building innovation culture

Marjo Mäenpää & Taina Rajanti (eds)

Creative Futures Conference Proceedings

10. -11. October 2007 in Pori, Finland

Marjo Mäenpää, Taina Rajanti (eds.)

Creative Futures Conference Proceedings

Publication of Creative Leadership

University of Art and Design, Pori School of Art and Media

Taideteollisen korkeakoulun julkaisu C 6

2008 writers, Pori, Finland

Design and layout: Marjo Mäenpää

ISSN: 0786-1915

ISBN: 978-951-558-263-8

www.creativeleadership.fi

3 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings �

Creative Futures Conference ProceedingsPreface 5

1. Creative Leadership and Organizations 9

Tomi Kallio, Creativity and Organizational Structures – Perspectives from Mintzbergian Organizational Design 10 Päivi Mikkonen and Heidi Enkovaara, Practical approach: How to enhance innovation democracy with the means of idea management in an expert organization? 20

Tuuli Penttinen-Lampisuo, Tuottaja omalla alalla, omassa ajassa 35

Johan Sandström, Creative organizing in the global network society: the case of global trafficking networks 58

Juhani Tenhunen, New project management practices 68

2. Creativity in Futures Thinking, Futures Studies and Foresight 77

Jukka Hallikas, Mikko Pynnönen, Petri Savolainen, Kimmo Suojapelto: Scenarios in the ICT Service Business 78

Jari Jussila, Anu Suominen, Jussi Kantola and Hannu Vanharanta, Building Innovation Culture 89

Pekka Huovinen, Enhancing creative foresight among design business managers versus international construction markets 102

Eeva-Liisa Kronqvist, Hannu Soini, ”This will not work out!” –How to take risks in developing innovations in higher education 120

Kirsi-Mari Vihermaa, Anu Ikonen-Kullberg, Does creativity create measurable firm value? 136

3. Everyday Creativity and User Innovations 145

Veikko Ikonen, Human Driven Design and Innovation of Everyday 1�6

Taina Rajanti, Everyday Creativity in business 159

Tiina Rautakorpi, Taidon moniääninen reflektio 166

Katriina Siivonen Culture is basically creative. What is the relationship betweena culture as a whole, and heterogeneous cultural processes with individual traits, change, variation and creativity? 180

Marjo Mäenpää, Agile, Fragile, Flow - Management Strategies in Creative Processes 191

Pia Arenius , Tiina Mäkitalo-Keinonen and Sari Liikala, User toolkits for innovation: Link between the knowledge of the firm and the knowledge of the user 205 4. Leadership and Creativity 217

Tomi Kallio, Taina Rajanti, Tarja Toikka, Kirsi-Mari Vihermaa and Hanna Willner, What do you mean, creative economy? A conceptual mapping from five fields of science 218Perttu Salovaara, The beauty and the beast: Relationships between arts, creativity and leadership 231

Anne-Maria Mikkonen, From ‘Manager of meaning’ to ‘Managers of many meanings’:Social-constructionist approach to creative leadership 2�5

Eila Lindfors, How to teach innovation? – A case in teacher educationKuinka opettaa innovaatiota? – Tapaus opettajankoulutuksessa 256

Tarja Toikka, Kompleksisuus luovan johtamisen paradigmana – muotoilun prosessit mahdollisena komponenttina luovuutta tukevaan johtamiseen 268

5. Regional and Local Perspectives to Research and Education in the Creative Industries 280 Essi Lindberg, Porin visuaalinen keskus -hanke – luovia kohtaamisia ja kipinöitä 281

Ulla Heinonen, Leadership and Virtual Teams Working Globally 299

Emma Susi, Rajoja rikkomassa:Porin yliopistokeskuksen Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus 311

6. Verification of Knowledge Creation and Enabling in the Finland Model 321

Junko Tohda, Creating Knowledge and Synthesizing Capability of Applications 322

5 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 6

Preface

Creative Futures Conference at 10th and 11st of October 2007 in the University Consortium of Pori

was an academic and multidisciplinary meeting place where the versatile discussion wandered

around business, leadership and future prospects of the creative industries really critically and

analytically. Special themes of the Creative Futures Conference were challenges of leadership

in the creative field and the creative production process and regional effects of the creative

economy.

The Creative Futures -conference shed a critical view on the prospects for the leadership, creativity

and innovations in the fields of technology, digital media, services and culture. The conference

surveyed creative economy, education and research in the international field and from the point

of view of future studies.

In the conference presentations the same questions were heard several times: what do we mean

when we speak of creativity? What kind of processes do creative leaders lead - or do we mean

creative processes and maybe not so much creative leaders? One evident thing in the conference

was that the innovators, researchers, creators, content providers are considered as creative

resources. Other topics discussed in the conference – from the leadership and creativity in the

business, engineering or software project to the use of semantic models of the language – lead the

participants really deep into the multidisciplinary studies about creativity and leadership.

The papers collected to this publication are – almost every one of them – asking what are the

organs and structures that prevent creativity. Also in many papers ask the question how can one

lead processes where innovations occur?

***

When we speak about the future of media and technology, we speak about ever growing networks

of social media, entertainment and games industry, ubiquitous media and other innovations. We

have to also think about designing high technology services for large audience, learning solutions

and applications that make culture accessible for multi-cultured communities.

University Consortium of Pori is great example of multidisciplinary community. When different

disciplines work, research and study together we will have larger prospects. Culture, technology,

design, sociology and economy all together cover major disciplines about human understanding

and life. The research of creative economy and leadership in Pori is an example of nationally and

internationally innovative research produced by such a community.

Creative economy as a field and term is new and rapidly developing. It is based on a view of a

societal shift from a mass production-based economy towards constant development of new and

individual products and services. Master’s degree program in Creative Business Management

will start at 2009 in the University Consortium in Pori. It provides multidisciplinary expertise in

managing creative processes and business and tools for research of creative economy. The CBM

program is offered in collaboration with Turku School of Economics, Pori Unit and University

of Art and Design, Pori School of Art and Media. The students will build contacts with the local

industry and business, and carry out research, development or design projects in cooperation with

companies from Satakunta region. The Creative Leadership –research project forms the basis of

the MA-program, collecting assets, material and knowledge for its the use.

***

Creative Futures Conference is a continuation of the Call for Creative Futures Conference 2006,

held in October 2006 in Oulu, Finland. The topic then was creativity, innovations and culture.

The conference gathered in all 165 participants.

The Pori Creative Futures Conference had also over 150 registered participants. There were

around 30 presentations in six workshops, which dealt with the themes: Creative Leadership

and Organizations- The Innovative Borderlines between Design and ICT- Everyday Creativity

and User Innovations- Creativity in Futures Thinking, Futures Studies and Foresight- Regional

and Local Perspectives to Research and Education in the Creative Industries. In this conference

proceedings are published 2� papers and one key-note lecture from professor Junko Tohda from

Japan.

The Conference was organized by the Creative Leadership project run by Turku School of

Economics, Pori Unit and University of Art and Design Helsinki, Pori School of Art and Media.

Other institutes involved with the organization of the conference were Tampere University of

Technology, Pori Unit, Advanced Multimedia Center; University of Turku School of Cultural

Production and Landscape Studies; Turku School of Economics, Graduate School in Future

Business Competencies TULIO.

Keynote speakers in the conference were professor Junko Tohda (Hagoromo University of

International Studies, Japan), professor Markku Wilenius (Turku School of Economics, Finland

Futures Research Centre), professor Slavko Milekic (The University of the Arts, USA), professor

Saara Taalas (Media Group, Turku School of Economics) and professor, senior researcher Jussi

Vähämäki (University of Joensuu, Department of Social Policy).

The article of professor Tohda “Knowledge Enabling - Verification of Knowledge Creation

and Enabling in the Finland Model” searches the mechanisms for enabling knowledge creation

and rejuvenating local economy, through knowledge based industry and education. Professor


Tohda strongly believes that innovation in knowledge based culture holds the key to economic

strength.

Ms Tohda is a pioneer among women in the field of designing business strategy in Japan. Her list

of clients includes many large Japanese manufacturing companies, spanning the pharmacological,

cosmetic, steel and other heavy industry, semiconductor, and BIO sectors, and she has presented

sessions at business conferences and published in technical periodicals. At present she serves as

an auditor of a company moving toward IPO and an external board member of an IT company.

***

In business world the management strategies start from the presumption that there is a common

goal, a target, better income, better value and profit. The chain of tasks and value in flow charts

are easily drawn like one clear line from left to right. Stability is a goal. Managers usually want

a secure plan to commit them self. By making this commitment, they give up the ability to take

advantage of fortuitous developments in the business and technology environment. Managing

processes is a human act. Managing creative processes and creative teams is act that deals with

tacit knowledge, serendipity and flow.

In his paper professor Tomi Kallio from the Turku School of economics noted that if there is

something new in the currently mushrooming discourse on creativity, it is the fact that perhaps

only after Richard Florida’s book the topic of creativity has been explicitly connected to

economy, including such business oriented fields like marketing, accounting, and management

and organizations. This is not to say that the above mentioned fields would have ignored creativity

before – it’s just that the topic has only recently turned out to be very popular among the business

school scholars.

Research director Taina Rajanti explores an alternative approach to technology design and

development, especially ICT, proceeding from the perspective of everyday context of knowledge

production and problem solving. More than centering a product design process on the abstract

figure of the user, she explores the idea of driving it by appropriation and reinterpretation of real

people in their everyday practices and knowledge production. Rajanti stresses the need for user-

innovation in fields of production where production and consumption/use intermingle.

Several articles of this publication explore the deeper theoretical issues behind everyday creativity

and knowledge production to better understand the dynamics of creative industry. Today

productivity, wealth and the creation of social surpluses take the form of cooperative interactivity

through linguistic, communicative and affective networks. This means that paying attention to

everyday context of creativity is not an ethical or political choice for design, but a necessity for

any business that seeks success.

We are assured that business will profit from design not just as a way of producing more attractive

goods, but from the methods used in collaborative design that make the everyday context accessible

in product design. And it is the collaborative design, projects, processes that urge the know-how

of creative leadership.

Pori 1st of April 2008

Marjo Mäenpää, Taina Rajanti


1. Creative Leadership and Organizations

Creativity and Organizational Structures

– Perspectives from Mintzbergian Organizational Design

Tomi J. KallioProfessor; PhD

Turku School of EconomicsPori Unit

[email protected]

Abstract

This work in progress paper combines some “old” and “new” topics of management and

organizational studies while searching for new directions for creative management and organizing.

Some key concepts of Minzbergian organizational design as well as some recent ideas and themes

of creative work are explicated in the paper. Two exemplar cases are used to illustrate how

completely different kind of organizational forms can produce amazing results. It is suggested

that not only adhocracies and other potentially “innovative” organizational forms – namely

simple structure and professional bureaucracy – produce creative outcomes. Accordingly, the

work carried out for example in a machine bureaucracy might be creative and produce technical

and social innovations.

Key words: Organizational studies, creativity, organization theory, organizational structures,

management.


1. Introduction

If there is anything new in the current discourse on creativity, it is the fact that perhaps only after

Richard Florida’s (2002) book, the topic of creativity has been explicitly connected to business,

including fields like marketing, accounting, and management and organizations. This is not to say

that the above mentioned fields would have ignored creativity before – it’s just that the topic has

only recently turned out to be very popular among business school scholars.

The point of departure of the paper is that creativity as well as management and leadership

styles promoting it is needed not just in organizations populated by highly educated professionals,

but in all kinds of organizations. However, at the same time it is suggested that the roles and ways

of manifestation of creativity vary (and should vary) between organizations. It is this reason why

the classical ideas of Henry Mintzberg (1979), concerning organizational structures and design,

are connected to some of the recently discussed ideas on creativity.

The purpose of this work in progress paper is to combine the classical analysis of

organizational structures with some more recent studies and perspectives in creativity. Accordingly,

the paper combines some “old” and “new” topics of management and organizational studies

in searching for new directions for creative management and organizing. The paper begins

by a short introduction of some key themes and concepts of what is known as Minzbergian

organizational design. Some recent ideas and themes of creativity related studies are explicated

next. After introducing Mintzbergian organizational design and some constituting themes of

creativity, the focus is turned to two real life examples and cases. The paper ends by conclusions

and discussion.

2. Mintzbergian organizational design

Organizational structures have been studied widely ever since the early days of scientific

management. In the field of management and organizational studies themes associated with

organizational structures are usually perceived as essential part of organization theory. In her

textbook on organization theory Hatch (1997) has noted that organization theorists are usually

particularly interested in social and physical structures. It is the former, i.e. the social structures

of organizations, that is in the interest of this paper.

As Hatch (1997, 161) has put it: “In organization theory, social structure refers to relationships

among social elements including people, positions, and the organizational units to which they

belong”. Consequently, topics such as differentiation and integration, hierarchy and bureaucracy,

division of labor, coordination mechanisms, as well as organizational charts and forms are among

key the themes of organization theory. Above-mentioned topics have been studied from various

perspectives over the history of management and organizational studies. One of the most widely

used approaches in understanding organizations’ social structures is known as Mintzbergian

organizational design after well-known Canadian scholar Henry Mintzberg.

What makes Mintzberg’s (1979) approach particularly useful for theoretical organizational

analysis is the way that he defines the topic by describing five parts, five coordination mechanisms

and consequently five generic organizational structures. It is obvious that organizational analyses

based on above-mentioned Mintzberg’s generic concepts produce outcomes that can be seen

as ideal types rather than one-to-one reflections of reality. Consequently, as common to all

ideal type approaches, the strength of Mintzbergian organizational design is the accentuation of

organizational forms’ “mental purity” which makes the approach particularly useful for theoretical

purposes (Kallio, et al. 2007; Weber, 19�9).

Mintzberg (1979) suggests that the five parts of a generic organization are the strategic

apex (i.e. top management), the middle line (i.e. middle management), the operating core (i.e.

operational processes), the technostructure (i.e. design of systems, processes, etc) and the support

staff (i.e. support outside of operating workflow). The localization of the five parts of the generic

organization is traditionally illustrated as follows (see figure 1).

According to Mintzberg (1979) the five basic forms of coordination are i) mutual adjustment, ii)

direct supervision, iii) standardization of work processes, iv) standardization of outputs and v)

standardization of skills.

In mutual adjustment the coordination is carried out between two or more people through

informal communication. This form of coordination is especially common in small, entrepreneurial

organizations and on the other hand in large organizations that carry out particularly complex

tasks that cannot be coordinated otherwise than through mutual adjustment of the specialists

themselves. As an organization grows larger the coordination task turns out to be too complex

to carry out directly between individuals, and the task is usually given to a particular person

who is responsible for direct supervision. Consequently, in a way one brains become responsible

for coordinating the work of several pairs of hands. In sports the person responsible for direct

supervision is often called as playmaker and in firms as immediate superior. (ibid.)

Standardization means that, unlike in the cases of mutual adjustment and direct supervision,

the coordination is in a way carried out “on the drawing board” before the very work even took

Figure 1. Organizational Parts (Mintzberg, 1979)

13 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 1�

place. There are three basic variations of standardization. In standardization of work processes the

assembly instructions or firm’s machinery itself makes sure that the work is carried out as planned;

consequently, there is only one way to perform. In standardization of outputs there are certain

specifications that the product or other work output must meet. However, aside the final product

or other output the workers are more or less free to perform as they wish. In standardization

of skills the coordination is literally produced already during the education. Highly educated

professionals such as doctors and lawyers learn during their training how to produce expected

results to potentially complex problems. Consequently, every doctor should be able to diagnose

and cure basic illnesses and send their patients to specialist when special health care is needed.

(ibid.)

After defining the five basic parts and five forms of coordination, Mintzberg (1979) defines

five ideal type organizational forms, namely: simple structure, machine bureaucracy, professional

bureaucracy, divisional form and adhocracy. Three of these forms are usually considered as

“potentially innovative”; namely, simple structure, professional bureaucracy and adhocracy. In

section � two exemplar cases are used to illustrate how completely different kind of organizational

forms can produce amazing results. However, first is necessary to take a short tour to the discourse

of creativity.

3. Studies and hypes of creativity

The academic research on creativity can be dated back several decades. It is often stated that

J. P. Guilford’s presidential address to American Psychological Association in 1950 was an

important boost to research on creativity (see e.g. Pope 2005). Guilford’s plea to make creativity

a focal point for psychological inquiry was responded by numerous scholars during the following

decades. Another, more recent, momentum for the creativity discourse has been Richard Florida’s

(2002) book The Rise of the Creative Class. Florida’s book had a major influence for creativity

in becoming one of the most topical themes in societal discourse and media. As a consequence of

creativity turning highly popular, several actors – including scholars, consultants, ministerial and

other governmental bodies, and NGOs – have produced their own reports, studies and pamphlets

concerning creativity (Tapola & Kallio 2007). This has let creativity becoming hype, while the

leviathan discourse surrounding the concept is damaging to the original academic and respectable

research on creativity.

One potentially harmful dimension of creativity hype is that of creative work. One should

recognize that themes of creativity should not be attached and to the work of organizations such

as universities and hospitals just to look quick returns. Consequently, the myriad challenges of

the healthcare sector in Finland, for instance, cannot be solved just by introducing creativity to

under-resourced organizations. Problems attached to financial, human and other resources need

to be solved properly. This is not to say, however, that new kind of innovative solution could not

be found if searched for. On the other hand, one should not forget that it is the potential product of

creativity – innovation – and especially the urge for commercialization of innovations that have

opened up the door for harmful hypes in working life.

With a slight simplification it can be stated that the main academic interest in phenomenon

known as creativity has focused either on the features of creative person, on the creative process or

on the products of creative work (Häyrynen 199�). On the other hand, the organizational structure

where creative work takes place has not received particular attention. This is an important defect

given the fact that the organizational structure literally defines how people interact with each

other and how their work is organized and coordinated. Moreover, when analyzing creativity in

organizations it is useful to distinguish creative work from creative working approach. Creative

work can be defined as expert work carried out by (usually) highly educated professionals in

organizations such as universities, research labs, hospitals, advertising agencies, law offices etc.

Creative working approach, on the other hand, underlines creative approach in all kind of work

regardless of the branch of business, and is thus applicable to different kinds of organizations

from universities to factories and cleaning firms. (Tapola & Kallio 2007)

As it comes to creativity and its potential outcome, innovation, another important

distinction should be made; namely, one between technical innovations and social innovations.

Unlike often perceived by mass media and laymen, some of the most important innovations

have nothing to do with technology. Accordingly, social innovations, should they be new kind of

management, organization, working etc. solutions, may have important effects on organizations

and their everyday work. Consequently, unlike technical innovations, which in many cases can

be commercialized rather directly, social innovations might be more or less organization-specific.

On the hand, many social innovations such as democratic decision-making, market economy

and separation of juridical legislation from law enforcement have had tremendous consequences

for humanity. While creative work and creative working approach are not mutually excusive,

as a general rule of thumb one it can be stated that creative work is more oriented in producing

technical innovations whereas creative working approach social innovations.

4. Creativity in organizations; two exemplar cases

In this section two historical – though completely different kind of – exemplar cases of creative

work are shortly present. The focus of the analysis is especially on organizational aspects of the

cases.

4.1 The Pyramids; machine bureaucracy

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World that has survived

to modern times, and often stated as the most amazing accomplishment of mankind. For long

scientists and engineers have wondered how it was even possible to build such a colossal building

without modern engineering and machinery. As far it is known, the pyramids were designed by

relatively small amount of engineers who made the actual technical innovation of the outstanding

project; i.e. they designed how to build the pyramids in the technical sense.

Without a doubt the technical innovations demanded to build the Pyramids must have been

groundbreaking as modern engineers are still amazed by the technical superiority of the project.


It was, however, the management and organization of thousands of workers – according to the

latest knowledge hired workers instead of slaves – for decades that made the execution of the

technical innovations possible. Undoubtedly this required numerous social innovations; i.e. the

management of blue-collar labor facilitated and made it possible to build the pyramids in social

sense.

Although there are little writings concerning the actual building sites and constructions

of the pyramids – as they were literally tombs of the pharaohs in their journey to afterlife and

consequently carefully protected secrets – it is likely that the very organizational structure of the

project falls into category of machine bureaucracy (see figure 2).

Figure 2. Machine bureaucracy (Mintzberg, 1979)

According to Mintzberg (1979), machine bureaucracy it characterized by highly specialized,

routine operations that are executed under strictly formalized, routine procedures in the operating

core. The operating core of the pyramid-building organization consists of workers (average

Egyptian citizens) working under the direct supervision of their immediate superiors. The role

of the immediate superiors is to make sure that workers keep on going. Accordingly, as the work

with heavy stones – should that be moving them or sculpting them – is not just back-breaking

but also highly dangerous, a standardization mechanism is needed. Therefore the most important

coordination mechanism must be the standardization of work processes; otherwise accidents

would happen and people would die unnecessarily often. Consequently, there is hardly any

creative working approach involved in the everyday work of the operating core. (Wikipedia)

The strategic apex of the organization consists of the pharaoh himself, most likely of his

high priest and perhaps the leading engineer(s) responsible for the construction project. The role

of the strategic apex in the pyramids case is less “strategic” than in most business cases. Rather it

was considered as divine. Even thought the pharaoh was not considered to be a god while he was

living, the work carried out was considered as work for gods. The fact that the pyramid-building

project was considered as holy let to the use of average Egyptians as workforce; the slaves were

considered to be not worth of building the pyramids and their role was thus just to unstuck stones.

(Wikipedia)

The role of the middle line was probably very bureaucratic and focused on solving conflicts

and problems and keeping up vertical communication. As in most machine bureaucracies, in the

pyramid-building organization the middle line were most likely highly hierarchical, as in ancient

Egypt the social status, positions and hierarchies were very important.

Due to the fact that a machine bureaucracy depends on the standardization of its operating

work processes, the technostructure is the key part of the organization (Mintzberg, 1979). The

engineers and other specialists within technostructure are responsible for designing the different

tasks and consequently coordinating the work of the operational core. Therefore the technostucture

was also the part of the organization that had to develop, or at least enforce, the technical and

social innovations necessary for pyramid-building. Consequently, in the case of the pyramids,

it was the technostructure that most likely was responsible for making possible the astonishing

project that in the case of the Great Pyramid of Giza is estimated to take 23 years and the work

contribution of at least 10,000 workers. (Wikipedia)

4.2 The Manhattan Project

In 1938 two German scientists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, demonstrated a nuclear fission.

This led to theoretical innovation of nuclear chain reaction that made possible to build a nuclear

bomb – at least in theory. In practice many scientist felt that it was almost impossible to produce

enough the needed isotope of uranium to build a bomb. Consequently, only a few years before

The Manhattan Project was launched, there was no unanimity among scientists whether it was

practically even possibly to build atomic bomb. The British had already started their project

while the US joined only after the Japanese attacked to Pearl Harbor in 19�1. Due to the war the

needed resources for this tremendous project was discovered. Under the codename Manhattan

Engineering District US, UK and Canada were secretly to develop nuclear weapons. (Holmström

2005; Wikipedia)

Depending the how one calculates it, the project employed almost 300,000 people, while

the financial costs of the project were approximately 23 billion dollars equivalent to 2007. The

scientific research was lead by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. Manhattan Project employed

23 scientists that had already received or who were to receive the Nobel Prize. Astonishingly,

the average age of the scientist at the project was under 30 years. In just a few years, from an

ad hoc basis, new towns and plants had been build to produce the needed nuclear materials.

Consequently, the prophecy of physicist Niels Bohr ”It can never be done unless you turn the

United States into one huge factory” had become reality. (Holmström 2005; Wikipedia)

The scientists of the Manhattan project were able to develop two types of atomic bombs:

uranium bomb, dropped to Hiroshima, and plutonium bomb, dropped to Nagasaki. While the

“social desirability” of the actual outcome of the Manhattan project might and should obviously


be questioned, the development of the atomic bomb works as an example of a successful ad

hoc project that employed numerous highly educated professionals and that aimed to a ground-

breaking innovation. In organization theory terms The Manhattan Project organization was an

adhocracy (see figure 3).

Figure 3. Adhocracy (Mintzberg, 1979)

The only organizational form in Mintzberg’s (1979) typology able to be truly innovative is the

adhocracy. While the simple structure can be highly innovative, it can be so only in limited

scale, and while professional bureaucracy is populated by highly educated professionals, it

“merely” produces expected results to potentially complex problems. Consequently neither of

these organizational forms is oriented to wide-scale problem-solving. Thus, in problem-solving

adhocracy is by far the structure enabling open-minded and critical thinking, essential for

innovations.

While single experts are able to work alone in professional bureaucracies, in adhocracies

the work contribution of several experts must be brought together. This is the very strength of

the adhocracy form; it is able to bring together highly educated experts from various fields,

and merge them as ad hoc project teams to solve new, often unexpected, problems. (ibid.) This

was also essential for The Manhattan Project since before the actual nuclear weapon was even

possible to build, numerous innovations were needed to solve the technical problems attached to

the project.

Adhocracy is a highly organic structure with little formalized behavior and no standardized

coordination. Even in adhocracy some kind of coordination is necessary, however. The coordination

is often carried out through mutual adjustment within teams and between different teams by

team liaisons. Therefore there are exceptionally many managers (including functional managers,

integrating managers, project managers etc.) in adhocracies. As the managers are also functioning

members of teams, the distinction between line and staff disappears as illustrated by “fat” middle

line in figure 3. (ibid.)

Even though adhocracy is filled with (project) managers, especially challenging for the

coordination task is the fact that the team – and thus organizational – structures often constantly

change. Consequently, as new teams are established, “old” ones closed down or suspended, people

move between teams etc. there is hardly neither a stable organizational structure nor established

communication network. This was particularly demanding in The Manhattan Project as it literally

employed tens of thousands of people.

In adhocracies both the techostructure and support staff is usually absorbed into the middle

line. Consequently, the support staff has the key role in the organization. The role of the strategic

apex is to take care of the external relations, to solve conflicts and to take care of the division

of labor. In the case on The Manhattan Project members of the strategic apex were not just the

scientific and military leaders of the project, but as a matter of fact the political leaders of the

three allied nations; those who decided to use the nuclear weapons despite the counterclaims of

several scientists involved. (Holmström 2005; Wikipedia)

As characteristic to ambitious innovative projects, failures are not exceptions in adhocracies.

The Manhattan Project was a success and as well-known, in both good and bad, The Manhattan

Project permanently changed the lives of whole humanity. Unlike in the Pyramids case, it is

also reasonable to expect that in the everyday work of The Manhattan Project creative working

approach was present. This might also be one of the key factors for the success of the project, as

innovations often depend on this type of working approach.

5. Conclusions and discussion

The point of departure of this paper was that creativity as well as management and leadership

styles promoting it is needed not just in organizations populated by highly educated professionals,

but in all kinds of organizations. The purpose of this work in progress paper was to combine the

classical analysis of organizational structures with some more recent studies and perspectives

in creativity. Two exemplar cases were provided and shortly analyzed in order to show how

completely different kind of organizational forms might produce amazing results. While

adhocracies are organizations “designed” for innovations, one might not expect a machine

bureaucracy to produce innovations. Consequently, the basic argument here is thus that creativity

is needed in various kinds of organizations while the role and ways of manifestation of creativity

varies (and should vary) between organizations.

What has often been found problematic in adhocracies is that constant competition between

people makes the organizational atmosphere unpleasant and might even prevent creative working

approach and thus innovations. Professional bureaucracies on the other hand are often rigid and

formal. Because of this, Bayley and Neilsen (1992) have been developing a new organizational

form “bureau-adhocracy”, which tries to combine the best elements of both forms. During the

last few years many scholars have taken similar kinds of theoretical and empirical journeys to

develop new kinds of management doctrines and organizational forms to solve the problem of

innovation in organizations.


This paper has introduced the idea of creative working approach as one possible solution

for innovation in all kinds of organizations. It is important to understand how the creative

working approach finds its ways in different kinds of organizations (cf. Tapola & Kallio 2007).

Consequently, in future empirical analysis from different kinds of organizations will be built on

the basis that has been laid here.

References

Bailey, Darlyne – Neilsen, Eric H. (1992) Creating a Bureau-Adhocracy: Integrating Standardized

and Innovative Services in a Professional Work Group. Human Relations, Vol. �5, No. 7,

687–710.

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Practical Approach:

How to enhance innovation democracy by means

of idea management in an expert organization?

Päivi Mikkonen, Development Manager

Heidi Enkovaara, Research Scientist

VTT, Business Solutions

Abstract: Innovation is changing from closed environments to more open platforms. It is claimed to be become democratic. The opening democratization of innovation forces organizations to rethink the practical methods of managing innovation both internally and externally. Researchers claim that systematic management of innovation is a key success factor for most innovative companies. The paper describes a case where an idea management tool was developed and brought into practice in a demanding expert organisation.

The first phase of innovation process, idea generation, has been crucial for companies’ renewal and success in closed environments. Idea generation should be rich and even chaotic process and it has typically been carried out in forms of various idea calls and listings. Today, new technologies offer companies a way to generate and further develop ideas in open virtual spaces that can be shared globally and by all levels of an organization.

Nevertheless, chaos and numerous ideas and insights set prerequisites for idea evaluation. In this case the challenge was tackled by introducing two entities: Firstly, the idea gardens, where the ideas can be planted, further developed, commented and rated by all the users. Secondly, an evaluation tool, with which the “ripe” ideas can be evaluated by specialists by using an integrated web survey tool. However, introducing an idea management tool is only a starting point on organisations’ journey towards successful innovations. The most demanding task is to link innovation process development and organisation culture.

This paper contributes to the conversation of creation of an innovative organisation by a practical point of view. The paper concentrates on the fuzzy front-end of the innovation process, idea generation, and gives insight of how to develop innovation democracy within an expert organisation.


Background

As innovating is shifting from closed environments to more open platforms, it forces organizations

to rethink the practical methods of managing innovation both internally and externally. The

best innovators have systematized the generation and testing of new ideas (Hargadon & Sutton

2007, 93). A systematic manner of managing ideas is rarely adopted; moreover, the ideas are

submitted rather an unfocused way (Gamlin et al. 2007, 13). Idea management as such is not

widely academically studied phenomenon. However, the difference between success and failure

can be only one idea, and therefore the subject should be further studied.

The problem is interpreted here as a research question “How to manage idea generation in open

platforms”. In this paper we discuss the development and implementation process of a web-

based idea management tool as well as the challenges of innovation democracy in an expert

organization. The aim is to summarize some viewpoints on current state of idea management

and to provide some practical implications for managers struggling with similar challenges. At

first, the general theories of idea management and innovation democracy are discussed, which is

followed by a short introduction to the developed innovation management tool, and at the end a

managerial perspective to idea management practice is given.

New innovative practices in organisations

In a survey (Business Week 2�.�.2006) 72 % of leaders named innovation as their top three

priorities but a half of them said that they are dissatisfied with the returns of innovation investments.

A weakness to innovate lead businesses to stagnation, however, innovation is a complex process

and it is identified to have a critical importance for organization’s success (Ahmed 1998).

Idea generation has been crucial for companies’ renewal and success in closed environments. It

has typically been carried out in forms of various idea calls and listings or by using a suggestion

box. New technologies offer companies ways to collect, evaluate and further develop ideas in

open virtual spaces that can be shared globally and by all levels of organization. The development

of hardware and software (von Hippel 2005, 121), and also the internet based solutions, make it

possible to create tools for managing innovation systematically but requiring less and less skills

and training (ibid.). Thus, innovation practices are changing.

According to Rothwell (1992), innovation process itself is evolving all the time, which makes

the theory even more difficult to be translated into practice (Ahmed 1998). The development of

today’s innovation process started with linear sequential processes that were dominant in the

60s. In the 70s and 80s the innovation process was somehow linear and at the same time market

oriented. This led to the coupling of the technological push and the market pull in the mid 80s.

In the early 90s the innovation process was perceived for the first time as a tight process and the

linear model was replaced by a more complex one. This model characterized a more collaborative

and integrative way of innovating. Later this model evolved based on greater use of advanced

electronic technology to make more tightly integrated with the external and internal innovators.

(Ahmed 1998).

Process challenges of a research based innovation

When looking at a simplified innovation process of a typical research based innovation (Figure

1), three obscure phases can be identified.

Figure 1. The obscure phases of research based innovation process

The first phase, Idea Management, is a universal challenge in almost all types of organisations.

Still, there are some features that are vital especially for research and development organisations,

in which the real power lies in combining multidiscipline knowledge in new ways. For example,

at VTT, there are almost 2.000 research scientists with university degree representing different

disciplines. When these people are brought together and challenged for idea generation, the

results can be outstanding. The lack of time and geographically wide spread organisation makes

the utilisation of the multidiscipline knowledge potential demanding.

In the Figure 2 the more practical project based innovation process is represented. The idea

management phase (idea generation, idea improvement and idea evaluation) is a vital part of the

Figure 2: Research based innovation process in practice

F o res igh t Project proposal Project phase

Idea improvement

Idea evaluation

Ideatio n

Commersialization


front-end of the innovation process. If this cannot be organised in an effective, yet creative way,

many opportunities will be lost.

In figure 1, the middle obscure phase, Recognition of Business Potential, is especially tricky

in research and development environment. Some exploratory reasons can be found. First of

all, a researcher is usually intrigued by creating something totally new and easily loses his or

her interest when the research phase is over. Secondly, there is a huge unresolved gap between

research results and a market ready product or service. To crown all this, the researches lack

information of how to identify a research results with business potential and the following steps,

if such an opportunity should appear.

This paper addresses the first two of these obscure phases, and therefore, the last phase, Market

Entry, is left unhandled.

Innovation democracy

Idea generation is everyone’s job and no one’s responsibility. In other words, idea generation in

all organizational levels is vital for companies’ success but it is impossible to hire one person

to be responsible of all idea generation. The perspective of innovation democracy emphasises

that idea generation and development should be possible for everybody. Both the staff and end

users should be able to participate. But, how to make it possible and motivating for everybody to

participate in idea generation?

Before answering the question in detail, the open innovation and innovation democracy

phenomenon are lightened up a bit. The meaning of open innovation is that valuable ideas can

derive from inside as well as outside the organization (Chesbrough 2003, �3). In open innovation,

sourcing, integration and development of product and business system innovations do happen

through win-win external partnerships in attempt to capture maximum commercial value for

R&D investment. In terms of innovation democracy this means that users are increasingly able

to innovate for themselves, moreover, users do not have to do everything on their own but can

benefit from innovation developed and shared by others (von Hippel 2005, 1).

Customers expect to have customized, and even adaptive, products and services. Innovation

democracy is applicable to internal innovation as well. Not long time ago, the technical R&D

department developed products from A to Z by themselves. Today everybody from Rovaniemi to

Barcelona, from salesman to CEO, can contribute to product development since the early stages

of the process. At the moment the companies are often using the intranet for idea-sharing.

Furthermore, they are creating collaborative knowledge management systems that may reach the

whole company instead of only the technical development unit or headquarters claims Turrell,

CEO of Imaginetik (www.baselinemag.com 1.9.2007). In addition Von Hippel (2005, 8) claims

that users and manufacturers tend to create different kinds of innovations. This is due to the

information asymmetries. These asymmetries may lead to radically new ideas. In a diversified

expert organization innovation democracy supports the aims of multi-disciplinary principles and

stimulant co-idea generation.

The difference between success and failure in business can be just one idea. How to manage

ideas in a way that the potential idea is on a whole discovered and then guided to successful

commercialisation?

Idea management tools

Idea management is defined on Imaginetik’s, which is one of the leading companies in idea

management business, webpages as “a discipline that enables the systematic capture, sharing, and

exploiting of ideas across the organization to achieve breakthrough innovation and continuous

improvement”. Idea management provides tools for systematically collect, co-develop, evaluate

and mobilize ideas from different sources, units and different levels in organizations.

The first generation of idea management tools started to develop in 90s while the Internet

breakthrough was taking place. Concentration led in cost reduction in idea collection methods.

Late 90s the second generation of idea management tools already aimed at improving the

idea collection process. The second generation idea management tools have not been proven

successful due to the same old problems as with “suggestion box”. The idea revivers get tired

of bad ideas. Now the third generation attempts to link both brainstorming and creativity to idea

management, which means increasing employee participation by helping them become creative,

while substantially improving the quality of the submitted ideas. (www.innovationtools.com

12.9.2007)

To give practical perspective, a short review on the experiences of idea management at Bayer

(Gamlin, Yourd and Patrick 2007, 13-16) is presented here. They managed to gather more than

3,000 ideas to their database through 36 web-based idea generation events. They listed five key

elements of successful idea management:

• Clear business purpose for gathering ideas

• Understand the window of opportunity

• Mix diverse backgrounds and experience to support the idea generation phase

• Find different ways of looking the challenges

• Develop idea through collaboration


Idea management at VTT

At VTT the driving force to start systematizing the ideation process was the renewal of strategy

in 2006. It positions VTT as the best innovation partner for its customers. Nevertheless, external

innovativeness does not exist without internal innovativeness. To enhance this, it was decided

to obtain an innovation management tool suitable for virtual working and mixing competencies.

Seedea Idea Management Tool was developed to help management of innovation process with

extensive idea management.

Seedea Idea Management Tool was developed for and at VTT (Technical Research Centre of

Finland) in co-operation with Gamelion Oy and in the later phase with Korento Oy. The tool

was developed in-house because the commercial tools available at that time did not support the

defined needs well enough. Seedea is an open virtual idea space, rather than a system by which

ideas can be submitted into a state-gate process. The first version was developed and tested in

2006 at VTT in real life use and with real cases. The development of Seedea 2.0 started in late

2006 and the new version was launched in late September 2007. Today, there are more than 1.200

ideas in the database and more than 1/3 of VTT staff (over 1.100 people) has used the tool.

The main features of Seedea were designed to promote innovation democracy in practice. The

most important designing features were defined as follows:

• It should encourage people to generate ideas freely, without unnecessary criticism. In other

words it should be safe environment even for the wildest ideas.

• It should support idea improvement and assembling of multidisciplinary ad hoc teams

• It should be motivational e.g. visually fun and relaxing to use. This is because of two

reasons; this tool is not compulsory for anyone, and creativity benefits from fun and

relaxation.

• It should be time and place-interdependent.

• It should be democratic. In other words, it should give everybody equal opportunity to

join, but not make it compulsory.

• It should enable co-development of ideas among people in variously mixed groups

• It should give lot of information without being too aggressive (e.g. send e-mail of every

occurrence). This was tackled by designing the graphics, so that it formed a story as the

ideas grew and become more mature.

• In addition to ideas, the weak signals and problems should be able to be gathered inthe

same “bank”.

• It should support the whole ideation process from idea generation via idea improvement to

idea evaluation.

• The evaluation should be made as transparent as possible – Desouza et al. (2006) found

that when the evaluation process was transparent and standardized employees felt more

comfortable contributing.

VTT’s Seedea Idea Management Tool in Practice

A general process for idea generation and evaluation at VTT was identified as presented in figure 3.

