This means more and better faculty

development programs, Mathematics labs, and curriculum and

4

instructional materials development. But it also requires awareness at the

top of the importance of Mathematics and Technology to the future, the

will to implement the reforms and to spend the money in order to catch up

with the neighboring countries.

It is in this regard that the researcher, as one of the Mathematics

teachers of Sta Elena High Schools became interested to write this study.

This is a much needed wake up call for the department to re-assess the

competence of the faculty and do what needs to be strengthened. From

the organization’s standpoint, individual performance is the foundation of

organizational performance.7 This affirms that an organization or institution

is a coordinated unit of people that functions to achieve a common goal or

set of goals.

This study will assess the competence of Mathematics teachers of

Sta Elena High Schools which is a crucial step, now that the division is

into comprehensive development planning. Teacher’s competence is very

necessary to deliver quality education. However, the school cannot

provide this ideal situation if the teachers lack the competency to teach the

subjects. The perceptions and assessment of the School Head and the

students in this subject regarding the teaching competence of the teachers

is one tool that will help improve the competencies of the Mathematics

teachers. The implications which will be drawn will serve as the basis of a

5

Training Program Proposal to improve the competencies of the

Mathematics teachers of Sta Elena High Schools.

It is believed that a knowledgeable and well equipped Mathematics

teacher can stimulate the scientific and technological minds of students,

enhance their ingenuity, and develop creativity and resourcefulness.

Likewise, enhance them to bring about quality teaching. Thus, this is very

timely to support the comprehensive planning for teacher complement of

the Sta Elena High Schoolsas a whole.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to assess the teaching competence of the

Mathematics teachers of Sta Elena High Schools for the School Year

2012-2013. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the characteristics of the Mathematics teachers along:

A. Personal Attributes

a. Age, and

b. Gender?

B. Professional Profile

a. educational qualification,

b. teaching experience,

c. membership in professional organizations, and

d. in – service trainings, seminar-workshops attended?

6

2. What is the level of teaching competence of the Mathematics

teachers as perceived by the School Head and the students in terms of

the following:

a. mastery of the subject matter,

b. use of teaching strategies,

c. communication skills,

d. use of equipment and instructional facilities,

e. classroom management,

f. evaluation of students performance, and

g. personal and social competence?

3. Is there a significant relationship between the School Heads’

and students’ perception on the level teaching competence of

Mathematics teachers?

4. What training program may be proposed for the Sta Elena High

Schools Mathematics teachers to enhance their teaching competence?

Assumptions

This study has the following assumptions:

1. The characteristics of Mathematics teachers are different from

each other.

2. School Head and students have their perceived level of

teaching competence of Mathematics teachers.

7

3. A training program should be proposed for the Sta Elena High

Schools Mathematics teachers to enhance their teaching competence.

Hypothesis

There is no significant relationship between the School Heads’ and

students’ perception on the teaching competence of Mathematics

teachers.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study focused on the teaching competences of the Sta Elena

High Schools Mathematics teachers. It analyzed the characteristics of the

Mathematics teachers during the School Year 2012-2013in terms of age,

gender, educational qualifications, teaching experiences, membership in

related professional organizations, in–service training, and seminar

workshops attended. It also assessed the level of teaching competencies

of the Mathematics teachers as perceived by the School Head and the

students in terms of the following: mastery of the subject matter, use of

teaching strategies, communication skills, use of equipment and

instructional facilities, classroom management, evaluation of students’

performance, and personal and social competence. Relationship between

the perception of the School Headand students on the level of teaching

8

competence of Mathematics teachers in Sta Elena High Schools was also

noted.

There were three groups of respondents in this study. First were

the Mathematics teachers selected through a total enumeration which had

27, second were the eight School Head from the cluster, and, the group of

students from the two Cluster where 370 of them were selected as part of

the sample who assessed their Mathematics teachers. The two Cluster

include:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------- It was indeed very tasking

on the part of the researchers. She has to go to the above mentioned

schools just to complete the data needed in this study. Also, related

studies and literature were minimal which le the researcher to cite a few

numbers of studies and literature related to this study.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study crystallized valuable insights and baseline

information to the following:

Teachers. The findings of this study with regard to their strengths

and weaknesses in the exercise of their teaching duties and

9

responsibilities as far as Mathematics teaching is concerned may be

identified and may serve as bases for educational planning for effective

teaching. Implications taken from the result of this study will greatly help

the teachers to improve themselves personally and professionally.

Identification of these strengths and limitations will serve as motivating

factors for the Mathematics teachers to adapt measures and strategies for

the improvement of instruction.

Students. Whatever positive result generated from this study, the

students will be greatly benefited. Their gains through knowledge and

skills acquired should always be the concern in the teaching learning

activities of the school and the community. The competence of the teacher

will redound to the quality of learning the students will acquire.

Administration. Result of this study may help the administrators

recognize the Mathematics teachers with the required competency to

teach the subject. Mathematics teachers can be included in the planning

to re-tool teachers who lack teaching competencies. Results can be used

for an innovative well – designed curriculum for administrators who

assume responsibility for administrative and supervisory functions.

Curriculum Makers. The curriculum makers may be informed of the

teaching competencies a Mathematics teacher should have to

10

complement the curriculum. The findings of this study can be used in

creating an innovative well-designed curriculum for Mathematics teachers.

Parents. Parents would have the assurance that their children will

be taught and guided accordingly in terms of meaningful day–to-day

classroom learning activities. They would be happy to note that the

efficient endeavor of the teachers may ensure productivity in terms of

knowledge and skills in transmitting these true to life situations, to prepare

the students for the world of work and to be globally competitive.

Future Researchers. Other researchers may gain insights in

making researchers on the gaps and other variables not included in the

present work. Findings of this investigation may serve as related study to

their work where variables have similarity.

Definition of Terms

To have a better grasps of the study, the following terms were

conceptually and operationally defined.