Figure 3: Means of using idea management tools

In Seedea, ideas are always submitted under a certain theme, which can be anything from

electronics to saving the rainforests. These themes are called idea gardens (Figure �). There

are two dimensions to be determined when creating a theme garden. Firstly, the time-scale can

vary from few weeks to several years. This means that each of the idea gardens can function as

a platform for a restricted idea call (e.g. support the project planning phase) or they can serve as

an idea bank for longer time idea storing (e.g. idea bank of a research team). The second variable

dimension is the publicity-scale. In publicity-scale, there are three levels. The most open one is

public. Public gardens are by definition automatically open to whole staff. The second level is

open. The open gardens are gardens, where the invited members are automatically eligible to

participate but all the other interested people can easily join as well (subscribe the membership

for themselves). The most private level is restricted. Restricted gardens are open to the invited

members only.

It is recommended that the audience of gardens should be as wide as possible in order to gain steady

flow of ideas. In online communities there are different kinds of participants. Only a fraction of

members will actively participate in the ideation and the majority can be described as “lurkers”

(e.g. Nonnecke and Preece 2000), that are silent but important members of the community.


One of the basic features of Seedea is the knowledge integration and promoting innovation

democracy. In practice, this means idea submission and improvement procedures that are equally

open to all the members of the garden. New signals and ideas can be submitted by any of the

members of the particular garden. They can be discussed and roughly evaluated (potentiality and

maturity of the idea) by all the members. All the ideas, signals and comments will be submitted

under the names of their contributors. Leonard and Straus (2007, 69) state that innovation takes

place when different ideas, perceptions, and ways of processing and judging information collide.

Also Florida and Goodnight (2007, 28-29) state that creativity is a product of interaction. Other

features that enhance involvement and social bonding are top lists, ratings, comment tool and

“send to a friend” -tool.

When submitting an idea to Seedea, it is to be determined, whether the idea to be submitted

is really an idea or rather a signal. The signals are weak signals, problems, observations, or

occurring trends while the ideas are suggestions of solutions. The separation was seen meaningful

in order to gather even the first remarks on occurring changes.

One of the basic aims was to develop enjoyable and motivational tool. Therefore, the visual

projection of the first “ground-level” ideas and signals was decided to be illustrated as seeds.

Further developed ideas are illustrated as leaves, ideas sent to the expert evaluation as buds, and

evaluated ideas as flowers (Figure 4). Also Desoutza et al (2007, 8) stated that idea generation

should be fuelled by the pressure to compete and by the freedom to explore (Desoutza et al. 2007,

8). It is finding balance between playfulness and need.

Every idea garden has the garden owner, “the gardener” who is responsible for taking care of his

or her garden and ideas that grow in them. The gardeners are also responsible of taking the most

promising ideas to specialist evaluation and eventually (if rated high) further to organization’s

processes.

“Most companies are not short on new ideas, but they are short on ways to assess, screen,

prioritize, and execute those new ideas” (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Amabile (2007, 59) adds

that when ideas are not met with open minds, they confront time-consuming layers of evaluations.

Mobilization is passing idea to a different physical or logical location. This stage is vitally

important to the progression of a new idea (Desouza et al. 2007, 9). Reviewing ideas effectively

and efficiently is as important as collecting them. It is highly important to follow a structured

review process which ensures that good ideas are identified fast and decisions are taken promptly

(imaginatik.com 1.9.2007).

The evaluation is carried out by means of an incorporated evaluation tool (Figure 5). Garden

owner defines the right specialists (preferably from 3 to 6 persons) individually according to the

idea in hand. The evaluators should be able to examine the idea from different angles (technology,

business potential, customer needs etc.). The evaluation questions will also be tailored according

to the idea and its maturity level.

In VTT case the idea reviewing and evaluation process varies according to the purpose of the

garden. Figure 6 illustrates the basic procedures to be followed. If the garden is restricted or open,

Figure 4: Seedea Garden screenshot

Figure 5: Seedea Garden screenshot - evaluation phase


the owner of the garden is responsible to make appropriate actions. In case of public gardens, the

Idea Board reviews the ideas on monthly basis and decides on the actions to be taken. The Idea

Board consists of delegates of VTT’s different organisation units. The aim is to cover as much of

VTT’s expertise as possible.

Ways of using innovation management tools

By investing in development of innovation management tools organizations are looking for

concrete results. There are several different ways of drawing return on investments from these

tools. The ones in use at VTT are described in the following chapter. The methods of using

innovation management tools have developed during the test period and through explicit work of

program developers, and thus serve rather as examples than tested best practices.

Challenge. Challenge is a proactive way of searching ideas around specific theme in the

organization. The challenge is open for given period of time and requires clear ownership, need

for ideas, and vision of mobilization. Examples of challenges are diverse and vary from search

for a new name to a part of the organization to finding future research themes. Additionally,

the importance of active participation by commenting and reviewing the challenge owner may

impact on the amount and quality of ideas.

Idea bank. As described before idea gardens function also as idea banks. In a highly knowledge-

intensive organization the ideas tend to be exceptionally future leaning. Some practitioners claim

that open-ended initiatives with no clear deadlines are likely to fail, as participants’ interest

decreases over time. On contrary, Hargadon and Sutton (2007, 9�) claim that the best innovators

systematically use old ideas as the raw materials for one new ideas. Storing ideas allows the

teams to come back even years after and find the information of the ideas once submitted.

Public idea generation. One of the drivers in development of the idea management tool was

the openness of idea generation according to the principles of innovation democracy. Extending

participation across functions produces highly innovative solutions (www.imaginetik.com

1.9.2007). Especially in a diversified company openness and transparency is sometimes hard to

achieve. Therefore, at VTT there were opened several public gardens. The ideas in public gardens

are scanned from time to time by the ideaboard, and guided to the right process as described in

Figure 6.

Meeting tool. Firstly, Seedea has been used for meeting preparations. In an ideal case Seedea offers

an opportunity to handle the subject in cooperation already beforehand. The meeting organizer

may stimulate idea or signal generation by leaving the first seeds. Secondly, teams may use the

idea management tool at place in the meeting to collect the new born ideas in one place where

they can be further developed time and place-independently.

Motivating users

It is often easier to leave new tools unused. Therefore, motivating usage is crucial for successful

implementation. According to our experience, motivation arises from four dimensions: The idea

management tool itself should be motivating and inspiring to use, rewards of wanted ideas and

behaviour should be given, and internal marketing and communication should be well managed.

In addition to all this, training and support has to be provided to all who need it.

The developed tool helps in collecting, developing and evaluating the ideas in an organization

wide manner. Even partners and customers can take part in idea sharing with help of the tool.

The tool offers web-based virtual spaces were idea generation and sharing can take place under

specified themes. Idea calls or as we call them, challenges take place in these virtual spaces.

The tool itself has been introduced above and is proved to be motivating and fun to use.

Nevertheless, the tool itself is not enough. At VTT a lot effort has been taken to give information

about the availability and the potential of the tool. There have been several stories on the internal

journal as well as on the customer magazine. In addition to this, information of ongoing idea

challenges and the results of them have been spread out through the intranet. The tool has been

presented at different internal and external innovation fairs and events. Even leaflets and stickers

has been printed and dealt to the staff.

Figure 6: Different processes of open and public gardens


Rewarding has not played a big role at VTT. It seems that VTT staff is merely motivated when

they feel they can contribute to a meaningful challenge rather than submitting their ideas in order

to gain monetary rewards or goods. Also theory supports the practical notion: Amabile (1997, 39-

�5) stated that especially knowledge-intensive employees are motivated merely by intrinsic, not

extrinsic matters. Still, some rewarding has been executed. The most active people of the month

get coffee mugs with the Seedea logo-print on them. In addition to this, their names are published

at Seedea’s main page. Idea challenges usually give away a special prize for the best idea. Idea

Board can also suggest fees for a distinguished idea submitter.

Training for using the tool is provided on need to have basis. It is usually necessary when a

new garden owner is launching his or her first own garden. The training is given face-to-face or

remotely via internet and telephone.

As in any change process, internal marketing and communication is extremely central according

to Imagenetik’s idea management process. Firstly, the employees must be aware of new system

or method of idea management. Secondly, the information on how to use it must be available.

Thirdly, constant remainders of existent of the system are needed. Successful reference cases can

turn out to be very useful.

Findings – the means by which VTT has managed to enhance innovation democracy

1/3 of the case organization can be identified as Seedea users but still it takes time before the

innovation process is fully democratic. The biggest challenge lies not in the tool itself but in

adapting the principles of innovation democracy and idea management practices to organisational

culture. Changing something as profound as organisational culture does not happen over night.

However, already on this phase of change process some results can be named.

• The introduction of tool itself is a concrete sign of change.

• The tool serves as internal communication channel.

• Grown cross-disciplinary communication and participation.

• Change is in old practices and in views of idea utilization by which we mean more open

means of innovating and decreased not-invented-here syndrome.

Firstly, a systematic way of idea generation seems to support innovation democracy. At VTT the

innovation democracy come into flesh in the idea management tool Seedea. It is seen as a sign of

cultural change towards more democratic and open innovation culture.

Secondly, the meaning of different ways of internal communication is seen to be vital, and therefore

internal communication must be carefully planned and managed. According to experiences

besides the basic means of internal communication the tool itself leverages a message. The middle

management must tell the same message in a constant manner in order to be accepted.

Thirdly, rewarding right behaviour is an ancient truth of guiding people towards the wanted

results. Likewise, it is commonly used method of motivating idea submitting and evaluation. The

rewards seem to work best when they are somehow linked to the mobilization of the winning

idea. Valuable but loose rewards like iPods and watches do not seem to work as expected. From

our experience, the employees in expert organizations are motivated mainly by seeing their ideas

grow and to be mobilized.

Fourthly, it is meaningful to encourage employees to submit ideas, no matter how obscure or

relevant they would turn out. The amount of ideas is more important than the quality of them. In

Seedea visual effects and game like user interface supports the freedom of idea generation.

Fifthly, in order to capture more direct business value the focus should probably lie on focused

innovation calls. Targeted and bounded idea calls produce better results than open-ended idea

collection systems.

Conclusions

This paper dealt with some basic principles of idea management and innovation democracy inside

an expert organization. A developed tool for idea management was also presented. All in all,

idea management is not widely researched phenomenon and it is even hard to find an academic

definition for it. However, as the importance of innovation on company’s financial success gets

more widely understood, the intelligent methods of managing ideas are seen in a new light. Web-

based tools have developed since beginning of 90s and operators such as Imaginetik and Jenni

have started to develop the first more controlled methods of idea management.

Innovation democracy is the buzzword of 2000s in the field of innovation and R&D. It refers

to equal possibilities to influence on product or service development. Internally this means

cooperation between different units like marketing and technical development. In diversified

company like VTT, it refers to cooperation between different fields of expertise.

A good question is whether innovation can in reality be democratic. Through web-based tools the

distance and time difference, even the language barriers can be confronted but the capabilities of

accepting other’s ideas (not-invented-here syndrome), the willingness to use certain democratic

systems, and abilities to participate, varies.

According to our experience, cultural change, as mentioned earlier, takes time. Implementation

and managing the adaptation process can never be overemphasized. Quoting Jack Welch,

the former CEO of GE, it is recommended to communicate and then communicate again. As


mentioned in the beginning, this is seen especially challenging in expert organizations. Therefore

the idea management process needs an apparent owner and full support from top management.

Besides well managed communication the motivational factors such as intrinsic rewards and

social acceptance are highly important.

In the near future big changes in ways of working will be taking place. The trend of customer

participation in R&D is already a reality. To name a few: remote working will be commonly

adapted and the pace of working is still speeding up. In addition the gaming generation enters

working life and new collaborative ways of idea generation are adapted. From our perspective

playfulness, fun and visual effects have growing impacts in attracting employees to spend time

online submitting, commenting and evaluating ideas. One future vision might even be a whole

virtual world where ideas would be merchandises as well as tangible goods nowadays.

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TUOTTAJA omalla alalla, omassa ajassa

Tuuli Penttinen-Lampisuo

Satakunnan taidetoimikunta

Tutkimuksen pääkysymys on, mitä ammattinimike tuottaja tarkoittaa. Kirjoittaja haluaa koetella

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Monialaisen kirjallisuuden tukemana suhteutetaan tuottaja-sanan etymologiaa, yleisen

organisaatiomurroksen piirteitä ja tutkimusta elokuvan ennakkosuunnittelusta projektilähtöiseen

tekstiaineistoon sekä kokemusperäiseen tietoon.

Suomen kielessä tuottaminen on tuomista, latinalaisissa kielissä edestä johtamista ja näkyväksi

tekemistä. Kirjoituksessa keskiöön nousevat muun muassa pohdinnat verkostomaisesta

toiminnasta, säännöistä, ajankäytöstä ja järjestyksen haastavasta harhailusta sekä siitä, miten

tuottajuus niissä toteutuu.

Kirjoittaja valmistelee aiheesta lopputyötä Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median

osastolle.

Tuottajien asemaa pyritään vahvistamaan lukuisissa maamme julkishallinnon ohjelma- ja

strategiapapereissa. Opetusministeriön (2002, 72) julkaisema Taide on mahdollisuuksia -

ohjelmaehdotus esittää kokeiluhanketta, jossa ”taiteilijat, manageri/tuottajatoiminta sekä taiteen

välityspalvelut yhdistyvät”. Taide- ja taiteilijapoliittinen ohjelma nostaa taiteen rahoittajat

ja tuottajat keskeiseen asemaan (Opetusministeriö 200�, 16). Kulttuurivienti-hankkeen

raportissa kehotetaan suuntaamaan ”mediataiteilijoiden tuotannollisten taitojen kehittämiseen

ja yhteistyömuotojen kehittämiseen alan tuottajien kanssa” (Opetusministeriö 200�:22, 83).

Audiovisuaalisen alan strategiassa ja toimintaohjelmassa luvataan tukea ”eri tavoin tuottajien

kansainvälistymistä, verkostoitumista ja koulutusta (Opetusministeriö 2005:8, 93). Työhallinnon

julkaisussa 3�5 (2005, ��) esitetään, että kulttuurielämän ja elinkeinoelämän ”[v]uorovaikutuksen

edistämiseksi tarvitaan yrityskentän ja kulttuurialan toimijoiden väliin sijoittuvaa rahoittajien,

tuottajien ja managerien toiminnan lisäämistä.”

Samanaikaisesti elää myös toinen tapa puhua tuottamisesta. Taiteen keskustoimikunnan

Taiteilija Suomessa -julkaisussa Robert Arpo (200�, 136) kirjoittaa, että ”ajatukset taideteoksen

ainutkertaisuudesta ja taiteilijayksilön asemasta ovat korvautuneet erilaisilla taiteen ja kulttuurin

tuotantomalleilla”. Tuotannollisuus näyttäytyy uhkana taiteen vapaudelle.

Tuottajauhkien maalailu kantaa kaikuja frankfurtin koulukunnan marxilaisesta kulttuuriteollisuuden

kritiikistä. Kuitenkin esimerkiksi Theodor Adorno (2002, 107–108) tiedosti kulttuurin

perusparadoksin: ”[k]ulttuuri kärsii vahinkoa, kun sitä suunnitellaan ja hallinnoidaan; mutta yksin

jätettynä eivät joudu uhanalaiseksi pelkästään kulttuurin vaikutusmahdollisuudet vaan koko sen

olemassaolo”.

Halu koetella käsitettä

Tuottajuus jää sitä perään kuuluttavissa asiakirjoissa lähtökohtaisesti määrittelemättä. Kuitenkin

”[k]äsitteiden, termien ja niiden välisten suhteiden määrittelyn pitäisi olla myös olennainen osa

strategista ajattelua, sillä se auttaa jäsentämään kompleksisia toimintaympäristöjä ja käynnissä

olevia muutoksia sekä ymmärtämään niitä syvällisemmin, suhteellisuudentajuisemmin ja

historiallisemmin” (Leppihalme 2006, 53–55). Vastaavasti kriittisissä näkökannoissa tuotannon

nähdään yksioikoisesti viittaavan ”suunnitelmalliseen valmistamiseen, jossa tuotantoprosessi

voidaan kuvata ja mallintaa siten, että sitä voidaan kontrolloida ja suunnata” (Arpo 200�, 136).

Tavallinen, alan koulutuksessa ja tekijöiden keskuudessa käytetty lähestymistapa tuottajuuteen

on luetella tuottajan työtehtäviä tai ominaisuuksia. Esimerkiksi televisiotuottaja ja toimitusjohtaja

Saku Tuomisen (2007) tiivistyksessä on ”tuottaja = se joka tekee päätöksiä”. Hän tekee päätöksiä


tai päättää, kuka päättää. Työssä menestyminen edellyttää ”tuottajageeniä”, joka sisältää

johtajuutta, järjestelmällisyyttä, ongelmanratkaisu- ja paineensietokykyjä sekä suoraselkäisyyttä.

Kaiken muun tarpeellisen tuottaja voi oppia.

Ei minulla ole mitään syytä olla eri mieltä Tuomisen ehkä provosoimaankin tarkoitetuista

määritelmistä, päinvastoin. Ne eivät kuitenkaan riitä minulle. Samaan tapaan esimerkiksi

yrittäjyystutkimuksessa etsittiin pitkään yrittäjän perusominaisuuksia, mutta tutkimussuunnasta

on tuloksettomana luovuttu (Arenius 2007). Olen omassa työssäni kaivanut tuottajuuden analyysiä

käsitteen kautta, saadakseni näkyviin sen erityisyyden, erotukseksi muista samoja ”geenejä”

vaativista ammateista.

Minusta tuottaja

Työskennellessäni tuottajana suomalaista mediataidetta levittävässä Av-arkki ry:ssä löysin itseni

innoittuneesta ryhmästä ideoimassa uudenlaista, videotaiteilijoille suunnattua tuotantoprojektia.

Mukana oli taiteilijajärjestö Muu ry:n sekä Av-arkki ry:n edustajia. Ryhmä oli vakuuttunut, että juuri

minun pitäisi tuottaa projekti ja syventää sen puitteissa omaa tuotannollista erikoisosaamistani.

Elettiin vuotta 2003.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti alkoi vuonna 200�. Samana vuonna työpaikakseni vaihtui

Satakunnan taidetoimikunta. Projekti kulkeutui mukanani Helsingistä Satakuntaan. Kun aloitin

opinnot Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median osastolla (silloiselta nimeltään

Taideteollisen korkeakoulun visuaalisen kulttuurin yksikkö), oli selvää, että käsittelisin

lopputyössäni Itu-projektia.

Olin opiskellut televisio- ja elokuvatuottamista, vaikka suurin kiinnostukseni suuntautui

kuvataiteeseen ja näyttelyiden tuottamiseen. Sitten ”löysin” taide-elokuvan, mediataiteen ja

ennen kaikkea videotaiteen. Kuvan tekemiseen ja kuvataiteeseen olin suuntautunut opiskelemalla

kuvataidelukion jälkeen ensin piirtäjä-artesaaniksi, sitten oppisopimuksella taidevedostajaksi.

Taidevedostajana kuvataiteen kentän toimintatavat alkoivat avautua minulle. Kiinnostuin

organisatorisesta työstä ja olin mukana perustamassa nuorten taiteilijoiden taideyhdistystä ja -

galleriaa.

Tuottajan ammattinimike sopi minulle. Määritelmä ”luovan ryhmän johtaja” tuntui ylevältä.

Tuottajana saatoin tehdä kaikkea mitä halusin, järjestää näyttelyitä ja taidetapahtumia, tiedottaa,

kuratoida, olla lähellä taiteen syntyprosesseja ja tukea taiteilijoita.

Tätä kirjoitettaessa väikkyvät horisontissa niin projektin, läänintaiteilijapestini kuin myös

maisteriopintojeni päättyminen. On aika päivittää määritelmät ja koota kokemukset.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti käynnistyi Muu ry:n ja Av-arkki ry:n toimesta ja AVEK:n

tuella keväällä 200�. Järjestöjen jäsenille suunnattiin avoin haku käsikirjoituspajaan. Haku

peräänkuulutti teosideoita, joita sai hakemuksessa esitellä joko kirjallisesti tai kuvin. Valmiita

käsikirjoituksia ei pyydetty.

Satakunnan taidetoimikunta liittyi projektiin mukaan alkukesällä 200�. Tällöin muodostettiin

projektin ohjausryhmä, johon kuuluivat Muu ry:n toiminnanjohtaja Timo Soppela ja puheenjohtaja

Henriikka Oksman, Satakunnan taidetoimikunnan jäsen, Rauman taidemuseon amanuenssi

Henna Paunu, Av-arkki ry:n toiminnanjohtaja Kirsi Väkiparta ja puheenjohtaja Pirjetta Brander.

Myöhemmin Väkiparran tilalle tuli Av-arkin uutena toiminnanjohtajana Eeva Pirkkala.

Hakemuksia käsikirjoituspajaan tuli 27 kappaletta. Kokosimme juryn, johon kuuluivat AV-

arkin edustajana puheenjohtaja, kuvataiteilija Pirjetta Brander, Muun edustajana kuvataiteilija ja

tuottaja Pekka Niskanen ja Satakunnan edustajana elokuvaohjaaja Petri Hagner.

Jury valitsi 10 käsikirjoitusideaa, joiden eteenpäin viemiseksi järjestettiin käsikirjoituspaja.

Työpajan tarkoitus oli kehittää kullekin teosidealle tarkoituksenmukainen, videotaideteoksen

erityispiirteet huomioiva käsikirjoitus ja esittelymateriaalikansio, jota voi käyttää teosten

ennakkotuotannossa ja markkinoinnissa. Itu-käsikirjoituspajaan valitut taiteilijat olivat Pasi

Autio, Päivikki Kallio, Tanja Koistila, Jaana Kokko, Marko Lampisuo, Juha Mäki-Jussila, Hanna

Ojamo, Elina Saloranta, Lena Séraphin ja Maarit Suomi-Väänänen.

Käsikirjoituspajassa oli neljä lähiopetusjaksoa. Kolmesti kokoonnuttiin Muu galleriassa

Helsingissä. Yksi pitkä viikonloppu työskenneltiin Porissa ja Satakunnassa, jonne kutsuin

vierailevaksi luennoijaksi Lemmikki Louhimiehen.

Käsikirjoituspajan lopuksi taiteilijat jättivät laatimansa käsikirjoituskansiot uuden juryn

arvioitaviksi. Tällä kertaa juryn muodostivat Rauman taidemuseon amanuenssi ja Satakunnan

taidetoimikunnan jäsen Henna Paunu, Valtion nykytaiteen museo Kiasman erikoissuunnittelija

Perttu Rastas, taiteilija, aiemmin AVEK:in mediataiteen tuotantoneuvojana toiminut Veli Granö,

nykytaiteen kuraattori Paula Toppila sekä Pirjetta Brander. Juryn tehtävä oli valita taiteilijoiden

tuottamista käsikirjoituksista kansioiden perusteella 5-6 teosta, joita ryhdyttäisiin Itu-projektin

puitteissa kehittämään kohti tuotantoa. Jury kuitenkin päätyi neljään käsikirjoitukseen, joita se piti

valmiimpina. Ne olivat Tanja Koistilan käsikirjoitus Ruodot, Marko Lampisuon Poriutuminen,

Elina Salorannan Ei saa häiritä ja Lena Séraphinin Kello ja Kulta.

Kun tässä tekstissä kirjoitan taiteilijoista, viittaan yleensä yllä mainittuihin neljään henkilöön.

Seuraavassa esittelen heidän teostensa synopsikset.

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Tanja Koistila: Ruodot

kuvaus välittämisen vaikeudesta

Videoteos Ruodot on kuvaus välittämisen ja lähellä olemisen vaikeudesta. Se on tarina nuoren

naisen, tyttären, irtautumisesta ja erilliseksi kasvamisesta suhteessa isäänsä. Ruodot on kuvallinen

matka tyttären muistikuviin, hänen kokemuksiinsa ja tarinan nykyhetkeen. Teoksen tapahtumat

jaksottuvat lomittain toisistaan erottelemattomiin aikatasoihin.

Teos käsittelee perheen sisäisiä rooleja, tyttären ja isän suhteen uuden olemisen muodon etsimistä.

Riippuvaisuus toisesta ja itsenäistyminen ovat ristiriidassa. Vastuun kantaminen itsestään ja

läheisistään on vaikeaa. Eläminen turvallisuuden illuusiossa on helpompaa.

Marko Lampisuo: Poriutuminen

kuinka vieraasta kaupungista tulee koti

Poriutuminen on videoteos muuttamisesta, tottumisesta, tuntemisesta ja luopumisesta. Se

muodostuu kahdeksasta episodista. Kuvissa nähdään autioksi rajattu kaupunki, tyhjä huoneisto,

hiljainen merenranta, festivaalialue juhlien jälkeen. On vain avaria ja tasaisia tiloja. Ei mitään tai

ketään tuttua.

Monologeissaan mies kertoo tapetoimisesta, kaupassa käymisestä, polkupyöräretkestä,

auton huoltamisesta ja urheiluseuraan liittymisestä. Tapahtumia yhdistää kokemus uudesta

elinympäristöstä ja muuttuneesta sosiaalisesta verkostosta. Mies sairastaa yksinäisyyden

luulosairautta, mutta huokaisee helpotuksesta saadessaan apua todellisiin kipuihin.

Elina Saloranta: Ei saa häiritä

Tarinan kertoja on nainen, jolla on suhde naimisissa olevan miehen kanssa. Nainen ei ole koskaan

tavannut miehen vaimoa ja lapsia, mutta hän näkee näistä unia. Myös vaimo näkee unia kertojasta.

Paradoksaalisesti vaimo on ilahtunut naisen ilmaantumisesta, sillä se tarjoaa mahdollisuuden

epätyydyttävän avioliiton purkamiseen. Ainoastaan mies vastustaa muutosta. Kertoja odottaa

miehen eroavan vaimostaan, mutta epäilee, ettei näin tapahdu. Teoksen loppupuolella mies pitää

monologin, jonka aikana kolmiodraama saa selityksensä, vaikka ei ratkaisua. Rakkaussuhteen

pääosassa on poissaoleva kolmas osapuoli.

Lena Séraphin: Kello & Kulta

tarina rikoksesta, joka aiheuttaa rikoksen

Kello- ja kultaliike ryöstetään ja liikkeenomistaja pahoinpidellään. Ryöstö aiheuttaa toisen ryöstön,

joka puolestaan aiheuttaa uuden ryöstön. Ontuva, tunnevammainen kelloseppä, moraaliton huijari

Erik ja elintasobimbo Alisa kahmivat kukin tavallaan liikkeen kassakaapin ja kullalla katetut

vetolaatikot tyhjiksi. Toistuvat ryöstöt tekevät rikollisesta uhrin ja uhrista rikollisen, joka palaa

rikospaikalle.

Erilaisia tuottajia ja etymologiaa

Tässä kirjoituksessa nousee keskiöön pari Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin ominaisuutta.

Tarkastelen tuottajuutta etenkin projektin muodon ja toimintatapojen valossa. Huomio on

projektin alkuvuosissa, esimerkiksi näyttelyiden tuottamista en juuri käsittele. Tarkoitukseni on

maisteritutkielmassani laajentaa käsittelyä kattamaan kaikki projektin vaiheet, jotta videotaiteen

tuottamisen erityispiirteet kuvataiteen ja audiovisuaalisen alan rajapinnassa tulisivat paremmin

esiin.

Lähteinäni ovat oma kokemus, projektin esittelymateriaali (2005) sekä muutamat muistiot.

Esittelymateriaalin (2005) työstin ryhmätyönä tehdyn projektisuunnitelman pohjalta työkalukseni

rahoituksen ja yhteistyökumppaneiden hankinnassa. Se sisältää muun muassa kymmenen vastausta

miksi-kysymykseen. Listaus sekä muut esittelymateriaaliin kirjatut teesit antavat käsityksen siitä,

miten käynnistäjäorganisaatioissa nähtiin videotaiteen asema ja tilanne vuosituhannen alussa.

Projektilähtöisen aineistoni keskustelukumppaneiksi olen valinnut muutamia kirjallisia lähteitä.

Kun puhutaan tuottajista luovilla aloilla, tulevat usein ensimmäiseksi mieleen elokuvatuottajat.

Se, miten elokuvatuottajan ammatti ymmärretään, heijastuu käsityksiin muiden taiteenalojen

tuottajista. Tuottaja Riina Hyytiän (200�) väitöskirja koostuu tuottajien, ohjaajien ja käsikirjoittajien

näkemyksistä. Hän kutsuu kolmen ammattilaisen muodostelmaa triangeliksi. Kolmikon valinnalla

hän (emt, 1�) haluaa ”kyseenalaistaa auteur-ajattelua, joka tarkoittaa elokuvien tulkitsemista vain

yhden tekijän, lähinnä ohjaajan taiteena”. Ohjaaja ei ole elokuvan ainoa taiteilija. Lähtökohtaisesti

triangelimalli huomioi sekä yksilöiden arvon että yhteistyön.

Tätä Hyytiä (299�) ei suoraan sano, mutta triangelimallin voi nähdä myös osoittavan, ettei tuottaja

ole elokuvan ainoa johtaja. Näin triangeli vastaisi siis niin kutsuttua jaetun johtajuuden mallia

(Karkulehto & Virta 2006, 153–15�). Triangelimallissa jaetaan töitä, valtaa, vastuuta, näkemyksiä

ja kokemuksia. Siinä arvostetaan erityisyyttä ja hyväksytään erilaisuus. ”[V]asta tuottajan,

ohjaajan ja käsikirjoittajan yhteinen työskentely mahdollistaa elokuvan ennakkosuunnittelun

onnistumisen.” Heidän yksilölliset ammatilliset taitonsa ja näkemyksensä terävöittävät triangelin

kärjet. (Hyytiä 200�, 15).

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Televisiota sanotaan tuottajan taiteeksi. Televisioyhtiöissä ja tv-ohjelmia tuottavissa yhtiöissä

tuottajalla on selkeä ylimmän johtajan asema. London City Universityn viestintäpolitiikan

tutkimusyksikön johtaja Jeremy Tunstall on koonnut selvityksen brittiläisestä televisiotuotannosta,

joka sekin on voimakkaasti tuottajavetoista. Ilmiö on vain vahvistunut 1990-luvun tuotantokulttuurin

murroksessa. (Tunstall 1993, 207).

Ajassamme on käynnissä organisaatioiden uudelleenjärjestäytyminen, jota Derrick Chong

kirjassaan Arts Management (2002) osuvasti kuvaa. Arts managementilla ja arts managerilla

tarkoitetaan yleensä julkisten taidelaitosten johtotehtäviä. Oma työnantajani Satakunnan

taidetoimikunta on osa valtion alueellista taidehallintoa. Siksi Chongin huomiot antavat mielestäni

mielenkiintoisen näkökulman omaan työhöni ja tuottajuuteeni julkisen ja kolmannen sektorin

välimaastossa.

Olen kaivannut tuottajuuden filosofista pohdintaa sitä löytämättä. Ranskalainen yhteiskunta-

ja kulttuuriteoreetikko Jean Baudrillard (1987, 80) on kuitenkin analysoinut tuottamisen

käsitettä pohjautuen sanan latinankielen etymologiseen merkitykseen näkyväksi tekeminen

(producere). Yritän tuoda Baudrillardin laajempaan, yhteiskuntateoreettiseen kontekstiin liittyvät

tuottamisen pohdinnat työni tasolle. Käytän myös etymologiaa ja sanakirjoja kaivaakseni esiin

tuottajuuden syvällisempiä tai historiallisempia ulottuvuuksia suhteessa omaan työhöni ja

lähdekirjallisuuteen.

Kuvataiteesta ja videotaiteesta

Kuvataiteessa elää edelleen vahva mielikuva taiteilijan ja taideteoksen autonomiasta. Itse

ajattelen tuottamisen osaksi jokaista taideteosta. Toisin sanoen jokaisella teoksella on taiteilija

ja tuottaja, mutta usein se on yksi ja sama henkilö. Kuvataiteessa taiteilija itse toimii tavallisesti

myös teoksensa tuottajana hankkimalla työtilan ja -tarvikkeet sekä rahoituksen työskentelylleen

ja teoksen esillepanolle. Havaintoni mukaan kuvataiteen kentällä toimittaessa ei tavata käyttää

tuottajan ammattinimikettä, mutta tuotannollisista tehtävistä voi taiteilijan sijaan vastata myös

esimerkiksi näyttelykuraattori tai galleristi.

2000-luvun alkaessa Suomessa työskenteli aiempaa enemmän kuvataiteilijoita, jotka olivat

erikoistuneet video- ja mediataiteeseen. Myös yhä useampi kuvanveistäjä, maalari, taidegraafikko

tai valokuvaaja laajensi ilmaisuaan videotaiteeseen. Tyypillisesti videoteostenkin tuotanto

perustui taiteilijan rooliin teoksen ainoana tekijänä. Tästä seurasi, että moni videoteos toteutui

tavalla, joka oli taiteilijalle taloudellisesti ja työmäärällisesti kestämätön tai lopputulokseltaan

teknisesti vajavainen. (Esittelymateriaali 2005).

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin alullepanijoilla oli vankka usko siihen, että Suomessa on

varttunut taiteilijasukupolvi, jolta löytyisi valmiuksia ja rohkeutta suurempiin videotaidetuotantoihin

(Esittelymateriaali 2005). Tähän vaikutti mm. Eija-Liisa Ahtilan ja muutaman muun suomalaisen

videotaiteilijan saavuttama kansainvälinen menestys, joka puolestaan lisäsi yleistä kiinnostusta

suomalaiseen videotaiteeseen (kts. esim. Mäkelä & Tarkka 2002, 5). Suomalaista mediataidetta

levittävässä Av-arkissa se näkyi kasvaneena jäsenmääränä, teostarjontana, kysyntänä ja entistä

laajempana levityksenä.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektista haluttiin luoda kuvataiteilijoille suunnattu, ”riippumaton

ja voittoa tavoittelematon tuotanto-organisaatio riittävien tuotantoedellytysten luomiseksi

ja taiteilijoiden resurssien keskittämiseksi teosten taiteellisen sisällön luomisprosessiin”

(Esittelymateriaali 2005). Toisin sanoen tuotannollista työtä haluttiin ulkoistaa taiteilijalta

tuottajalle. Tällä työnjaolla haluttiin nostaa sekä työskentelyn että syntyvän teoksen laatua.

Videotuotantotekniikan digitalisoituminen oli vuosituhannen vaihteen tietämissä saanut aikaan

sen, että videoteoksista voitiin tuottaa eri versioita erilaisille esitys- ja levitysalustoille aiempaa

korkealaatuisempina. Monimediaisuuden nähtiin tarjoavan myös uusia levitysmahdollisuuksia.

Konkreettiseksi tulostavoitteeksi Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa määriteltiin, että tuotetaan

maailmaa kiertävä videoteoskokonaisuus, jonka tuotannossa on huomioitu levityskanavat,

markkinointi, taiteellinen laatu ja siihen suhteutettu tuotantomittakaava sekä kokonaisuuden

temaattinen terävyys. (Esittelymateriaali 2005).

Keinoiksi määriteltiin tuotantojen kasvattaminen ja käsikirjoitusten kehittäminen sekä

verkostoituminen ja voimien yhdistäminen (Esittelymateriaali 2005). Keinot korostavat

videotaiteen sukulaisuussuhdetta elokuvaan. Projektissa tavoiteltiin olosuhteita, joissa

kuvataiteilija voi säilyttää kuvataiteilijuutensa ja tehdä silti suurisuuntaisempia videoteoksia.

Tuottajana koin asettuvani ja sitoutuvani varjelemaan taiteilijoiden kuvataiteilijuutta.

Projekti ja perusorganisaatiot

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin keskeiset toimijaorganisaatiot ovat taiteilijajärjestö Muu

ry, suomalaisen mediataiteen levityskeskus Av-arkki ry ja Satakunnan taidetoimikunta. Kutsun

niitä perusorganisaatioiksi. Ne eivät olleet mitenkään ilmeiset tai ennalta erityisen läheiset

yhteistyökumppanit. Av-arkin ja Muun syntyhistoria on yhteinen, mutta yhdistykset eriytyivät

jo 1980-luvulla, jonka jälkeen yhteistyössä on ollut katkoja. Tietääkseni Itu – videotaiteen

tuotantoprojekti on ollut vuosi kausiin ensimmäinen, alusta alkaen yhdessä käynnistetty projekti.

Muu ry toimi Itu-projektissa tuotantoyhtiönä. Se on erityisesti kuvataiteen uusia aloja, esimerkiksi

ympäristö-, media-, video-, ääni- ja valotaidetta, performancea sekä taiteiden välistä toimintaa

edustava ja edistävä kuvataidejärjestö. Av-arkki ry toimi Itu-projektissa levitysyhtiönä. Av-arkki

on yli sadan suomalaisen mediataiteilijan yhdistys ja mediataiteen levitysarkisto. Se levittää

videotaidetta kymmenille kansainvälisille festivaaleille, järjestää näyttelyitä ja levittää videotaide-

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ja mediataidetietoutta ja teoksia kotimaassa.

Työskentelin vuosina 2002–200� Av-arkki ry:n tuottajana osallistuen alkuideoinnista lähtien

Itu-projektiin. Kuten Chong (2002, 137–138) ennustaa, ”ura” johdonmukaisena työhistorian

kertomuksena saattaa olla katoamassa. Projekteista on tullut työpaikkoja tärkeämpiä. Siirryin

keväällä 200� julkiselle sektorille aloittaessani taiteen tuottamisen läänintaiteilijana Satakunnan

taidetoimikunnassa. Se on vuonna 1998 perustettu valtion alueellisen taidehallinnon yksikkö,

jonka tehtävänä on ”toimialueellaan edistää taidetta sekä sen harjoittamista ja harrastamista”

(Laki taiteen edistämisen järjestelyistä 14.7.1967/328).

AVEK:in pääsihteeri Juha Samolan kannustamana Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti seurasi

mukanani työnantajalta toiselle. Kun AV-arkki ry ja Muu ry olivat ajatuksen hyväksyneet, esittelin

projektin Satakunnan taidetoimikunnalle. Ennen työsuunnitelman hyväksyntää tein ensimmäisen

kontaktointikierroksen Satakunnan alueella esitellen projektia keskeisille audiovisuaalisen alan

sekä nykytaiteen toimijoille.

Itu-projektin kolmella perusorganisaatiolla on yhteisiä piirteitä. Kokoaikaisia työntekijöitä

on vain muutama, työsuhteet ovat määräaikaisia (poikkeuksena taidetoimikunnan kaksi

viranhaltijaa). Perustoiminnan rahoitus tulee osin samoista lähteistä opetusministeriöltä ja Taiteen

keskustoimikunnalta. Ylintä päätösvaltaa käyttää taiteen ammattilaisista muodostuva, kausittain

vaihtuva luottamustoimielin. Yhdistyksissä se on hallitus ja taidetoimikunnassa 11-henkinen

jäsenistö.