Characteristics of Mathematics Teachers. Characteristics refer to

the distinguishing marks or qualities of a person.6 In this study, these refer

to the teacher’s age, gender, educational qualifications, teaching

experience, membership in related professional organizations, in-service

trainings, and seminar-workshops attended. These were the remarkable

features of the Mathematics teachers not on the physical aspects but with

11

distinguishing marks that might play a significant role in their competence

as a teacher.

Sta Elena High Schools. Cluster means group.7 In this study, Sta

Elena High Schools refer to a group of school headed by a Cluster

Manager which was designated by the Division Office whoever among the

principals have the highest position. The cluster referred to this study

includes: Lalawigan National High School, Manguisoc National High

School, Pablo S. Villafuerte National High School, Pambuhan National

High School, San Roque National High School and Vicente L. Basit

Memorial School.

Mathematics Teacher. These are the persons who possess the

needed qualifications of a Mathematics teacher. They are those who took

a bachelor’s degree in Mathematics teaching or a related course with

license to teach. In this study, they were the teachers teaching

Mathematics in the Sta Elena High Schools.

Teaching Competence. This refers to the teacher’s mastery of the

subject matter, use of instructional materials and resources,

communication skills and classroom atmosphere. The sufficiency of the

educational qualification to the field of the teacher and the teacher’s

performance and ability to bring about specified instructional objectives.

12

Training Program. Training is an attempt to improve employees on

a currently held job or one related to it.8 In this study, it refers to an action

plan proposal for the Sta Elena High Schools Mathematics teachers for

the enhancement of the teaching competence and to improve instruction.

NOTES

1Presidential Proclamation No. 975.

2Third International Mathematics and Mathematics Survey.

13

3 Milagros D. Ibe, et al., “Mathematics Education in the Philippines”, UP-CIDS Chronicle, Philippines.

4 . “Mathematics and Technology: Key to Sustainable Development”, Development Magazine, Volume 25 No. 3 (May–June 1998), 10.

5www. wds.worldbank.org/service/ds.

6Webster Dictionary, c. 2004.

7Webster, Ibid.

8Commission on Higher Education Long–Term Higher Education Development Plan 2001–2010.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

14

This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies both

foreign and local gathered from the different graduate school libraries.

This chapter also explains the synthesis of the state-of-the-art and the gap

bridged by the study. The theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the

study were likewise included.

Literature

“Quality education can be achieved through quality teachers”, many

educators say. Our country demands for better and higher quality

education instruction. Effective instruction is needed to conduct regular

and continuing appraisal of the school as part of the decision-making

process.1

Preparing future teachers and upgrading the competence of the

faculty now remains a crucial task in the development of a nation. With the

changing times, information and communications technology are

introduced everywhere. The teacher should attune herself to these

changes.

Competency in one’s job is a primordial concern. Likert 2 continued

by stressing that successful organizations are those working for the best

use of competent personnel to perform well and efficiently do the entire

tasks required by the enterprise. This was further strengthened by the idea

15

of Hugget3 that “good teaching is the backbone of any school. With the

right kind of teachers, the school will be a good one”.

In the United States, the California State Board4 requires that a

teacher to be considered for a job in teaching, he/she must possess the

following qualifications: (1) knowledge and commitment to the subject

matter, (2) subject matter expertise or specialization, (3) ability to convey

enthusiasm for the subject to students, (4) belief on the students to

succeed, (5) commitment to selling high expectation for the students, (6)

competence to teach varied student ability level and willingness to give

special attention to students, (7) success in fostering excellent student

performance, and (8) evidence of professional structure. Most of the

prerequisite for teaching are well considered when candidates for teaching

are admitted.

Teacher performance and teacher quality involve the identification

of teacher competence5. Habana6, quoting Wong and Chang who are

Malaysian authors state that the strength of an educational system must

largely depend upon the quality of its teachers. Parcky6 specifies the

characteristics of an effective teacher as revealed by research findings.

The characteristics mentioned are as follows: (1) begins a lesson with a

short review, (2) begins a lesson with a short statement of the goal, (3)

presents new ideas and/or materials in small steps, (4) gives clear and

16

detailed instruction and explanations, (5) asks a large number of questions

and checks for student understanding, and (6) provides supplement

feedback and corrections.

Borich and Feston7 posited that there are three forms of teacher

competencies: knowledge competencies, which specify cognitive

understanding wherein the teacher is expected to demonstrate;

performance competencies, which specify teaching processes; and

consequence competencies, which specify behaviors of pupils that are

viewed as evidence of teaching effectiveness.

Uriarte8 identified the need for quality and competent Mathematics

and Mathematics teachers. On the other hand, Rosas9 noted that there is

a need to know how the teachers perform specially in their earned

degrees. Experience and attitude have to be looked into. The teachers are

frontliners. They bear the day-to-day responsibilities of molding the minds

and hearts of the children and take most of the blame when little training

takes place. Moreover, Rivera et al11, mentioned that the teacher to a

large extent is the determining factor in teaching. The teacher’s task is to

encourage and help students effectively aid them in securing confidence

and faith in them and to provide them string motive to learn.

Furthermore, Gregorio10 considers the outstanding qualities of a

teacher in the area of higher education to be the following: (1) mastery of

17

the subject matter, (2) knowledge of the nature of the student, (3)

knowledge of the aims of higher education and the methods of teaching

them, (4) scientific attitude, (5) patience, sympathy, and love for the

students, (6) pleasant personality and happy disposition, (7) freedom from

physical impediment, (8) ability to think and to speak clearly and logically,

(9) ambition, (10) right attitude towards teaching, (11) a spirit of

cooperation, and (12) altruism. On the other hand, Esler and Esler11

characterized the good Mathematics teacher as having the (1) ability to

relate Mathematics instruction to cognitive and effective development of

students, (2) the ability to understand and implement inquiry teachers

techniques, (3) ability to implement didactic teaching techniques, (4) ability

to plan instruction to include both the process and the context of

Mathematics, (5) ability to adopt the Mathematics progress to

individualized for both normal and exceptional children in the classroom,

(6) knowing and understanding some of the major concepts in

Mathematics, (7) knowledge of source of elementary Mathematics

program, prints, films, and graphic media including computer application.