Kuluneiden reilun kolmen projektivuoden aikana kaikissa perusorganisaatiossa on ollut käynnissä

lähes jatkuva muutosprosessi ja useita perustoiminnan kehittämiseen tähdänneitä projekteja

(vrt. Chong 2002, 137–138). Satakunnan taidetoimikunnassa on koko henkilöstö vaihtunut sen

jälkeen, kun aloitin läänintaiteilijana. Av-arkissa vaihtui toiminnanjohtaja. Organisaatioiden

taloushallinnoissa on ollut henkilöstömuutoksia. Kaikki ovat myös uusineet internetsivustonsa ja

graafisen ilmeensä. Muu ry on muuttanut uusiin toimitiloihin. Yhdistysten luottamustoimielinten

kokoonpano on muuttunut.

Toisaalta, kun muistelen ensimmäistä iltaa, jolloin itse osallistuin Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin

ideointiin, on projektissa ollut jotain pysyvääkin. Av-arkki ry:n puheenjohtaja Pirjetta Brander

ja Muu ry:n toiminnanjohtaja Timo Soppela ovat olleet Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin

voimahahmoja kautta vuosien.

Edestä johtaminen

Tuottamista merkitsevässä, latinankielisessä producere-sanassa pro-etuliite tarkoittaa edessä ja

ducere on johtaa (Geitlin 1883/1995, 16, 58). Verkostoon perustuvassa projektissa tuottajan työ

vastasi vain osittain mielikuvaa edestä johtamisesta. Mielestäni edestä johtaminen kuulostaa

lähinnä militantilta hierarkkisuudelta.

Olen kolmen perusorganisaation verkostossa päässyt ja joutunutkin toimimaan itsenäisesti ja

epähierarkkisesti. Yhteinen päämäärä on ollut kirjattuna esittelymateriaaliin (2005). Isoissa

kysymyksissä tai mielipiteiden hajautuessa olen tukeutunut ohjausryhmän näkemyksiin.

Ohjausryhmässä ovat olleet edustettuina perusorganisaatioiden päätöksentekijät. Ohjausryhmä

kokoontui harvoin virallisesti, mutta kävi ajoittain tihentyneitä sähköposti- ja puhelinneuvotteluja

kanssani. Onkin helppo samaistua Chongin ajatukseen siitä, että organisaatioiden ääriviivojen

pehmetessä aina ei ole selvää, missä yksi yritys loppuu ja toinen alkaa tai missä menee tuottajan

ja asiakkaan raja (Chong 2002, 138).

Kahteen otteeseen Itu-projektin päätöksenteko ulkoistettiin asiantuntijajuryille. Juryt tekivät sekä

käsikirjoituspajan että tuotantovaiheen taiteilija- ja teosvalinnat. Juryissä oli mukana toimijoiden

edustajia sekä ulkopuolisia, korkeita videotaiteen asiantuntijoita. Se, etten tuottajana itse tehnyt

näitä taiteellisesti merkittävimpiä päätöksiä, oli yhteisen harkinnan tulos. Juryjen käyttämisellä

tavoiteltiin ulkopuolista näkökulmaa. Samalla loimme keskusteluyhteyksiä henkilöihin, joiden

haluttiin olevan tietoisia ja kiinnostuneita Itu-projektista. Samalla saimme heiltä myös arvokasta

palautetta.

Voimakasta edestä johtamista tein mielestäni rahoitus-, budjetointi- ja sopimuskysymyksissä sekä

käsikirjoituspajan ja ensimmäisen näyttelyn toteutuksessa. Edestä johtaminen tarkoitti asioiden

pitkälle vietyjä ennakkovalmisteluja ennen niiden käyttöönottoa tai yhteistä ruotimista. Tällaista

edestä johtamista tein tuottajana niin projektin sisällä kuin suhteessa ulkopuolisiin tahoihin.

Hyytiän sanoin sitä voisi kutsua version tekemisellä vaikuttamiseksi. Oman version tekeminen

on vallan käyttöä. (Hyytiä 200�, 180–181).

Vastaan tuleminen

”Vallan ottaminen on samalla vastuun ottamista” (Hyytiä 200�, 180). Tunstall (1993, 200)

näkee televisiotuottajien työssä toteutuneen paradoksaalisen muutosprosessin. Tuottajien asema

on entistä epävarmempi, mutta myös itsenäisempi. Heidän edellytetään tekevän ja hallitsevan

yhä enemmän asioita, mikä tarkoittaa enemmän työtä, enemmän valvontaa, suurempaa

itsemääräämisoikeutta – ja enemmän vastuuta (Tunstall 1993, 203).

Hyytiä jakaa tuottajan kokonaisvastuun ensinnäkin vastuuksi muista tekijöistä varmistaakseen

”suotuisat olosuhteet eri osa-alueiden yhteiselle työskentelylle” (Hyytiä 200�, 60). Toiseksi

”tuottajalla on merkittävä rooli sen varmistamisessa, että elokuva valmistuu ennakkosuunnittelun

myötä” (emt, 62). Kolmanneksi tuottaja kantaa taiteellista kokonaisvastuuta. Se korostuu

valinnoissa, joita hän tekee (emt, 61–62). Lisäksi Hyytiä (200�, 59 mukaan Hyytiä 1997, 70)


viittaa laadunvalvonnalliseen vastuuseen. Tuottajan tulee tunnistaa hälytyssignaaleja, etsiä

niihin ratkaisuja sekä vaatia ratkaisuja työryhmän muilta jäseniltä. ”Taitava tuottaja kykenee

johtamaan [elokuvan tuotantoprosessia] siten, että lopputuloksena on suunniteltuakin ’suurempi’,

merkittävämpi elokuva” (emt, 62).

Sanakirjamääritelmän mukaan vastuu tarkoittaa velvollisuutta vastata omana huolena omassa

hoidossa tai valvonnassa olevasta asiasta, omaisuudesta tai henkilöstä. Vastuu on seuraamusten

uhkaa, joka koituisi näille mahdollisesti tapahtuvista vahingoista. (Nykysuomen sanakirja 1966,

S-Ö, �05). Vastuu juontaa suomen sukukielten sanoista, joilla tarkoitetaan muun muassa vastassa

olemista, kohtaamista, vastakkain olemista, vastustamista, vastauksen antamista ja tukemista

jotakin vasten (Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja 2005, 1�62–1�63). Näin tuottaminen edestä

johtamisena toteutuu myös vastuussa, siinä, että tuottaja tulee ensimmäisenä vastaan.

Ryhmiä, rajoja ja ulottuvuuksia

Jokaisella Itu-projektin neljällä tuotannolla oli oma tuotantoryhmänsä, joka koottiin teoksen ja

taiteilijan ehdoilla. Pienet tiimit vastasivat näyttelyiden toteutuksista. Chong (2002, 137–138)

kirjoittaa, kuinka tehtävät järjestetään ja vastuutetaan tiimeittäin ja alihankinta yleistyy. Suurinta

osaa Itu-projektin toiminnoista voikin luonnehtia alihankinnaksi. Perusorganisaatioiden sisäisiä

palveluita käytettiin vain taloushallinnossa, markkinoinnissa, levityksessä ja kahden videoteoksen

jälkituotannoissa.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin verkostot levittäytyivät yli sektorirajojen, kolmannelta

julkiselle ja yksityiselle. Taiteidenvälisiä rajoja ylitettiin etenkin tuotantoryhmissä, kun

kuvataiteen, television, elokuvan ja teatterin ammattilaiset tekivät yhteistyötä. Taiteilijat, eli

teostensa käsikirjoittajat ja ohjaajat, olivat keskeisessä asemassa omien tuotantoryhmiensä

kokoamisessa ja henkilövalinnoissa.

Tuottajaa tarvittiin välittäjänä, neuvottelijana ja kuuntelijana, jotta eri alojen ihmiset löysivät

keskinäisen luottamuksen. Pyrin yhteistyössä muiden alojen toimijoiden kanssa jämäkkyyteen

siinä, että niin taiteilijat kuin itsekin tuottajana olemme videotaiteen ja kuvataiteen

ammattilaisia. Samalla halusin olla avoin sen suhteen, että elokuva- ja televisio-osaamisesta ja

näyttelijäyhteistyöstä kokemusta meillä oli vähän tai vaihtelevasti.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti oli olemassa juuri tällaisten rajankäyntien turvalliseksi

mahdollistamiseksi. Projektissahan tavoiteltiin kehittyneempiä tuotantoprosesseja ja

toimintaverkostoja hyödyntämään koko video- ja mediataiteen alaa. Projektin katsottiin tukevan

alan ammattimaistumista ja kehittävän tuottajan ja tuotantoyhtiön erikoisosaamista videotaiteen

tuottamisessa sekä nostavan videotaiteilijoiden omia tuotannollisia valmiuksia. (Esittelymateriaali

2005). Toisin sanoen projektissa ei lähtökohtaisesti edellytetty kaiken osaamista.

Maantieteellisesti Itu jakautui pääkaupunkiseudulle ja Satakuntaan. Käsikirjoituspaja toteutettiin

osin Helsingissä ja osin Satakunnassa. Kaksi teosta kuvattiin Helsingissä, yksi Porissa ja yksi

Kankaanpäässä. Näyttelyt tuotettiin Raumalle ja Helsinkiin. Tuotantoryhmissä työskenteli

yhteensä noin viisikymmentä henkilöä, joista viidennes Satakunnasta, noin 70% Uudeltamaalta

ja loput muualta Suomesta.

Tunstallin mukaan toimintakentän sirpaloituessa ”langat” ja vastuu ovat yhä useammin tuottajan

käsissä (1993, 207). Kun projektin verkoston perusorganisaatioissa on muutoksia, ihmiset tulevat

erilaisista koulutustaustoista tai kaikki eivät asu samalla paikkakunnalla saati työskentele samoissa

tiloissa korostuu sen asema, jolla on laajin näkökulma, eli tuottajan.

Vähän sääntöjä, paljon sopimuksia

Derrick Chongin tutkimuksen (2002, 136–137) mukaan vaikeasti ennustettavassa

toimintaympäristössä asiantuntijoiden ammatillinen itseohjautuvuus ja vapaus kasvavat. Samalla

ammattikuvien muuttuminen entistä vaativammiksi vähentää sääntöjä ja säännönmukaisuuksia. Itu

– videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissakin omaksuttiin epämuodolliset ja joustavat toimintatavat. Kun

työskenneltiin yhteisen päämäärän vuoksi rakennetussa verkostossa, ei useinkaan ollut olemassa

vanhoja sääntöjä siitä, miten toimia. Projektisuunnitelma ja siitä muokattu esittelymateriaali

(2005) loivat yleiset määritelmät sille, mitä oltiin tekemässä. Niiden alle kasvoi kuitenkin uusi,

merkittävä säännöstö, kirjalliset sopimukset.

Elokuvataiteen alalla kirjallisilla sopimuksilla on pitkä perinne. Ne sisältävät myös

salassapitopykäliä, joten niistä on lähes mahdoton saada tietoa (Pihkala 2007). Hyytiä (200�,

181–182) viittaa sopimusten itsestään selvään olemassaoloon jo ennakkosuunnitteluvaiheessa.

Oli kirjallinen sopimus millainen hyvänsä, aukoton se ei voi olla koskaan. Sopimuksiakin

tärkeämpää on luottamus.

Tunstallin (1992, esim. 112, 11�, 207) tutkimuksesta välittyy kuva televisioalan sopimuksista

vakiintuneina käytänteinä. Niiden hallintaa osana tuottajan työtä ei erikseen analysoida.

Chong (2002, 61) antaa esimerkin taideinstituutiosta, jossa kaikki taiteilijat työskentelevät

määräaikaissopimuksin, itsenäisinä ammatinharjoittajina. Toisaalla hän tarkastelee sopimuksia

taiteen ja taiteilijan rahoituksen eli muun muassa teosmyynnin, tekijänoikeuksien myynnin ja

sponsoroinnin näkökulmasta (emt. 121–125).

Näyttelysopimusten laadinta on ainoa kuvataiteen kentällä vakiintunut, kirjallinen ja melko

yhtenäinen sopimuskäytäntö, jonka kanssa kaikki alan ammattilaiset ovat tekemisissä. Itu –

videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin alussa oli vaikea hahmottaa, mistä kaikesta projektin keskeisten

taiteilijoiden kanssa pitää ja kannattaa sopia kirjallisesti. Laadin kunkin taiteilijan, tuottajan ja

tuotantoyhtiön kesken samanlaisen kolmikantasopimuksen. Sen laatiminen oli pilottiprojektissa


niin työlästä, että sopimus saatiin allekirjoitettavaan muotoon projektin ollessa jo pitkällä. Siksi

psykologiset sopimukset, sitoutuminen ja luottamus toisiin olivat kaikkein tärkeimpiä.

Kolmikantasopimuksessa määrittelin taiteilijan, tuottajan ja tuotantoyhtiön tehtävät ja vastuut,

taiteilijakorvauksen suuruuden, myyntikäytännöt ja myyntituoton jakautumisen, teoksen

esillepano-oikeudet ja tavan, jolla teoksen tekijätiedot ilmaistaan. Samalla sovittiin käytännöstä,

jossa neljänsien osapuolten taiteelliset oikeudet keskitetään sopimuksin Muu ry:lle. Taiteilijoille

jäi oikeus itse tuottamansa taiteellisen aineiston vapaaseen käyttöön.

Kaikista muista taiteellisesti tai teknisesti keskeisistä töistä räätälöin kirjalliset sopimukset Muu

ry:n ja alihankintayhtiön tai itsenäisten ammatinharjoittajien välille. Tyypillisessä sopimuksessa

määriteltiin työtehtävät, työn toteutuspaikka ja -aika sekä käytettävä kalusto, korvaukset ja

krediittien ilmaiseminen. Sopimuksissa siirrettiin kaikki tuotettu kuva- tai äänimateriaali ja sen

sisältämät taiteelliset oikeudet Muu ry:lle. Kaikkien kanssa sovittiin riittävästä kertakorvauksesta,

tuottoperusteisiin royalteihin ei sitouduttu.

Tuottajan taloustyöt

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin rahoitus koottiin monista lähteistä, koska keskitettyä

rahoitusjärjestelmää ei videotaiteen tuotannoille ole olemassa1. Esimerkiksi lyhytelokuvia

voidaan Suomessa rahoittaa täysimääräisesti kolmiyhteistyöllä, johon kuuluvat Yleisradio,

Suomen elokuvasäätiö ja AVEK. Suomen elokuvasäätiö ei yrityksistäni huolimatta kiinnostunut

Itu-projektin teosten rahoittamisesta. AVEK:ssa mediataiteen tuotantotukien määrärahat ovat

huomattavasti lyhytelokuvien määrärahoja pienemmät.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin taloudellinen lähtökohta oli, että tuotannot ”myydään”

ennakkoon rahoittajille eikä taloudellisia riskejä oteta. Hakemuksia laadittiin kaikkiaan 39

kappaletta. Yleensä minä tuottajana tein hakemukset, jonka jälkeen Muu ry:ssä niihin liitettiin

tarvittavat yhdistysasiakirjat sekä allekirjoitukset. Välttääksemme kilpailevat hakemukset muiden

Muu ry:n projektien kanssa, neuvottelimme ennakkoon, mistä ja milloin rahaa anottaisiin.

Se, että käytin työaikaani kymmenien rahoitushakemusten laatimiseen, liittyy laajempaan

muutokseen tuottajien ammattikuvassa. Tunstallin (1993, 10–13) tutkimuksen mukaan viime

vuosituhannen loppuun mennessä aiempi resurssikeskeinen tuottaminen väistyi ja tuottajille

kasaantui huomattavasti enemmän taloudellisia velvoitteita. Nykyään televisioyhtiöiden sisäisten

tuottajien on toimittava yhteistyössä itsenäisten tuottajien kanssa ja hankittava rahoitusta ja

yhteistyökumppaneita talon ulkopuolelta (emt., 15). Juuri näin toimi Itu-projektissa YLE:n

Yhteistuotantojen tuottaja Sari Volanen, olkoonkin että aloite yhteistyölle tuli minulta. Kaikkien

1 Olen kirjoittanut rahoitusprosessista artikkelin Katse-verkkojulkaisuun, joka on luettavissa osoitteessa

ww.katse.org.

tuottajien työajasta kuluu nykyään entistä enemmän aikaa rahasta neuvottelemiseen, hintojen ja

töiden kilpailuttamiseen ja kustannuslaskelmien tekemiseen (Tunstall 1993, 15).

Kuvataiteen kontekstissa Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektia voi rahassa mitattuna luonnehtia

suureksi, mutta elokuvatuotantoihin verrattuna hyvin, hyvin pieneksi. Vuosien 200�–2006 aikana

toteutunut budjetti oli noin 185 000 euroa. Hajautettujen toimintojen vuoksi kokonaisbudjetin

loppusummaa on vaikea laskea. Luvussa ei esimerkiksi ole mukana vuoden 2007 näyttelyä Muu

galleriassa, AV-arkin levitystoiminnan rahoitusta ja kuluja tai Rauman taidemuseon panosta

vuoden 2006 näyttelylle.

Projektin rahoituksesta 33% tuli av-alan rahoittajilta eli AVEK:lta ja YLE:ltä. 28% saatiin

perinteisiltä, taidetta ja kulttuuria tukevilta säätiöiltä. 39% oli opetusministeriön rahaa, kun

mukana on sekä Taiteen keskustoimikunnan, Satakunnan taidetoimikunnan että ministeriön

omat panostukset. Pääosa rahoista kulki Muu ry:n tilien kautta. Satakunnan taidetoimikunnan

kustannussuoritteet tehtiin kuitenkin suoraan taidetoimikunnasta. Osa rahoituksesta haettiin ja

myönnettiin taiteilijoille henkilökohtaisesti.

Hajautettu tilinpito oli taloushallinnon ja kuluseurannan kannalta etenkin projektin kiireisissä

vaiheissa haastavaa. Tehokas tuottaminen edellyttää ajantasaista tietoa kulutoteumasta.

Sopimuksemme mukaan Muu ry vastasi kirjanpidosta, mutta se oli projektin tarpeisiin liian

hidasta. Verkostomallisen projektin kokonaistalouden seurannan ulkoistaminenkin olisi ollut

vaikeaa. Projektin oma pankkitili olisi kertonut kassatilanteen yhdellä silmäyksellä. Erillisen

pankkitilin käyttö ei kuitenkaan olisi ollut mahdollista sen enempää projektin oman kuin Muu ry:

n muiden projektien likviditeetin vuoksi.

Tuottajan vahvuus ja valta kiteytyvät rahaan. ”Koska tuottajalla on elokuvan tekemiseen tarvittavat

rahat, hänellä on myös valtaa määrätä rahojen käytöstä. Tuottajan tapa käyttää rahaa määrittää

häntä ammatissaan.” (Hyytiä 200�, 61). Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa rahat eivät siis

olleet konkreettisesti minulla eikä minulla ollut pääsyä perusorganisaatioiden pankkitileille. Sekä

Muu ry:n että Satakunnan taidetoimikunnan taloushallinnon kanssa muodostui muutaman väärin

ohjautuneen laskun jälkeen toimiva käytäntö. Minulla hyväksytettiin kaikki laskut ennen niiden

maksamista. Vahvuuteni ja valtani olivat toisaalta sen varassa, että laadin kaikki budjettiversiot

sekä sen, että oma kirjanpitoni oli ajantasaisempi kuin muiden.

Vapaudesta ja epävarmuudesta

Chongin (2002, 137–138) työkulttuurin kuvauksessa asiantuntijat määrittelevät omat erityistaitonsa

vaatien niille ammatillista kunnioitusta. Työntekijät järjestävät itse työtehtävänsä, määrittelevät

niiden tärkeyden ja perustelevat päätöksensä. Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa taiteilijat eli

teosten käsikirjoittajat saivat itse hyvin vapaasti päättää, mistä muista videotuotannon työvaiheista

�9 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 50

he ottavan päävastuun ja mihin tehtäviin palkataan ulkopuolisia. Ratkaisut vaihtelivat. Yksi

taiteilija ohjasi, kuvasi ja leikkasi itse teoksensa, toinen kuvasi, kolmas ohjasi ja lavasti, neljäs

ohjasi. Oman työn määrittelyvapaus lisäsi taiteilijoiden vastuuta ja haasteita tukien samalla heidän

omaa taiteilijuuttaan.

Tuottajan ja taiteilijoidenkin työn haasteena oli olennaisen erottaminen. Omasta mielestäni ei

ollut vaikea tietää, mitä Itu-projektissa kulloinkin piti tai olisi pitänyt seuraavaksi tehdä. Vaativaa

oli suhteuttaa muiden töiden vaatimuksia Itu-projektiin ja tehdä valintoja niiden ensisijaisuuksien

välillä. Sama kokemus välittyy Hyytiän tutkimuksesta, jonka mukaan ”tekijät tunnistavat asiat tai

työvaiheet, joihin pitää lopputuloksen onnistumisen takia panostaa aikaa, mutteivät aina onnistu

sitä itselleen raivaamaan”. Tyypillisesti paineita kasvattaa usean projektin samanaikaisuus.

(Hyytiä 200�, 182–183).

Käsikirjoituspajasta lähtien Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin taiteilijat joutuivat avaamaan

keskeneräisiä teosideoitaan muille ihmisille. Hyytiä (200�, 180) kuvailee, kuinka ”[t]ekijöiden

on paikoin vaikea luovuttaa oma työnsä toisen tekijän käsiin, luopua vallastaan kontrolloida

käsikirjoitusluonnosta”. Käsikirjoituspaja oli ryhmätyöskentelyä taiteilijoiden, tuottajan ja

luennoitsijoiden kesken. Pajassa pidettiin yhteinen esittelytilaisuus (pitching), jossa Yleisradion

edustajat antoivat palautetta. Myöhemmin käsikirjoituksia ruodittiin lisäksi rahoittajien kanssa,

kuvausryhmissä ja näyttelijöiden kesken.

Taiteilijoilla teettämäni riskianalyysin mukaan kollegoiden ja muiden ihmisten kesken puitu työ

tuli jo käsikirjoituspajan aikana niin tärkeäksi ja julkiseksi, että sen toteuttamiseen kohdistui

erityispaineita. Käsittääkseni ainakin omasta käsikirjoituksesta puhuminen helpottui, kun

siihen tuli rutiinia ja kun palautteen saaminen osoittautui kiinnostavaksi. Taiteilijat opettelivat

vähitellen ottamaan version tekijän roolia ja valtaa aiempaa julkisemmin itselleen jo työn ollessa

suunnitteluasteella.

Tuottaja ei ”ole tekijöistä se, jonka tulisi kyseenalaistaa omaa toimintaansa saati projektin

onnistumismahdollisuuksia. Epävarmoina aikoina vahva tuottaja tuntuu turvalliselta. Se antaa

käsikirjoittajalle ja ohjaajalle tilaa kokea omaa epävarmuuttaan, joka on taiteellispainotteisessa

suunnittelussa melko oleellinen ja usein jatkuvasti läsnä oleva tila.” (Hyytiän 200�, 60).

Tämä tuottajien ammattikunnassa vaalittu perusarvo erottaa tuottajat teosten muista tekijöistä.

Epäröinnin kätkeminen on edestä johtamista, pro-ducere. Mielestäni se voisi kääntyä suomeksi

myös kuten pro patria, isänmaan puolesta. Tuottaminen on johtamista muiden puolesta.

Tuottaminen on tuomista

Suomen kielessä tuottaa on tuoda-verbin johdannainen (Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja

2005, 1357). Niin tavaraa kuin työvoimaakin voidaan tuottaa juna-asemalta tai ulkomailta.

Tuottaminen on siis jonkin tuomista kaukaa lähelle. Tuottaminen tuomisena toteutuu tuottajan työn

vaiheissa, joita kutsun tarkennuspisteiksi. Toimijoiden kaoottinen maailma tarvitsee elementtejä,

jotka kokoavat kaaosta ja uudelleenjärjestävät sitä (Hyytiä 200�, 99). Tarkennuspisteet ovat

hetkiä, joissa asiat kootaan yhteen ja laitetaan toimimaan yhdessä.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin käsikirjoituspajan lopuksi jokaisesta teoksesta koottiin

kansio, joka sisälsi muun muassa synopsiksen, treatmentin, kuvia ja budjettiluonnoksen. Se oli

tarkennuspiste, joka teki erilaiset käsikirjoitukset vertailukelpoisiksi. Jokainen apurahahakemus

oli samanlainen tarkennuspiste. Hetki, jolloin videoteoksen kuvaukset alkoivat, edellytti tietyn

ihmisjoukon ja tavaramäärän tuomista yhteen paikkaan. Sekin oli tarkennuspiste. Silloin

tuottaminen eli tuominen tarkoitti konkreettisimmillaan autokyytejä ja tavarantoimituksia.

Tuotannon viettely

Jean Baudrillard (1987, 80) on pohtinut tuottamisen käsitettä pohjautuen sanan latinankielen

etymologiseen merkitykseen näkyväksi tekeminen (producere). Tuotanto on utopia, jolle meidät

on alistettu. Toisin sanoen näkyväksi tekeminen on mahdoton maailmanparannuksellinen

haavekuva (vrt. Nykysuomen sanakirja 1966, 221). Baudrillardin (1987, �1) mukaan annamme

arvoa vain näkyvän järjestykselle: ”Kaikkialla pyritään tuottamaan merkityksiä, jotta maailma

saataisiin merkitsemään ja näkymään”.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin tarkennuspisteissä tavoiteltiin nimenomaan mahdollisimman

hyvää, näkyvää järjestystä. Tuottajan tehtävä oli ensinnäkin tietää, mitkä asiat tarkennuspisteeseen

tarvittiin. Toisaalta piti kyetä tarkastelemaan niitä niin, että näki niiden ominaisuuksien vaikutukset

suhteessa kokonaisuuteen. Tarkennuspisteissä toteutui tuottajan työ sekä tuomisen että näkyväksi

tekemisen merkityksissä.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin käsikirjoituspajan vieraileva pääluennoitsija oli tuottaja ja

kouluttaja Lemmikki Louhimies. Hän toi projektiin kehittämänsä visuaalisen käsikirjoittamisen

metodin (Louhimies 2003). Metodi korosti käsitteellisyydestä irtautumista ja sattuman

mahdollistamista käsikirjoitusprosessissa. Louhimies (200�) käytti satuja kirjoittajan laitumina

ja kannusti niin unien kuin fyysisen aistittavuudenkin tutkailuun. Käsikirjoituksen tuli sisältää

mysteerio, jota ei koskaan paljasteta.

Baudrillard (1987, �2) kirjoittaa, ettei salaisuudessa ole tuotettavaa. Ymmärrän hänen

tarkoittavan, ettei näkyväksi tehty salaisuus ole enää salaisuus. Sitä yrittäessään tuotanto

harhautuu tarkoitusperistään ja ajautuu umpikujaan kohdatessaan voimattomuutensa. Mutta

Baudrillard kysyykin, onko mitään viettelevämpää kuin salaisuus. Viettely (seducere) on haaste,

joka esitetään tuotannon järjestykselle. (Baudrillard 1987, �0–�2).


Sanakirjan mukaan sē-dēcē on syrjään viemistä, erottamista, pois kääntämistä (Latinalais-

suomalainen sanakirja 1997, 690). Baudrillardille (1987, 15) viettely on esteettiseen ilmaisuun

perustuvaa mielihyvää.

”Tuotantotavan kyllästäminä meidän on löydettävä takaisin katoamisen estetiikan tielle. Viettely

on osa mainittua estetiikkaa. Se vie harhaan ja johtaa tieltä pois” (emt, �6). Haasteena näkyväksi

tekevälle tuottamiselle hän esittää, että me ja maailma olemme lopulta kuitenkin olemassa vain

vieteltyinä.

Vaikka tehtäväni oli näkyväksi tekeminen, tuottajana minun piti myös turvata se, että annos

salaisuuden epäjärjestystä läpäisee tuotannon tarkennuspisteet paljastumatta. Itu – videotaiteen

tuotantoprojektissa käsikirjoituspaja, taiteilijoiden vapaus oman työn määrittelyssä sekä joustava

tuotantoaikataulu tukivat salaisuuden säilymistä. Jopa rahoittajien palaute tuki salaisuutta.

Yleisradion edustajat rohkaisivat kuvataiteilijoita luottamaan visuaalisuuteensa. Samoin perustein

AVEK:n tuotantoneuvoja vaati taiteilijoita laatimaan teostensa kuvakäsikirjoitukset itse.

Latinalais-suomalaisen sanakirjan (1997, 599) mukaan tuottaminen on myös viettelyä. ”Viettely

ei ole tuotannon vastakohta. Viettely viettelee tuotannon”, kirjoittaa Baudrillard (1987, �7).

Näistä olen juontanut ajatuksen, ettei tuottaminen ole tuottamista ellei se sisällä sivuaskeleita ja

antautumista mielihyvälle.

Hyytiä näkee yhteisessä harhailussa hyvän lopputuloksen siemenen. Kun elokuvanteossa

keskeisten tekijöiden joukko ”luottaa toisiinsa, ei harhailu tunnu niin toivottomalta – aina voi

ajatella, että yhdessä päästään takaisin kiinni punaiseen lankaan” (Hyytiä 200�, 69). ”Sanat,

ilmaisut ja tarkennukset löytyvät keskeisten henkilöiden välisessä keskustelussa.” Hyytiä

(eml) pitää ”tätä keskustelua äärimmäisen tärkeänä siksi, että siinä osapuolet hakevat yhteistä

näkemystä myöntäen toisilleen, ettei kuva ole selkeä. Jotta se kirkastuisi on uskallettava käydä

myös harhapoluilla”.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin päätteeksi viisihenkinen jury kokoontui arvioimaan

käsikirjoituskansioita. He totesivat käsikirjoituskansioiden muodollisen pätevyyden asettavan

haasteita myös sisällöille. Yhtenäisestä esittelymuodosta huolimatta tai juuri sen ansiosta teosten

rytmiset erot, visuaaliset ideat ja taiteilijoiden persoonallinen tyyli erottuivat. Näin sanoessaan

tulkitsen juryn arvostaneen sitä, mikä oli tehty näkyväksi, mutta halunneen myös tulla vietellyksi.

Senkin pitää näkyä, että kaikki ei näy.

Samanaikaisesti ja eri tahdissa

Suunnittelu ja tuotanto sulautuvat toisiinsa ja kulkevat rinnakkain (Chong 2002, 137–138).

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa tuotettiin koulutusta, teoksia ja näyttelyitä. Erilaisia

peräkkäisiksi miellettyjä työvaiheita – suunnittelua, toteutusta, markkinointia ja levitystä

– tehtiin aina samanaikaisesti. Jo käsikirjoituspajan aikana julkaistiin projektin internet-sivut

ja teosten synopsikset. Samanaikaisesti laskettiin tuotantojen ensimmäiset kustannusarviot ja

sovittiin alustavasti näyttelystä Rauman taidemuseossa. Av-arkin View05-festivaalin näytäntöjen

alussa esitettiin Itu-projektin teaseria, vaikkei tuotannoilla ollut vielä juuri lainkaan rahoitusta.

Samassa yhteydessä käsikirjoituksia ja tuotantosuunnitelmia esiteltiin myös kansainvälisille

kuraattorivieraille. Myös tiedottaminen on näkyväksi tekemistä.

Aikataulutuksen ydinohjeen sain AVEK:in tuotantoneuvoja Milla Moilaselta sekä taiteilijoiden

palautteista. Neljää tuotantoa ei saisi pakottaa yhteiseen aikatauluun, vaan niiden olisi edettävä omilla

ehdoillaan. Jo käsikirjoituspajan yhteistahtisuus hankaloitti joidenkin taiteilijoiden työskentelyä.

Myös Hyytiän (200�, 182) tutkimuksessa todetaan, että etenkään työn suunnitteluvaiheessa ei

vielä ole varmuutta siitä, mihin aikaa kannattaa uhrata ja mihin ei, mikä johtaa uusiin oivalluksiin

ja mikä todetaan myöhemmin turhaksi. Siksi suunnitteluvaihetta ei voi tiukasti aikatauluttaa.

Aikataulutusta ohjailivat muun muassa käsikirjoitusten sisältämät vuodenaikakuvat,

rahoituspäätökset, yhteistyöorganisaatioiden muut projektit, taiteilijoiden ja tuottajan muut projektit.

Koska avainhenkilöiden korvaaminen sijaisilla ei tullut kysymykseen, projektissa mukauduttiin

myös useisiin isoihin ja aikaa vaatineisiin käänteisiin asianosaisten henkilökohtaisissa elämissä.

Oli myös pakko huomioida perusorganisaatioiden vuosirytmit tilikausineen, kokouksineen

ja toimintakertomuksineen. Minulle perusorganisaatioiden olemassaolo oli itseisarvo.

Mahtavinkaan projekti ei saisi kasvaa niin isoksi ja hallitsevaksi, että se alkaisi ohjailla saati

uhata organisaatiota.

Kahden teoksen kuvaukset toteutettiin kesällä 2005, vaikka kokonaisrahoitus ei ollut vielä

varmistunut. Kun niitä leikattiin, kuvattiin kolmas teos. Sitä leikattiin alkuvuonna 2006, kun

ensimmäiset teokset olivat ensi-illassa View06-festivaalilla. Kolmen teoksen kansainvälinen

levitys alkoi ja neljäs teos kuvattiin syksyllä 2006. Samaan aikaan kahdesta teoksesta koostettiin

installaatioversioita. Tiedotusponnistukset huipentuivat Rauman taidemuseon näyttelyyn

loppusyksyllä 2006. Toinen huipentuma oli kolmen teoksen esittely Muu galleriassa helmikuussa

2007. Neljäs teos vaati vielä puoli vuotta viimeistelyä ja sai ensi-iltansa toukokuussa 2007.

Lopuksi

Tuottaminen pro-ducere tarkoittaa edestä johtamista. Taiteilija, esimerkiksi kuvataiteilija voi

tuottaa oman teoksensa eli johtaa oman teoksensa tekemistä yksin. Kuitenkin, kun tarkastellaan

taideteoksia, jotka edellyttävät useamman ihmisen yhteistä työskentelyä ja erilaisia ammattitaitoja,

tuotannollisen työn voi tehdä tuottaja. Tällaisessa teoksessa ja työskentelyssä tärkein taiteilija ei

enää ole ainoa taiteilija. Samoin voidaan päätellä, ettei tuottaja edestä johtajana ole prosessin

ainoa johtaja.


Vaikka taideteoksen valmistusprosessissa tuottaminen ymmärretään niin sanottuna jaettuna

johtajuutena, on johtajuuden käsite taiteen kontekstissa mielestäni hieman ongelmallinen. En

usko, että vapaa kuvataiteilija kovin halukkaasti kutsuisi tuottajaa työnsä johtajaksi. Tämän

ristiriidan avaaminen voisi olla kiinnostavaa yhdessä niiden taiteilijoiden kanssa, joiden teoksia

tuotin Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa. Yhteinen määritelmä voisi kenties löytyä ajatuksesta,

että tuottaminen on johtamista muiden puolesta.

Olen tässä artikkelissa tarkastellut tuottamista, omaa työtäni, etsien sille määritelmiä

poikkitieteellisesti muun muassa sanakirjoista ja audiovisuaalisten alojen tuottamista ja kulttuurin

hallinnointia käsittelevistä tutkimuksista. Kirjalliset lähteeni keskustelevat oman kokemukseni ja

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin aineiston kanssa.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti käynnistettiin kahden taiteilijaorganisaation, Muu ry:

n ja Av-arkki ry:n aloitteesta. Lähtökohtana tuntuma siitä, että Suomessa oli kasvanut uusi

taiteilijasukupolvi, jolta löytyisi valmiuksia ja rohkeutta suurempiin videotaidetuotantoihin.

Suuremmat videotaidetuotannot edellyttivät tuottajan kanssa työskentelyä. Itu – videotaiteen

tuotantoprojekti tarjosi puitteet tuottajan ja kuvataiteilijan yhteistyölle ja sen kehittämiselle.

Tuottajan ja taiteilijan töiden eriyttämisellä haluttiin projektin puitteissa nostaa sekä työskentelyn

että syntyvän teoksen laatua. Samalla nähtiin, että taiteilijajärjestöjen omassa tuotantoprojektissa

voidaan varmistaa, että kuvataiteilija säilyttää kuvataiteilijuutensa. Tuotantoyhtiön tehtävät hoiti

Muu ry ja levittäjänä toimi Av-arkki ry.

Lopulta Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojekti toteutettiin kolmen perusorganisaation yhteistyönä.

Taiteilijajärjestöjen lisäksi mukaan tuli oma työnantajani Satakunnan taidetoimikunta.

Kolmiyhteistyöstä rakentui paitsi kivijalka, myös monimutkaisia asioiden seurannaisvaikutuksia.

Tuottajan työn kannalta keskeistä oli jatkuva perusorganisaatioiden muun toiminnan huomiointi.

Perusorganisaatiot olivat itseisarvoja, joiden etuja tuottajana halusin myös vaalia. Organisaatioilla

oli yhteisiä piirteitä, joista keskeisin oli jatkuva muutoksen tila. Yhteistyö pehmensi organisaatioiden

ääriviivoja eikä aina ei ollut selvää, missä yksi organisaatio loppui ja toinen alkoi.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa taiteilijat eli teosten käsikirjoittajat saivat itse määritellä

oman tehtäväkuvansa teoksen tuotantoprosessissa. Kaikki päätyivät ohjaamaan, mutta muilta

osin valinnat vaihtelivat. Määrittelyvapaus lisäsi taiteilijoiden vastuuta ja haasteita, mutta se oli

myös konkreettinen esimerkki tavasta tukea heidän vapaata taiteilijuuttaan prosessissa.

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin ”sateenvarjon” alla toteutettiin työryhmissä erilaisia

alaprojekteja, kuten koulutusta, videoteosten tuotantoja ja näyttelyitä. Videotaiteen tuotantojen

kehittämiseksi rakennettu projekti antoi turvalliset raamit toiminnalle, sillä kehittämistyössä ei

lähtökohtaisesti edellytetty täysoppineisuutta. Myös tuottajalle Itu oli oppimisprojekti.

Sen enempää oma kokemukseni Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin tuottajana kuin kirjallisten

lähteideni välittämä käsitys tuottajuudesta eivät korosta prosessin kontrollin ja mallinnettavuuden

merkitystä. Ennemminkin tutkimukset ja oma työni kertovat tuottamisen monimutkaisuudesta

ja monimutkaisuuden sietämisen merkityksestä. Taiteellisen prosessin vaikea kuvattavuus ja

moniulotteisuus ovat haaste tuottajalle.

Toimintakentät sirpaloituvat. Sirpaloituminen toistuu useilla elämänalueilla ja yhteiskunnan

tasoilla. Tuottajan työssä tämä tarkoittaa, että ”langat” ja vastuu ovat yhä useammin tuottajan

käsissä. Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa sirpaloituminen oli esimerkiksi erilaisten rajojen

ylityksiä, useita tiimejä ja alaprojekteja sekä tuotantojen eri vaiheiden limittymistä ja lomittumista.

Myös keskeisten henkilöiden muun elämän ja muiden töiden vaikutukset sirpaloittivat projektia

ja sen aikatauluja. Yksi vaativimpia haasteita olikin suhteuttaa muiden töiden vaatimuksia Itu

– videotaiteen tuotantoprojektiin ja tehdä valintoja ensisijaisuuksien välillä.

Tuottaminen on näkyväksi tekemistä. Näkyväksi tekeminen on yksinkertaisimmillaan vastuuta

teoksen valmistumisesta. Videotaideteoksen syntyprosessin eri vaiheisiin kuitenkin liittyy

tilanteita, joissa keskeneräisiäkin asioita pitää tarkastella useamman ihmisen kesken. Kutsun

tällaisia näkyväksi tekemisen välivaiheita tarkennuspisteiksi.

Tuottajan on tarkennuspisteissä jäsennettävä työn osat niin, että niitä voidaan arvioida

kokonaisuutena. Yhtä tärkeää on antaa osien hajota, muuttua, elää ja hakea muotoaan

tarkennuspisteiden välillä. Suomen kielen etymologiassa tuottaminen tarkoittaa tuomista.

Tuottaminen tuomisena toteutuu tarkennuspisteissä, kun tuottajan tulee tietää mitä ja miten työn

eri osia tuodaan tarkennuspisteisiin.

Yleisesti ajatellaan, että nykyaikaisessa työ- ja projektiympäristössä sääntöjä vähennetään. Kun

asioita tehdään uudella tavalla, väliaikaisissa kokoonpanoissa ja ilman, että tarkka lopputulos

on tiedossa, ei tekemiselle ole olemassa valmista sääntökirjaa. Sääntöjen sijaan työtä ohjasivat

Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin esittelymateriaali, neljän tuotetun teoksen käsikirjoitukset,

teosten budjetit ja eri tahojen välille laaditut sopimukset. Tuottajalle tämä tarkoitti suurta

itsemääräämisoikeutta ja enemmän vastuuta.

Oman version tekeminen on vallan käyttöä. Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektin tarkoitus

määriteltiin projektisuunnitelmissa, joiden pohjalta laadin esittelymateriaalin. Siinä kuului sekä

kaikkien perusorganisaatioiden että tuottajan ääni. Käsikirjoitusten suhteen en ottanut valtaa omiin

käsiini. Käsikirjoitusvalinnat ulkoistettiin. Tietääkseni ratkaisu oli tuottajan työssä epätyypillinen,

joten sen syitä ja merkityksiä voi olla syytä avata jatkossa lisää.

Videoteosten käsikirjoituksia johtivat taiteilijat itse. Tuottajana vaikutin niihin rakentamalla

käsikirjoituskoulutuksen sisällöt sekä kommentoimalla eri versioita. Keskeneräisten teosten


esittely ei ole kuvataiteen kontekstissa tavallista. Itu – videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa

taiteilijat opettelivat ottamaan version tekijän roolia ja valtaa julkisesti itselleen jo työn ollessa

suunnitteluasteella. Samalla se sitoutti heitä jopa niin, että teoksen toteuttamiseen kohdistui

erityispaineita.

Yleiseen tuotantokulttuurin murrokseen liittyy, että resurssikeskeinen tuottaminen on väistynyt

ja tuottajille on kasaantunut huomattavasti aiempaa enemmän taloudellisia velvoitteita. Itu

– videotaiteen tuotantoprojektissa tuotetut teokset pyrittiin rahoittamaan täysimääräisesti

ennakkoon. Rahoituksen suunnittelu ja hankinta olivat sekä keskeinen osa tuottajan työtä että tapa

vaikuttaa projektiin. Myös menopuolen ajantasainen hallinta antoi tuottajalle valtaa ja vahvuutta

päätöksentekoon.

Kirjallisten sopimusten kulttuuri on kuvataiteessa ohut mutta elokuvataiteessa vakiintunut. Itu

– videotaiteen tuotantoprojektille luotiin omat sopimusmallit. Sopimusten laadinnassa versioiden

laadinnan tuoma vastuu ja valta olivat tuottajalla. Tuottaminen edestä johtamisena toteutuu

vastuun käsitteessä. Tuottaja tulee ensimmäisenä vastaan, jos jokin ulkopuolinen asia tai taho tai

asia vie ihmisten huomiota.

Yleisesti ajatellaan, että ansaitakseen luottamuksen tuottajan ei tule näyttää epävarmuuttaan.

Toisaalta yhteinen harhailu voi yhdistää tekijöitä ja olla tie parempaan lopputulokseen.

Konkreettisesti tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että harhailun mahdollistamiseksi suunnitteluvaihetta ei voi

tiukasti aikatauluttaa.

Päädyn kirjoituksessani siihen, että tuottaminen ole tuottamista ellei se sisällä sivuaskeleita ja

antautumista mielihyvälle.

Tuottajan pitää turvata se, että annos salaisuuden epäjärjestystä läpäisee tuotannon. Tarkennuspisteet

ovat tärkeitä, mutta ne eivät saa paljastaa kaikkea. Toisin sanottuna senkin pitää näkyä, että

kaikki ei näy. Tätä ajatusta olen kehitellyt Jean Baudrillardin tuottamisen ja viettelemisen

pohdintojen avulla. Se on samalla esimerkki ehkä korkeammalle tai yhteiskunnallisemmalle

tasolle tarkoitetusta analyysistä, jonka soveltaminen konkreettiseksi miellettyyn tuottajan työhön

kirvoittaa vastustusta teoreetikoiden keskuudessa.

Oman tutkimukseni tavoite on ollut ja on edelleen löytää tapoja pohtia tuottajuutta muiltakin

kannoilta kuin nippuna tiettyjä tehtäviä tai henkilöominaisuuksia. Etsin samalla tapaa, jolla

sellaisten ajattelijoiden kuin Michel Foucault’n, Pierre Bourdieun tai Theodor Adornon tuottamista

käsittelevät filosofoinnit voisivat löytää tiensä omiin tuottajuuspohdintoihini.

Toinen, lähinnä ulkopuolelta asetettu tavoite tai toistuvasti esitetty kysymys on tuotantoprosessin

tai tuottajuuden mallintaminen visuaalisesti. Jos sellaisen nyt piirtäisin, olisi kuvassa aikajana,

kenties mutkitellen etenevä. Janaa ympäröivässä avaruudessa leijailee sirpaleita tai pieniä

palasia, jotka toisinaan järjestäytyvät aikajanalle erilaisiksi muodostelmiksi, tarkennuspisteiksi,

hajotakseen ja järjestäytyäkseen janalla myöhemmin uudelleen.

Työ jatkuu. Valmistelen tässä kirjoituksessa käsittelemistäni aiheista lopputyötä Taideteollisen

korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median osastolle.

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Creative organizing in the global network

society: the case of global trafficking networks�

Johan Sandström (PhD)

Department of Business Studies (ESI)

Örebro University

Abstract

This paper outlines the contours of the global network society and then searches for ‘the masters’

of this new environment. Judging from management talk, these masters are found in global

corporations, but closing in on practice, evidence rather point in the direction of global trafficking

networks. This raises several issues of which the role and responsibilities of business studies are

elaborated upon in the paper. Two kinds of arguments are given to why we should study these

networks. Keywords: business, globalization, morality, network, research, trafficking.

2 This is a working paper and it has not been proofread.


Creative organizing in the global network society: the case of global trafficking networks

In its own raw and sordid way, illicit trade shows us some of the places globalization is going.

(Naím, 2007, p 36)

The global network society

As it goes, we live in an emerging global network society, in which the world’s flatness (Friedman,

2005) and fluidity (Bauman, 2000) create the need for new forms of management and organizing.

Manuel Castells argues that this is driven by a new technological paradigm: “What is new in our

age is a new set of information technologies” and since “information processing is at the source

of life, and of social action, every domain of our eco-social system is thereby transformed” (2000,

p 10). Castells adds to this, the feature of a global economy in which actors have the capacity

to act on a planetary scale, and the feature of a networked economy with so-called networked

enterprises. “These networks”, Castells claims, “connect among themselves on specific business

projects, and switch to another network as soon as the project is finished”, shifting the focus from

the formal organization (the company) to the temporary network (the project) (2000, p 11). The

primary example of the global network enterprise he takes here is the exterritorial global financial

players.

The network is here a key word in Castells’s analysis:

For most of human history, and unlike biological evolution, networks were outperformed by organizations

able to master resources around centrally defined goals, achieved through the implementation of tasks

in rationalized, vertical chains of command and control. But for the first time, the introduction of new

information/communication technologies allows networks to keep their flexibility and adaptability,

thus asserting their evolutionary nature. [---] It follows an unprecedented combination of flexibility

and task implementation, of co-ordinated decision making, and decentralized execution, which provide

a superior social morphology for all human action. (2000, p 15)

In the network society, flexible work therefore becomes “the predominant form of working

arrangements” (Castells, 2000, p 11) as networks demand continuous movements by their ‘nodes’:

“If a node in the network ceases to perform a useful function it is phased out from the network,

and the network rearranges itself – as cells do in biological processes” (2000, p 15). The moral

side of this story is striking: “Networks, as social forms, are value-free or neutral. They can

equally kill or kiss: nothing personal” (Castells, 2000, p 16).

This global network society and the image of the network enterprise have many proponents

among business scholars, managers and consultants. Creativity and flexibility are called for since

there are great business benefits to reap for those re-orienting their activities to better match this

changing context. And the reverse of course, there are fewer opportunities for those maintaining

their faith in constructing rigid control structures and bureaucracies that only with great pains

can respond to the advance of the network society. Put bluntly, in this context, it is the global

networked organizations and entrepreneurs – the network enterprises – that are the winners.

‘The winners’, in theory

Searching for descriptions and recipes of these winners, in theory, we find the shady contours of

a continuously emerging, flexible, transcending, informational, empowered and very adaptive

network of nodes. This network, in which the company is interwoven consist of both individuals

and organizations and knows no geographical borders in its pursuit of satisfying ever-changing

customer demands in the exchange for the highest possible profit. In its ideal version, this network

does not risk being sedimented in any long-term formal agreements that might hinder rapid

adaptation to changing circumstances and preferences. Loyalty is to the opportunity and not, in

the first place, to the owner or the customer.

Castells and Himanen (2002, p 21) state that: “At the level of company structure, informational

enterprises increase their productivity, profits, and market value by organizing themselves

(globally) as networks, by applying information technology, and by focusing more and more on

information (symbol) operations.” John Kotter, a well-known leadership consultant, talks about

‘doing it now’ and about new information systems that honestly and rapidly report how the specific

node in the network is performing. The single node usually gets too little information about how

she or it is doing, performance wise. Kotter here targets the stiff bureaucracies that do not value

leadership and teamship, flatter organizational structures, less bureaucracy and risk-taking. He

calls for more responsibility to employees and less internal interdependencies in the company.

The effective companies will, he predicts, regularly scrutinize its couplings and eliminate those

that are not any longer relevant. And there is a need to be aware as those nodes that do not

pass such evaluations will have to face adaptive companies with adaptive cultures, i.e. terrifying

machines of competition, in Kotter’s words. Kotter concludes by also arguing that most people

would actually enjoy this environment and these types of organizations since people thereby can

contribute to something meaningful.

Kotter is a consultant to top managements of world-leading corporations and such managers might

like to hear about the central importance of their formal position while simultaneously hearing

about the need to decentralize the risk and responsibilities of their decisions to the outskirts of

the network. However, critical organizational scholars, such as Stewart Clegg and colleagues,

also predict the continuation of these developments: “we are likely to see many organizations

adopting more distributed and network structures, with responsible autonomy in each of their

nodal points” (Clegg et al, 2007, p 369). The rhetoric about what type of organization that matches

the emerging global network society cuts across different perspectives in business studies.


Objections

Alas, these statements claim similar things, albeit from different viewpoints. They also give

indications to how things might be out-there in practice. When searching for these ‘informational

enterprises’, ‘terrifying machines of competition’ or ‘network structured organizations’, in

action, it is, however, only with great difficulty that these characteristics are matched by

contemporary global companies, regardless of industry or niche. One reading of this is that

movements along Castells and others’ lines are ‘under construction’ as well as combated by

a responding bureaucratization of business. This objection boils down to that even though we

might experience less formal hierarchies and bureaucracies as in the rigid and local pyramids of

corporate structure, bureaucracy comes in many disguises (c.f. Sennett, 1999; Alvesson, 2007).

Quality management systems, project management systems, information management systems,

environmental management systems, codes of ethics etc., can all be considered as modern

examples of bureaucracy. New patterns of bureaucracy eat away at, or retract, what the network

society has set loose. A loss of control is regained by new control instruments, making it, in a way,

a different-but-same situation.

However, the point here is that a loss of control to the forces of the network society and efforts to

regain this control does not render the forces less real. What it says is that there are new forms of

control that try to handle the advance of the network society. The examples with the new forms of

bureaucracy also indicates the fact that the predominant users of these new forms of control are

larger companies that operate across national borders, which means that we cannot really expect

to find the winners in the global network society, the ones truly mastering the new economy, in

these organizations, in the global corporations. These organizations have too much emphasis on

controlling every aspect of their often fragmented global supply chains.

Another objection to Castells and others, and their observations and predictions of the network

society, is based on the predominant part of the people in the world not really being caught up in

the flows of the network society. The global network society is not for everybody, or, it is not for

most people. The digital divide is one example; the few percent of China’s population having a

Westerner’s living standard is another; the still strong divide between skilled and generic labor

yet another. Castells himself even argues that:

Globalization is highly selective. It proceeds by linking up all that, according to dominant interests,

has value anywhere in the planet, and discarding anything (people, firms, territories, resources) which

has no value or becomes devalued, in a variable geometry of creative destruction and destructive

creation of value. (2000, p 10)

However, those left outside, or never involved, are still part of the analysis. Castells again, “we

have witnessed in the last 20 years a dramatic surge of inequality, social polarization, and social

exclusion in the world at large” (2000, p 12). “Some of the world’s residents are on the move”,

Zygmunt Bauman states, but “for the rest it is the world itself that refuses to stand still” (2000, p

58).

Combining the insights of Castells and Bauman with those of Ulrick Beck, Anthony Giddens,

Richard Sennett and others, there is clearly a changing context in which individualization and

globalization put pressures on the nation state, on the purposes and legitimacy of traditional

institutions, and on many individuals to construct their own life-story. One way to acknowledge

and deal with this objection is to speak of power. Turning the attention to those with more formal

positions of power in the network society, it can be assumed that they will speed rather than hinder

the overall (free trade, new technologies etc.) diffusion of the network society. Their actions

have more global consequences than many of those characterized as outside the network society.

Castells labels these actions the “core activities” and takes the examples of financial markets,

science and technology, multinational production firms, communication media, and others.

Hence, the assumption is basically evolutionary in that we might expect more developments

in the direction of a global network society: “Once introduced, and powered by information

technology, information networks, through competition, gradually eliminate other organizational

forms, rooted in a different social logic” (Castells, 2000, p 16). There is, though, a paradox here

since those fueling the growth of it are not the ones that empirically provide us with the ‘best

practice’ example of how to successfully organize in this environment.

‘The winners’, in practice

Taking into account these two objections, it is time to return to where, in practice, we might find

the networks making the most use of this emerging global network society. Given that the global

corporation, despite relying on the rhetoric of the network enterprise, leans towards the adoption

of new bureaucratic control systems, one global player which while not using the talk, seems to

be flourishing in the emerging environment is the global trafficking network: “Although human

trafficking is not a new problem, the dynamics of globalization are fueling its growth” (Jones et

al, 2007, p 118).

These networks are not the mob, or the mafia, as in the days of Bugsy Siegel and Jimmy Hoffa,

even though this image still seems to be strong among the public and those fighting illicit trade

(Marine, 2006). The mafia is local and basically a geographically determined organization. It

is about controlling a specific physical territory. The La Cosa Nostra, for example, consists of

“approximately 2� organized crime groups called ‘families,’ with each family controlling organized

crime activities in a particular region of the US” (Marine, 2006, p 216). Their geographical anchor

is also usually accompanied by a cultural one: “A person must be of Italian descent to be a ‘made

member’ of any of the LCN organized crime families” (ibid). These traits are not strengths in

the emerging global network society and global trafficking networks do not limit their actions or

discriminate actors in such ways.


Naím (2007, p 32) compares the global trafficking network with the corporation:

Rigid hierarchies in which authority is centralized don’t do well in a high-speed global marketplace

where opportunities and risks change too fast. The more organized crime groups resemble corporations,

the more their hierarchies and their routines prevent them from optimizing their activities. The new

environment gives an advantage to organizations capable of responding and adapting rapidly to new

opportunities and able to constantly shift locations, tactics, and ways and means to make the most

money possible. As a result, “organized crime” itself is changing – becoming less organized in the

traditional sense of command and control structures, and more decentralized.

These networks seem to follow the outline and predictions of Castells and others, but they also

seem, as common with creative entrepreneurs, to be at least one step ahead of ‘regular’ global

businesses. They have, in practice (I don’t know if they care about theory or ever listen to over-

paid management consultants), shifted their focus from commodities to skills: “Their work”,

Naím argues, “has grown easier to initiate, organize, and dissimulate, and they have adapted to

take maximum advantage of these new possibilities” (2007, p 36). “They are flexible, responsive,

and rapid”, he continues, and “no itinerary is too complex, no supply deadline too urgent” (ibid).

This means that they can move “from product to product and market to market” and “arrange the

procurement, transport, and payment of whatever ‘merchandise’ needs moving at any given time”

(Naím, 2007, p 182). Flexible work, for instance, here means flexible in a much fuller sense then

in the multi-project environment of IBM or ABB.

When describing how one of these trafficking networks operates, Naím tells us that:

Even a sophisticated mass-consumer, multinational corporation would have a hard time successfully

pulling off such a dizzying array of coordinated activities in the fields of manufacturing, international

trade, transportation logistics, inventory control, human resource management, distribution, product

fulfillment, and financial control – not to mention security and secrecy. The existence of organizations

with such fantastic managerial capabilities points to a business model capable of not only attracting

talented managers but also generating huge profits. (2007, p 100)

This means that what the global network society has become for the traffickers, is “a rather

special kind of world map”, and for these networks, “it is a map of incentives to trade, where the

grayer the area, often the greater the opportunity for profit” (Naím, 2007, p 185).

In this way, it seems difficult to deny that these networks make efficient use of the global network

society. We might even here see a role model of organizing for the 21st century. The global

trafficking network operates in global, fluid, flexible, informational, creative and, not the least,

highly profitable ways. And these networks are no small players. They represent a significant

part of the global economy. Correct figures are of course difficult to present, but estimates from

different governmental agencies and Non-Governmental Organizations on broad activities, such

as money laundering, and more specific activities, such as the amount of money sent home by

prostitutes working abroad, amount to percentages of many countries’ GDP. Figures estimating

the annual profits from human trafficking range between 7 and 10 billion dollars. For forced labour

(a.k.a. slavery), the figures are between 22 and 44 billion dollars in annual profits. Estimates also

have it that animal trafficking generates larger revenues than human trafficking and that guns

surpass both of them while drugs by far are the largest in turnover.

This means that we cannot fend them off as insignificant for the global economy; side-step them as

‘within the limit of miscalculation’; or downplay them as the small and unintended consequence

on the path of progress.

A key point with Naím’s analysis (not one that he necessarily shares) is that we can also not really

fend them off for moral reasons since their capacity to use this emerging context has made them

difficult to separate from ‘legitimate’ businesses. There is a clear risk that some of your money (in

funds, accounts, wallet), and the products and services you buy, to some extent have been either

part of a laundering exercise, or handled by nodes in a trafficking network, or produced by illegal

workers etc (Marine, 2006, p 216). Naím’s (2007) experience is that the licit and the illicit “are

coming together – ever harder to distinguish, both conceptually and in practice” (p 36) and that

the global network society here adds fuel to the complexity of the dilemma:

After all, illicit trade by definition takes place outside the rules. But herein lies a complicating problem:

whose rules? They are hardly uniform from nation to nation. And that too is a strategic difference that

the traffickers have learned to exploit. Of course, some forms of trafficking are both morally abhorrent

and criminal everywhere. But not all cases are that straightforward. [---] So in practice what may be

‘illicit’ in one country may not be in another. Often, the laws have to catch up with the evolution of

illicit trade, creating new concepts and definitions such as ‘cyber crime’ or ‘digital piracy’ in order

to draw lines between innovative practices that are considered positive for society and ones that are

viewed as harmful. (pp. 18�-185)

Confirmed by the response

One way of emphasizing the pro-activity of these networks; their capacity to read and deal with

the global network society, is to look at how the crime fighters are responding to the threats

of these trafficking networks. The simple answer is: with more bureaucracy. The fighting of

these trafficking networks, and other organized crimes, reinforces the pro-activeness in how the

trafficking networks make use of the emerging network society. In short, the crime fighters are

not able to brake free from the structures of the ‘old’ modernity. Naím tells a story:

One senior customs veteran told me: ‘I used to lose sleep wondering what new trick the smugglers

and crooks and – since September 11 – the terrorists would pull on us, but now I found myself awake

worrying sick because I knew that our own internal strife was making life far easier for all of them at

a time when we needed to be at our most effective. I knew how quick, creative, and dangerous the bad

guys are. And here we were spending all the time in meetings and watching PowerPoint presentations

by lawyers and politicians.’ (2007, p 177)


One issue is of course bureaucracy and Naím takes a big swing at it: “bureaucracies tend to

be organized in rigid hierarchical fashion, making them less nimble in sharing information or

coordinating efforts with others outside their vertical lines of command” (2007, p 182). Marine

(2006), however, working for the U.S. department of justice on these issues, shows how this is

not only a problem of bureaucracy when he despite pointing out these ‘non-traditional organized

crime groups’ (the global trafficking networks) simultaneously categorizes them into “Chinese

criminal enterprises”, “Vietnamese criminal groups”, “Russian organized crime activities” and

“Albanian-based groups”. Jones et al also talk about the Yakuza in Japan and the transnational

crime networks developed after the collapse of the Soviet Union (2007, p 11�). These groups

make it to the U.S., where they pollute legitimate businesses. These groups then, which often

set up what Marine calls, quasi-businesses or “pseudo-legitimate companies”, “cannot be true

participants in the free market, where success is determined by which company best (most

efficiently and cost-effectively) meets supply and demand” (Marine, 2006, p 228).

Following Naím, though, how can we really separate one from the other when they are not

just Chinese or Albanian, or when they are not just legitimate or illegitimate? Simple forms of

categorization do not capture the complexity of these trafficking networks. Not surprisingly, as

shown by Jones et al (2007), this has led to a “lack of a common, accepted definition”, which “has

resulted in much confusion on how governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

ought to respond” (p 111).

Implications

The discussion of who/what performs as a ‘winner’ in the emerging global network society raises

the issues of the consequences of globalization on work and organization, and of the role and

responsibilities of scholars, practitioners and policy-makers in dealing with this. In this discussion,

however, I have limited the argument to business studies. I will present two arguments for why we,

as business scholars, should be more attentive to these global trafficking networks and tone down

our insatiable interest in the big and powerful corporations. These arguments, the ideological

argument and the scientific argument respectively, are derived from Alf Rehn (2006). They are

mutually exclusive, but the consequences of adopting them are similar.

The ideological argument

As business scholars, we represent a discipline with a traditionally strong empirical connectedness

and with no real own theory of our own (psychology and sociology tend to be heavily ‘translated’

by business scholars). This means that business studies, according to most proponents, has a

responsibility to contribute to business practice, to forward more effective business practices.

Taking this task serious, one implication of this paper is that we ought to study these trafficking

networks, bring their creative organizing under scrutiny, and go tell our stories not only to scientific

journals, but also to managers. The need for a new, empirically driven, research program on

global trafficking networks in business studies is thus needed.

From this ideological, pro-business viewpoint, these networks represent creative players from

which those saluting the image of global companies on global markets can learn. It is obvious that

these global trafficking networks are adapting well and they have proven some degree of mastery

of globalization, which means that they have stories to tell and lessons to learn those curious

about better conquering the emerging network society, which, following the neo-classic economic

theory lurking behind most pro-business approaches, will lead to the best of all possible worlds.

Alas, the first implication is that these trafficking networks deserve more attention from business

scholars and practitioners in order to help businesses in becoming more effective, more successful,

in better understanding the dynamics and consequences of globalization. Business demands

success, growth, and as business scholars we should be a part in this creation of more effective

business. The global trafficking network constitutes one of the prime examples of business

success, but we, as scholars, do not study them so that more business operations can be assisted

on their insatiable quest for success.

The scientific argument

From the scientific viewpoint, these networks should be studied since they are a part of ‘what

is’ of contemporary business life. A scientific discipline cannot limit itself to arbitrary decisions

on what is legitimate to study and what is not illegitimate to study within its field. A scientific

discipline should study what is, what is done, and by whom, how and why, within its field of

inquiry. This means that business studies is about what business do and as these global trafficking

networks are business operations – often even run and upheld by ‘legitimate’ business companies

– business studies should study them. One objection might be that: As business scholars we do

not study actors or organizations that clearly include criminal or immoral elements. But this is

not a particularly fruitful position. Arguing that illicit or immoral activities will not be studied

first of all neglects a significant part of what is out-there, of what is actually happening, and

second of all, makes the moralizing discourse of business studies even more problematic: What

is then really illicit, what is then really immoral?

There is a strong tendency to categorize ‘nodes’ involved here as either criminal or non-criminal,

illegitimate or legitimate, immoral or morally good (c.f. Marine, 2006; Jones et al, 2007).

Alf Rehn (2006) talks about the orthodox business studies, about how to do business well, in

which the management of a construction firm is included as morally good, but the creation and

marketing of pornography is morally bad. Pornography in this case, however, happens to be

both legal and a very big and profitable industry, whether we hold it as immoral or not. Still, the

problem here, according to Rehn, is that pornography is basically left untouched by business


scholars. The same, he continues, goes with criminal activities (which are a prime example of

entrepreneurship) and the toy industry (which celebrates creativity and innovation). Behind these

choices lie assumptions about what is good and appropriate, and what is not.

Rehn’s main point is that if business studies are for the special needs of the (morally good parts

of the) business community (see the ideological argument), than business studies cannot be a

science. Science should serve humanity and truth, not some chosen parts of it. Science should

be interested in what is and not only in what is ‘good’. For this reason as well, business studies

should allow and encourage the study of the global trafficking networks.

References

Alvesson, Mats (2007) Tomhetens triumf. Atlas/Liber: Malmö.

Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) Liquid modernity. Polity Press: Cambridge.

Castells, Manuel (2000) Materials for an exploratory theory of the network society. British Journal of

Sociology, 51(1), 5-2�.

Castells, Manuel and Himanen, Pekka (2002). The information society and the welfare state. The

Finnish model. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Clegg, Stewart R., Courpasson, David, and Phillips, Nelson (2006) Power and Organizations. Sage:

London.

Friedman, Thomas L. (2005) The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century. Farrar, Straus

and Giroux:

Kotter, John P. (1996) Leading change. Harvard Business School Press: Harvard.

Marine, Frank J. (2006) The effects of organized crime on legitimate businesses. Journal of Financial

Crime, 13(2), 21�-23�.

Naím, Moisés (2007) Illicit. How smugglers, traffickers and copycats are hijacking the global economy.

Arrow books: London.

Rehn, Alf (2006) Företagsekonomin och “la trahison des clercs”. Pinc Machine Books: Stockholm.

Juhani Tenhunen . New Project management practises

to be updated later

New project management practices

Juhani Tenhunen

Abstract

The myth is that there are differences in displaying to the work with the technical and other media

project workers. If there are and if they have some effects to the working practices it must be

found out and proved.

Strange habits are threats. Other cultures and disciplines do have strange habits and processes.

Complexity of digital media and growth of project sizes present, that projects need more effort

and knowledge, which can be offered just by one culture or company. That causes that more and

more people from different cultures and disciplines must be involved in projects. In new media

projects both technology and the so-called artistic disciplines are joined together to make a

successful project. As projects are put together for a short period, everyone in the project should

immediately understand their own and the others role in the.

The new media projects must be created both contentually and technically. On a contrary to

traditional film or TV production, the amount of work in new media productions can contain more

technical disciplines than traditional media work discipline. On the other hand also so called

technical projects do often use rich media content and that sense it can be said that these two

disciplines are merging.

This paper states the need for deeper knowledge of project management methods in new media

projects.


Often it is said that there are two kinds of people, artists and technicians. It is also said that

their attitude to work is different, the others are bohemians and they can and should behave

uncommonly. Their behaviour is unpredictable because they are so creative. The others are just

like programmed to behave rationally and all their deeds are predictable and planned. Of course

this is a caricature and in real life an engineer can also be a musician or dancer and an artist can

program C++ or maintain car. We can’t judge a person because of his profession or discipline.

Media productions are now more often targeted to many data terminal equipments, like mobile

phone, computer, and TV or even film. More work must be done, which will the budgets will be

increased, and in order to divide the production costs, the productions must be delivered to larger

more international and multidisciplinary work must be done just. This article will handle the

change from traditional media production to the new media project.

What is a project?

The quite unanimous determination for a project concept is, that it is a unique whole, which

has a determinate goal, in which many complex tasks are related to each others, and which is

defined temporally, costly and by extent3. Project is a methodology of managing a series of

work, which have a start and end, and limited budget and wished but uncertain result. Many

financiers, like EU Commission for instance, most often requires project form, when financing

research and development projects. It is no doubt a safe way to manage big money flows when

the result is unpredictable. Some of the projects fail and some will succeed. Project management

is a methodology, which gives tools to manage the risk of unknown - uncertainty. That’s why

it is a perfect method of managing uncertain research and development projects, and why not

media productions, which always are unique, and which always are delimited both budgetary,

temporally, costly and by extent.

We all have experienced by ourselves or at least have heard stories about funny or embarrassing

misunderstandings caused by cultural differences, like laughed at the wrong place, taking food

with the wrong hand or tried to drive on the wrong side of the street. It has been accepted by all

that differences between national cultures exist.

Global business and intercultural projects

Because people but also businesses have become global, it is necessary to recognize the differences

of other cultures. Multi-cultural working environments are now very common and they have both

negative and positive aspects. On the negative side are frustrations of difficulties in communication,

but communication can also be seen positively, namely according to the surveys done by Robert

L Helmrich in the avian industry many workers had reported, that “they try harder to make sure

3 Artto Martinsuo Kujala 2006, 26

others know what they are doing and to verbalize decisions fully”�.

Media and design research projects are usually both international and multidisciplinary and

because the projects are put together from people and organizations strange to each other and

as their working cultures differs, it is essential that share common rules directing and gluing the

work together. The personnel of a project must quickly and easily learn the goals and objects of

a project, the working methods and perhaps the most important, their own role in the project.

The globally working companies in service or maintaining business have already had to face

the difference problems concerning cultures, professions, and even organizations. For example

energy production machine business and aviation industry have already long traditions in that.

Building up an energy plant is a huge project with hundreds or even thousands of suppliers and

workers. Local workers from the area and workers from other countries must be get to work

together. The common factor for the workers in energy plant construction project is that they all

are from the technical branch (of different levels though) and thus they at least at some extend

share similar rules and manners. If we simplify, their only difference is their national culture,

language and their company culture.

Taik, Media Lab projects

In Media Lab at University of Art and Design I’ve been working as producer in several European

Union IST research projects5, which contains in addition to media and design development work

also a huge amount of technical development work. One of them, New Media – New Millennium

(NM2)6, will develop technical platform for interactive broadband TV. Through the project

we have seen, that the budgets and the amount of work are growing because of the technical

development.

During the project work lots of practical methods must be invented to suit the use of project team,

financiers, and organization. The born and used tacit knowledge is very important and it will be

the core of the research.

In the productions of TV and film independent producers, the teams have always been working

(at least in Finland and Europe) in so called virtual organizations (VO), which is researched in

EU Commission project called ECOLEAD7, which claims following: “In ten years, in response to fast changing market conditions, most enterprises and

specially the SMEs will be part of some sustainable collaborative networks that will act as

breeding environments for the formation of dynamic virtual organizations.”

The approaches to the project management of the so-called creative industry (like film, design,

and so on) and of more technically oriented industry, like for-example software developers, differ

from each other. Even the designations of the person, who leads the project is usually called in

� Helmreich, 2000, 3

5 http://crucible.lume.fi/, projects

6 http://www.nm2-ist.org/

7 European Collaborative Networked Organisations Leadership Initiative


the creative industry a producer, where as in software business (s)he is called a project manager.

Of course there are also structural differences in the description of the work.

On the other hand it seems that the areas are increasingly merging at least in the media projects,

in which sophisticated Internet-based solutions are often implemented as part of the work or at

least for marketing purposes. TV broadcasting system is turning to digital all over the world in a

few years time and other form of audiovisual broadcasters, like IPTV and mobileTV will soon be

everyday life. The development of the technology and especially because it is possible the media

will be more and more interactive and thus requiring multidisciplinary point of view.

Shared facto: Flow

Although creation of an artistic work implies myths about artists and their special attitude to their

work, the process is more often bread and butter8. On the other hand Linus Thorvalds has said:“…when hacker is sitting in front of his computer, he doesn’t think, where from he’s getting

his next supper or roof above his head.”9

This is more or less the same look or attitude as artists are believed to have in their work. Mihaly

Csikszentmihalyi launches in his book ‘Good Business – Leadership, Flow and the Making of

Meaning’ the concept of ‘flow’, which means that a person regardless of age, gender, or education,

can feel a deep sense of enjoyment of their work in certain conditions10. It is quite reasonable to

claim that the work itself has not much to do with the attitude towards the work. Csikszentmihalyi

stresses the importance of achieving a flow status in one’s work not only because of the productivity

matters for the organization but also because of the wellbeing of worker. “Many leaders are already implementing the main conditions that make flow possible or

at least they understand how to do so in theory. For instance, Mike Murray of Microsoft

describes the three “common things” that determine the success of a business team:”

“[Number one:] If the manager makes sure that every team member has very clear goals

that line up to what the company needs to be doing… Number two: if the manager is really

good at planning all the incremental activities that need to get done so that the work flows

smoothly through the team. And number three, if the manager is really good at keeping

communication and feedback…”11

Csikszentmihalyi12 also says in the same book that it’s impossible to create an environment

that will foster flow without commitment from top management, which is about the same as

what Harold Kerzner claims in his book ‘Advanced Project Management – Best practices on

implementation’. Project management must be seen as method how projects are carried out. It

contains the comprehensive control over the project, which supports the goals of the organization.

To achieve excellence in project management means that all the organizational levels, from the

8 Hyytiä 200�, 198

9 Thorvalds 2000, 15

10 Csikszentmihalyi, 2003, 39

11 Csikszentmihalyi, 2003, 11�

12 Csikszentmihalyi, 2003, 113

executives to the workers must support and understand the principals of it. It is important to

notice that, the organization must firstly find out right project management methods most suitable

for the organization and secondly implement the appropriate tools to make it possible, not the

other way round.

Project management has bureaucratic characters in that sense that there is need of control

of the costs and the usage of the resources. In my view, however, the one of the purposes of

implementing the project management method should be to achieve wellbeing of personnel in

the form of better understanding of the project and the goals of the organization. According to

Kerzner, project management has been implemented in many big companies like for-example

Hewlett-Packard, Sun Microsystems and it has shown increased sales and customer satisfaction.

Project management is also used in European Union research projects. To fully understand and

excellence it needs to study and create methods how the excellence would be possible media

projects, which contain media, design and technical development aspects.

From project management offices to new project management methods

The best results of a project or of all human action will be received when people, who do the work,

are motivated to do it. A big factor in motivation is a feeling that you can affect to work what you

are doing. Things will not be done properly if you are told to do it and you don’t know why doing

it. That’s why it is necessary to research the action in the projects rather than the management

structures and money flows. It is obvious that more money savings will be done when motivated

people do proper job. How the work is done or should be done and what are the needs of the

project must be in focus when trying to find new methods of managing the projects. Companies

and organizations must be flexible enough to make the work be done in the best possible way not

the other way. The goals of the new project managing methods are

• to find out practices (methods) for project management of design and media

projects, which supports the work in the project,

• to raise wellbeing in crews of new media projects, and

• to help project work quickly to start the project by helping people better to

understand other discipline and national cultures in the project.

Harold Kerzner describes in his book ‘Advanced Project Management – Best Practices on

Implementation’ the implementation of project management methods in many big multinational

companies. In the book he propagates strongly on the behalf of project management offices

(PMO) and project management practices. I am not arguing, that the practices he describes are

directly usable in interactive media and design projects, but they can be a good starting point to

mastering the projects also in media projects.

The implementation of PMO can initially distributed into seven phases: 1) Background analysis,

2) Practices and Processes, 3) Tools and project management methods, �) Testing the methods, 5)

Organizational structure, 6) Building of an informal project management office, and 7) Building

of a project management office (PMO).


Background analysis

The needs of multicultural and multidisciplinary projects can be found out by Geert Hofstede’s

model. Hofstede researched national culture differences but the same methods can be used in

the research of disciplinary culture differences. Power distance for instance is one of the factors,

which can be used. The power distance measures the distance of your attitude to your boss and

what is your relation to authorities, individuals and groups, the concept of masculinity femininity

and the ways of dealing with uncertainty.13

Comparison between technical project and media project workflows by the means of interviews

and surveys in purely technical project organizations and in media or art project organizations

will be done.

Practices and processes

The best practices must be found out from the needs of the organization and the projects itself.

Methodology models and processes will be studied and enforced in to practice. At this stage of

the research it is too early to make decisions both for and against any methodology. The project

management process will certainly be one, what will be researched properly.

Tools and project management methods

It is not very rare that tools are bought and forced to use by the organization executives without

thinking how well they will suit to organization purposes and are they increasing or bringing

down the costs. The excellence of project management needs also proper tools to make it happen.

In the market there are plenty of project management applications of which MS Project may be

the most popular. It and also the other tools are designed for other cultural purposes than Europe

and they can’t for-example produce a proper budget for media purposes. That’s why in this work

the tool development has thought to be done. The concrete programming of the tool is not really

an issue. It is the way to find out flexible processes from the research group point of view.

Testing the methods

It is important that the project management systems are taken in use throughout the organization

or at least where the projects are carried out. The training of the persons working in the projects

and also in the administration must therefore start in quite early stage. The training will be

continuous and if there is a need the project management procedures can be an issue for instance

in the University of Art and Design.

In cooperation with VTT in the project called eMari – Mobile support for e-maintenance the focus

is to research the shared factors both in national cultures and in disciplinary cultures. Cooperation

in the project just started and the first results will be out spring 2008.