According to the University of the Philippines Institute for

Mathematics and Mathematics Education12, many teachers at all levels do

not have the content background required to teach the subjects they were

teaching. Filipino students perform very poorly in international

18

Mathematics and mathematics tests. This means that they are not being

prepared to face the challenges of the 21st century, a period of advanced

technology and open global trade.

Talking about modernization, it can be noted that:

Ewell14 opined that: “Assessment is linked in extricable with

teaching so that assessment is viewed as intrinsic to education itself.” This

is the reason why there is really a need to look into not only on the basic

learning areas in the general curriculum as to the competence of the

faculty specifically to include Natural Mathematics faculty, on which the

researcher is one. According to Isidro14, assessment of teaching

effectiveness is determined by two measures: appraisal of the teacher’s

competence by his own students and actual observation of the teacher in

his classroom by the dean, assistant dean, department chair, and/or ad

hoc committee appointed for the purpose. Miller15 posited that all areas of

educational system were being assessed to find their relevance to the

changing needs of the time and how these contribute to academic

…in education, microelectronics, IT and artificial intelligence and photonics rate very strongly because of the use of computer and the internet. This will change or supplement the role of the teacher, who will be reduced to checking the progress of the student who for their part, will be studying largely on his own using all information resources at his disposal. On the environment, clean technologies shall be promoted to ensure protection of the natural ecology. Clean technologies refer to the process and equipment that will lower emissions, effluents and solid waste related to manufacturing and other industries. In this regard, microelectronics will have a strong impact on the environment since it will be a component of efficient and cleaning technologies.13

19

excellence. No institution could continue to function and meet its goals

and objectives without proper assessment. Assessment of facilities and

programs towards goals and objectives is essential for determining both

efficiency and effectiveness.

Career and employee development is strongly emphasized by the

Civil Service Commission under Republic Act (RA) 226015, an act to

amend and revise the laws relative to Philippine Civil Service. This pointed

out that a continuing program of employee training, supervisory, and

career and executive development shall be established under the

leadership of the Commission for all government personnel at all levels.

All offices should have an appropriate training staff and shall establish its

own training program in accordance with the standards laid down by the

Commission. The training program shall be integrated with the total

performance management program of the organization. Therefore, each

agency head in establishing its own training program shall: (a) formulate,

maintain and continuously expand a system plan of section for the

development and training needs and of progress in meeting them, (b)

provide for specific development and training opportunities to help

employees at all levels perform their work in the best known ways and

adopt themselves to changing program needs and prepare them for

greater responsibilities, (c) stimulate and encourage employees

20

development and training not only through officially organized in-service

training activities conducted during working hours but also through

individual’s self-improvement. Thus, the personnel must be in constant

state of professional development so that the administration can be

assured of a well prepared work force which will meet future demands of

quality teachers servicing quality education.

Republic Act (R.A) 552116 creating the University charges the

institution with the mission to provide professional and technical training

and specialize instruction in literature, philosophy, Mathematicss and arts

besides providing for the promotion of scientific and technical researches.

Therefore, the University envisioned itself as an effective development

institution and a regular center for quality higher education. It adopted

these policies: (1) Alignment of regional development thrust and

instructional program shall be supportive of the manpower demands of the

region. (2) Quality education. The University shall provide quality

instruction by maintaining the quality of its faculty. (3) Focus on tertiary

education. Instructional development will be more oriented to tertiary

education. (4) Synergism of teaching, research, and extension service

function to support the regional development goals, and (5) Allowing a

higher degree of flexibility for faculty members. The faculty will be freed

form fulltime classroom work and will be encouraged to participate in

21

research, extension, income generating projects, and continuously

develop themselves through post graduate studies and training. To fulfill

the above policies, the faculty should have a high degree of competence

in the areas of instruction, research and extension to turn out graduates

equipped with knowledge, skills and right attitude to be change agents and

with successful professions.

The Education Act of 198217 call for establishment of an integrated

system of education in the country relevant to the goals of national

development. Section 9 states that competent instruction, relevant to

quality education in line with national goals and conducive to their full

development as persons with human dignity. This act viewed the need for

quality education. It implies that faculty members must provide within the

limit of school resources, activities that must upgrade professional

competence.

Academic institution must also be concerned with professional

growth of their faculty as well as the development of their students. They

must be provided educational opportunities to become better.18 This

became a serious challenge to the tertiary level not only abroad but here

in the Philippines higher institutions.

Quality education can be attained through quality teachers; hence,

the key to the effectiveness of the teaching-learning progress is the

22

teacher. Republic Act (R.A.) 778419 which is an act to strengthen teacher

education in the Philippines by establishing centers of excellence, creating

a teacher education council for the purposes, appropriating funds

therefore, and other purposes. This act ensures quality education by

strengthening the education and training of teachers nationwide.

Studies

One reason why several scientists consider the goal of the country

of becoming knowledge center in the Asia Pacific is because of the

“hallucination” which revealed the weak state of Mathematics and

mathematics education in the country. In addition, only when the radical

transformation takes place in the country’s educational system, can

Filipinos dream to set priorities in competing effectively in the future.

Researchers over the years indicated that the teacher makes a difference

in the effectiveness of teaching learning process of the students. This

study will fill a share to the race for quality education.