Organizational structure

What kind of organization will best support the projects? In the organizations, where project

management has been implemented, must usually go through organizational changes to better

13 Hofstede, 1991, 13

serve the projects. As Kerzner have mentioned many big companies have taken the project

management as a solution. In Finland some companies implemented PMO, have failed, especially

if main business of company is something else than to run projects. The chang from traditional

functional organization to project organization is a big step and requires remarkable changes

throughout the organization.

Informal project management office

It is not necessary to first change the organization and then start PMO. Also smoother steps can be

done. When the needs have been analysed and methodology, processes and at least the principal

of the tools have been mapped it can be reasoned to establish an informal project management

office (PMO). Through the PMO the methodology can be fully refined and the PMO organization

can be proved.

Project management office

If the organization carries out lots of projects or if it has ambitions to coordinate projects

successfully, PMO is probably the solution to master it. The research projects financed by

European Commission are more often so large that they need educated professionals to fulfil

them. Many project professionals prove PMO as a good approach.

The framework of the research is the activity theory, where individuals are the workers in the

projects, and the object is the goal of the project, and the tools are the act and the used methods.

My hypothesis is that combining the used methods and the methods of project management

would be an answer to find new, more suitable tools of managing the media and design projects.

Further research

When writing this article the research of new project management methods suitable for new

media productions is only in the very beginning. In many projects I’ve been with, the work has

been done but also some conflicts with organization, crew and the whole consortium have been

witnessed. I’m sure that not all the problems can be solved and new will come, but there certainly

are needs to find and improve methods for new kind of projects.

This research will one way improve the methods and practices of multidisciplinary art and

also design projects. The benefits of the research will firstly aim to get better results from the

projects. Secondly, better management methods will help project managers to achieve the goals

of organization.

The research will help to understand the project work and through the understanding the found

tools can help to manage and minimize all kinds of risks of constantly growing project sizes. It

will

• help to run projects more economically by the new methods

• help to get more and better results form the projects and make them

contentually richer, and

• increase the wellbeing in the project workers.


Literature

Books and articles

Karlos Artto, Miia Martinsuo, Jaakko Kujala, 2006: Projektiliiketoiminta, WSOY Oppimateriaalit Oy,

Helsinki

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 2003: Good Business – Leadership, Flow and the Making of Meaning,

Penquing Books, London

Helmreich, Robert L., 2000: “Culture and Error in Space: Implications from Analog Environments”,

University of Texas Crew Research Project Website:www.psy.utexas.edu/psy/helmreich/

nasaut.htm

Himanen Pekka, Torwalds Linus (prologue), Castels Manuel (epilogue) 2000: Hakkerietiikka, WSOY,

Helsinki (original work The Hacker Ethic – and the Spirit of the Information Age, Random

House, New York, N.Y. 10171)

Hofstede Geert, 1991: Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Intercultural Cooperation and

its Importance for Survival, Harper Collins Publishers, London, UK

Hyytiä, Riina, 200�: Ennen kuin kamera käy – Ideasta kuvauksiin | tekijät kertovat, Taideteollisen

korkeakoulun julkaisu A 50, Hollola

Kerzner, Harold, 200�: Advanced Project Management : Best Bractices on Implementation / Harold

Kerzner. -2nd ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of : Applied Project Management c2000, John Wiley &

Sons. Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey

Other sources

ECOLEAD, European Collaborative Networked Organisations Leadership Initiative, EU Commission

FP6-IST 6th Framework Programme, http://www.ecolead.org

Crucible Studio web site, http://crucbile.lume.fi/ à productions

New Media New Millennium NM2 EU Commission FP6-IST 6th Framework Programme, http://www.

ist-nm2.org/

Initial list of reading

Cleve, Bastian, 2000: Film Production Management

Dinsmore, Paul C. & Jeannette Cabanis-Brewin: The AMA Handbook of Project Management

Engeström, Yrjö, 2005: Developmental Work Research, Herausgegeben von Georg Rückriem, Lehmanns

Media, Berlin

Kerzner, Harold PhD, 2006: Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and

Controlling, 9th Edition

Kevin, Forsberg; Mooz, Hal & Cotterman, Howard: Visualizing Project Management: Models and

Frameworks for Mastering Complex Systems, 3rd Edition

Khosrow-Pour, Mehdi, 2001: Managing Information Technology in a Global Economy: IRMA

Proceeding, Business & Economics

Rosenau, Milton D. & Githens, Gregory D.: Successful Project Management: A Step-by-Step Approach

with Practical Examples, �th Edition

Wenger, Etienne, 200�: Knowledge management is a donut: shaping your knowledge strategy with

communities of practice. Ivey Business Journal


�. Creativity in Futures Thinking, Futures Studies

and Foresight

Scenarios in the ICT Service BusinessJukka Hallikas, Mikko Pynnönen, Petri Savolainen, Kimmo Suojapelto

Technology Business Research Center & School of Business, Lappeenranta University of Technology Lappeenranta, Finland.

Abstract: The objective of this paper is to outline the future of ICT sector (Information and

Communications Technology). ICT sector is currently changing due to convergence development

and transforming industry structure. We have created a framework for identification of driving

factors and uncertainties, developing alternative future scenarios of ICT. The linkage to the

innovation process is highlighted by exploring the alternative business innovation opportunities

for actors to operate in a selected scenario environment.

Keywords: Industry dynamics, Delphi, Scenario planning, Business innovation

1. Introduction and background of the study

It has been argued that order to anticipate the future of industry or single business, it is important to

understand the changes that drive the business environment. The external events and development

paths that change the competitive environment create the most essential strategic risks to the

incumbent actors (e.g. Gilad, 200�). In particular, changing competitive environment changes

the competitive power structure in an industry causing opportunities and threats to the existing

actors. This paper concentrates on examining the industry development of ICT service business

environment, which is an example of the converging sectors within ICT industry. In order to

be succesful in a new industry order, the alternative development paths of the future have to be

recognized. Furthermore, companies have to match the external opportunities and threats with

their existing business models in a creative ways in order to be succesful also in the future.

Challenging issues in business environment is to understand the big picture and dynamics of

the industry change, and to recognize indicators and discontinuities anticipating this change.

In general, vastly recognized problem in corporate business intelligence is that there is very

much information available about the development of business environment, however, there

ain’t explicit methodology to define the context for that information (Gilad, 2004). This makes it


compared with it. It has been continuously under some sort of conversion, but the ongoing change

including mobility and ubiquity is perhaps the biggest one it has ever faced.

This division can be also illustrated as a figure to give a better picture of the industry as a

combination of several activities and their interfaces. Referring to the Figure 1, OECD proposes

that the ICT sector can be viewed as the activities which fall into the union of the Information

Technology and Telecommunications activities illustrated in the Figure 1. It includes therefore

the intersections between them and the Information Content activities.

2. Environmental scanning and scenarios

To be successful, companies have to continuously monitor and scan their external environment.

According to Ansoff (1987), key to successful strategy is to recognize that if a company is

functioning, it is part of the environment surrounding it and any firm that operates in a high

change business environment will have to give increased attention to ‘weak-signals’ and ‘surprise’

strategic management practices. It follows that effective strategy formulation requires effective

environmental scanning and this enable decision makers to understand the dynamics of current

and potential changes. Strategic planning that includes environmental scanning will produce

as one of its outputs a listing of key factors that could either prove to be opportunities worth

exploiting or threats that need to be countered (Subramanian et al., 1994). Identification of these

factors, which can be general or industry specific, is the first task in the environmental scanning

process. Essential is that these factors have a significant effect for the industry development if/

when they materialize.

The factors that are relevant for industry change can be gathered from any source or method.

For example public sources, the Internet, industry literature or interviews can be used for this

search. The Delphi method is an alternative expert method to collect the future information to

frame the different future possibilities. It can be used for identification, validation or assessment

of the factors relevant for the future. Delphi process can be argumentative (Linstone & Turoff,

1975) where the consensus is secondary if the process provides diverging arguments of possible

future scenarios. Fowles (1978) has determined 10 steps in a Delphi process. In general, Delphi

process share the characteristics of iterative commenting rounds and can be arranged in order to

form a coherent view of the factors. During or after these rounds the validation of the factors by

the expert panel is done and they are rated by their importance and probability. This assessment

is used for clustering the driving factors. In general, most important and uncertain factors are

selected as plots for scenario development.

Scenarios address the plausible futures of the future development. Their purpose is to tackle the

inherent uncertainty in present and future business environment and facilitate strategic decision

making. The scenario process offers a systematic and creative way of thinking about possible

future environments, and developing strategies and then testing them for these environments (van

difficult task to monitor the current development of business environment.

The essential information related to changing business environment is on recognizing the change

drivers and uncertainties in the industry development. These change drivers have a remarkable

role in identification of the future development of an industry. Change drivers can arise from

the changes in technological development, regulatory environment, social environment, industry

structure, and competitive environment. Furthermore, in order to exploit the complex structures of

alternative industry futures, and combine the change forces and uncertainties the scenario method

can be exploited. Scenarios can be further used as a platform for monitoring and anticipatiing

the development of ICT sector, and developing new business innovations based on emerging

opportunities and threats.

In order to shed some light on the context of ICT sector we firstly have to define the industry.

The definition of ICT industry is not necessarily a straightforward task. There are various angles

to be considered, as for example Smith (2001) has declared: “The question here is not simply

whether we can think of ICT as an industrial sector, or even a more or less unified industrial

activity. It is also whether it makes sense to speak of ICT as a unified technology, or whether it is

in fact many technologies, perhaps only loosely related to each other.” Gruber (2001) defines the

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector as the technological convergence of

the Information Technology (IT) and (tele) Communication technology (CT).

Figure 1. Overlap between the IT, Telecommunications and Information Content Activities of

Firms (adapted from a Finnish Model) (OECD, 2006)

Information and communications technology (ICT) industry is currently changing rapidly due to

the convergence of media, telecommunication and IT industries. ICT and its (sub) sectors have

been in such a fast progression throughout its entire history that not many other industries can be


der Hejden, 1998). The objective of the scenarios is not a prediction or plan, rather than to change

in the mindset who use them (DeGeuss, 1998). The real power of the scenario process underlies

in the way it process information about the environment. Where traditional forecasting tries to

represent a probable future trajectory, the scenarios describe plausible future paths.

There are several processes and methods that are used to formulate future scenarios. Many of those

processes start by identifying particular driving forces and factors which are interrelated to the

key issues or decision (Schwartz, 1991). Furthermore, identification of driving forces emphasizes

the underlying circumstances relevant to the focal issue. Several practitioners have argued that

scenario method is more art than science (e.g. van der Heijden, 1998; Schwarz, 1991). It follows

that there are not necessarily any right ways of producing scenarios.

The scenarios are often structured with the scenario plots, describing the tensions of alternative

attributes e.g. vertical versus horizontal development. The objective of the scenario plotting is

an attempt to give a logical presentation of plausible futures. As stated by Schwartz (1991),

the scenarios describe how the driving forces might behave in different settings. Furthermore,

scenario plots are used to describe how plausible scenarios might unfold by using important and

uncertain driving forces as building blocks. The scenario development and realization should be

continuously monitored with specific indicators (Gilad, 2004). Here, scenarios can be used as a

basic element in strategic early warning system, and to identify weak signals i.e. less plausible

alternatives in development paths (Fink et al., 2005).

Scenario building is widely used methodology in future studies providing insightful platform for

analyzing opportunities and risks in changing business environment. In general, scenarios can

be used to describe the circumstances of alternative futures and connect these structures to the

competitive forces of single actors (Gilad, 200�). The competitive 5 force model of Porter (1980)

can, for example, be used as a framework for analyzing changes in competitive positioning.

In this model, the changes in new entrant and substitute threat, buyer and supplier negotiation

power, and rivalry among existing firms are the competitive forces to be explored. Scenarios can

also be used for developing resources capabilities to match the future environments (Fink et al,

2005). This connects scenarios also to the innovation process.

According to Garcia et al. (2002), there are two important aspects in innovation. Firstly, the

innovation process includes both technological development and market introduction aspects.

Secondly, the process is iterative, and therefore it includes an introduction of a new innovation

and the reintroduction of an improved innovation. The iterative nature of the innovation process

leads to different types of innovations. (Garcia et al., 2002) Typically these types are called radical

innovation and incremental innovation (Garcia, Calantone and Roger, 2002; Hamel, 2000).

Radical business innovation has potential to change the industry dynamics. Incremental business

innovation concentrates on improving that which already exists, not on creating something

completely new.

In a business concept innovation process the idea of open innovation plays a central role. As

several parties are involved that have functioning businesses, it is essential to integrate their

contribution and knowledge into the process. Otherwise, the result of the innovation process will

not represent the actual situation. The main idea in open innovation paradigm is that the value is

created not only inside a single firm but also between several firms. As well the innovation can

end to the market from inside or outside the firm (Chesbrough, 2003). This is the main idea also

behind the value network (Bovet and Martha, 2000; Cartwright and Oliver, 2000; Fjeldstad and

Haanæs, 2001; Tapscott et al., 2000).

Research framework

The purpose of this paper is to present a framework for applying the industry change and scenario

method into competitive positioning of actors in the industry. Furthermore, we illustrate an

example of how actors’ innovation process could be connected to the change drivers and scenarios.

Scenarios and industry drivers can be used as triggers for improving the competitive positioning

in the industry through business innovations. Our empirical research applies the Delphi process

and group brainstorming sessions with experts.

Figure 2. The framework of the paper to link the scenario process into innovation process

Figure 2 depicts the research framework of the study. Firstly, the general driving forces and

uncertainties in the ICT are identified and assessed. Future scenarios are developed based on

these driving factors and uncertainties. Finally, we show how to exploit the most threatening

scenario as a trigger for developing targeted business innovations.

Delphi study for scanning the environment

In this study, the Delphi process is used to identify and asses industry driving factors and

uncertainties in order to anticipate the future of the ICT industry. The Delphi study have naturally

importance as itself, but the main reason for conducting it is that these results form the basis for

scenario building for ICT industry. The variables chosen to the Delphi questionnaire were ones

that derived from various sources and interviews made during 2005-2006. Invitation to the Delphi

panel was sent to 20 experts. These persons were experts from different sides of ICT industry,

Future scenariosof ICT

Service providers’environment

in different scenarios

New opportunities& business innovations

Driving forces &uncertainties in ICT

development


firms and governmental bodies. The task of the panelist was twofold: first to comment the given

list of variables, and then validate the variables by their importance and confidence.

I Round:

–To identify and list the focal change variables affecting to the industry future

II Round:

–To rank (1-5 scale) the listed variables (�8 variables) by:

–Importance of how much change impact, positive/negative the variable has on

the development of ICT industry.

–Confidence level representing the uncertainty of the variable outcome.

After the panelists were commenting the variable in first round, the variables were clustered

according to their qualities into five clusters: Demand and Societal variables, Industry Structure

variables, Political and Regulatory variables, Economical variables, and Technology variables.

Altogether �8 variables were included to the assessment.

In the second round, the questionnaire was sent back to the experts, who ranked the selected

variables according to their importance and confidence level. For this second round, some

additional experts were asked to join and to become involved to the process. The variables were

rated in the scale of 1-5, both by their importance and confidence level. Importance refers to how

big influence the variable in question has on the ICT industry development during the next 5-15

years. Confidence level refers to the how probable the realization of that variable in question in

the future is. Altogether 15 individual answers were given in the second round.

Figure 3. Categorization of factors to fourfold table

A fourfold table was created to categorize the driving factors as shown in Figure 3. The factors

were divided into four tables on the grounds of the mean average where Trends can be found from

upright and Wild Cards upleft. The factors located lower were named underlying Context Shapers”

down right (factors that are probable, but not very important for ICT industry development) and

Potential Jokers down left, which were not seen very important and probable, or potentially

factors whose importance was not understood properly. Example of variables categorized in Wild

Card cluster is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Example of “Wild Card” variables and their mean values

Factor Name Importance Probability

Internet services take into account the requirements of mobile environment 3,9 3,1

Aging of end-users create new types of services 3,9 3,0

End users participate actively to the content creation of services (communities) 3,9 3,0

There are rational revenue sharing and valuation models for joint production of mobile services �,2 3,1

Bandwidth of mobile networks becomes sufficient to provide all demanded services effectively �,0 3,0

Regulators’ cooperation globally increases 3,8 2,7

Regulation is influenced by industry incumbents and it affects on free competition 3,9 2,9

There is seamless interoperability between customer access channels �,1 3,1

Modular and standardized product architecture becomes dominant solution in ICT infrastructure �,1 3,1

In the real terms, both of ranked objectives (importance/uncertainty) showed very high results.

In fact, none of the ranked variables had mean average under 2.5 and in importance not even

under 3.0. Therefore it can be concluded that we were dealing with important factors, which all

will happen rather certainly in the future. However this was not a surprise, since all the variables

had been already selected and commented, therefore the not meaningful variables were already

dropped out on the first Delphi round, or more probably, had not ever been considered by the

group.

Scenario development

Scenarios can be created in many ways. We wanted to develop interesting scenarios that could be

reasonably acceptable as plausible industry outcomes, yet also be distinct and divergent. For that

purpose, we built the scenarios around two carefully thought-out differentiators that were used to

characterize some key aspects of the outcomes. The first one differentiates scenario aspects along

a “bottom-up - top-down” axis, whereas the second axis ranges from “segregated” to “converged”.

Thus we got four unique differentiator combinations that we can use for scenarios.

To construct the scenarios, we then applied the differentiators to describe the collaboration

characteristics, structure & environment, and R&D and innovation characteristics of the industry

under each scenario. In practice, the effect of each differentiator was described against a set of

questions about industry development, for example:

How technological infrastructure and services are confronted by the convergence development?

How bottom-up vs. top-down factors act as industry & innovation drivers?

What is the effect of segregated vs. converged development paths of the customer interfaces,

service production, technological platforms, and business environment?


How integrated or open the different levels in the technological and business system are?

Whether the innovation and network development is driven by bottom-up or top-down factors?

Finally, to further improve the expressiveness of each scenario, we connected the scenarios with

the 48 variables from the Delphi study. The fit of each variable with each scenario was estimated,

one by one. A plausible good fit with (the differentiator combination of) a scenario, for example,

was taken to suggest the variable expression as a good candidate for characterizing the scenario.

Figure 4 Generated scenarios plotted into the differentiator axis map

We gave the developed scenarios the following names:

“Oldies and Goldies” (segregated & bottom-up differentiator combination)

“Oligarchy Rules” (converged & top-down)

“Organic Network” (converged & bottom-up)

“Business as is” scenario represents, as the name implicates, the continuum of the current business

model, therefore it was left out from further analysis. A simplified illustration can be seen in the

figure 4. A more detailed description of each scenario is in the table 2.

OLDIES AND GOLDIES ORGANIC NETWORK OLIGARCHY RULES

Collaboration

• Symmetric relationships with partners

• Segregated collaboration networks

• Collaboration through standardization

• Clear and stable collaboration roles

• All actors are forced to collaborate

• A lot of high-trust collaborative and innovative linkages

• Open communities of practice and a lot of unofficial interactions

• Fast response to the changing customer needs (sensibility)

• Knowledge spillover in open source development as risk

• Restricting the availability of technology by using IPRs as a control point tool.

• Aim to use convergence to extend control to neighbouring markets

Industry

structure and

environment

• Vertical architecture structures

• Segregated distribution channels

• More stable and predictable business environment

• Fewer, controlled convergence points

• Vertical infrastructure & Integration

• High barriers of entry• Inertia as threat

• Large amount of business models

• Fast response to the changing• The convergence occurs in

many points in the network (channels, services, products, content)

• Turbulent and chaotic business environment

• A lot of connections among actors (no large bottlenecks)

• Stronger connection of society in the industry (more influential power and interest)

• Positive feedback and systemic nature of industry structure

• Large companies lead the industry development

• Economies of scale and scope

• Vertical infrastructure & Integration

• Rigid structure for fast changes

• Inertia as threat• High barriers of entry• Consolidated industry

structure

R&D and

innovation

• Active search for control points from value chains

• Lot of standards are needed because lack of convergence

• Bottom-up innovations• Closed Innovation

(proprietary solutions dominate)

• Open technological interfaces and open source development

• Open source platforms as a driver of convergence

• A lot of need-drive and smaller standards emerge

• De facto standards emerge by real competition

• De Facto standards are created by leveraging market power

• Internal innovations as primary source of competitiveness

• Proprietary innovation and technologies, (no trust for outside innovation)

• Risk aversion and search for stability

• Small group develops standards

INDUSTRY

EXAMPLES

• VOIP brought in through industry standards co-operation

• Terminal development driven by multi-party standards development

• Predictable development of infrastructure as well

• Openly discussed good-enough consumerist market-developing managed regulation

• VOIP penetrates the market(s) in many ways experiencing varying success levels

• Terminal development driven by intensely fluctuating market impulses

• Infrastructure development driven by cost and creative means of deployment

• Little regulation, often too late

• VOIP merely an underlying technology to be phased in when convenient

• Operators drive terminal development in small, safe steps

• Myopic view of infrastructure halts any non-optimising development

• Communist regulation; oligarchy and regulator determine what’s needed and good


3. Linking innovation process into scenarios

To link the innovation process to the created scenarios we chose the incumbent operator as a

demonstration case. For incumbent operator the “Organic network” scenario is the most difficult

business field because of the increased competition and the open source business models. The

customers are not willing to pay for services that can be used for free. This forces a incumbent

operator to change its business model and find alternative earning logics. In following we present

an innovation based example of adjusting the business model to a changed situation.

The nature of the “Organic network” scenario is collaborative and open and therefore the goal of

business innovation process is to create business innovations that enable collaboration.

We chose Information Retrieval Service Provider’s (IRSP) business model as collaboration partner

for incumbent operator because the model fits the “Organic network” scenario. A panel consisting

of ICT industry experts was told to brainstorm ideas how incumbent operator could collaborate

with the IRSP in “Organic network” scenario. The first phase of the business innovation process

(Pynnönen and Kytölä, 2007) was to define the possible business concepts that are related to

the case applications. This phase was implemented by a group innovation session (Elfvengren

et al., 200�; Laaksonen, 2005). The steps of the group innovation session were brainstorming,

categorization and commenting the ideas, and finally clarification and specification of the ideas.

This session provided us with 20 business ideas.

The second phase of the business innovation process was prioritizing the business concept

proposals by combining the innovations into groups and evaluating their importance in an e-

commerce business model from incumbent operator perspective. We used Hamel’s (2000)

innovation horizon frame to categorize the ideas and to evaluate their potential to change the

industry structure. At this point we limited the analysis on the Mobile Service Operator (MSO)

to highlight the growth of the mobile internet. Figure 5 presents the business idea groups in the

innovation horizon frame.


Building Innovation Culture

Jari Jussila, Anu Suominen, Hannu Vanharanta, Jussi Kantola

Industrial Management and Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Pori,

Finland

Abstract

Purpose The future of organizations is dependent on their ability to innovate. In management

literature the building of innovation culture has been seen as the key enabler of innovativeness

in organizations. Each organization faces the same challenge, how to develop innovation

culture. Yet development calls for common understanding. However, finding common vocabulary

for ambiguous phenomenon is challenging. Therefore this article deals with the question, can

metaphors be used to create common understanding of innovation culture.

Design/methodology/approach – This conceptual paper deals with the concepts of creative

tension and proactive vision, innovation competence and culture, and the ontology of innovation

culture. The special focus is on metaphoric ontology building.

Findings –The results of the study suggests that both creative tension and proactive vision are

crucial for building innovation culture. Also for building innovation culture, a common vocabulary

e.g. ontology, is required. Metaphors provide a good way for building such ontology.

Originality/value –The novel Hydro Power Plant –metaphor provides an illuminating basis for

innovation culture ontology building and can be used also for further development of the ontology.

Furthermore this Hydro Power Plant –metaphor can be used for advancing organizational

dialogue for innovation culture.

Keywords Proactive vision, Creative tension, Innovation culture, Innovation competence,

Ontology, The Hydro Power Plant -metaphor

Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction

Innovation has become crucial interest of business life globally. According to Ahmed (1998, p.

30), for organization to turn an innovative one calls for an organisational culture which fosters

innovation and contributes to creativity. Building innovation culture requires a clear picture of

the current reality and a vision what the organization desires to move towards. Senge (1990,

pp. 1�1-1�2) points out the importance of seeing the current reality clearly: “…in moving

towards a desired destination, it is vital to know where you are now”. It is possible to build the

innovation culture of an organization in a participatory manner that involves all the members

of the organization. However, most organizations face difficulties approaching this ambiguous

phenomenon. The problem is that each person has a distinct perception of innovation culture.

When building innovation culture, there should be a shared understanding what is innovation

culture and how to advance it. This calls for common vocabulary and concepts to be able to

describe this phenomenon. Ontology provides a way to reach this common understanding.

This paper deals with the questions what are the possible methods that can be used for evaluating

the current and the desired future state of the innovation culture. Also it is dealt with, can

metaphors be used to build ontology for innovation culture. In answering these questions the

following discussion first describes the concepts of innovation culture, creative tension and

proactive vision. Then the discussion deals with the concepts of metaphor and ontology. As a

result a new metaphor for innovation culture Hydro Power Plant is presented together with the

main level of the ontology.

Innovation Culture

Innovation culture is a phenomenon lacking one explicit definition. It combines two very

ambiguous phenomena: culture and innovation, which both have many definitions depending on

the source or field of research. Innovation culture is considered here as a part of organizational

culture that produces innovation: radical or incremental of all kinds. Like organizational culture,

all organizations whether commercial or social, large or small, have innovation culture.

Many culture scientists have divided culture into various levels or layers according to their view.

Barth (199�, 183–191) claims culture to lie in three levels: micro for individuals, meso (Norwegian:

mellomnivå) as for corporate level and macro for national and international culture. Therefore also

in this paper the innovation culture is divided into two levels: individual and corporate.

According to Ahmed (1998), the ongoing, daring innovation is the common factor for the front

line organizations. In other words, some organizations are able to produce plenty of novel

products, processes or other types of innovation, some fall behind with slow pace progress. Yet all

organizations have potential to let their innovation culture grow for more a flourishing foundation

for innovation.

Innovation culture itself can be approached from multiple angles. A dynamic concept of

innovation culture proposed here includes the actors or active innovative persons, teams and the

organization.


Individual and Organizational Perception of Innovation Culture

Building innovation culture requires a clear picture of the current reality and a vision of the

direction the organization desires to move towards. Therefore it is vital to know where they are

heading for real. Innovation culture of an organization can be build with a participatory manner

that involves all the members of the organization. Yet is it possible to assist and manage this

change process?

Innovation culture is created and re-created by the individuals in the organization. The

individuals inside the organization are therefore the best experts also in evaluating the innovation

culture. Each individual has a unique perception of the current state of innovation culture in an

organization. Each individual can also form an opinion or a vision where the organization should

be heading. According to Zwell (2000, p. 165), a vision is a changing state that one desires, but

never reaches. By combining the individual perceptions of the current and desired future level

of the organizations innovation culture it is possible to reveal the general state of the innovation

culture and the direction the organization should be heading.

More specifically, at the individual level it is possible to evaluate the individual’s perception of his

or her current and desired level of innovation competence. The difference between current level

(reality perceived) and vision (what we want) generates creative tension: a force to bring these

two together (Senge 1990, p. 1�2). Creative tension serves as a source of energy and motivation

for moving towards the perceived vision.

At the organizational level it is possible to evaluate how the organizational environment currently

enables innovation and how it should in the future. Focusing attention on the outside world and its

processes enables people to form their perception of how things should be related to the current

situation. This process also generates a force, what we refer to as proactive vision (see Vanharanta

et al. 2005, p. 2). Proactive vision activates the people to mould the environment into their liking.

At a collective level proactive vision reveals the most critical areas where the organizations needs

to develop its innovation culture.

For the self-evaluation to be sensible, the people should evaluate themselves and the organization

by using the same constructs, concepts, terms, variables etc. This requires the building of

a unitary framework e.g. ontology, to which the evaluation should be based on. According to

Longman Dictionary of the English Language, ontology is “A particular theory about the nature

and categories of being”. ‘

Metaphoric Ontology Building

In this paper the topic of innovation culture is approached through a metaphorical illustration

(cf. Beer 1984, scientific modelling). Metaphor is “An imaginative way of describing something

by referring to something else which has the qualities that you are tying to express; something

that you say, write, draw, etc. that does not have its ordinary meaning but that is meant to be

a symbol of something else that you are trying to express” (Collins Cobuild English language

dictionary 1987). Also metaphor is defined to be “A figure of speech in which a word or phrase

literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or

analogy between them (e.g. in the ship ploughs the sea); also an object, activity, or idea treated as

a metaphor” (Longman dictionary 1991).

Tsoukas (1991) submits a methodology for the metaphor development in order to generate more

profound organizational scientific knowledge. He argues that metaphorical language and literal

language are different, yet not incompatible, if the literal core of the metaphors is revealed. Tsoukas

has based his methodology (Figure 1) on Beer’s (1984) methodology of scientific modelling.

Figure The transformation of metaphorical insights into scientific models (Tsoukas 1991, p. 575).

The metaphor serves as a vehicle to study the target phenomenon and to find analogies between

the two systems. By rigorous formulation this approach leads into a model and eventually to a

new theory.

According to Vanharanta (1995, p.1�), this metaphoric theory formulation of Tsoukas (1991) can

be presented as a sequential transformation process as follows:

metaphor — analogy — model — theory.

However, Tsoukas (1991) emphasizes that the process is not a top-down procedure in isolation,

rather then an oscillatory movement, which Beer calls (198�) descriptively a yo-yo -movement.

It is like forging iron, with each hammering the iron finding the wanted shape.

Tsoukas (1991) mentions three types of metaphors: live, dead and dormant. The words of live

metaphors are substitutes for literal phrases. Frozen or dead metaphors, due to their familiarity,

are no longer recognized for their metaphorical nature and so they are used as literal terms, such

INSIGHT

Topic Vehicle

Extra samples of the class

Perception

Homomorphism

Homomorphism

Perception

SCIENTIFIC

MODEL

Conceptual model

Conceptual model

Rigorous formulation


Generalization

Generalization

ISOMORPHISM

ANALOGY

Yo Yo

INSIGHT

Topic Vehicle

Extra samples of the class

Perception

Homomorphism

Homomorphism

Perception

SCIENTIFIC

MODEL

Conceptual model

Conceptual model



Generalization

Generalization

ISOMORPHISM

ANALOGY

Yo Yo


as strategy or organization. Due to their literal use, the dead metaphors are rather discontinuously

altered than continuously developed. Dormant metaphors are quasi-literal terms that people use

for determining a distinct way to see the world. Therefore the dormant metaphors can be used to

encourage individuals to picture the topic through a different source domain, vehicle.

Innovation Culture Ontology

Ontology is “A branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of being or existence; a particular

theory about the nature and categories of being” (Longman dictionary 1991).

In science of philosophy there are two main functions: the ontological and epistemological

analysis. Logically, ontological analysis has precedence as it solves the nature of research subject.

In order to set the assumptions reflecting the basic nature of the problem and select the proper

methods for testing, the structure of the subject i.e. the basic nature has to be either known or

taken a stance on. (Rauhala 1990, p. 28)

In philosophy, there are several ways to discuss ontology; there are at least three types of ontological

concepts. Classical ontology aims to portray in speculative manner the basic categories of being

as a sort of a priori principals. Reality ontology questions how phenomena exist and what types

of descriptions are required for their research; the categories are concluded from the phenomena.

Fundamental ontology justifies with the analysis of being what are the ways the reality ontological

categories get their nature; the aim is to enlighten the conditions where the existence can be

determined valid. (Rauhala 1983, p. 171)

We have based our ontology building on a new metaphor called “The Hydro Power Plant” (HPP)

(Figure 2). The main idea behind the metaphor is to provide an easy way to examine a complex

issue; for this purpose HPP was created. HPP metaphor has been basis for both innovation

competences for individual level and framework of innovation culture for organizational the

level. The HPP metaphor is composed of four consecutive metaphors: freedom of flow, direction

of flow, transformation of flow and maintenance of flow.

Figure Hydro power plant.

The sections of the HPP (Figure 3) are fitted into Samuelson’s (1981) visualization of Miller’s

(1978) Living Systems Theory as freedom of flow corresponding information—communication,

direction of flow corresponding command–control, transformation of flow corresponding

operation–production and maintenance of flow corresponding maintenance–support.

Figure The four forms of innovation culture in HPP-metaphor.

Metaphor of Innovation Competence

The HPP metaphor helps to visualize, which individual competencies are needed for innovation.

The functioning of HPP metaphor is divided into four consecutive metaphors, which illustrate

how flow is related to the functioning of a hydro power plant and in the same time provide

a vehicle to compare the hydro power plant system to the innovation competence system.

Innovation competence system refers here to all the competencies that define individual innovation

competence, i.e. all the things that an innovative actor needs.

Freedom of flow represents a metaphor of freely flowing water or a current. The free flowing

water is able to overcome obstacles, when blocked for example by rocks, the water finds new

paths and eventually can erode the rocks blocking its path. Analogous to the freely flowing water

is the freedom of thought of individuals.

Individuals that exhibit independence are able to react to new problems and emergent situations

naturally like the water finding its own way (Amabile 1997; McCrae 2000; Simonton 2002). They

also show flexibility in their behaviour when facing sudden changes like current is able to go

over and around rocks that block its path (Spencer and Spencer 1993; Goleman 1998; Sternberg

and Lubart 1999; Zwell 2000). In the same way as flowing water is able erode the obstacles in


its path; people with self-confidence are able to face even the most dreaded challenges head on

(Boyatzis 1982; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Ford 1996; Goleman 1998; Sternberg and Lubart

1999). Accurate-self assessment relates to the paths, where the water flows. Over estimating ones

abilities leads to paths that are impossible or not good to follow, while underestimation makes

the individual very careful and often ends in choosing the paths that are not most optimal but safe

(Goleman 1998).

Direction of flow is a metaphor of river bed that gives direction to the flowing current. Without

direction the current will run with a mind of its own. If people have no direction their creative

efforts will not be focused on the outcomes the organization desires. People need direction and

goals.

People strong with achievement orientation set challenging goals and work with enthusiasm to

reach their goals with best possible results (McClelland 1973; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Ford

1996; Zwell 2000). Some people more than others require that the direction is given from an

outside force, i.e. management. If you think of a river, outside forces can shape it and with great

effort even reverse its flow. But the most natural direction comes from inside, people that are

willing to take initiative can guide themselves through new and unexpected situations (Boyatzis

1982; Goleman 1998; van Assen 2000). Some times however the direction must change, like a river

choosing a more favourable path. In these situations individuals change orientation determines

whether to follow the current or to swim against the current. Related to change orientation is risk

orientation. Risk orientation determines how individuals choose their actions. Risk aversion leads

to playing safe and not trying something that might promise improvement, because of the fear of

failure. Risk oriented people more often take chances, sometimes against the odds, and in doing

so make also more mistakes (Amabile 1997; Van Assen 2000).

In transformation of flow metaphor, the flowing current, like the flow of ideas of human beings,

have to be transformed in order to produce value for example from water to energy or ideas to

innovation. Transformation of ideas can be thought in a similar ways as the hydro power plant

needs to transform the flow. You need to able to think of the transformation as a sequential

process and calculate on the basis of facts how big machinery and what kind of machinery is

needed to get the optimum transformation result, hence analytical thinking (Ohmae 1982; de

Bono 1990; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Zwell 2000). Planning the transformation also requires

seeing the big picture, for example the natural and social impacts the power plant will have and

including this in decision making where to exactly establish the power plant, which is referred

to as conceptual thinking (Boyatzis 1982; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Zwell 2000; Smith 2003).

Building a power plant that performs better that current power plants on the market, requires

at looking at new solutions and often creating something new to achieve better results. This

is referred to as divergent thinking, where a multitude of ideas are generated into open-ended

problems (de Bono 1990; Ford 1996; Taggar 2002; Simonton 2002; Williams 200�, p. 187).

Lastly, the power plant solution could benefit greatly from imagination and intuition in finding

solutions that are not obvious, for example bringing and idea or a solution from a totally different

domain to this context or modifying the nature in way that provides a better environment for the

power plant (Ohmae 1982; Tesolin 2007; Manu 2007).

Maintaining the flow metaphor relates to the activities that keep the river healthy and flowing.

When thinking of innovation activity there are numerous things that support and maintain the

people involved. Like the rain falls in to the current, so too can individuals absorb knowledge

and ideas from the outside. This is referred to as absorptive capacity in the literature (Cohen and

Levinthal 1990; Szulanski 1996). The current can be imagined as the experience and expertise

of people that produce the ideas and innovations for the organization. Expertise involves the

domain related skills and abilities that a person requires to perform his or her work, also to

ability to share and acquire these skills and abilities is often considered as a part of a persons

expertise (Spencer and Spencer 1993; Ford 1996; Amabile 1998; Zwell 2000; Farr et al. 2003).

Zwell (2000) emphasises the role of self-development in the persons profession, in addition to

the ability the need and want to develop oneself is crucial. Maintenance of creativity also requires

gathering information that may prove to be useful in the future and a curiosity to all things new

(Spencer and Spencer 1993; van Assen 2000).

In addition to expertise and information processing competences also the maintaining of

relationships is often considered vital to the creativity of an individual. More specifically the

following relationship management competences are seen important: conflict management

(Goleman 1998; Zwell 2000; Farr et al. 2003), communication (McClelland 1973; Glaser et al.

1983; Ford 1996; Goleman 1998; Zwell 2000; Goleman 2007), relationship building (Spencer

and Spencer 1993; Ford 1996; Zwell 2000) and also teamwork and collaboration (Spencer and

Spencer 1993; Van Assen 2000; Zwell 2000; Goleman et al. 2003). Maintaining the flow in human

relationships require also empathy (Glaser et al. 1983; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Zwell 2000;

McCrae 2000; Bar-On 2000; Goleman et al. 2003; Goleman 2007)

Metaphor of Innovation Culture Framework of an Organization

Additionally to individual competence, The HPP metaphor can be used to visualize also the

innovation culture framework for organization level. Innovation culture framework refers here to

all the organizational attributes that can either enhance individual’s innovation competences or

hinder them.

Freedom of flow, similarly to individual innovation competences, is a metaphor of free flowing

water, a current. There are many sources for water to run to the current: through rain, from little

brooks, from other currents etc. As long as the current is on move, the original source of water

has no significance. When blocked, water has ability to move its direction, to find new paths; if

forced, even to carve a stone.

The analogy of free flowing water for organization level is the freedom of mind and though. To be

able to receive information, come up with new ideas, have time to use creativity and imagination,

communicate them freely regardless of hierarchy, and get respect and equality as human beings

regardless of the status. (Nonaka&Takeuchi 1995; Ekvall 1996; Amabile 1997; Ahmed 1998;

Amabile 1998; Martins&Terblanche 2003; Trott 2005) Also Farr et al. (2003) point out that there


has to be adequate amount of diversity in a work group which metaphorically can be seen as the

various sources of the water. Additionally, the term flow carries a meaning of working with such

enthusiasm that one loses the track of time (Csikszentmihalyi 1991).

Direction of flow is a metaphor of river bed giving the wanted direction to the flowing water. If

the flowing water has no direction it will run with a mind of its own. Similarly, if the creativity,

imagination and new ideas of people working in an organization have no goal, no direction, they

will run all over the place with no desired productive outcomes (Ekvall, 1996; Amabile 1997;

Amabile 1998).

Therefore the analogy of the direction of flow is management of an organization. The management

providing adequate organizational flexibility (Ahmed 1998) From short perspective, occasionally

the direction, leadership and management of an organization, seem to have curves on the way while

new management isms and tools are applied, but in the end the management of an organization

gives the ultimate direction. For almost every industry, the winning companies have a distinct

strategy that distinguishes them from the competitors – and it’s never a strategy of imitation

(Robert, 2000). Therefore, if adequate attention to the long-term strategic management is not

paid, it is very likely that instead of future, the organization will flow to the past; competitors

overcoming with novel products, services and solutions.

Transformation of flow is a metaphor of hydro power plant that transforms the power of running

water into a new form: electricity. Without the transformation machinery the power of water does

exist, but with transformation process it can be harnessed applicable also for other purposes and

domains.

This transformation process is an analogy at organizational of a well-functioned innovation

process. One element of the successfulness of innovation in the market is the structured and

systematically conducted idea management e.g. the concept t identification phase (Boeddrich,

200�). Therefore innovations, both incremental and radical, might occur without well-conducted

procedure, but when there is structured process for idea generation, documentation and screening

the outcome is more guaranteed.

Maintaining the flow is a metaphor of keeping the water flow ongoing even thought there

most certainly will appear obstacles, such as rocks, hills, mountains etc. in the waterway. The

flow has to be maintained in order to keep the water bringing each round ever growing output.

Similarly there are obstacles in the organizational knowledge input and transfer, yet they have to

be overcome.

The analogy for maintaining the flow in individual level is to ensure the expertise and knowledge

input, for organizational level enhancing the collaboration and teamwork (Amabile 1997; Farr et

al. 2003) and keeping the resources, mainly physical, in such a level that resources rather improve

the flow of information and ideas than hinders it (Tannenbaum 1997; Amabile 1997; Amabile

1998; Martins & Terblance 2003)

Yet, it should be noticed that this metaphor is a sequence of four consecutive metaphors;

one cannot exist with full potential without the existence of the others. First there has to be

the freedom in order it to directed, the flow has to managed to right direction in order it to be

transformed to applicable novelty, and there has to be a working transformation procedure in

order the flow to be maintained uninterrupted. Additionally, this sequence of four flow-sections

has to be functional both in individual and organizational levels in order to innovation culture to

emerge with exponential outputs.

Additionally, the system described in HPP-metaphor does not exist in vacuum (Figure �). It has

both inputs and outputs to the system. Some of the outputs also returned to the system as input

as back flow, such as organizational memory that accumulates constantly with all the various

experiences in the organization.

Figure The HPP-system with inputs and outputs to the system

Conclusion

Organizations depend on their innovation building ability; therefore building innovation culture

has become organizations’ interest. Yet the phenomenon is ambiguous. The needed common

understanding for building innovation culture calls for creating a shared vocabulary e.g. ontology.

In this paper we have sought to offer a brief illustration of the problem area.

Our claims in this paper have been as follows:

First, the possible methods for building a common understanding by evaluating the current and

the desired future state of the innovation culture found in the literature are creative tension of

individual level and proactive vision at organizational level.

Secondly, the usability of metaphors for building ontology for innovation culture, together with

the metaphoric ontology building method discovered in literature has been illuminated.

Thirdly the new Hydro Power Plant -metaphor for ontology building of innovation culture has

been presented with the main levels of the ontology.

Information - Communication Command - Control

Maintenance - Support Operation - Production

FREEDOM OF FLOW DIRECTION OF FLOW

TRANSFORMATION OF FLOW

REGULATION OF FLOW





MAINTAINING THE FLOW

Innovation Culture

INF O R M A T IO N INP U T S

M A T T E R -E NE R G Y INP U T S

INF O R M A T IO N O U T P U T S

M A T T E R -E NE R G Y O U T P U T S

E xternal innovations

E xternal knowledge

S earch for unexploited opportunities

F ores ight

O rganizational memory

S trategy, mis s ion and vis ion

Innovations

C reative products

O rga niza tiona l c a pita ls : S oc ia l, s truc tura l, inte lle c tua l

O rga niza tiona l me mory





REGULATION OF FLOW





MAINTAINING THE FLOW

Innovation Culture

INF O R M A T IO N INP U T S

M A T T E R -E NE R G Y INP U T S

INF O R M A T IO N O U T P U T S

M A T T E R -E NE R G Y O U T P U T S

E xternal innovations

E xternal knowledge

S earch for unexploited opportunities

F ores ight

O rganizational memory

S trategy, mis s ion and vis ion

Innovations

C reative products

O rga niza tiona l c a pita ls : S oc ia l, s truc tura l, inte lle c tua l

O rga niza tiona l me mory


With the help of the HPP –metaphor the innovation culture is here seen as a part of organizational

culture that produces innovations of all kinds: both incremental and radical. As such innovation

culture can be considered as cross-functional framework of two levels composed of individual

innovation competences and innovation culture framework of organization level. This framework

is in constantly in interchange with the environment having inputs from and giving outputs.

Discussion

The new Hydro Power Plant –metaphor could be used for both building the ontology for innovation

culture and for continuous development of the ontology further. The further research possibilities

lie in building the ontology construct and testing the validity and verification of the construct.

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ENHANCING CREATIVE FORESIGHT AMONG DESIGN

BUSINESS MANAGERS VIS-À-VIS INTERNATIONAL

CONSTRUCTION MARKETS

Pekka Huovinen

TKK Helsinki University of Technology, International Construction Business

ABSTRACT

Triggers for this paper include internationally leading construction-related design firms who are facing many challenges such as embedding high-creativity in their future solutions and the increasing influence of creativity and innovation throughout businesses, markets, and strategies. The main aim is to enhance creative foresight among (primarily Finland-based) managers so that they can sustain their architectural and urban design businesses, infrastructure engineering businesses, and structural and other engineering businesses within evolving international construction markets. The three preferred aspects of an international design business (IDB) manager’s creative foresight include a managerial competence, process, and targeted outcomes. Creative foresight was approached via a literature review. Only 11 foresight-related concepts could be identified among a population of 51 competence-related IBM concepts published via the 20 journals between the years 1990-2006. The elements of these 11 concepts are herein quoted and exposed vis-à-vis enhancing creative foresight among construction-related IDB managers. Only the applicable elements are synthesized along three modes of foreseeing (i) opportunities (e.g. via the reconstruction of business boundaries), (ii) logics, models, and strategies (e.g. across turbulent landscapes), and (iii) organizations, competences, and processes (e.g. being stretched toward aspirations). Finally, some conclusions are put forth for designing better foresight-management concepts in the future.

Keywords: Business management, construction, design firms, foresight, future studies, literature

review


1. INTRODUCTION

On the one hand, this paper has been triggered by many challenges that internationally leading

construction-related design firms and their managers have both envisioned in the long term

and recognized in the short term in international construction markets. These markets

involve foreign and local design firms, contractors, suppliers, service providers, and financiers

participating in ownership, design, implementation, use, operations, maintenance, servicing, and

life-cycle aspects of investments in natural resources usage, energy supply, telecommunications,

transportation, infrastructure, manufacturing, and general building concerns. Dynamism includes

a spectrum of static, dynamic, and even chaotic markets. Within such markets, the management

of a firm’s international design business is defined as managing a dynamic 6-element system,

i.e. (i) targeting the most attractive clients in the preferred markets and competitive arenas, (ii)

advancing contract-specific design offerings and competitive strategies, (iii) integrating global,

local, and contract -specific design business processes, (iv) nurturing core knowledge and

competences, (v) governing a flexible business organization, and (vi) collaborating selectively

with key stakeholders beyond a firm’s legal boundaries.

In the year 2006, the five internationally leading building design firms included Dar Al-Handasah

Consultants of Egypt, Fugro NV of the Netherlands, WSP Group, Arup Group Ltd and Atkins of

the UK. In turn, the five leading transportation design firms included The Louis Berger Group

and Aecom Technology Corp. of the USA, Dar Al-Handasah Consultants, Mott McDonald of the

UK, and Arcadis NV of the Netherlands. In Spring 2007, the largest firms described the world

design market vibrant, but also challenging. Further internationalization remains important.

For example, in trans-portation the focus is shifting toward [creative] technology that can assist

in with the improved utilization of infrastructure (Reina and Tulacz 2007).

Typically, Fugro NV (2007) defines its mission to be, worldwide, the leading company and services

provider in the collection and interpretation of data related to the earth’s surface and sea bed and

the soils and rocks beneath and advising clients regarding these matters. This mission is achieved

through the provision of high-quality, innovative services, professional, specialized employees,

advanced, generally state-of-the-art, unique technologies and systems (mostly developed in-

house), and a worldwide presence in which the exchange of knowledge and cooperation, both

internally and with the client, play a central role. The company’s decentralized character and the

Fugro-Academy increase the creativity and involvement of the entire organization. Recruiting,

employing, and retaining professionals and skilled people is increasingly important, especially in

a growing [world design] market.

On the other hand, this paper has been triggered by the widening and increasing influence of

creativity, innovation, and foresight across different businesses, market contexts, and strategies.

In general, creativity can be defined as the production of novel and useful ideas in any domain

and innovation can be viewed as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an

organization. Thus, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is

a necessary but not sufficient condition for the second (Amabile et al. 1996: 1154). Aligning with

Bourguignon (2006: 3), creativity was originally expected only from those individuals considered

to be creators such as architects, structural engineers, and transportation system engineers.

However, under the pressure of international construction perceived as increasingly turbulent and

competitive, reactivity and flexibility have emerged as key factors also in international design

business (IDB) strategies. In such a scenario, creativity is viewed as a necessary condition for

a design firm to survive. All the firm’s innovation, design, and life cycle servicing processes are

today areas for creativity.

In turn, foresight is generally defined as having the three facets of (i) an action or a faculty of

foreseeing what must happen (prevision), (ii) an action of looking forward and a perception

gained by looking forward (a prospect, a sight or a view into the future), and (iii) care or provision

for the future (Oxford English Dictionary 1989). Herein, creative foresight is seen as one of

critical competences in managing a design business more successfully in evolving international

construction markets in the future. The three preferred aspects of an IDB manager’s creative

foresight include a managerial competence, process, and targeted outcomes.

The main aim of this paper is to enhance creative foresight among (primarily Finland-based)

managers so that they can sustain their architectural design businesses, urban and infrastructure

engineering businesses as well as structural and other engineering businesses within highly

evolving international construction markets. Namely, a design firm’s successful transition into

the future depends upon a degree to which the creative and causal thinking of its managers will

coincide with future market developments.

During the years 1999-2007, the author has been readily conducting a multi-year literature-

review process with a focus on generic and international business-management (IBM) concepts

and construction-related business-management concepts published between the years 1990-

2006 (e.g. Huovinen 2003, 2006a-b, 2007). It turned out that there is a lack of creative concepts

(e.g. foresight-based management) for managing primarily a design business in international

construction markets. Instead, many authors of the IBM concepts (addressing non-construction

contexts) have approached and specified some key elements for foreseeing and strategizing for

the future (better than competitors do). Accordingly, the sub-aims of this paper are as follows:

(i) To identify the foresight-related IBM concepts from among a population of 51 competence-

related IBM concepts published via the 20 journals between the years 1990-2006, (ii) to retrieve,

to quote, and to expose the 11 identified IBM concepts and their foresight-related elements for

sustaining international construction-related design businesses, and (iii) to make a synthesis of the

applicable elements for enhancing creative foresight among construction-related IDB managers

in practice, and (iv) to put forth some conclusions on designing better foresight management

concepts in the future.


2. IDENTIFYING 11 IBM CONCEPTS FROM AMONG A CONCEPT POPULATION PUBLISHED BETWEEN THE YEARS 1990-2006

For the original review, a business management (BM) concept (incl. models, frameworks) was

defined as an abstraction representing an object, i.e. a firm managing its dynamic business. A BM

concept serves as (a) the foundation of a communication, (b) a way of looking at the empirical

world, (c) a means of classifying and generalizing BM situations, e.g. stating the conditions when

the management’s efforts are likely to be (un)successful, and (d) a component of a theory or a

model and thus of an explanation, prediction [and prescription] (applying Ghauri and Gronhaug

2002: 31).

Competence relatedness was rationalized as follows. When looking through a “how” lens, the

overall picture of BM research had become very messy and, thus, intellectually challenging enough

in terms of different meanings and uses of the term “how” within various research traditions

during the late 1990s. Thus, this reviewer chose to analyze the roles of the organizational or

organization-level “how” elements called a firm’s competenc(i)es, capabilities, capacities, or

abilities, and their roles as part of the targeted IBM concepts. As the inherent unit of analysis, a

firm’s competences were then coupled with the choice to broaden the competence-based approach

(competence is the primary element within an BM concept) to the competence-related one

(competence is at least one of its key elements).

For the comprehensive search of eligible scientific articles from among journals, a population

of 42 journals was identified and relied upon. The review involved a set of replicable ways

of searching, browsing, in-/ excluding, retrieving, systemic inferring and coding, describing,

analyzing, and interpreting the outcomes of primary IBM research. The three landmark concepts

- Prahalad and Hamel’s (1990) core competencies, Teece et al.’s (1990) dynamic capabilities, and

Barney’s (1991) resource sustainability - have triggered a growing flow of published concepts

also via journals.

In total, it turned out that the 51 competence-related IBM concepts have been published in the

20 journals between the years 1990-2006. The numbers of the concepts belonging to each of the

eight schools of thought on business management vary between no competence-related IBM

concepts within the Porterian school and 19 (37 %) concepts within the dynamism-based school

(Table 1). The organization-based school has produced 9 (18 %) concepts. The knowledge-

based school has produced 7 (14 %) concepts, followed by the competence-based (5/10 %),

process-based (4/8 %), evolutionary (4/8 %), and resource-based (3/6 %) schools. There are 75

individual authors. Gary Hamel and C.K. Prahalad have been involved in co-publishing 5 (10

%) dynamism-based concepts. Danny Miller and Henk Volberda have both co-authored 3 (6 %)

concepts. Richard D’Aveni, Yves Doz, Michael Hitt, Ron Sanchez, and George Stalk Jr. have

(co)published 2 (� %) concepts, respectively. This reviewer will submit a complete list of these

references on request.

For this paper, the reviewer re-read analytically the 51 references and, thus, identified only 11

foresight-related, competence-related IBM concepts, i.e. 7 (1� %) dynam-ism-based, 3 (6 %)

competence-based, and 1 (2 %) resource-based concept (Table 1).

Table 1. Distribution of (a) 51 competence-related IBM concepts (published via 20 journals

between the years 1990-2006) and (b) 11 IBM concepts with the foresight-related elements, by

eight schools of thought on BM.

Schools of thought onbusiness management

(a) All IBM concepts1990-2006

No. (%)

(b) Concepts with fore-sight-related elements

No. (%)Dynamism-based school 19 (37 %) 7 (1� %)

Organization-based school 9 (18 %) 0 (0 %)

Knowledge-based school 7 (1� %) 0 (0 %)

Competence-based school 5 (10 %) 3 (6 %)

Process-based school � (8 %) 0 (0 %)

Evolutionary school � (8 %) 0 (0 %)

Resource-based school 3 (6 %) 1 (2 %)

Porterian school 0 (0 %) 0 (0 %)

SUM 51 (100 %) 8 (20 %)

3. QUOTING THE ELEMENTS OF 11 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS-MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF CREATIVE

FORESIGHT AMONG CONSTRUCTION-RELATED IDB MANAGERS

The identification of the 11 foresight –related, competence-related IBM concepts was based

on the authors’ (in)direct replies in the eligible articles, respectively, to two key questions: (1)

How can business managers develop and leverage their creative foresight (CF) as an managerial,

organizational competence and process? and (2) What highly competitive outcomes of CF

management are worth pursuing?

The perceived, most relevant replies of the 11 authors are quoted and compiled in Tables 2, 3,

and 4. CF management is defined as the primary element (or dimension) within the 9 IBM

concepts. Thus, CF is being enhanced and exploited as a managerial competence/process and its

targeted outcomes as follows.

Among the seven dynamism-based IBM concepts, Prahalad and Hamel’s (1990: 91) core

competence concept was launched as the wellspring of new business development. They

advocated [a foresight of managing businesses based on] a hierarchy of core competencies, core

products, end products, and market-focused business units. Later, Hamel and Prahalad (1993: 76-


78) posited that a firm’s long-term competiti-veness depends managers’ willingness to challenge

their managerial frames. By [foresight-based] design, creating stretch or a misfit between an

aspiration and current resources is the single most important task. Hamel and Prahalad (199�:

127-128) emphasized that managers must build their foresights based on deep insights into trends

in technology, demographics, regulations, and lifestyles.

D’Aveni (1995: 48-49) introduced strategic soothsaying as a means for pioneering firms to co-create

the targeted future through market disruptions. He posited that every advantage is temporary in

hypercompetitive markets. It is not enough to adapt to such fast-evolving environments. Instead,

he advocates a [foresight-based] building of a series of temporary advantages.

Hitt et al. (1998: 25-26) argued that a new competitive landscape is developing based on

technological revolution and globalization. They advocate the [foresight-based] building of

strategic flexibility to allow managers to reduce the periods of complex instability. Managers

need to engage in nonlinear thinking for radical innovations and to adopt a systemic perspective

of firms. They can use vision and foresight during periods of destabilization to transform their

firms into a new temporary state of equilibrium.

Hamel and Välikangas (2003: 52-55) have pointed out to a turbulent age when the only dependable

advantage is a superior capacity for reinventing a firm’s business model before circumstances force

it to. Strategic resilience refers to a capacity for continuous [foresight-based] reconstruction.

It is about (a) anticipating deep secular trends that can permanently impair earning power, (b)

adjusting to strategy decays by being replicated, supplanted, exhausted, or eviscerated, and (c)

having a proactive capacity to change.

Table 2. Creative foresight (CF) related elements of four dynamism-based IBM concepts

(published between 1990-1995). Key: Within [ ], the original terms have been replaced with the

design business–related ones.

Reference(quoted pp)

Elements corresponding to CF as a competence and a process

Elements corresponding to CF as targeted outcomes

Prahalad and Hamel(1990: 81, 85-86, 89)

Long term competitiveness of [des-ign] firms derives from (a) an abil-ity to build, at lower cost and more speedily than competitors, core competencies that spawn unanti-cipated products, and (b) an ability to consolidate firm-wide [expertise] and skills into competencies that empower businesses [with core/end services, and solutions] to adapt quickly to changing opportunities. (Dynamism-based concept)

At three levels, targeted outcomes include: (i) best core competencies for developing core [design solu-tions and services], (ii) maximum shares in providing core solutions [and services], and (iii) positions to shape the [applied design] solutions and markets. All this is based on a strategic architecture, i.e. a road map of the future that identifies which core competencies to build and their constituent knowledge.

Hamel and Prahalad(1993: 76- 78, 8�)

Global competition is mind-set vs. mind-set. Long-term competitive-ness depends managers’ willingness to challenge continually their mana-gerial frames. Creating stretch, a misfit between resources and aspi-rations, is the single most important task. Stretch can beget risk when arbitrarily short time horizon is set for long-term leadership goals. (Dynamism-based concept)

The outcomes of stretch include (i) a view of competition as encircle-ment, an aspiration that creates by design a chasm btw. great ambition and resources, the accelerated acquisition of market knowledge and [service-]development cycle, cross-functional teams, a focus on a few core competencies, strategic alliances, and the programs of employee involvement.

Hamel and Prahalad (199�: 127-128)

Managers must build their [busi-ness] foresights as an ongoing project based on deep insights into trends in technology, demographics, regulations, and lifestyles. Under-standing of implications of trends requires creativity and imagination. Foresight is a synthesis of many people’s visions, defining the future. (Dynamism-based concept)

Managers’ role is to capture and exploit foresight that exists in the organization. The outcomes of ‘competing for the future’ stra-tegy include re-written [business] rules and new competitive space, a firm’s transformation that is revo-lutionary in result and evolutionary in execu-tion, and getting ahead of the [business] change curve.

D’Aveni (1995: 50-51)

Strategic soothsaying is based on managers’ ability to predict future trends, to control the development of key technologies that will shape the future, and to create self-fulfilling prophecies. (Dynamism-based concept)

This soothsaying (i) allows mana-gers to see and create future needs that they can serve better than any competitor does, even if only temporarily, and (ii) contributes to the vision of the next advantage and the future market disruption.


Table 3.Creative foresight (CF) –related elements of three dynamism-based IBM concepts

(published between 1998-2004). Key: Within [ ], the original terms have been replaced with the

design business–related ones.




Hitt et al. (1998: 25-26, 33, 39)

Driven by technological revolution and globalization, a new competit-ive landscape is highly turbulent, chaotic, producing disorder and uncertainty. Managers need to engage in nonlinear thinking and to adopt a systemic perspective of design firms. They use vision and foresight during periods of destabilization to transform their [design] firms into a new state of equilibrium (albeit temporary). (Dynamism-based concept)

Strategic (proactive, responsive. networking) flexibility allows managers to reduce the periods of complex instability by making their firms transnational, predicting attractive businesses to enter, using cross-border synergies and new [expertise], building dynamic core competencies, balancing local demands with the global vision, engaging in valuable strategies, and networking with clients and other stakeholders.

Hamel and Välikangas (2003: 53-55)

Strategic resilience refers to a firm’s capacity for continuous re-construction. It is about (a) antici-pating deep secular trends that can permanently impair earning power, (b) adjusting to strategy decays (by being replicated, supplanted, ex-hausted, or eviscerated), (c) having a proactive capacity to change. (Dynamism-based concept)

The outcomes include three forms of innovation with respect to (i) one’s traditional business model (renewal), (ii) [business] rules (revolution), and (iii) those organi-zational values, processes, and behaviors (cognitive, strategic, political, and ideological challenges) that systematically favor perpetuation over innovation.

Kim and Mauborgne (200�: 77, 80, 83-8�)

Managers can adopt a reconstruct-ionist’s worldview: market bound-aries and businesses are recon-structed by the actions and beliefs of competing firms. They can create, exploit, and protect blue oceans in the regions where a firm’s actions favorably affect both its cost structure and value proposi-tion to clients, i.e. make a major market-creating business offering. (Dynamism-based concept)

The outcomes of ‘blue ocean strategy and strategic moves’ include blue oceans, i.e. businesses not in existence today, unknown market spaces, and untainted by competition. In most cases, new demand is created from within a red ocean (an existing business) by altering its boundaries. The ample opportunity for rapid, profitable growth is exploited.

Table 4. Creative foresight (CF) –related elements of three competence-based and one resource-

based IBM concepts (published between 1997-2004). Key: Within [ ], the original terms have

been replaced with the design business–related ones.




Sanchez(1997: 71-73, 80-82, 90)

In assuring long term viability, strategic flexibility is a condition of having strategic options based, in turn, on coordination flexibility in acquiring and using flexible resources; imagining new configu-rations in resource chains. A syn-thesis of planning and emergence based on modular product, process, and knowledge architectures constitutes a new dominant logic. (Competence-based concept)

[Design] firms can manage more readily and spontaneously input and output uncertainties by allowing locally emergent strategies and being flexible in coordinating resources in alternative uses. Re-cognizing the flexibility properties of resources permits ex ante an assessment of their relative strategic values over some defined range of imaginable future outcomes.

Sanchez(200�: 520, 530)

For surviving in dynamic [design] markets, managers can develop five competence modes: (i-ii) cognitive flexibilities in defining alternative strategic logics and management processes, (iii) coordination flexib-ility in redeploying resource chains, (iv) resource flexibility, and (v) operating flexibility; assessed via higher-order control loops. (Competence-based concept)

The corresponding outcomes include the five portfolios of (i) perceived opportunities to create value, (ii) approaches to managing value creation processes, (iii) accessible resource chains, (iv) uses of flexible resources in processes, and (v) feasible ways to bring offerings to design markets.

Chiesa and Manzini (1998: 116-118, 122)

[Design] firms can formulate their dynamic [competence or] technol-ogy strategies based on the future-oriented internal and external analyses as well as the understand-ing of the evolution of the dominant [expertise] paradigm that is able to satisfy future customer demands. (Competence-based concept)

Managers can (i) identify critical future skill base and (ii) decide which new and existing skill/appli-cation combinations to invest in. An investment actions cycle (as a trajectory) may consist of compet-ence deepening, fertilizing, comple-menting, refreshing, and destroying.

Miller et al.(2002: �9-51)

In pursuing ‘strategy from the inside out’ capability managers and opportunity managers must balance reflection and action, put time aside to reflect on capabilities and to initiate experiments during joint quarterly sessions. (Resource-based concept)

The best outcomes of reflection are (i) imaginative “re-framings” of the value of resources, experiences, and relationships, (ii) explored emerg-ing competencies and the opport-unities they bring, and (iii) opport-unities that shape capabilities.


Kim and Maubourgne (200�: 77-78, 83-8�) advocate the adoption of a reconstruct-ionist’s

worldview: market boundaries and businesses are being reconstructed. While red oceans represent

all the businesses existence today, blue oceans denote new businesses, i.e. unknown spaces,

untainted by competition. A [foresightful] firm can create, exploit, and protect such blue oceans

(even from within red oceans) in the regions where a firm’s actions favorably affect both its

cost structure and its value proposition to clients, i.e. a firm can make a major market-creating

business offering.

In addition, two competence-based IBM concepts include CF as their primary element. Sanchez

(1997: 71-73, 76-77) has emphasized the development of a firm’s strategic flexibility to respond

to changing opportunities. It is a condition of having strategic options as part of managing a

virtuous [foresight-based] circle of competence building and leveraging. Recently, Sanchez (200�:

520, 530) enlarged strategic flexibility and specified it along [foresight-related] five competence

modes: (i) cognitive flexibility in defining alternative strategic logics, (ii) cognitive flexibility in

designing alternative management processes, (iii) coordination flexibility in redeploying resource

chains, (iv) resource flexibility, and (v) operating flexibility.

Instead, CF management is defined as the complementary element (or dimension) within one

competence-based and one resource-based IBM concept as follows. Chiesa and Manzini (1997:

111, 116-118) address industries where boundaries are weakly defined and competition is mostly

played out on the ability to generate new product/market combinations. Thus, they advocate

firms to formulate dynamic technology strategies based on the [foresight-based] analyses and

understanding of the evolution of the next technology paradigm that is able to satisfy future

demands.

Miller et al. (2002: 37, �9-51) have recommended a ‘strategy from the inside out’ in terms of

growing capabilities that sustain a firm’s advantage by identifying and growing asymmetries

and shaping market focus to exploit them. Asymmetries are hard-to-copy ways in which a firm

differs from its rivals. Capability and opportunity managers need to put time aside to reflect

on capabilities. The best outcomes of reflection are imaginative “re-framings” of the value of

resources, experiences, and relationships.

4. MAKING A SYNTHESIS OF THE APPLICABLE ELEMENTS FOR ENHANCING CREATIVE FORESIGHT AMONG IDB MANAGERS

Herein, a synthesis is made by taking into account only the perceived applicable elements of

the 11 IBM concepts for enhancing creative foresight along its three modes among construction-

related IDB managers in practice. An element is considered applicable - and, thus, included in

the synthesis and Tables 5-7 - when it is dealt with in the article in the way that clearly justifies

its use and instructs IDB managers to adopt, understand, develop, and/or exploit this element as

part of her, his, or their creative foresight (as a competence, a process, or targeted outcomes). The

assessment of the high, medium, or low degrees of applicability was excluded due to the fairly

single-level writings, i.e. the authors do not address or reveal any deeper causal relations inside

their foresight-related elements (and between all the elements) of their IBM concepts.

Creative foresight management is herein seen as one of the prerequisites for successful dynamic

business management. It is proposed that a design firm’s successful transition into the future

depends upon a degree to which the causal thinking of its IDB managers will coincide with future

developments in targeted, construction-related design markets. A firm can manage its design

business in international construction markets successfully by enhancing and exploiting the

creative foresight of its IDB managers along three modes as follows:

• Mode 1: Foreseeing future IDB opportunities and their boundaries. Construction-related

IDB managers can target to deepen the understanding of underlying (hidden) causal

demand and supply mechanisms and their future evolution with and without assumed, self-

imposed, random, or ‘lucky’ major changes in the future with the help of 5-6 applicable

ways compiled in Table 5.

• Mode 2: Foreseeing future IDB logics, models, and strategies. IDB managers can target

to co-create the dominant business logic, model, and strategy and to assume a role of a

sole creator or one of many (r)evolutionary inventors of future IDBs with the help of 10

applicable ways compiled in Table 6.

• Mode 3: Foreseeing future IDB organizations, competences, and processes. IDB managers

can (gradually or as major shifts) set more and more challenging international business

goals and also attain them by managing both business performance and competitiveness

development in balanced, integrated ways, with the help of about 15 applicable principles

compiled in Table 7.


Table 5. Suggested Mode 1 of creative foresight (CF) on future IDB opportunities and their

boundaries, and the applicable elements of 11 IBM concepts.

Future IDB opportunities and their boundaries (Mode 1)

CF as a competence and a process CF as targeted outcomes

¤ Business foresight based on many

people’s deep insights (creativity,

imagination) into trends in engineering,

demographics, regulations, and lifestyles

and potential implications (Hamel and

Prahalad 199�)

¤ Ability to anticipate deep secular trends

that can permanently impair earning power

(Hamel and Välikangas 2003)

¤ Cognitive flexibility in foreseeing

alternative opportunities (Sanchez 200�)

¤ Ability to predict trends and to create

self-fulfilling prophecies (D’Aveni 1995)

¤ Reconstructionist’s worldview

(Kim and Mauborgne 200�)

¤ Nonlinear thinking (Hitt et al. 1998)

¤ Re-written business rules and competit-ive

space, getting ahead of the business change

curve (Hamel and Prahalad 199�)

¤ Strategic soothsaying, vision of the next

advantage and the future market disruption

(D’Aveni 1995)

¤ Understanding of technological revolu-tion

and globalization, and predicted attractive

businesses (Hitt et al. 1998)

¤ Understanding of evolution of a new expertise

paradigm for satisfying future demands (Chiesa

and Manzini 1998)

¤ Business rules revolution (Hamel and

Välikangas 2003)

¤ Opportunities to create value (Sanchez 2004)

Table 6. Suggested Mode 2 of creative foresight (CF) on future IDB logics, models, and strategies,

and the applicable elements of 11 IBM concepts.

Future IDB logics, models, and strategies (Mode 2)


¤ Ability to control the development of key

technologies and expertise that will shape

the future (D’Aveni 1995)

¤ Understanding of highly turbulent, cha-

otic, competitive landscape that produces

disorder and uncertainty (Hitt et al. 1998)

¤ Strategic (proactive, responsive, net-

working) flexibility (Hitt et al. 1998)

¤ Ability to adjust to strategy decays by

being replicated, supplanted, exhausted, or

eviscerated (Hamel and Välikangas 2003)

¤ Cognitive flexibility in defining

alternative strategic logics (Sanchez 200�)

¤ Dynamic competence or technology

strategy formulation based on the future-

oriented internal and external analyses

(Chiesa and Manzini 1998)

¤ Maximum shares in providing core solutions

[and services], positions to shape the applied

design solutions and markets, and a road map

for future development of core competencies

and their constituent knowledge (Prahalad and

Hamel 1990)

¤ Aspiration that creates by design a chasm

between great aspiration and resources (Hamel

and Prahalad 1993)

¤ Competing for the future strategy (Hamel and

Prahalad 199�)

¤ Foreseen and created future needs to be

served best, temporarily (D’Aveni 1995)

¤ Business model renewal (Hamel and

Välikangas 2003)

¤ Blue ocean strategy and moves, i.e. new

businesses, unknown spaces, untainted by

competition, by reconstructing them from

within an existing business by altering the

boundaries (Kim and Mauborgne 200�)

¤ Blue oceans that can be created, exploited,

and protected for rapid, profitable growth

based on its better cost structure and value

proposition, i.e. a new market-creating business

offering (Kim and Mauborgne 200�)

¤ Dominant logic as a synthesis of planning

and emergence, and locally emergent strategies

(Sanchez 1997, 200�)

¤ Strategy from the inside out with imagin-

ative “re-framings” of the value of resour-

ces, experiences, and relationships, explor-

ed emerging competencies coupled with

opportunities (Miller et al. 2002)


Table 7. Suggested Mode 3 of creative foresight (CF) on future IDB organizations, competences,

and processes, and the applicable elements of 11 IBM concepts.

Future IDB organizations, competences, and processes (Mode 3)


¤ Ability to build, at lower cost and

more speedily than competitors, the core

expertise and competencies that spawn

unanticipated products (Prahalad and

Hamel 1990)

¤ Ability to consolidate firm-wide

expertise and skills into competencies

that empower businesses with core/end

services, and solutions to adapt quickly

to changing opportunities (Prahalad and

Hamel 1990)

¤ Willingness to challenge continually

their managerial frames (Hamel and

Prahalad 1993)

¤ Strategic resilience is a capacity for

reconstruction and proactive change

(Hamel and Välikangas 2003)

¤ Strategic flexibility is a condition of

having strategic options, e.g. cognitive

flexibility in designing and exploiting

alternative management processes

(Sanchez 1997, 200�)

¤ Capability managers and opportunity

managers must balance reflection and

action, put time aside to reflect on

capabilities and to initiate experiments

(Miller et al. 2002)

¤ Long term competitiveness and the best

core competencies for developing core design

solutions and services

(Prahalad and Hamel 1990)

¤ Creating stretch, a misfit between resources

and aspirations, is the single most important

task (Hamel and Prahalad 1993)

¤ Accelerated solution-development cycle,

strategic alliances with sub-consultants, and

employee involvement programs

(Hamel and Prahalad 1993)

¤ Transformed firm is revolutionary in result

and evolutionary in execution (Hamel and

Prahalad 199�)

¤ Alternative configurations in resource chains,

flexible resources, and their uses based on

modular service, process, and knowledge

architectures, over some defined range of

imaginable future outcomes (Sanchez 1997,

200�)

¤ Portfolio of approaches to managing value

creation processes (Sanchez 200�)

¤ Operating flexibility, ways to bring offerings

to design markets, managed input and output

uncertainties (Sanchez 200�)

¤ Critical future skill base, investments in

new and existing skill/application combi-

nations, investment actions cycle/traject-ory

consisting of competence deepening, fertilizing,

complementing, refreshing, and destroying

(Chiesa and Manzini 1997)

¤ Transformed firm in a new (temporary)

state of equilibrium during the periods of

In particular, the creative foreseeing processes of construction-related IDB managers should

aim at producing novel competitive outcomes that strengthen their international positions in

profitable ways. Novel outcomes may come about through inventions, new principal architectural

designs or pioneering engineering solutions, new ways of performing design work and processes,

new (inter)national partners, etc. Each highly novel outcome may, indeed, set a new standard

for competition along the dimensions of design firm’s interaction with offering markets and/or

resource markets.

5. PUTTING FORTH CONCLUDING REMARKS

Herein, the concluding remarks are put forth on (a) the validity of this piece of reviewing

the published conceptual BM research published, (b) advancing the current and new foresight-

related (I)BM concepts further within the disciplines of strategic management and organization

theory, and (c) foreseeing the future advancement of creative foresight-management concepts

through synergic collaborative research with scholars from within other relevant disciplines such

as system and complexity sciences, psychology, architecture, engineering, and arts.

Within the published conceptual BM research, (a) the overall validity of this review of the 11

eligible foresight-related, competence-related IBM concepts is assessed to be fairly high in terms

of (i) the focus on business-specific and business-level management concepts (with the exclusion

of upper, corporate level concepts and the lower, partial ones), (ii) the selected competence-

relatedness (instead of a sole competence focus), (iii)

the pre-limited contextual originality (limited to the businesses of focal firms based in one of

the OECD countries, with the exception of Singapore and Hong Kong), (iv) the reviewed 17-

year period of publishing, (v) English as the sole language of publishing (with admitted biases

in author nationality profiles), (vi) the selected formal publication channel (a population of 42

journals), (vii) the extensive search comprehensiveness (the electronic browsing of the abstracts,

issue by issue), (viii) the identification of eligible foresight-enhancing and foresight-exploiting

IBM concepts (based on OED’s definition with an emphasis on CF as a competence, a process,

and outcomes), (ix) the neutral, documented, low-inference coding, exposure (in Tables 2-�), and

synthesis (in Tables 5-7), and (x) the exclusion of the review of the ontological, epistemological,

and methodological attributes of the 11 references (mainly due to the missing information).

It is concluded that there is definitely room for (b) the advancement of existing and new

foresight-related IDB management concepts further within the two focal disciplines of strategic

management and organization theory. Prior any major advancement efforts, some complementary

sub-reviews should be, however, conducted among I(BM) and IDB concepts published via

monographs, edited books, and international conference proceedings. New sub-reviews may also

target the concepts without any explicit relatedness to a firm’s competences and the ones published


in 2-3 other major languages. In part, such new sub-reviews enable a future reviewer to enhance

her or his preunderstanding that is required for succeeding in the concept advancement task in

hand. Preunderstanding refers to prior knowledge, insight, and experience into the targeted areas

of (I)BM, IDB and prior social environments. A blocked preunderstanding can come from or

create a bias against some positions or even against creativity (Gummesson 2000). For example,

any foresight-related concept ‘designer’ will certainly benefit from her or his preunderstanding

of what kind of causal mechanisms are inherent, embedded, within globalization, digitalization,

energy saving technologies, sustainable environment-policy making, etc. that all influence future

IDBs and their management in converging and diverging (and even contradictory) ways.

In Tables 2-4, the exposed elements of the 11 IBM concepts needed to be modified only a bit

in order to accommodate in the text their applications to the focal IDB management (with the

reservations concerning the fact that they are fairly single-level writings). Nevertheless, some

degrees of uncertainty remain vis-à-vis the possible high applicability of the reviewed elements of

the 11 IBM concepts whose authors have been targeting generic or non-service business contexts.

Namely, one can easily find many counterarguments such as those of Maister (1993: xv-xvi) who

has posited that construction-related design firms, like other professional service firms, must

manage customized activities where little, even management information, can be reliably made

routine. Management principles and approaches from the industrial or mass-consumer sectors

are not only inapplicable in design businesses but they may be dangerously wrong. Instead, the

management problems of design businesses may require their own “management theory”. In

turn, Lowendahl (2000: 179) takes a step further by arguing that for those design firms that intend

to remain flexible and innovative, restraining growth may be critical to future performance.