Morga20 made an assessment of the teaching performance of the

Bicol University faculty using the three-pronged approach purposely for

the improvement of teaching. The study described the teaching

performance of the Bicol University faculty in terms of: (1) the socio-

demographic factors of the faculty, (2) faculty teaching performance

assessment such as: teaching competence, teaching performance,

23

personal-social qualities and teaching effectiveness. The study revealed

that the social factor of the university faculty influenced their career

motivation, commitment to their profession thus, making teaching a real

noble profession. The satisfactory economic status affected their sense

fulfillment in productive teaching, thus, academic quality serves as a

means of advancement in their teaching career and sustains their

productivity in teaching performance. The faculty workloads are allocated

in accordance with the university’s mandate. College teaching in Bicol

University is indicative of high or strong competency level because it is

consistent with the theories, principles, strategies, and processes of good

and effective teaching and learning. The Bicol University faculty members

are very receptive and have positive outlook for evaluating their teaching

performance. The teaching performance is disclosed for continuous

growth and productivity in teaching as they consciously aim for academic

excellence.

In one way or another, this study will support the present study in

looking into the same factors. Morasa21 attempted to assess the teaching

needs of the Bicol University personnel as they perform their major

functions and as they related with others at work and the relationship of

these needs with their career plans and problems in order to evolve a

training model patterned on the system approach. The findings were the

24

following: (1) academic administration needed training in school

administration only particularly in planning, budgeting, and curriculum

enrichment. The non – academic revealed a need for a training in both

administrative and supervisory aspect, (2) due to highly selective hiring

and years of successful teaching, the academic personnel had only a few

training needs their instruction function but were nonetheless imperative

because they were concern on updating their teaching competencies in

current thrust and innovative technologies. Highest need was revealed in

research skill. In extension work, the deficiency was mainly on the ability

to render service as resource speaker, co–chairman, and consultant to

non-government organization.

The non–academic personnel needed both knowledge and skill

competencies on the job specified to their assigned tasks. Both the

academic and non–academic personnel needed some training to improve

their relations with their superiors, peers, and students. As to career plans

and problems, both the academic and non–academic personnel found no

reason to leave the college/unit. Administrative as well as rank and file

encounter problems in the pursuit of professional growth and a systematic

plan and schedule of awarding scholarships and grants. It was

recommended that training have to be programmed, adequately funded,

systematized and vigorously implemented. Training in research key

25

concepts and strengthening research capabilities should be given top

most priority both in time and funds.

On the study of Margallo22 about faculty / staff / trainers of the Bicol

University Regional Mathematics Teaching (RSTC), significant findings

showed that the faculty / staff / trainers were professionally competent and

committed. The center has well–planned and balanced curriculum

program. Equipment and instructional materials are updated and there

was a strong administrative support as perceived by the respondents. The

weaknesses of the center, however, revealed that the respondents

perceived the trainees profile as “good”. This was attributed to the fact that

most of the teacher trainees were neither mathematics major nor minors in

the field of Mathematics but were obliged to teach the subject by their

superiors. Hence, training, seminars, and conferences in Mathematics and

mathematics were needed.

Jaymalin23 conducted a study on the teaching competencies of P.E.

teachers teaching swimming in Bicol University College of Fisheries,

Tabaco, Albay. The descriptive analytical research design was adopted in

the study. The complete enumeration method adopted in the selection of

respondents. The study concluded that the teaching proficiency of majority

of the P.E. teachers has yet to meet the standards of excellence. The

following recommendations were proposed: (1)identify the priorities in the

26

staffing pattern and items in the plantilla position to be created for

teachers with a major in P.E., (2) grant them scholarships to harness

efficiency, (3) the teacher must continuously grow professionally by getting

a Master’s or Doctoral degree, (4) update on matters pertaining to P.E and

Sports, (5) undergo trainings and seminars to update knowledge and

improve their method of teaching, (6) the P.E. and Sports program must

be re – studied and come up with the program that would serve the

interests of the clientele.

Meanwhile, Paredes’24 study aimed to find out the teacher’s

behaviors, characteristics, and competencies as perceived by the pupils,

peers and administrators. The study utilized the descriptive normative

survey method. The findings of the study showed that the intermediate

pupils rated their teachers’ competency as “very good”, the peers rated

them “very good”, and the administrators gave the same rating.

Gavarra25 assessed the teaching competencies of Grade VI

Mathematics teachers in the DECS, Division of Sorsogon. The study used

the descriptive method of research. The study revealed that the teachers

showed varied levels of teaching competence. It further found out that the

Mathematics teachers were familiar with the Mathematics teaching

strategies. However, not all of them applied these strategies in actual

27

teaching, the teachers under study instead used the lecture method most

of the time.

The study of Fuentes26 using descriptive correlational type method

focused on the teaching capabilities of public secondary school

Mathematics teachers in the Bicol Region. His study focused on the fifteen

National High Schools in Region V. He used the Percentage, Frequency

Count, Weighted Mean, and Kruskall Wallis as the statistical instrument.

He found out that (1) majority of the secondary teachers belong to 31 to

35 years of age, (2) level of capabilities of the Mathematics teachers in

Albay, Camarines Sur, Legaspi City, and Masbate were all “satisfactory”

even in the over all descriptive rating.

The study of Balcueva27 discovered that teaching performance of

Mathematics and technology teachers in the different year levels as

perceived by the three groups of respondents was “very good”. The

descriptive – survey method was utilized in data gathering. The

respondents were the Mathematics and Technology students in all year

levels, Mathematics administrators and Mathematics teachers. the fervent

points of these teachers were the skills in integrating scientific attitudes

and values in the lesson and ability to discipline students. However,

improvement in the use of appropriate teaching methods and motivational

techniques in the evaluation skills was suggested. It was suggested that

28

Mathematics instruction be upgraded by encouraging Mathematics and

Technology teachers to enroll in subjects related to Mathematics and

Technology and by conducting a seminar – workshop at least twice a

year.

The study of Sembrano28 on the instructional competence of the

faculty of Centro Escolar University recommended that an assessment

commitment might be formed in the college. This is to evaluate teaching

competence, identifying problem areas, and assisting the faculty members

in finding solutions to the problem. Competent teachers, especially those

who were rated outstanding or superior by the students may be asked to

observe their peers at work with the objective of identifying unfavorable

teaching practices.

The study of Manalo29 was focused on the teaching competency of

Mathematics faculty in relation to college freshmen attitude and

achievement in the different colleges in Legazpi City. His study utilized

the survey design and the descriptive – evaluative correlational method.

Five mathematics faculty members representing five institutions of higher

learning in Legazpi City and 150 freshmen students were the respondents.

The conclusions of the study were: 1.) Most of the students exhibited

“average” to “very high” in numerical ability of competency and “average”

in their mid–term; 2.) The teacher’s over-all rating was 3.9 indicating a

29

favorable attitude towards teaching mathematics; 3.) There was no

significant difference in the numerical ability of the students among the five

colleges; and 4.) To enhance the competency of the Mathematics faculty,

the following interventions were proposed: (a) offer scholarships to

mathematics faculty, (b) sponsor a continuing seminar, (c) implement an

internal support system through: joint planning, team teaching, and others.

Tolarba’s30 study focused on the performance of the students and

teaching competence of instructors in Natural Mathematics in private

higher education institutions in the province of Albay concluded that

majority of the Mathematics instructors in higher education institutions are

young, female, BSEd graduate and have masteral units. The Mathematics

instructors have satisfactory level of teaching competency especially on

their teaching strategies, motivational strategies, communication skills,

laboratory procedures and techniques and improvisation of equipment as

perceived by students and the Mathematics instructors themselves. It was

recommended the Mathematics instructors must exert ways to refocus

their effort to bring about their students critical and analytical thinking and

that Mathematics instructors who are not BS in Education graduates be

required to take the minimum units in education to improve their

competencies especially with regard to the testing skills. The Mathematics

instructors should be encouraged to give more attention to bring their

30

students outdoors or for field trips to Mathematics instructions. Finally,

Mathematics instructors should be encouraged to recognize and develop

instructional materials in his or her area of specialization suited to the

student’s level of readiness and abilities.

In a case study conducted by Yang et al31 entitled Developing

Pedagogical Content Competence Evaluation for Apprentice Physical

Mathematics Teachers which utilized the fourth generation evaluation

model had the following findings: (1) Among 89 experienced Mathematics

teachers, 43.8% had six to ten years teaching experience, 51.7% had

eleven to fifteen years teaching experience, and 3.4% had more than

sixteen years teaching experience, 27% had supervised apprentice

teachers before. Although less than one third of teachers mentoring

experiences before, 80.0% were still willing to be mentors in the future.

Among these teachers, 27% were concurrently teachers and school

administrators and 73% were solely responsible for teaching; (2)

Regarding the experienced Mathematics teachers’ consensus concerning

the importance of each teaching competency, most of them rated most of

the teaching competencies “important to very important”. The most

important six important teaching competencies ranked by the teachers

were: lab safety, ability to deal with accident and problems, teacher and

student interaction, identification of appropriate lesson goals, introduction

31

of Mathematics concepts, explanation of concepts, and control of

classroom management. The least important teaching competencies

were: providing curriculum resources for the lesson, and offering clues

concerning experimental skills/strategies; (3) The experienced teachers’

perception concerning the feasibility of each teaching competence were

more conservative than their perceptions of the importance of each

teaching competence. The competencies considered easiest to grade

were: lab safety, cleaning up after experiments, controlling classroom

management, preparing equipment, identifying appropriate goals for the

lesson and interacting with students. Most experienced Mathematics

teachers ranked the feasibility and importance of teaching competencies

in same order. The least feasible teaching competencies were: monitoring

experiments, establishing a positive attitude toward Mathematics learning,

providing a low-pressure environment and emphasizing different students’

abilities. These teaching competencies, which mostly involve creating a

positive learning environment, are somewhat difficult to score. Although

the evaluation team members wrote detailed descriptions of how to score

these teaching competencies, teachers were not familiar with some of the

statements made. It seems that the statements will need further revision in

the future; (4) The Kendall Coefficient of Concordance for the four cases

indicate that the whole instrument and each category of teaching

32

competency have significant coherence among the raters; and (5) From

the survey, 75.3% of the experienced Mathematics teachers were willing

to apply the evaluation instrument in assessing future physical apprentice

Mathematics teachers’ teaching performance and 70.8% of the

Mathematics teachers will recommend that their schools use the

assessment instrument.

Yang32 in his report entitled Developing and Validating Biology

Teaching Performance Assessment Battery constructs seven essential

teaching indicators for biology Mathematics teachers: teaching process,

analogies/metaphors/application of symbols, organization of materials,

student teacher interaction, utilization of teaching aids, and other teaching

performance proved by the candidates. In each of the indicators he also

presented several teaching competencies wherein based on those

teaching criteria or competencies suggested by the United States and

Taiwan Mathematics teacher educators, it was clear that teachers need to

have an appropriate understanding of the subject content, and for

assessing students’ understanding.

Fajardo33 studied behavioral characteristics and teaching

effectiveness. Findings revealed that:1) teachers possess favorable

behavioral characteristics that can enhance their teaching effectiveness,

2) the teachers have very satisfactory professional skills which can be

33

used in effective teaching, 3) there is a significant relationship between

behavioral characteristics and teaching effectiveness, 4) the faculty

development plan proposed in the study was hoped to inspire the teaching

effectiveness of SUC instructors and professors along defined areas of

instruction, and 5) on factor that future researchers may look into is on the

relationship between organizational climate and quality education..

Synthesis of the State-of–the-Art

From the studies reviewed both foreign and local, the following

similarities and differences in terms of scope, methods, respondents, and

findings were noted.

All the foreign studies that were reviewed were similar to the

present study because they all focused on the learning area of

Mathematics. Ornstein and Habana quoting Wong and Chang strongly

support that quality education depends upon quality teachers. Miller and

Ewel, talked about assessment as a tool to facilitate program towards

goals and objectives which is intrinsic to education. In the article authored

by Weiss, he noted that quality education could be achieved through

quality teachers. On the other hand, this study focus on determining if

there was a significant relationship on the perception of the students and

the School Headas to the level of teaching competence of Mathematics

teachers of Sta Elena High Schools during the School Year 2008-2009.