Finally, this reviewer is (c) foreseeing a high potential for the future advancement of creative

foresight-management concepts through collaborative research between interested scholars

across many disciplines such as strategic management, organization theory, economics, system

and complexity sciences, psychology, architecture, engineering, and arts. For example, Aaltonen

(2007: xvii, 9-10) advocates the adoption of the third ontology (‘lens’) of complexity, to

complement those of order and chaos, for foreseeing, for example, a firm’s IDB as a complex

system with an emergent order that arises from the local interaction of native, foreign, and global

actors, each of whom behaves according to their own principles, logic, and knowledge. Thus, the

major source of a design firm’s organizational flexibility and effectiveness stems form the ability

to make sense of the visible and hidden properties and dynamics of a firm’s strategic landscape

and the choice of tools and methods accordingly. In turn, Kern (2006) argues that we need to

overcome the limits of the cognitive-rational paradigm of current management and organization

research. Instead, we can study the causal relations between creativity (e.g. creative foresight)

and rules with a new framework based on theories originating in cultural-historical psychology.

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“THIS IS NEVER GOING TO WORK OUT!” – HOW

TO TAKE RISKS IN DEVELOPING INNOVATION IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

Eeva-Liisa Kronqvist and Hannu Soini

University of Oulu, Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher Education

1. MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING AND ITS OBJECTIVES

This article describes a model of organizational learning simulated in the form of a higher

education study module. The objective of the module was to give students an opportunity to

examine the functioning of organizations and leadership in a creative manner and to learn from

their own behavior as members of an organization and teams.

The experiment aimed at finding new forms of cross-scientific collaboration models. Earlier

attempts at collaboration across faculties have failed, partially due to the faculties’ unwillingness

and resistance to collaboration across faculty borders. According to the theme of the conference,

studying collaboration between leadership and creative industries in universities is a challenge

that should be given more attention. This experiment aimed to find new and innovative educational

models.

The module aimed at:

• Offering students of different subjects in higher education an opportunity for collaborative

learning

• Developing concrete teaching methods by combining expertise from different branches of

science

• Giving the participants an opportunity to learn organizational dynamics through their own

experiences and interaction with their peers.

The experiment was organized as part of the organizational psychology course at the Faculty

of Education. The students were selected from different faculties so that around a third of the

students were from the Faculty of Education, around a third from the Faculty of Humanities and

around a third from the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. Participants also

included postgraduate students from the university departments.


New educational models also challenge university teachers. It is by no means easy to throw

yourself into trying a model that rattles the traditional framework of university teaching. The

required courage can be induced by basing the teaching model on collaboration and emphasizing

the foundation of a few years of testing and development.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The two major theoretical frames of reference featured in this article, which over the last few

years have in fact steered the model of innovative organizational learning discussed in this article,

are on one hand new learning-related theories and on the other psychodynamic organizational

theories. As far as perspectives go, these two theoretical orientations initially sound relatively

far apart, but they both share common elements relating in particular to systemic theoretical

orientation.

New learning theories emphasize the importance of self-regulation and active participation of

the individual, personal goal setting and collaboration skills. Learning is approached more as a

social than a personal phenomenon and this challenges behavioral studies and their traditional

role division.

It is easy to accept the meaning and importance of these factors, but both teachers and students in

university education are often fazed by situations in which they are expected to start setting goals

for their own learning. This may also be the case if setting goals is difficult or if students find it

hard to grasp the goals and become aware of their own actions. This is often seen as the student’s

problem, but the situation should be examined more comprehensively as both a problem affecting

the entire organization and as the organization’s inability to evolve into a system that would

better meet the students’ requirements. A good team and an innovative learning environment can

encourage and help learners to learn from their own actions and to accept more responsibility

for themselves and their own learning. Teaching arrangements that emphasize collaboration

have become increasingly important in educational organizations, and their significance has

been recently brought to the fore. At the same time, however, it has become apparent that the

execution and practical implementation of these models is a demanding task for both educators

and students.

What learner-oriented research and studies on knowledge and learning really give to learning

in organizations, nevertheless, is the observation that learning is not so much guided by how

researchers and teachers perceive learning but above all by learners’ own perception of learning,

which is often based on their personal approach to everyday life and their previous learning

experiences. Based on this, learners are naturally guided towards building their own personal

learning strategy (Soini 2001). Studies indicate that, above all else, learning is about personal

growth and development, and the evolution of one’s own personal theory (Rauste-von Wright

1986). The individual and the social come together through the learners’ own experience, which

acts as a bridge between the two. According to Dewey (1988), experience does not happen inside

us but is instead connected to everything that happens in our environment.

The spectrum of different schools of thought on the study, development and change in organizations

is wide and their examination problematic. The schools are not clearly defined, and they rarely

have a strong theoretic background. This is why concepts and methods are varied (Totro 2005).

On one hand, organizations have been studied at a macro level, with emphasis on finding more

widely spread trends; on the other, the goal has been to apply explanatory models derived from

personality psychology to understanding how organizations function. Two more widely spread

trends can be discerned in the history of development in this field: productivity-based models,

i.e. technostructural models, and models that aim at the wellbeing of humans (human procedural

models). Today, development models relating to productivity and management-by-objectives as

well as process management represent the first category, while the second category includes

various human relationship models, group interventions and operational methods (Totro 2005).

New tendencies include various ideologies associated with the transformation of organizations

and with postmodern views. Psychodynamic study of organizations, for example, can be classified

in this category. The psychodynamic perspective in organizational research is based on the

pioneering work of the Tavistock Institute.

Wilfred Bion was one of the best-known researchers in the field of organizational dynamics and

his views on the unconscious aspects of organizations are frequently used to help understand the

way in which organizations function. Bion’s thoughts on two operational levels of organizations

can be used to describe the functioning of different kinds of groups. According to him, groups

can function rationally and systematically as what he calls a ‘working group’. However, groups

are conversely drawn towards states of ‘basic assumption’, which is based on the misconceived

reality that evolves inside a group. Above all, leadership should aim to establish whether a group

is acting in accordance with its task or whether it has abandoned its objectives. Abandoning

objectives is not a conscious choice but an unconscious effort to distance oneself from the task.

Basic assumption groups demonstrate the strong tendency of individuals in a group to lose their

ability to function, particularly in difficult situations, and to decline into irrational action with

the group. Unconscious expectations begin to guide groups (Lönnqvist 2000). The group leader

should ensure that the group continues to function. The tendency of groups to stray from their

basic task is very typical and not at all pathological behavior, but acknowledging the phenomenon

helps to maintain leadership. Bion distinguishes between three basic assumption groups: the

dependency group, the fight-flight group and the pairing group.

The weaker the teamwork, the more likely a group is to activate a state of basic assumption.

Clear goal setting helps to promote teamwork. Goals act as guards against the group falling into

decline. Genuine teamwork is possible when the individuals involved know what they need to


do and what their own tasks comprise. A clear and straightforward group structure is another

guard against basic assumption states. This means working together according to a clear division

of responsibilities. A third guarding element is the group’s relationship with the realities of the

outside world, which, in an open system, is subject to continuous testing (Lönnqvist 2000).

In recent years, a new paradigm has been developed to address the challenges of new forms

of organization. The main assumptions of this paradigm can be summarized as follows (Prins,

2006):

• behavior is often the result of conscious and unconscious mental processes;

• people create a subjective, emotional reality of organization. The attribution of meaning,

through social interaction, mediates between organizational reality and the human

experience;

• individual and group behavior and the structural features of organizational life are in

dynamic interaction: the organizational structures stimulate particular patterns of individual

and group processes, and these processes, in turn, influence how particular features of the

organization are developed;

• most human beings are inclined to avoid anxiety, uncertainty and threats to their self-

esteem. Therefore, they try to achieve control, predictability and ways to enhance their

self-esteem;

• there is an underlying assumption of a “healthy” organization, characterized by wisdom,

humanity and the ability to help itself to overcome defenses.

These features of the new paradigm emphasize that a collaborative organizational process can

be rational, but it is always influenced by hidden, emotional and unconscious motives (Prins,

2006).

Both learning and emotion are dynamic concepts. Learning, at best, should have an empowermental

and liberating quality. Yet, organizational learning and change tend to focus more on negative

emotions like resistance to change, threat and fear instead of positive emotions to change

(Antonacopoulou & Gabriel, 2001).

Common themes can be observed both in new learning theories and organizational theories,

and it is possible to look for these in different kinds of systemic approaches. It is difficult to

separate human action from its context: a human being and his environment form a single system

(Järvilehto 1996). In terms of learning, this perspective could be construed so as to mean that

learning moulds and shapes human action, causing the entire system to evolve. For any system,

change is a vital condition: stability does not create regeneration. Learning leads to changes.

In organizational theories, on the other hand, systemic approach means accepting the chaotic

side of organizations. Most organizations strive to control change by introducing more strategic

measures and elements of control and management, which only adds to the anxiety and chaos.

However, a social system can only change when it reaches a state that enables something new to

develop (double-loop learning), a state that takes the organization from chaos to almost the bring

of disintegration. Rigidity and single-loop learning do not guarantee regeneration; a transition

state from which new things can emerge does (Totro 2005).

3. DESCRIPTION AND REALIZATION OF THE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

In this context, ‘model’ means a higher education study module in organizational psychology that

has been built differently from modules based on traditional lectures and practicals.

The organizational learning model was constructed as follows:

1. Introductory meeting and organization

The module began with an introductory meeting at which participants were given instructions on

how to complete the module. The participants included students from different faculties. Upon

entering the room, the students observed that the participants comprised almost thirty students

from different faculties and that they did not know each other. The chairs had been arranged in

a circle and the entire traditional classroom environment had been stripped away and rebuilt in

accordance with the basic idea of the module: organization. The instructors were a professor of

educational psychology and a teacher in psychology. Only some of the students were previously

acquainted with the instructors.

As part of the instructions, the participants were informed that the module comprised setting up

an expert organization whose task it was to produce educational services to both the private and

public sectors. In order to produce high-quality educational services, the participants would have

to establish as efficient an organizational structure as possible, within which all participants of

the module would have to be able to play a part and commit to the activities of the organization.

The participants were asked to:

o come up with a name for the organization and design its logo;

o define the organization’s areas of expertise;

o plan internal and external communications for the organization;

o ensure that the teachers in charge of the module would also be kept up-to-date with any

information that they needed to report onward;

o appoint a CEO and an Executive Management Group for the organization;

o ensure that all students were fully committed to the module;

o produce a feasible action plan for an educational event, the theme, structure and other

aspects of which the group could choose freely, and to execute any assignments and orders

that the organization would potentially receive as well producing feasible plans for their

execution.


2. Speeches by experts

The module included a guest speaker for each session. The objective of the speeches was to

introduce perspectives – sometimes by some quite unexpected people – and also to push the

participants to anticipate and identify trends that are emerging in modern organizations. The

following speeches were held during the last academic year:

- Is this creativity? – Digitalization and media in organizations

- Crisis management case: the Finnish Defense Forces

- Organizational cultures

- PMC company – how to launch a new organization

- Consultant’s link to an organization.

3. Interventions

The structure of the module included interventions – or “orders” – which were aimed at driving

the organization’s operation, at bringing elements of surprise to the functioning of the organization

and at forcing the organization to adopt an active state. Some of the interventions were “real”,

hands-on orders, such as planning educational events, while others had been devised to get the

organization to step things up. One of the interventions was a situation where the “CEO” of the

organization was pulled out on “sick leave” to observe and comment on the way the organization

performed.

4. Feedback sessions

Feedback sessions were held at the end of each class, with the aim of detaching the participants

from the organization and getting them to review their own learning and experiences together

with the instructors/consultants.

5. Exercises

The students were asked to keep a diary of what they were learning. In addition, they were given

a literary exercise. At the end of the module, each student filled in an assessment form, which

evaluated:

- how the organization approached its tasks, whether responsibilities were divided in a sensible

manner, and whether the organization had been able to change its operating methods and

reorganize itself;

- how leadership demonstrated itself, what role the leaders played in executing tasks, and whether

changes took place in leadership;

- how the activities were managed and planned, whether everyone’s resources were put to use and

if not, why not, and whose resources were not put to use;

- how successful interaction was within the organization, what worked well and what did not, and

why;

- how individuals performed within the organization, who made themselves visible and who

did not, and whether everyone was committed to executing the tasks and what kinds of things

hindered or helped to keep things moving along;

- how good the respondent’s own performance had been, what his/her contribution to executing

tasks was, and what he/she had learned from his/her own methods and behavior during his/her

time with the organization.

6. Consultants and their role

After the introductory meeting, the instructors told the participants that they would take on the

role of observers and would no longer be available to answer questions. However, the instructors

offered consultancy throughout the module. The instructions specified that consultancy would

only be available at certain times. Time with the consultants was reserved for questions and

advice.

4. AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The objective of the study was to describe the implementation of a new, innovative learning

model in higher education. Of particular interest are the subjective experiences and descriptions

of personal learning during the whole process. The phenomena of organizational learning, like

leadership and personal commitment during the organizational learning, are also the focus of the

investigation.

Data gathering and data analysis: the aim of data gathering was to obtain as rich and diverse

information as possible, described by the participants. Study diaries were reviewed and analyzed

using the method of content analysis. Written assessment of the organization’s functioning,

leadership and own actions and learning formed part of the material’s assessment. Instructors/

consultants also kept diaries of their observations.

During the study, the content analysis of the written descriptions was used to capture the process.

The data were first divided into three phases: starting, middle and end. This was justifiable,

as previous experiments had given provisional findings clearly indicating that the process had

distinct phases, the first of which was dominant throughout the process. The central purpose of the

content analysis was to generalize and abstract from the complexity of the original descriptions

in order to look for evidence of the processual nature of organizational learning (De Laat &

Lally 200�). On the basis of the content analysis, descriptive narratives were produced on the

progression of the whole learning process. The narratives were based on the experiences that the

students described in their diaries and were structured chronologically, from the starting phase

to describing the process, and finally its completion. This article aims to bring this narrative to


the fore; to give the participants a voice. The participants’ voice will also relay their emotional

experiences, which ultimately formed the very core of the whole organization’s development. The

participants would describe the process strongly through their emotions. Finally, the experiences

would be summarized into a concise description of the organization’s learning and the basic

orientations that were identified.

5. MAIN RESULTS

5.1. Starting phase: chaotic and diffused

The students’ experiences during the learning process are described on one hand as chronological

narratives that progress in phases, and on the other in the light of two basic orientations, which

we call developmental and implemental.

The students described the first steps of getting organized as chaotic and different. However,

organization got underway before long and an enterprise called InnoDreams (ID) was founded.

Its mission and line of business were defined, and a CEO and Executive Management Group were

appointed along with a few teams to take charge of key tasks. The Executive Management Group

comprised the team leaders and the CEO.

Descriptions of confusion:

It’s not possible to set up an organization out of thin air!

We were given very few instructions. It was chaotic and difficult. I started to contemplate dropping

out.

Surprise, surprise – we were left to fend for ourselves. We weren’t given any instructions, but on

the other hand, that freed us.

Everyone was completely lost, but Marja took control very efficiently.

Is this going to work at all?

I was surprised by the confusion and the lack of information. I felt angry. They left us to our own

devices on purpose, so that we would learn from our mistakes. Perhaps it served a purpose.

The beginning was very sticky; the task we were given was far too generalized and it lacked

structure. I’m used to working to a clear framework.

Do I have anything to give?

The instructions baffled me, and the fact that I have no idea of what’s to come and what we will

need to do add to that. The way students from different faculties use language was confusing.

This is not going to work – I have always been a strong promoter of studying alone.

We got organized too quickly.

I wish this were a normal module with lectures!

We were all numb, full of panic and terror.

The language and concepts we were presented with were from God knows where, in any case from

areas that I have wanted to stay well clear of.

It was all very unclear. I would have liked more support from the instructors but I understood that

I needed to mature as an independent learner.

Chaos and despair dominated.

I felt like an outsider.

Descriptions of enthusiasm:

The content of the module was a surprise. At first I was annoyed but then I started to get the hang

of what was going on. It was interesting to see how the organization came together.

The methodology is surprising; we’re in for something different. I feel apprehensive.

I feel a bit unsteady but everything got off to a smooth start. The day was interesting, one of the

most pleasant surprises this semester.

I expected a boring series of lectures. I got a shock but I trusted that our instructors, who had

proven competent before, would have definitely determined grounds for the necessity of this

particular kind of exercise.

The first work order created enthusiasm.

My emotions were half panic and half excitement.

5.2. Middle phase of learning and organization: crises and elucidation

As the process advanced, criticisms began to emerge. They targeted both the structures and the

instructors in charge of the module, who the participants felt were not providing enough information.

On the other hand, antagonism towards the organization’s CEO and Executive Management

Group also began to emerge. The leadership system was considered too hierarchical.

Descriptions of crises:

Some wanted to drop out.

The CEO’s role set tongues wagging.

I felt disappointed. I felt like I wasn’t “essential”. I felt like dropping out.

I felt frustrated by how unclear and half-done everything was. I was expecting somebody to do

something.

Everyone was expecting somebody to do something.

There are issues with trustworthiness. We began to look more closely into the role of the CEO.

How much do we trust our leaders? Do we feel secure; do we feel like we can raise topics that

are playing on our minds?

The organization feels like it’s too closely tied to the CEO. This calls for change.

Personnel issues begin to rear their head. A human resources manager was appointed.


The confusion is weighing the organization down; structures are unclear.

The atmosphere is chaotic and aggressive.

Confusion remains due to the shortage of information. We are drifting in an open sea without any

destination or goals.

Anger, frustration, despair – that’s exactly what this module is about!

At this stage, participants began to feel more committed and individual differences become more

evident. The participants began to discuss which role each of them played. Active participants were

given credit without hesitation. The participants steered the discussion towards what the input of

quiet and seemingly passive students gives to the work. This theme has emerged frequently during

previous experiments as well. Experiences have shown that learning can occur in many different

ways. One method of learning is observing and learning from one’s own methods. Some students

found it challenging to develop their own role and efforts within the group towards a more active

status. At this stage, work was gradually starting to stabilize, but participants also had the guts

to bring up difficult questions and crises. The organization functioned seemingly efficiently but

there were still issues under the surface that the participants did not have the courage to raise.

Descriptions of elucidation:

It’s amazing how mundane matters that affect every organization are coming up even though the

organization has only been up and running for a few days.

I learned that everyone has to work independently; it’s rare that anyone comes to ask.

The wheels got into motion once teams were set up.

I found my place in the organization. I feel committed: I feel like I matter and like I’m a part of a

bigger whole. Anxiety is not a bad feeling.

This is so different! It’s nice to work when you feel motivated.

I received encouraging feedback.

I actually felt at home.

This is a good feeling; I believe that we can get through our tasks.

Discussions with the whole group are eye-opening experiences; it’s good to hear what others

think.

Discussions are important; they help to drive self-analysis.

ID is not an easy organization to run.

Morale is high.

Teamwork is excellent.

Collaboration is starting to work; sad – it’s all coming to an end soon.

The gradual elucidation indicated that the participants had found their place and position in the

organization and now felt motivated in their work. The descriptions of elucidation convey the calm

stages in the development of an organization, during which the participants typically enjoy their

work and feel comfortable in their positions but are not as driven by innovation as at other times.

5.3. End phase: satisfaction and learning successes

The final stages of the module were dominated by phenomena that are typical to group dynamics:

sadness, letting go and also relief for the fact that a challenging module had come to an end. The

outcomes of the learning experience are approached from two perspectives – personal learning

and organizational learning.

5.3.1. Descriptions of lessons learned about personal learning

The module was great. I learned more about organization, controlling confusion, other people

and my own behaviour than I would have at lectures. Thank you!

I learned a lot on every occasion that the team got together. I can take on challenges but I would

like to develop my skills as someone who takes charge of the whole process.

It has been a great experience to be able to apply my studies in administrative science and

information studies to this module. Universities’ traditional examination practices are

passivating.

I have learned a lot about my own behaviour but I have also tried to understand other people’s

perspectives.

Awareness of personal learning and courage to take responsibility give food for thought.

I’m indecisive about my own role. I’m trying to decide whether I would like to be a leader.

The module began and ended in an atmosphere of confusion.

I was happy with my own input; I felt safe.

I was annoyed at having been made redundant.

This was one of the best modules I’ve ever attended. For once I was pushed to really think

about things and to reflect on my previous learning. I got to learn through trial and error, by

doing. Differences of opinion between students from different faculties were highlighted, in a

good way.

I learned a lot about my own personality. I learned a lot through listening. I took part in the

module more for myself than for the whole organization.

The module opened my eyes a little: perhaps I’ll be able to push my own boundaries later in

life.

The module taught lessons on self and others.

I have gained self-confidence.

It was surprising how seriously we took things. I’m glad our other modules aren’t like this; I

wouldn’t have the energy. I found myself thinking about the organization over the weekend.

I had a very vivid dream about the organization, its members and the problems between them last

night. I came to the lecture feeling charged up.

How can one module evoke so many different emotions – encouraging experiences, confusion,

tolerance for uncertainty, continuous scrutiny and contemplation?


5.3.2. Descriptions of lessons learned on the functioning of organizations

The module was interesting. Observing phenomena in a laboratory setting clarified many things.

The module gave a very illustrative view on organization, leadership and group dynamics.

The role of an active participant can be taxing. There must be room for others as well.

I learned how much safety there is in structure. The no-lectures approach resulted in chaos. This

is what we need in higher education.

The module was well organized and it taught skills that will be needed later in working life

(flexibility, tolerance of uncertainty, receptiveness, listening).

Organizations do not collaborate, people do, and trust is a key phenomenon for enabling

creativity and innovation (Inkinen 2006). Trust can easily be perceived as a quality associated

with individuals. It is also, however, a social and dynamic quality and therefore also touches

teams and organizations. Trust is a social asset and a kind of lubricant for interaction and systems,

protecting the members of organizations from difficulties. It reduces the need for supervision

and inspires responsible independence (Miettinen 2005). Offering sufficient autonomy promotes

creativity, and this is possible in an atmosphere of trust. The development of trust in such a short-

lived organization is demanding, but when functioning at its best the group of students excelled in

this as well. This is evidenced by the participants’ narratives and the results that the organization

achieved in a short space of time.

5.5. Basic orientations in organizational learning

The findings of the content analysis can be summarized in a description of basic orientations.

Basic orientations are used to describe the participants’ relationship with their own learning and

organization. The experiences of the participants revealed two basic orientations, which were

named developmental and implemental. These methods have also arisen in previous studies in

connection with teamwork, in situations that have lacked clear structures (Kronqvist & Soini

199�).

Developmental orientation Implemental orientation

• Tasks were adopted slowly and pensively.

• Tasks were adopted quickly and hastily.

• The organization of the task force was based on assessing the participants’ skills.

• The organization of the task force followed an earlier, familiar model.

• The task was analyzed critically.• The details of the task were

forgotten.

• Leadership was decided through discussion and on the basis of knowledge.

• Leadership was decided quickly without much reasoning. The task force shied away from electing a leader.

• The level of commitment varied according to how strongly the participants felt that their own personal knowledge and skills contributed to the whole.

• The level of commitment depended on whether the participants had the right amount of things to do; participants who were more active seemed more committed. Some participants took on a lot of work for themselves and did not delegate to others.

• Satisfaction with the way the organization was running was linked to how much the participant contributed to the organization’s functioning personally and how much he/she was prepared to do for the organization.

• Satisfaction with the way the organization was running was linked to whether it was “producing results” and whether it was able to get through things quickly.

It appears that higher education favors the implemental learning orientation at the expense of the

developmental. There are numerous reasons for this. It is understandable that it is not possible to

fully commit to every module due to constraints of time and resources. It wears participants out

and unavoidably adds to the stress of studying. Increasing implementality can, however, act as

an estranging experience and create other kinds of fatigue problems. Then again, the structures

of higher education do not in reality favor innovative solutions, and developing these is a slow

process. The work of university teachers and researchers in an objective-orientated university

can also contribute to the organization favoring the application of familiar learning and teaching

models.


6. DISCUSSION

Experiences from studying the functioning of organizations in higher education by means of the

innovative simulation model described in the article are encouraging. Traditionally, university

studies are based on learning through lectures and practical exercises, but different kinds of

reflective diaries have also been used increasingly in theoretical studies over the last few years.

Social study modules that reach across the borders of scientific branches and faculties have

not been received particularly well. The parties have not been keen to share information, let

alone enthusiastically developing shared study modules together. The authors of the article have

personal experience of this. Nevertheless, universities’ strategic guidelines and plans emphasize

the importance of cross-scientific collaboration in teaching and research. Integrating new methods

in higher education is poorly received and is a relatively demanding task. The process calls not

just for innovative teachers and students but also for committed support from the management.

An important observation in this study was the fact that the students considered the participation

of different scientific fields and studying together with students of different subjects an extremely

useful and fruitful experience. In other words, students are ready for this, while it is the readiness

of teachers that still has room for improvement.

The organizational simulation called attention to the phenomenon of leadership and gave it

meaning through the students’ experiences. During the module, the “CEO” took criticism for

his hierarchical approach to leadership. The “CEO” himself justified this by saying that the

module was just one amongst many and his commitment to it was purely implemental. Many

different theoretical trends can be discerned in leadership theories, but the strongest tendencies

are various theories that emphasize charismatic, inspirational and visionary approaches to

leadership (Goleman, Biyatzis & McKee, 2003). Brookfield (2001) criticized these kinds of

leadership theories and emphasizes that leadership is by no means a stable entity but a complex

and constantly changing process, which would be better described as a means of understanding,

discussing and recording social reality in a certain time and place.

The core message of this exercise is that in order to function, an organization needs to have a

structure, but it must be possible to change the structure if the tasks so require. It is also important

to note that the reticence or activeness of the students is not just dependent on the students’

psychological qualities or individual skills. The way in which students commit to working

together is crucially dependent on the structures that have been created for studying. One key

problem and challenge for the students in this exercise was the way in which the traditional

teacher-led structure had been demolished and no other clear operating model offered in its stead.

Only after the students had successfully structured their own actions and begun to trust that they

really were allowed to decide on the operational structures themselves, things began to move

forward. Students who were waiting for the instructors to intervene were particularly easily left

outside of the main action for long periods of time.

Results have shown the interdependence between emotion and learning, especially in the context

of changing organizations (Antonacopoulou & Gabriel 2001). This article uses a three-month

simulation model to describe the kinds of emotions that rise to the surface when an organization

is undergoing a period of change. In the simulation model the phenomena appear exaggerated

and powerful because, in a way, the participants are operating in a laboratory environment,

which allows the phenomena to be studied out of context. It also offers an opportunity to see the

phenomena more clearly as in long, drawn-out change processes where emotions and learning

can become overshadowed by the intensive attention that the organization is giving to its basic

mission. Learning from experience is central to psychodynamic and systemic traditions with

their focus on development, insight and understanding. Of course, the psychodynamic approach

differs from other approaches in that it highlights the meaning of unconscious phenomena in

organizational learning (Trehan 2007).

Today’s organizations, which exist in a constant state of turmoil, challenge both the learning

and emotions of the individual. Many organizations highlight learning and the adoption of new

operating models. Organizations allocate a lot of resources to retraining their personnel, with

emphasis on innovativeness. The concept of ‘the learning organization’ has become a buzzword.

At the same time, however, organizations are emphasizing short-term utilitarian, implemental

practices that virtually destroy the individual’s opportunities for learning and developing.

The latest educational research can be made use of in higher education and the knowledge

applied to innovative and creative development models for learning. According to Häkkinen

(2003), learning from executing complex and authentic projects requires resources, adopting

new learning concepts, support for reflection, and expanded mechanisms for collaboration and

communication.

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Does creativity create measurable firm value?

Kirsi-Mari Vihermaa & Anu Ikonen-Kullberg

Turku school of economics, Pori unit

ABSTRACT

Creativity is central to human activity. As a core ability of mankind, it is our intangible asset to

create something new, innovative and valuable. To what extent creativity contributes to economic

growth is very interesting topic. When talking about the connection between creativity and

accounting information, the concepts of knowledge capital, intellectual capital and knowledge

based economy come up. Value in the firm is created in the interaction between the human capital

and the organizational capital. A new way for measuring intangibles can be done by taking

a lateral perspective into accounting and address value creators such as alliances, networks,

cultural context and know-how on the balance sheet. Intellectual capital is one of the concepts

that link accounting, finance and creativity. In the past, the value of a firm was more directly linked

to value of its physical capital. Nowadays the intangible assets make it increasingly complicated

to understand or valuate the actual value of a company. In this paper, we attempt to find ways

to localize creativity in the balance sheets of companies and consider if creativity really creates

firm value.


Introduction

Creativity is central to human activity. As a core ability of mankind, it is our intangible asset to

create something new, innovative and valuable. Creativity takes place in the interaction between

a person’s thoughts and a socio-cultural context. Creativity has been recognised as an economic

driver for generating wealth and employment, sustainable development, technological changes,

business innovation and enhancement of competitiveness of individual cities and countries. To

what extent creativity contributes to economic growth is very interesting topic.

When talking about the connection between creativity and accounting information, the concepts

of knowledge capital, intellectual capital and knowledge based economy come up. According

to these theories, investments into knowledge will improve the wealth of organizations and

trough that entire nations. For a financial executive or a stock analyst it is crucially important

to understand the non-financial performance drivers that will create the future value of the firm.

Value in the firm is created in the interaction between the human capital and the organizational

capital.

Intellectual capital is one of the concepts that link accounting, finance and creativity. In the

past, the value of a firm was more directly linked to value of its physical capital. Nowadays the

intangible assets make it increasingly complicated to understand or valuate the actual value of

a company. The financial statements of companies are becoming less informative concerning

the firm’s current financial position and future prospects. There are signs that the accounting

information is loosing its relevance; there is an increasing gap between the market value and the

book value of equity of most companies in most countries (see eg. Cañibano, Covarsi & Sánchez

1999). Also, several empirical studies have found a consistent relationship between innovation

and the firm’s future performance (Brynjolfsson, 1999; and Stiroh, 1999). This supports the idea

that financial statements should include information on the amount of resources firms invest in

innovation. This way the accounting statements could provide relevant information for decision

making. Determining the value of Intangibles is a topic of great debate. Many researchers criticize

present approaches and point out the disconnection between the book value and the stock value

of many intangible assets (Bouteille2001). This is why we feel that accounting and financial

methods are incapable to fully capture the value of creativity for a company.

Accounting information and firm creativity do not come up often in the same discussion, although

the whole idea of accounting information is to provide a true and fair view of a firm’s financial

state and the future earning power. In today’s society creativity is becoming more and more

important factor of the future competitive advantage, and hence the future earning power. There

are hardly any studies on creativity as a firm quality and accounting information, although many

studies see creativity as an essential part of the intangible assets and intellectual capital of a firm.

We believe that it both important and interesting to study how the creativity can be localised in

the provided accounting information, and also how it could be measured.

This paper focuses on the connection between creativity and future value of a company and aims

to find out where and how does the creativity show in the financial statements. We attempt to

contribute to the measurement of creativity in its own right and find out if it is possible to trace

it in the balance sheet and income statement. We argue that creativity is an essential part of the

future earning power of a firm and hence should be recognized when the total value of a company

is evaluated. In order to do this, we need to define creativity, make some remarks on accounting

information as a whole and from there gain understanding of the link between a firm’s creativity

and the financial value of a firm.

Creativity

There are several definitions of creativity, here we just go trough few of them. We are especially

interested in those definitions that link the concept of creativity to the innovation capacity of a

firm. We see creativity as the ability to produce work that is both novel (i.e. original, unexpected)

and appropriate (i.e. useful, adaptive concerning task constraints). (Lubart 199�; Ochse 1990;

Stenberg 1988a, Sternberg & Lubart 1991, 1995, 1996).

At individual level, creativity is relevant in problem solving and in daily life whereas at societal

level, creativity can lead to new findings, new movements in art, new inventions and new social

programs. The economic importance of creativity is linked to the fact that innovation in the form

of new products or services create jobs and help to raise the productivity of nations. Organizations

and societies, and the individuals acting in them, have to adapt existing resources to the ever

changing task demands in order to remain competitive. According to Sternberg and Lubart (1995)

creativity is the successful solution of problems that require some degree of insight. Many see

creativity as a production of original ideas, and a process that involves realization of an analogy

between previously unassociated mental elements (Amabile 1996; Sternberg & Lubart 1995). It

is agreed that for something to be creative, it is not enough for it to be novel: it must have value,

or be appropriate to the cognitive demands of the situation (Weisberg 1993). According to M.

Csikszentmihalyi (1996, 28) “Creativity is any act, idea, or product that changes an existing

domain, or that transforms an existing domain into a new one. What counts is whether the novelty

he or she produces is accepted for inclusion in the domain.”

The ability to innovate and creativity are nowadays seen as essential attributes of successful

companies. Cox (1993) has stated that in order to introduce creativity in the organization, firms

need to welcome a creative spirit into their corporate culture, generate new ideas by introducing

a creative program, encouraging team work, improve communication, use creativity for strategic

planning, and seek new perspectives (Cañibano et al 1999). At organisational level, the notion of

“learning organization” is one of the elements that link individual and organisational creativity.

Senge (1990) defines learning organizations as places where people continually expand their

capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are

139 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 1�0

nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how

to learn together.

From these definitions, we have reasoned that the creativity of an organisation could be found

in the human resource measurements. One of the definitions of organizational creativity we both

agreed on (and could not find from the literature), is that organisational creativity is hard to see

and hard to measure, it is one of those assets that you recognize very clearly after you lost it. This

is one of the points that could be researched trough financial statement analysis later on when we

continue the research.

Intangible Assets

Nowadays firms need to allocate growing amounts of resources to R&D and other innovative

activities, and invest in their human resources in order to achieve higher levels of knowledge and

technological improvement. These actions then allow them to exploit competitive advantages.

This is why it is not surprising that in developed economies, intangibles have become the focus

of attention of many different stakeholders: investors, creditors, managers, policy makers and

researcher, among others. (See also Cañibano et al. 1991).

There are certain items which are generally considered as intangible assets (IA) of firms, such

as goodwill, intellectual capital (IC), human capital, organizational innovation, investments in

R&D and advertising, brands and patents. Still, there seems to be little agreement in the literature

as to what exactly intangibles are, when they should be recognized, whether or not they should be

reported in the financial statements, how they should be measured, accounted for and depreciated.

(Cañibano et al.1999).

Intangible assets can be defined as assets which lack a physical substance, result from legal or

contractual rights and are likely to produce future benefits (Belkaoui 1992; Cañibano, et al. 1999).

Bouteiller (2001) define intangible assets as those that generally arise as a result of past events

and possess three main attributes: they are non physical in nature, they are capable of producing

future economic net benefits, and they are protected legally or through a de facto right. Belkaoui

(1992) divides intangible assets into two groups: identifiable intangible assets such as patents,

and unidentifiable assets, such as goodwill. Investments in intangible assets are mainly intended

to acquire or maintain competitive advantage.

According to IAS 38 the intangible asset should be identifiable, controlled and clearly

distinguishable from an enterprise’s goodwill in order to be recognized in the financial statement.

Also, future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise as a result of the IA. The

IAS 38 frames the accounting recognition of IA. Still, from an economic perspective they are

not qualified and no indicatives of the values of the intangible assets are presented in the IAS 38.

Cañibano et al. find this definition very restrictive as it explicitly excludes from the scope of the

standard some of the firms’ most significant intangible investments, such as resources allocated to

human resources and advertising. Tollington & Liu (1998) state that “something is clearly wrong

with a situation where the mainstay of a business’s financial strength and future economic benefit

is excluded from the published balance sheet.”

Among others, Edvinsson and Mallone (1997) name intangible resources as the most important

company resource missing on the balance sheet. This argument often leads to the conclusion

that this weightless wealth’ is the reason for the difference between a company’s book value and

market value. That is, the difference between the book value of the company and the amount of

money someone is prepared to pay for it. (Brooking 1997). In a weightless economy, success

comes not from having built the largest factory but from knowing how to organise understanding

into forms that others will demand. The recognition of many valuable internally created intangible

assets, currently fall outside the scope of the definitions and often go unreported on the balance

sheet. (Tollington & Liu 1998)

The inability of the accounting system to cope with intangibles is seen as problem Many authors,

including Kaplan and Norton (1996) use phrases like “If you can’t measure it, you can’t manage

it”. With these statements they justify the search for new measures for intangibles. From the

fact that the accounting system is unable to cope with intangibles many conclude that we need

to rethink the balance sheet. The financial statements of today recognize intangible assets only

when they are acquired from others (Cañibano et al. 1999). We can again argue that here is a clear

conflict with the definition of creativity. The current accounting system is about 500 years old and

it is based on historical costs and transactions reporting. The purpose of accounting, is to show

a portray of a firm’s incomes and its financial state in a realistic way. In today’s world, it seems

to get increasingly difficult to do this only based on transaction recording and historical cost

analysis. The backward looking approach may lead to growing inaccuracies in the understanding

of value creation. To repair the balance sheet it can be argued that we also need to develop a

basis for the recognition, valuation and capitalization of internally generated intangible resources.

(Andriessen 2002)

Intellectual capital, firm value and creativity

Stewart (1997), states that “intelligence becomes an asset when some useful order is created

out of free brainpower”. The concept of Intellectual Capital is defined from a valuation point of

view by Sullivan (2000). He sees it as “knowledge that can be converted into profit.” Here we

see a clear link between an organisations’ intellectual capital and the concept of organisational

creativity. Bouteiller (2001) uses the definition of intellectual capital with the notion that it is an

“intellectual material that has been formalized, captured, and leveraged to produce a higher-

valued asset. He then continues, that this intellectual material is often made of tacit knowledge

1�1 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 1�2

embedded in the brain of employees and is not owned by the firm. Here we can see parts of

intellectual capital that, for us, is not included in the concept of creativity. When it comes to

creativity, the tacit knowledge hardly captures the essence of it. At this point we can get more

into the detail into the definition of intellectual capital, and rule out some parts of it that are not

included in the concept of organizational creativity.

Andriessen (2002) has classified a company’s resources into tangible, intangible and financial

assets (see Picture 1). The intangible assets are further divided into human based resources and

structural resources, and creativity is seen as a component in the human resources. We argue, that

the organisational creativity can be found also in the structural capital of a firm, namely in the

intellectual assets.

Picture 1 Classification of company resources (Andriessen 2002)

Different classifications of intangibles and intellectual capital have been proposed by private

companies, which are often based on the balanced score card concept. In the side of its annual

report, Skandia has presented a framework for understanding the value creating processes within

the organization. In the model presented by Skandia, market value is driven by financial capital

and intellectual capital. Intellectual capital is determined by human capital and structural capital,

which in turn is based on customer capital and organizational capital. The organizational capital

is then grounded on innovation capital and process capital. (Cañibanoet al. 1999) This definition

is represented in the picture below, and this is the model that we find useful to recognize the

value of creativity in the balance sheet. In our opinion, the concept of creativity lies firstly, in

the human capital and secondly in the organisational innovation capital (both marked red in the

picture below).