34

Gregorio considered the outstanding qualities of a teacher in the area of

higher education to be: mastery of the subject matter, knowledge of the

nature of the students, knowledge of the aims of higher education and the

methods of teaching them, scientific attitude, patience sympathy, and love

for the students, pleasant personality and happy disposition, freedom from

physical impediment, ability to think and to speak clearly and logically,

ambition, right attitudes towards teaching, spirit of cooperation, and

altruism. On the other hand, the present study focused on the teaching

competences of the Mathematics teachers which were: mastery of the

subject matter, use of teaching strategies, communication skills, use of

equipment and instructional materials, classroom management, evaluation

of students’ performance and personal and social competence.

The study of Margallo about the BU-RSTC faculty / staff / trainer

was also on professional competence with strong support of the

administration. Sembrano focused also on teacher competence and

identified problem areas and finding solution to problems. Manalo,

Jaymalin, Paredes, and Gavarra also studied on teacher competence with

some differences in variables. Manalo studied teaching competency of

Mathematics faculty, while the present study focused on the Mathematics

faculty.

35

Studies of Morga, Yang and Yang were similar to the present study

since these all dealt with the competence of Mathematics teachers. They

only differ on the evaluators/raters and location of the studies. They also

differ in the criteria to be measured and the approached.

All the studies mentioned used the descriptive – normative survey,

descriptive – analytical survey, and descriptive normative – correlational

analysis. However, all of the studies mentioned differ in one way or

another from the present study.

Gap Bridged by the Study

The studies reviewed dealt mostly on student performance and

teaching competencies of teachers in basic education and in different

disciplines. Related studies bear significant similarities with the present

study in terms of methodologies, personal and professional variables,

respondents and design. However, in the present study it aimed to

identify the characteristics of Mathematics teachers such as personal

attributes, professional profile like academic rank, teaching experience

and membership in professional organizations which may have an

implication to the teaching competence of Mathematics teachers in which

other writer have not focused on. Eventually, the study attempted to

propose a training program in which its components differ from previously

cited studies. This is the gap that this present study bridged.

36

Theoretical Framework

This study was anchored on Robbin’s theory34 which states that

human resources planning, as a process, ensure the smooth development

of an organization. “We assess where we are, we assess where we are

going; we consider the implications of these objectives on future demands

and the future supply of human resources; and we attempt to match

demand and supply so as to make them compatible with the achievement

of the organization’s future needs.”

One conceptual framework for understanding the dynamic

interactions that take place in subject and pastoral departments is the

notion of professional learning communities. These are communities of

practice in schools that focus on fostering learning with students, be it in

academic subjects or in personal and social development. Clark35

perceived such communities as social systems that have a purpose, the

members of which fulfill a diversity of roles within a recognizable and

sustainable collectively.

The concept of performance relates to the extent to which an

individual carries out the responsibilities assigned to them; ‘the

accomplishment of a task or activity.36 It appears to be a straightforward

requirement; either the task has been completed or it has not. In practice,

however, particularly but not exclusively in professional occupations such

37

as teaching, there may be room for interpretation about the quality of the

performance. ‘The problem may arise as to how one is to know if what has

been done is the accomplishment of something (performance) and what is

the required standard… there is a good deal of subjectivity surrounding

the evaluation of performance.

People are not islands in institutions but part of collectivities, such

as schools, school subject departments or year groups of students, which

their own particular sub-cultures or small cultures that reflect the norms,

beliefs and values supported by members of such groups and to which

their members are expected to subscribe. Such sub-cultures, especially

those in secondary schools in England, may also be in conflict with their

wider institutional culture, as Siskin has shown. Cultures establish norms

and expectations for actions and decision-making for each department,

group or community which are as binding on their leaders as they are on

other members of the department or community.

The sub-cultures created by middle leaders studied by Busher37

seem to have been quasi-collegial like those recommended by Hopkins38

as being necessary for improving schooling in England, although they

probably did not fulfill the strict notions for genuine collegiality that

Hargreaves39 put forward, as the hierarchical relationships between middle

leaders and teachers was always visible and openly acknowledged by

38

teachers and middle leaders. However, other leaders in other schools and

departments might create different cultures and sub-cultures which would

have different impacts on the ways in which would have different

1

3

Riches’ Theory of Performance

1

Robbin’s Human Resources Planning

4

Busher’s Creating

Cultures of Learning

2

Clark’s Constructing a

Learning Community

A specialized science teacher armed with right competency and strategies in effectively delivering the subject matter in science. At the end, it will create a relevant teaching

and learning culture which responds to the goals of basic education.

39

Figure 1

Theoretical Paradigm

impacts on the ways in which teachers might be willing to work together.

Qualifications of teachers teaching Mathematicss are essential, as

the saying goes that, “you can not give what you do not have”.

Constructing learning community, relevant to the breakthroughs of the

subject matter. Once the teacher is equipped with competencies and

strategies a quality performance is unleashed by the teacher intrinsically

innately. Thus, creating a culture of learning. Learning that answers the

basic goals of the curriculum. The researcher now believed that a

specialized Mathematics teacher armed with the right competencies and

strategies in effectively delivering the subject matters in Mathematics. At

the end, it will create a relevant teaching and learning culture which

responds to the goals of basic education.

Conceptual Framework

This study assessed the teaching competencies in terms of

personal attributes, professional qualifications, and teaching skills.

The faculty’s personal attributes includes age, gender, and

professional profile which the researcher thought to be of significance to

the teaching competence of Mathematics teachers in Sta Elena High

40

Schools. Professional profile was composed of educational qualifications,

academic rank, subjects taught, length of teaching Mathematics and other

teaching experiences. Trainings, seminars and workshops attended in the

subject and membership in related professional organizations was also

looked into consideration.

The teaching competence of the teachers was assessed by the

School Headand students who relate with the teachers and who were the

direct beneficiaries of instruction. This also means that teacher factor is

the main determining factor in order to ensure high level of teaching

competency in academic education. In order to determine whether training

is required, assessment is necessary. This is done by collecting

information in order to determine whether training is needed. Then

develop a training model that will contribute to the objective of the training

beneficial to the Mathematics teachers and students in Sta Elena High

Schools.

The outcome of the analysis were the bases in making training

programs to enhance teachers competence, improve classroom teaching

and support the comprehensive developmental plan of the Division of

Camarines Norte.

41

Input Process Output

cha

h

Characteristics of Science Teachers

Personal Attributes

AgeGender

Professional ProfileEducational

QualificationTeaching

ExperiencesIn – Service

Trainings, Seminars, Workshops attended

Level of teaching competence of the Science teachers as perceived by the School Heads and students

Preparation of survey questionnaire

Conduct informal interview and administration of the questionnaire

Analysis and Interpretation of the assessment of the level of teaching competence

Making conclusions and recommenda-tions

A Proposed

Training

Program for

Science

Teachers to

enhance their

competence,

improve

classroom

teaching and

support

comprehensive

development

plan of the

Division of

Camarines

Norte.

Feedback

42

Figure 2

Conceptual Paradigm

NOTES

1Carl Weiss, Evaluation Research Methods for Assessing Program Effectiveness (Engliwood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1980).

2Rensis Likert, New Pattern of Management (New York: McGran Hall, 1961).

3Albert J. Huggert, Practical School Administration Campaign (The General Press Publishers, 1980).

4California State Board.

5Alan Ornstein, Strategies for Effective Teaching (USA: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1984).

6Paulita Habana, et al., “Characteristics of An Effective Teacher”, INNOTECH Journal, Volume III, No. 2 (Quezon City: SEAMCO INNOTECH, 1991),

7Gary D. Borich and Kathleen S. Festoon, The Appraisal of Teaching Concepts and Processes (USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Inc., 1977), 67.

8Dr. Felimon Uriarte, DOST Secretary at the Proceedings of the 8 th

SEACME, Ateneo de Manila University, May 30 – June 4, 1999.

9Dr. Nilo L. Rosas, DECS Undersecretary, “Overview and Orientation at the Educator’s Congress, Teacher’s Camp, Baguio City, May 17-21, 1999.

10Herman C. Gregorio, Principles and Practices of College Teaching Revised Edition (Quezon City: R.P Garcia Publishing Inc., 1983).

43

11William E. Esler and May K. Esler, Teaching Elementary Mathematics 6 th Edition (Belmont California: Woodsworth Publishing Co., 1993), vi – vii.

12Development Magazine, “Mathematics and Technology Key to Sustainable Development”, Philippine Magazine, Volume 25 No. 3 May – June 1998, 10.

13Development Magazine, Ibid.

14P.T. Ewell. “Hearts and Minds. Some Reflections on the Ideologies of Assessment.” Paper presented at the Fourth American Association for Higher Education Conference on Assessment in Higher Education at Atlanta, Georgia, USA on June 1998.

15R.A. 2260 as amended, The Civil Service Law of 1959, Rule X Section 1-3.

16RA 5521 Creating the University Charges with the Mission to provide Professional and Technical Training and Specialized Instruction in Literature, Philosophy, Mathematicss, and Arts.

17Education Act of 1972.

18Education Act of 1972.

19RA 7784

20Wilhelmina R. Morga, “Assessment of the Teaching Performance of Bicol University Faculty, A Three–Pronged Approach” (Dissertation, Bicol University, Legazpi City).

21Edwina M. Morasa, “Training Needs of the Personnel of Bicol University Legazpi City” (Unpublished Dissertation, Bicol University, Legazpi City, March 1994).

22Agnes A. Margallo, “TheBicol University Regional Mathematics Teaching Center: Its Status and Prospects” (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Bicol University, Legazpi City, 1997).

23Carlos B. Jaymalin, “Teaching Competency of P.E. Teachers Teaching Swimming in the College of Fisheries, Bicol University, Tabaco

44

Campus, Albay: An Analysis” (Master’s Thesis, Bicol University, Graduate School, Legazpi City, April 11997).

24Deny G. Paredes, “Teachers’ Behavior-Characteristics and Competencies as Perceived by Pupils, Peers, and Administrators in Bulan South District” (Master’s Thesis, Annunciation College, Sorsogon, Sorsogon, March 1998).

25Wilfredo J. Gavara, “Teaching Competencies of Grade Six Mathematics Teachers in the Division of Sorsogon” (Master’s Thesis, Annunciation College, Sorsogon, Sorsogon, 1998).

26Augusto F. Fuentes, “Teaching Capabilities of Public Secondary School Mathematics Teachers in the Bicol Region” (Doctoral Dissertation, Bicol College, 1998).

27Elena C. Balcueva, “Teaching Performance of Mathematics and Technology Teachers as Perceived by Administrators, Teachers Themselves, Students of Tabaco National High School” (Master’s Thesis, Bicol University, Legazpi City, 1995).

28Marilou C. Sembrano, “The Instructional Competence of the Faculty of CEU College of Dentistry: An Assessment” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of the Philippines, 1990).

29Meriem Manalo, “Teaching Competency of Mathematics Faculty in Relation to College Freshmen Attitudes and Achievement” (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Bicol University, February 2000).

30Jasper Erwin L. Tolarba, “Performance of Students and Teaching Competencies of Instructors in Natural Mathematics” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Bicol University, Legazpi City, March 2002).

31Yang (no data)

32Yang. (Ibid).

33Fajardo. (no data)

45

Chapter 3

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the method and procedures used by the

researcher in the study in investigating the problem. It also included the

research method used, sources of data, respondents, instrumentations,

and statistical treatment.

Research Method

This study used the descriptive correlational design,1 since it deals

with the current conditions concerning nature of teachers, e.g. their

personal attributes, professional profile and teaching competence in

Mathematics. according to Gay, as cited by Sevilla et al., this method

involves the collection of personal, situational and intellectual data to test

the hypothesis and answer the questions reflected in the study. Moreover,

it utilized a survey technique using a questionnaire to gather information

regarding the characteristics of the Mathematics teachers in the two

Cluster in terms of their personal attributes and professional profile. The

researcher also employed an informal interview to gather information that

46

is not feasible in the questionnaire to confirm findings that will be

concerted by the instruments.

Sources of Data

There were three instruments used as sources of data. The primary

source of data was the Personal Profile Questionnaire which was

answered by the Mathematics teachers from the Sta Elena High Schools.

Next were the two sets of assessment form designed by the researcher

that was answered by the students and the School Heads.

The secondary sources of data included books, journals, theses,

dissertations, and on-line sources.

Respondents

There were three groups of respondents in the study. One group

included the Mathematics teachers from Sta Elena High SchoolsSchool

during the School Year 2008-2009. The second group, were the School

Headfrom the said cluster and the third group was the students from the

cluster. Total enumeration was used in treating the respondents from the

group of Mathematics teachers and school heads. While the student

respondents were chosen through random sampling. Sampling is the

process of selecting a representative portion that can be the source of

data to test the hypothesis, (Zulueta, 2003)2. The researcher employed the

47

Slovin’s formula3 in selecting the sample at 5% margin of error. To

compute for the total number of respondents which was 370, the Slovin’s

formula was used:

where: n = the size of the sample

N = the size of the population

e = the margin of error (5%)

The maximum margin of error used was 5%. It would give a

confidence level of 95%. The selection was proportional at 7.41%, and this

was obtained by using the Sampling Proportion4 formula:

where: n = the size of the population

N = the size of the population

The sample was chosen through random sampling to ensure that

all the members of the population had the chance to be chosen as a

sample.

Instrumentation

The use of tools or techniques surely achieved the goals of

discovering things and in solving problems. The survey questionnaire was

48

used as research tool to elicit valuable data in achieving the objectives of

this study. The researcher prepared the questionnaire and made some

adaptations from the instrument used for assessing the performance of

Bicol University Faculty and few of the Criteria from the study of

Carranza5. Three sets of survey questionnaires that were used in data

gathering. One was a questionnaire consists of two parts that was

answered by the Mathematics teachers. Part I was about their personal

profile such age and gender. Part II was about the teacher’s professional

profile such as educational qualifications, teaching experiences,

membership in professional organization, and in-service trainings,

seminars and workshops attended.

A third questionnaire in an assessment form that was used by the

School Headand students in assessing the teaching competence on the

mastery of the subject matter, use of teaching strategies, communication

skills, use of equipment and instructional facilities, classroom

management, evaluation of students’ performance, and personal and

social competence of the Mathematics teachers in Sta Elena High Schools

during the school year 2008-2009. The questionnaire was prepared

through the aid of Carranza’s study on Personality Traits, Social Traits and

Institutional Skills of Student Teachers of Teacher Education Institutions.

49

Furthermore, modifications and improvements were made to fit the

categories which were integrated in the study.

A dry run was administered at Basud Cluster students and School

Head. An informal interview was done to elicit reactions, comments and

suggestions regarding the questionnaire. Corrections were made by the

researcher based on the suggestions given and through the help of some

respected colleagues in the academic world. The questionnaires were

then distributed to the students and School Headof Sta Elena High

Schools.

The five-point Likert Scale was used in rating the level of teaching

competence as follows:

Rating Scale Range Adjectival Descriptions

54321

4.50 – 5.003.50 – 4.492.50 – 3.491.50 – 2.491.00 – 1.49

Highly CompetentCompetentFairly CompetentPoorIncompetent

The responses were scaled ranging from one (1) to five (5), where

five (5) was the highest and one (1) was the lowest.

Statistical Treatment

50

The data and responses were quantified using frequency and

weighted mean, and percentage technique. The data were tabulated and

statistically treated. The following statistical tools were used in the study:

Frequency Count and Percentage Technique. It was used to

quantify and determine the characteristics of the Mathematics teachers in

Sta Elena High Schools. To get the percentage, the formula was

where: P = percentage

f = frequency

N = total number of respondents

Weighted Mean. The weighted mean was computed to determine

the extent to which the respondents perceived the teaching competence of

the Mathematics teachers in Sta Elena High Schools. It was used to

quantify the data and make the interpolation more objective.

Mean. The mean was used to compute the measure of central

tendency to denote point estimate of fluctuating of scores or data in the

profile of the Mathematics teachers in Sta Elena High Schools during the

School-Year 2008 – 2009.

51

Ranking. Ranking was used to determine the degree of responses

of the students and school heads. This was done so that both data were in

ordinal data.

Spearman Rho. It is a non-parametric test that was used to

measure the degree of relationships between two ordinal variables.6 In this

study the ordinal variables were the ranks of the teaching competences as

assessed by the students and School Headthat was correlated. A test of

significance was employed later to determine the significance of

relationships if there was any.

Below is the Table of the Degree of Association or Relationships

using the Simplified Statistics for Beginners software.7

52

NOTES

1Consuelo C. Sevilla, et al., An Introduction to Research Methods. (Manila: Rex Book Store, 1998), 94.

2Francisco M. Zulueta and Nestor Edilberto B. Costales, Jr., Methods of Research Thesis–Writing and Applied Statistics (Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, 2003).

3Ibid.

4Ibid.

5Guadalupe M. Carranza, “Personality Traits, Social Traits, and Instructional Skills of Student Teachers of Teacher Education Institution in Albay” (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 1996).

6Cesar B. Bermundo and Alex B. Bermundo, Simplified Statistics for Beginners Workbook (2005).

7Ibid