Picture 2. Framework of value creating processes within the organization by Skandia

The Skandia model is a good starting point for us to localize the creativity in the financial

statements. From here we can continue building our model to recognize the value of creativity.

There is a clear need to provide in the financial statements more comprehensive, more reliable

and more timely information on intangibles. This could be done by broadening the current

accounting model and encouraging voluntary disclosure by management, explaining the impact

that intangibles are likely to have in the future profitability of the firm, as in the case of Skandia

above. According to Mavrinac and Boyle (1996,) the use of non-financial measures seems to be

common practice nowadays among financial analysts. Based on a content analysis of over 300

investment reports and they concluded that: (i) analysts considered a wide variety of non-financial

issues; and, (ii) those who frequently take into account non-financial issues have, on average, a

higher predictive accuracy.(Cañibanoet al 1999)

Also, there is obviously a significant risk associated to underinvesting in intangibles (creativity

among them). Investments in intangibles are usually intended to maintain and gain market share,

and may be understood as a consequence of competitive pressures. This way, it seems clear that

such investments are likely to strengthen the firm’s competitive position. There is evidence

provided by Abrahams and Sidhu (1997), Barth and Clinch (1997) Aboody (1998), Hall (1998)

and Lev (1998), indicates that there is a consistent association between the amounts of R&D

investments and their market value.

There is a great risk associated to the underassessment of intangibles when analysing the

M ark et value

Financial capital Intellectual capital

Stuctural capital Human capital

Or ganisational capital Customer capital

Process capital Innovation capital

1�3 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 1��

financial position of a firm. If financial statements provide investors with biased estimates of the

firm’s value (the book value of equity) and its capability to create wealth in the future (current

earnings), inefficiencies may appear in the resource allocation process which takes place in the

capital markets. On the basis of publicly available financial statements investors might decide

to allocate resources to firms investing little or nothing in intangibles and thus reporting higher

levels of earnings and book values in the short- term. This way they are not supplying capital to

companies undertaking large investments in intangibles that may seem less attractive in the short

run, but ensure higher future earnings. Failure to correctly reflect the impact of intangibles on the

current and future performance of the business implies that accounting statements fail to present

true and fair view of the firm’s financial position. We may argue that investors are provided with

non-relevant and non-comparable financial information and will most likely not be able to assess

the value of companies. (Cañibano, Covarsi & Sánchez 1999).

Where to go from here?

In this paper, we have argued that creativity is one of thee boosters of the economy of today, and

that is increasingly important for firms to be creative and innovative in order to compete. We have

also argued that the current accounting methods do not see creativity as an asset for companies,

although its value to future economic benefits has been recognized.

We see that accounting needs to be developed in order to give more valuable information of a

firm’s value to managers, shareholders and other stakeholders. We tried to localize creativity in

the financial statements, because we believe that it should be represented as a company value. We

still need more research and financial statement analysis to prove our conclusions, but we suspect

that a company’s creativity may lie in the human capital and innovation capital of a firm, and that

it is important to develop models to measure these. We also believe that voluntary disclosure,

such as indexes on creativity, could be the key for better informed stakeholders.

SOURCES:

Amabile, T. M. (1996) Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Belkaoui, A.R. (1992), Accounting Theory. London: Academic Press.

Bouteiller, C. (2001), “The evaluation of intangibles: advocating for an option based approach”, working paper, Reims Management School, Reims, .

Brooking, A. (1997), Management of intellectual capital. Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, No. 3, p. 36�-365.

Brynjolfsson, E. (1999), The intangible benefits and costs of computer investments.

Cox, H. (1993), Encouraging creativity. Business & Economic Review, Vol. �0, No. 1,

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (1996). Creativity : Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper P

Currency/Doubleday, 1997

Edvinsson, L. (1997), Developing intellectual capital at Skandia. Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, No. 3, p. 366-373.

Kaplan, R.S. and D.P. Norton (1996), Strategic Learning and the Balanced Scorecard. Lubart, T.I. (199�) Thinking and problem solving, 199� - New York: Academic PressMIT.

Ochse, R. (1990) Before the gates of excellence. Cambridge University Press, New York. p. 26-27.

P. Sullivan, Value-Driven Intellectual Capital: John Wiley and Sons, 2000.

Senge, P.M. (1990) The Fifth Discipline, the Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation. Doubleday Currency. London erennial.

Sternberg, R. J. & Lubart, T. I. (1996) „Investing in creativity”. American Psychologist, 51, 677–688.

Sternberg, R. J. (1988) The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence. New York: Viking–Penguin

Sternberg, R.J., Lubart, T.I., 1991b. Creating creative minds. Phi Delta Kappan 72 (8), 608-61�.

Sternberg, R.J., Lubart, T.I., 1995. Defying the Crowd: Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformity. Free Press, New York.

Stiroh, K.J. (1999), Computers and Productivity. Federal Reserve Bank of New York.

Strategy and Leadership, Vol. 2�, n. 5, p. 18-2�.

T.A Stewart, Intellectual Capital: The new wealth of organizations, New York:

Weisberg, R.W., 1993. Creativity: Beyond the Myth of Genius. Freeman, New York.


3. Everyday Creativity and User Innovations

Human Driven Design and Innovation of Everyday

Veikko Ikonen

Senior Research Scientist, Team Leader Digital Life, Human-Driven Design

VTT, Tampere, Finland

Abstract.

User and usability studies have been conducted in order to get better effectiveness, efficiency,

and user satisfaction and user acceptance for new products and services. Even though the design

approach is said to be human-centred or user-centred the design of new products and services has

been quite technology or market driven. Instead of putting technology or market to the core of design

process and product development the human needs of everyday life should form the fundamental

basis of design. Human Driven Design and Innovation (HDDI) refers to the new design approach

which tries to broaden the perspective from focused product development process model to the

more holistic design perspective. Scenario-Based Design (SBD) has been implemented widely

to the concept and product development processes. Especially in the development of Information

and Communication Technologies the Scenario-Based Design approach has been utilized widely

though with different variations and modifications. Scenarios have been used in human-centred

design of computing applications and they seem to be especially useful and popular when

designing smart environments and inventing new possibilities to utilise new technologies in our

living environments. In this paper I’ll present revised scenario-based design model as a possible

human driven design tool instead of being currently still quite technology driven and human-

centred.


Introduction

The level of information technology in our everyday life is increasing and getting more and more

ambient in our daily environments. Environments are, in the future, supposed to be intelligent,

adaptive, intuitive and interactive. The combination of mobile computing and technologically

embedded environments brings new challenges to the design, implementation and introduction

of applications. New solutions for various fields of work and leisure also challenge the potential

users and inhabitants of, or visitors to, these smart environments. These kinds of environments

and computing applications are called ubiquitous, pervasive or ambient depending on the

stakeholder’s point of view. Mark Weiser (Weiser 1991; Weiser and Brown 1996) also had a

vision of a computerised future, but in a way that people would not even notice that their lives are

supported by ubiquitous computing. He called this vision Calm Computing and this is also our

goal: everyone can utilise and be supported by technology in the way in which technology is a

comfortable, natural, undisturbing and almost unnoticeable part of our daily living environment.

Naturally, not all computing applications can and will be calm. Some applications are designed to

attract the user’s attention (e.g. games in virtual reality) and others might be adjusted to comfort

the human need to be able to control these computerised environments in a more conventional

way when preferred. In any case, it is nowadays widely recognised that intelligent compound

systems, where many users and devices communicate simultaneously, clearly require a new

approach to system design and evaluation.

User participation for future concept building is essential but challenging when designing

appliances that may be unfamiliar in their appearance, functionality and impressiveness compared

to the user’s current everyday life. New allocated methods and viewpoints are needed for user

experience design and evaluation of intelligent environments to build systems that naturally support

users in their daily life. The new Human Driven Design and Innovation approach strives to tackle

challenges and problems confronted in current design approaches. The profound human-centred

design and evaluation of forthcoming applications is a key factor when developing technologies,

applications and services for tomorrow but a broader concept of the user experience is needed.

We should not just study applications and their usability but to take into account more holistic

perspective when designing and evaluating Ambient Intelligence. Ethical issues (including e.g.

privacy and security) are naturally always present and covered in Human Driven Design and

Innovation approach.

New everyday: technology, design and research

The technological shift of computing (including applications and services) directed to two

dimensions, embeddedness and mobility, has already changed a lot of our relationship to our

environment (both social and technological). Technology has always been embedded in our

living environment somehow. The technological infrastructure has been fading from our sight

when technology has reached a more mature status. In the electronic and computer era the wires,

base stations and servers are usually hidden in our technologically enhanced environments and

we usually see just our personal technological appliances. The embeddedness of technology

is however moving from particular, computer situated spaces, towards computers everywhere

philosophy. The idea that we have a place where our interaction with our environment is supported

by computers is changing because soon we will have technological components (communicating

with each other) everywhere, out of our sights, obtaining and utilising information gathered from

the environment. The increasing level of mobility of information and communication technologies

has also changed our relationship to our environment a lot. With mobile computers we can carry

with us lots of data (e.g. books, music and photos) but at the same time we can also create new

expressions of ourselves and share this information with others at the same time. This connection

to the global network enables continuous information sharing and communication in various ways.

When these two dimensions work together, when the person with mobile technology interacts

with the situated smart environment, we are approaching the area of ubiquitous (or pervasive)

computing, also called ambient intelligence. (e.g. Lyytinen and Yoo 2002)

Even though research in the area of technologically embedded intelligent environments is expanding

very fast the development of the design approaches other than technology-driven ones is still in

its early stage. The methodologies commonly used in designing and evaluating information and

communication technologies have bee quite goal-oriented but new approaches and methods have

been introduced and tested along the way. Design principles for intelligent environments have

been published but in these statements the technological issues are also emphasized to a greater

extent. More profound co-operation between different designers, developers and researchers

is needed to be able to put forward new theories and methodologies that will help to develop

solutions that naturally support humans in their living environment and take into account both the

complexity of the systems and technological aspects as well as social, ethical and cultural issues.

(e.g. Coen 1998, Holmquist et. al 200�, Remagnino et. al 2005, Cook and Das 2005)

Future computerised smart environments are a challenging design target. This issue is especially

tricky when designing public places and multiuser environments. Private or semi-private spaces

(i.e. work, car, and home) can be adjusted more easily according to individual users or a certain

user group. It is also easier to compose common rules and regulations e.g. for work places than

for public spaces. One of the great challenges and opportunities would be to integrate the designer

and the user again and give back to the user control over his computerised environment. We want

to test our approach in multifaceted environments where contexts are overlaid, interruptions in

simultaneous tasks are more regulation than exception and where various user groups with different

skills and technologies want to accomplish their primary and secondary goals. Usually, the only

valid way to evaluate the concept is in the real-life longitude studies and follow-up studies. The

technical development and consideration of technological issues of smart environments is going

to be a huge job for our global society. Equally important is to consider cultural (including social

and ethical) issues related to this technological progress of future computerised environments.

User involvement and contextual studies of human technology interaction in general are going to

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be a largely accepted curriculum of society in the near future. The great challenge is to be handling

a holistic or ecological approach as a part of this curriculum, due its inner multidisciplinary

nature. (Ikonen 2006)

Human Driven Design

The human world has always been technologically embedded. One of the main arguments behind

the human culture is the definition of a technologically enhanced living environment. The human

relationship with technology has always been goal-oriented. Our basic needs have been fulfilled

with the help of technological inventions. Furthermore, we have also used technology to satisfy

our secondary needs (e.g. need for communication in distance and self-expression). In the very

beginning the design of human technology has been quite near to the actual usage situation and

the need for design has been also rather self-evident. Often the designer, manufacturer and user

have been the same person. In more complex societies the skills and professions have been

differentiated: the user, or in a more general terms the human, is no longer the same person as

a designer or maker. In our times the computers and programs are tools which are assumed to

satisfy our needs for everyday living. The design and development of computer-based applications

and services has long been separated from the actual users. Human-Centred Design (HCD) of

technologies has tried to narrow the gap between developers and actual users or those who utilise

the technology. Participatory design (also called co-design) and standardised HCD processes

were introduced more than two decades ago, but mainly for task-oriented desktop computing.

The world, and especially the computing world, has changed since and new methods and theories

for design have also been introduced.

Human Driven Design and Research process has been introduced for ICT development projects

for developing countries. Brand and Schwittay (2006) bring out four dimensions that should be

taken into account in developing information technologies for developing regions: local practises,

participatory design processes, socio-cultural contexts and political conditions. Furthermore they

emphasise that so called rapid ethnography is not the right answer in these research contexts but

what is needed is long-term participant observation. However in our context (developing new

technologies and interfaces) of Human Driven Design we believe that there is place for both

kinds of approaches: rapid ethnography for inspiring totally new design and long-term living

laboratory type of studies for validating the adaptation of technology in particular situation.

Human driven design and innovation of everyday studies and develops e.g. interactive and

intuitive user interfaces and services, as well as methods for human-centred design. When studying

for example intuitive user interfaces, people and their natural behaviour is the starting point in

the research Extensive user requirements gathering (interviews, observations, focus groups or

group interviews) should be interlocked seamlessly to the technological work of defining system

requirements and e.g. reference architecture. There should be special emphasis for integrating

social and technical requirements by enabling authentic dialogue between different stakeholders

during the early developmental phase. The objective of the early phase of development (i.e.

requirements gathering) is to build a common vision and starting point for the developmental

work, where all partners and other stakeholders (including potential users) take part in order

to define the detailed scope for the work and detailed requirements (user, social, technical,

economical, system) for the developmental work of applications and services.. When defining the

user requirements, the end-users are often not the only actors whose requirements should be taken

into account. In addition to the actual end-users it is important to take into account the points of

view of the user organisation, the service providers and society as a whole. There will also be

business and technical requirements for the system, which will be identified and developed in

parallel with the user and organisational requirements.

As a result of a recent joint effort (Kaasinen and Norros 2007), a theoretical basis for a new design

framework for smart systems was presented. The framework was labeled ecological approach

to design of smart environments. This approach focuses on the entity of people and different

technological objects embedded in the environment (i.e.the modern ecosystem). According to this

framework, the target of the design is not mere technology but the practices made possible with

technology. The approach states that the traditional product design approach needs to be extended

to two new design, immediate design and remote design levels, due the current design tensions

and demands. According the framework immediate design focuses on local and immediate user

needs and experiences, and emphasises the increasing role of users in the design. Design alone or

technology by itself cannot create practices but they offer possibilities that users utilise and shape

into their practices. Remote design is more distant or strategic in a sense that it aims at abstracting

from the immediate and creating more general solutions (eg. physical or technical architecture,

standard, platform, political decisions) that provide possibilities and prerequisites for the future.

Remote design targets technical, social and other infrastructures that influence many application

features although the users do not directly see them. In future we should validate and testify the

framework (Ecological Approach to Design of Smart Environments) in practice.

As a part of the immediate design it is necessary to develop co-design methodology that allows

different stakeholders to take part to the design as equal partners. Changing the shift from research

objects to research partners or stakeholders (research subjects) could be called an empowering

design practice for potential end-users of a product or a service. Added to this empowering design

should focus also to other design levels and to the all stakeholder perspectives and not just to the

end-users. Empowering design practice should give an opportunity to influence to the design

in all levels and by different actors so that the dialogue built in design process could be open

and mindful between different levels and between different kinds of stakeholders. Part of the

empowering design practice is to perform an ethical assessment for the whole design. Ethical

issues should be studied throughout the design process: from the requirements gathering phase

to the testing including all stakeholders perspectives for the design and implementation of the

system.


Need Based Design

Everything that is designed should have its basic argumentation in human needs. However human

needs can be categorised various ways and this makes our task little bit more difficult. Maslow

is one of the greatest authorities in this field. Maslow (1946) separates our needs from primary

to secondary ones. According to him human needs are fulfilled as stages. Once you have fulfilled

your vital needs for survival (e.g. food, rest and shelter) you are noticing needs upper in the

pyramid (figure x) and are willing to fulfil them. In that sense we are always fulfilling our needs

in some level. In fact some actions of course realise our needs in amore than one level. Basically

al needs are already there waiting for to be invented and fulfilled. The need for experience at first

seems to be most relevant with the highest needs as self-actualisation and esteem needs. However

in many cases in experiences we are confronting also the lower level needs.

For example Navigation is one of the key features of nomadic computing. Personal navigation is a

concept that tries to fulfil human needs for wayfinding, route planning, safety and location-based

services and entertainment. Needs are not invented or new but it is the novel way of delivering

these experiences and services which is something that has not been experienced before. In general

user experience of the product or service is composed of the usage of the product (usability,

utility, and functionality) and of the presentation of the product (showing it, status, fashion). It is

motivated action in a certain context where user’s previous experiences and future expectations

influence the present experience. Among the new products and services there are traditional and

presumed ways of use, but users are also inventing whole new ways to use the product to better

satisfy their needs. Novelties (products, habits, and way of life) are produced, adapted, modified

and fade continually and the users’ experiences of these novelties are determining their destiny

on the route of the product’s life cycle.

Part of the idea of Human Driven Design and Innovation of computerised environment is to

emphasis on values which leads us to examine more closely ideas that emerged in the mid 1990s

(van den Hoven 2007). The most noticeable of these ideas is the Value Sensitive Design which is

an approach to the design of information and computer systems that accounts for human values

throughout the design process (Friedman & Freier 2005). Value Sensitive Design approach

wants to be proactive about human values in system design, and to do so in a manner that is

principled, comprehensive, and systematic. VSD particularly emphasizes values with moral

import, including privacy, trust, human dignity, respect for person, physical and psychological

well-being, informed consent, intellectual property, access, universal usability, freedom from

bias, moral responsibility, and moral accountability. While emphasizing the moral perspective,

VSD also accounts for usability (e.g., ease of use), conventions (e.g., standardization of technical

protocols), and personal preferences (e.g. aesthetic tastes). VSD is an interactional theory in

which values are viewed so that people and social systems affect technological development, and

on the other hand new technologies shape individual behavior and social systems. Value Sensitive

Design also emphasizes the position of so called indirect stakeholders which refer to parties or

its output. Indirect stakeholders refer to all other parties who are otherwise affected by the use of

the computer system but who do not interact directly with the computer system. (Friedman and

Freier 2005)

VSD systematically integrates and iterates investigations on three separate levels (Friedman and

Freier 2005): “Conceptual investigations comprise philosophically informed analyses of the central

constructs and issues under investigation. For example, how does the philosophical literature

conceptualize certain values and provide criteria for their assessment and implementation?

What values have standing? How should we engage in trade-offs among competing values in

the design, implementation, and use of information systems (e.g., access vs. privacy, or security

vs. trust)? Empirical investigations focus on the human response to the technical artifact, and on

the larger social context in which the technology is situated. The entire range of quantitative and

qualitative methods used in social science research may be applicable, including observations,

interviews, surveys, focus groups, experimental manipulations, measurements of user behavior

and human physiology, contextual inquiry, collection of relevant documents, and interaction logs.

Technical investigations focus on the design and performance of the technology itself…Technical

investigations can involve either retrospective analyses of existing technologies or the design

of new technical mechanisms and systems ….“.. All investigations (conceptual, empirical, and

technical) are employed iteratively in a way that the results of one type of investigation are

integrated with those of the others, which, in turn, influence additional investigations. (Friedman

and Freier 2005)

Scenario-Based Design as a Human Driven Design and Innovation tool

Scenario as a term can be originally traced to the early theatre and/or film terminology. In this

context scenario is a synonym to the screenplay, manuscript, copy or a script. Basic scenario

elements (setting, actors, dialog, actors’ goals, actors’ plans and interpretation of the situation,

actions, events and plot) are virtually same in the original notion and in the scenario definition

applied as a method in human-centered product development process (Rosson and Carrol

2002). Scenarios that include these elements and are used in human-centred design can be more

specifically defined as user scenarios, use scenarios, usage scenarios or interaction scenarios.

Scenarios can also be called stories, narratives or descriptions of user interaction or anecdotes.

Scenarios can also be called stories, narratives or descriptions of user interaction or anecdotes.

Scenario concept is also typical to future studies where technical innovations, value shifts,

geopolitical tides, environmental perturbations, economic developments, demographic patterns,

and other trends of change are examined. Based on this data researchers create scenarios of possible

alternative futures, which are then used as contingencies within strategic planning initiatives. In

future studies scenarios forecast future under one or more affecting factors, rather than describe

how people accomplish tasks like in scenario-based design. In software engineering, the term


“use case” is often used in a bit similar sense as “scenario” and these terms can be confusing. A

use case specifies the sequences of actions that a system or a subsystem performs when interacting

with outside actor(s) (Jacobson, 1992).

Product development process is a cycle where scenarios in general can be utilised in many ways.

During the early phases of the design process scenarios can for instance consolidate different

stakeholders’ view of the project and the future. This scenario usage refers to future studies where

scenarios are used for predicting the possible futures in various areas. Scenarios can further be

used to build up a common vision or a starting point for the forthcoming activities and procedure

in the system development project. In this way scenarios are applied as a tool to assemble a

common picture of the project’s goals and aims as well as possibilities and limitations of the work

to be done.

Scenario building is a way to generate design ideas for new products and to identify potential user

groups and contexts of use for the product. The design team can generate one or more ideas (or

system concepts) for the new system. The most feasible concepts can then be selected for further

elaboration toward user and application requirements specification. Cultural and social issues

affect the building of the scenarios. Usually in scenarios the world is described as ready-made

where everything is fully automated and technology is available everywhere and everything is

compliant with one another. In our own scenario work we have tried to become conscious of

this and also include user evaluations of the scenarios as early as possible or include users in our

scenario building sessions so to be able to build more user-driven concepts later

The value of scenarios is that they make ideas more concrete and describe complicated and rich

situations and behaviours in meaningful and accessible terms. It is often easier and more fruitful

to generate scenarios rather with a group of people than individually. Optimally the group should

include people with different expertise: designers, end users, application field experts, marketing

people and usability experts. It is vital to involve end users in the scenario work in order to

generate and refine the process and to enable genuine user feedback for the system development

as early as possible.

As a design instrument scenarios are stories about people and their activities in a particular

situations and environments (contexts). Scenarios can be textual, illustrated (for example picture

books or comic strips), acted (for example dramatised usage situation) or filmed (for example

videos) descriptions of usage situations. The users in these descriptions are usually fictional

representatives of users (personas) but might also be the real ones. Scenarios can be evaluated

with potential end users. Both qualitative and quantitative methods can be used, depending on the

goals of the evaluation. Qualitative methods give concrete feedback on the user actions presented

in the scenarios whereas quantitative methods can be used to rank different scenarios e.g. in terms

of credibility or acceptability.

Scenarios have been used actively in system design in past decades. (Weidenhaupt et al., 1998;

Jarke 1999, Rosson & Carroll 2002; Hertzum 2003; Ikonen 2005; Ikonen 2007). Besides using

scenarios as a design tool for product development, scenario-based methods have often been used

to enhance user involvement to design e.g. artefacts or work. (Löwgren 200�, Bodker &Iversen

2002, Strömberg et al. 200�; Ikonen 2007) Recently Alexander and Maiden (200�) has edited a

comprehensive book for using scenarios as an effective technique for discovering, communicating

and organizing user and technical requirements at any stage in the system life-cycle. Go and

Carrol (200�) have looked back the ways in which scenarios has been used more generally. They

distinguish four different fields that have had a rather different approach and purpose for using

scenarios in design: strategic planning, human-computer interaction, requirements engineering,

and object-oriented analysis/design. Our own cases and approach are naturally linked closely to

the human computer interaction and more generally user experience research and we agree greatly

with their analysis of the scenario-based design usage this far. Moreover presenting scenarios

only as a common language we want to emphasize the possibility to integrate these distinguished

fields to the more coherent system design approach and especially in the field of future oriented

design of intelligent applications and ubiquitous computing. In addition the user involvement

in product development life cycle enables users both to give their feedback to the pre-designed

solutions as well as innovating totally new designs for their purposes. (von Hippel 2005; Kelley

2005)

Human-driven scenario-based design

The starting point in human-driven scenario usage is the current situation of the target group

(Figure 1.). Designers collect user requirements for the early concepts via different methods. This

approach fits very well to the situation where the current tasks (e.g. work) could be improved with

the new technology. The background for this approach is in ethnographical studies of workers

and in participatory design. (Suchman 1987, Ehn 1989) In designing ubiquitous computing

applications and future intelligent environments the human-driven approach is a very natural

choice. The user need’s assessment at the moment is an important starting point for any product

development process. The importance of understanding basic user needs (in these possible usage

contexts) is however essential in the field of e.g. technologically embedded environments with

nomadic users. This basic understanding of the user needs is important in innovating new possible

ways to fulfill these needs. Then the possible application areas should be further studied. The

scenarios are now added with the ideas of technological solutions to the possible problems of the

analyzed situation..

Scenarios can also be utilized in the very end of the product development cycle. Launching new

technological services and applications, which are discontinuous on the market, is often difficult.

For example the introduction of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) and location-based

services to the potential users suffered from failures in presenting these technologies credibly

to new customers. Similar problems where found when Interactive Television was introduced

to the audience few years back. Similar problems where found when Interactive Television was


introduced to the audience few years back. In addition understanding of potential users was not

supported enough. Scenarios or usage stories of a service or an application could be used as

a powerful tool to enhance potential user’s understanding of the product (why to acquire the

product and how to use it). (Ikonen et al. 2002)

Figure 1. Human-driven scenario-based design model

Discussion

Human Driven Design and Innovation refers to the new design approach which tries to broaden

the perspective from focused product development process model to the more holistic design

perspective. The starting point is the human needs for a product or a service and the basic

assumption is that in fact we don’t have to invent new needs but new ways to fulfil some specific

human needs. By exploring current usage cultures of fulfilling these specific needs we can start

thinking new and in many cases holistically better ways to fulfil these specific human needs. In

Human Driven Design approach it is also important to understand that the humans continually

reform themselves at the different stages of the community and society.

In the early phase of evolving cultural usage for the product, the community and individuals are

negotiating basic ‘rules’ for the use of the product. These rules or models for using the product are

affected both by its presumed usage and the context of use, and by the inventions from the users

themselves as a group or as individuals. The product has a presumed, guided and desired model of

usage, but people who use the product modify it culturally so that it suits their mental and social

world. People may use the same product or service differently in different kinds of situations

and with different groups (e.g. work usage, family usage, interest group usage) and sometimes

people may not take the developed technology into use at all if it is not suitable or formable for

their everyday life context. Novelties (products, habits, and way of life) are produced, adapted,

modified and fade continually and the users’ experience of these novelties are determining their

destiny on the route of the product’s life cycle.

Human Driven Design and Innovation approach emphasises then strongly user involved design

which should be integrated to the all parts and levels of design. In HDDI both the laboratory and

field studies are seen equally important but contextually depending on the actual developmental

situation. HDDI furthermore aims to develop the design approach both for the emergent and flexible

and formalised and validated design practises. As modelled and structured design approaches aim

to achieve more effective and routine like a way of building good smart environments at the

same time we need agile and impugned design practises for testing new ideas. The basic idea is

to observe and study human behaviour: to see, hear, listen and learn from how people have done

things before and how are they doing things at the moment and what could be their preference for

the next generation of services. Then involving all stakeholders to the innovation process enables

us to imagine new solutions that could solve emerging problems or make everybody’s’ life little

bit more comfortable.

The notice that the traditional product design approach needs to be extended to two new design

levels is included to the Human Driven Design and Innovation practice. The remote design or

strategic design, which is kind of enabling framework for actual design work and the immediate

design, which focuses on local and immediate user needs and experiences, and emphasises the

increasing role of users in the design, form a holistic perspective to the design practices in any

context. As a part of the immediate design it is necessary to develop co-design methodology that

allows different stakeholders to take part to the design as equal and authentic partners. Changing

the shift from research objects to research partners or stakeholders (research subjects) is an

empowering design practice. But empowering design should also focus to other design levels

and to the all stakeholder perspectives and not just to the end-users. Empowering design practice

should give an opportunity to influence to the design in all levels and by different actors so that

the dialogue built in design process could be open and mindful between different levels and

between different kinds of stakeholders. Part of the empowering design practice is to perform

an ethical assessment for the whole design. Another important notice is to develop that kind

of potential to our environments by different design levels that the future user can be an active

developer, designer and first user in his personal technologically augmented world.

Build Low - fi pr o t o t ypes

E mbed t hem to scenar i o

Anal y ze t he eval u a t i on results

Design and implemen t a t ion

E v alua t e scenar i os and / or pr o t o t ypes wi t h use r s

Build evolved prototypes and eval u a t e t hem p referably in realis t ic condi t i ons (sce n ar i o in real -life)

Revised design

Help t he user t o under s t and t he new produ c t or fe a t ur e s

by using t he scenar i o

Revise t he scen a rio (and requirements

and co n t exts of use)

Anal y ze t he sce n ario – revise t he sce n ario

according t he p r oblems and s olu t io n s table

Scena ri o s facili t a t e the produ c t launching

Collec t ma t erial from t he u se r s – build a day in t he life scenario

H u m a n Drive n S ce n a ri o B a se d

D e sig n


References

Alexander, IF and Maiden, N (eds.). (200�). Scenarios, Stories, Use Cases. Through the System Development Life-Cycle. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.. Chichester.

Brand, P. and Schwittay, A. (2006). The Missing Piece: Human Driven Design and Research in ICT and Development.In Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communications Technologies and Development, May 2006.

Bødker S. and Iversen, O. (2002). Staging a Professional Participatory Design Practice-Moving PD beyond the Initial Fascination of User Involvement. Proceedings of Second Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 11 – 18.

Coen. M.H. (1998) Design principles for intelligent environments. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI’98).. 547-554.

Cook, D.J. and Das, S.K. (2005) Overview. In Cook and Das (Eds.). Smart Environments. Technology, Protocols and Applications. Hoboken. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3-10.

Ehn, P. (1989). Work-oriented design of computer artifacts. Erlbaum. New Jersey.

Friedman, B. & Freier, N. G. (2005). Value Sensitive Design. In K. E. Fisher, S. Erdelez, & E. F. McKechnie (Eds.). Theories of information behavior: A researcher’s guide (pp. 368-372).Medford, NJ: Information Today.

Go, K and Carroll J,M. (200�). The Blind Men and The Elephant: Views of Scenario-Based System Design. ACM Interactions. Volume XI.6. ��-53.

Hertzum, M. (2003). Making use of scenarios: a field study of conceptual design. International Journal of Human Computer Studies. 58.215-239.

Holmquist, L.E., Gellersen, H-W., Kortuem, G., Scmidt, A., Strolbach, M., Antifakos, S., Michahelles, F., Schiele, B., Beigl, M., and Maze, R. (200�) Building Intelligent Environments with Smart-Its. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications , Vol. 24, no. 1, 56-64, January/February, 200�.

Ikonen, V., Ahonen, A., Kulju, M. and Kaasinen, E. (2002): Trade description model helping the users to make sense of the new information technology products. Proceedings of ECOM-02 2nd International Interdisciplinary Conference on Electronic Commerce. Gdansk, Poland

Ikonen V. (2005). Scenarios in Ubiquitous Computing System Design: User-driven vs.Technology-driven Usages. in The 11th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (HCII 2005), (Las Vegas, Nevada, 2005), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (2005)

Ikonen, V (2006) Designing Smart Environments: Concepts, Theories and Challenges. Proceedings of the Workshop on Human Centered Technology HCT 06, (Pori 2006). Tampere University of

Technology

Ikonen Veikko (2007): Scenario-Based Design as an Approach to Enhance User Involvement and Innovation. Proceedings of HCII 2007. The HCI International 2007

Jacobson, I., Christersson, M., Jonsson, P., & Overgaard, G. (1992). Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A use-case driven approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Kaasinen, E. & Norros, L. (eds.). (2007) Älykkäiden ympäristöjen suunnittelu – Kohti ekologista systeemiajattelua [Design of Smart Environments – Towards Ecological System Approach]. Teknologiateollisuuden julkaisuja nro 6/2007. Teknologiainfo Teknova, Helsinki [in Finnish]. ISBN 978-951-817-9��-6

Kelley, T. (2005) The Ten Faces Of Innovation. Doubleday. New York.

Lyytinen, K. and Yoo, Y. (2002) Issues and Challenges in Ubiquitous computing. Communications of the ACM. December 2002. Vol. �5, No 12. 62-65.

Löwgren, J. (200�). Animated Use Sketches as Design Representations.ACM Interactions. Volume XI.6 22-27.

Maslow A. H. (19�3). A Theory of Human Motivation. Originally Published in Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. Available at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm

Remagnino, P., Foresti, G.L. and Ellis, T. (Eds.), (2005) Ambient Intelligence.A Novel Paradigm Springer.

Rosson, M.B. and Carrol 2002: Usability Engineering. Scenario.Based Development of Human- Computer Interaction. Morgan Kaufman.

Strömberg, H., Pirttilä, V., and Ikonen, V. (200�): Interactive scenarios -– building ubiquitous computing concepts in the spirit of participatory design. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing. Vol. 200� No: 3 - �, 200 – 207

Suchman, L. (1987) Plans and situated actions. The Problem of human-machine communication. Cambridge University Press.

Van den Hoven, J. (2007) ICT and Value Sensitive Design. in IFIP International Federation for Information Processing. Volume 233, The Information Society: Innovations, Legitimacy, Ethics and Democracy, eds. P. Goujon, Lavelle, S., Duquenoy, P., Kimppa, K., Laurent, V. Boston. Springer.

Weidenhaupt, K., Pohl, K., Jarke, M., & Haumer, P. (1998). Scenarios in system development: Current practice. IEEE Software 15(2), 3�-�5.

Weiser, M. (1991) The Computer for the 21st Century, Scientific American, vol. 265, no. 3, September 1991 (reprinted in IEEE Pervasive Computing: Mobile and Ubiquitous Systems, vol. 1, no. 1, January-March 2002


Everyday creativity in business

Taina Rajanti

Doc.Pol.Sci, Research Manager

Helsinki University of Art and Design, Pori School of Art and Media

In my previous work in the ARKI-research group I have explored an alternative approach to

technology design and development, especially ICT, proceeding from the perspective of everyday

context of knowledge production and problem solving. More than centering a product design

process on the abstract figure of the user, we explored the idea of driving it by appropriation and

reinterpretation of real people in their everyday practices and knowledge production. We conducted

co-design projects engaging with users embedded in a social context - existing communities - at

the early stages of a design process; and giving them tools to participate in the process as actors.

In this paper I want to explore the deeper theoretical issues behind everyday creativity and

knowledge production to better understand the dynamics of creative industry. Today productivity,

wealth and the creation of social surpluses take the form of cooperative interactivity through

linguistic, communicative and affective networks. This means that paying attention to everyday

context of creativity is not an ethical or political choice for design, but a necessity for any business

that seeks success.

I am also proposing, that business will profit from design not just as a way of producing more

attractive goods, but from the methods used in collaborative design which make the everyday

context accessible in product design.

1. User-centered design and user innovation

User-centered design stems from the insight that involving users in a design process can add

value to the design and its outcome. Originally this involvement was motivated by general ideals

of equality and inclusion, in the Nordic school of “participatory design” (Nygård). With the

advance of ICTs and knowledge economy the input by users has become also a demand of the

production process itself.

First of all it is seen that users can have valuable ideas and experience about the use of products,

which can help the designers design better – and better selling – products. But furthermore it is

seen that eventually the success of any product depends on its becoming adapted by the users,

wherefore involving users at the early stages of product design is a way to avoid producing flops.

This is especially relevant for ITC products and other immaterial products and services, many of

which are actually realized as products only through their usage.

In my work in the ARKI-research group I have explored an alternative user-centered approach

to technology design and development, especially ICT. More than centering a product design

process on the figure of an abstract user, we explored the idea of driving it by appropriation and

reinterpretation of real people in their everyday context of practices and usage. Ultimately our

proposal was that technology design needs to be reframed as a societal innovation process, and

that societal innovation occurs through everyday knowledge production and problem solving.

The specific value of this approach, termed collaborative design or co-design is that it engages

users at different stages of the design process so that the users participate also in the concept-

building i.e. defining what the eventual product will be, not just testing usefulness and usability

of an already defined product. Additionally it looks at the users as actors in their social context,

not as anonymous users of a product. The design is thus grounded in the everyday practices of the

users, which is a stage any application or product will have to go through in the last instance.

From the theoretical point of view, practices refer to the habitual ways of doing that give our

lives continuity. Practices are also a shared activity in the sense that they are meaningful within

concrete communities or reference groups, life-styles, and cultures. Practices make our lives

meaningful. But practices are not rituals, repeated identically. La Cecla compares the dynamics of

all human knowledge to the practice of dwelling in a place. We depart from the known to confront

the unknown, returning to our proper place. In the process we gain more knowledge of the world

surrounding us, making it a part of our dwelling in turn. (La Cecla) Through daily practices people

appropriate their surroundings and the world, gaining knowledge and experience of it, solving

problems and using innovative abilities. Repetition brings experience; the diversions innovation.

Practices are thus in themselves phenomena that combine both the shared and meaningful habits,

and singular or specific usage and creativity, the production by usage as defined by De Certeau.

Mapping people’s practices is also an important method for co-design. Already since the 1980ies

Lucy Suchman has pointed out that “technologies are constituted through and inseparable from

the specifically situated practices of their use”. (Suchman) Through mapping people’s actual

practices concerning a chosen object or theme of development it is possible to understand how

they are part of the user’s life as a whole; going on to recognize the design potential and guidelines

for design in those practices. ‘Practices’ is thus both a key concept for ethnographic research, and

the mediating concept between research and design, enabling the designers to find innovative


starting points in ethnographic data.

A good example of the heuristic importance of the concept of practices is the case of the workshop

on safety and security with the Active Seniors association (who are building an alternative housing

for aged based on community care-taking). We wanted to find out what kind of safety issues there

would be in their future house, but started off with mapping their present safety related practices.

We discovered that even where specific devices were used – like alarms in summer cottages

– their use in the final instance relied always on a social network: if the alarm went off, one would

call a neighbour or a relative and ask them to check. Even more common was direct reliance on

social networks in moments of need like sickness or worry. Another issue related to the practices

was preserving people’s privacy with practices like not prying details unnecessarily, or not giving

your keys to strangers but rather to people you trust. (Lehtimäki & Rajanti 2007)

Many safety devices entail elimination of human contact and breach of privacy, while to the

contrary our findings prove that their design ought to part from reliance on social networks and

respecting privacy.

Likewise when mapping people’s media-sharing practices through interviews and in a process

of field trials we discovered that their main concern in sharing photos was not adding elaborate

technical methods of organizing and browsing them, but telling stories with the pictures and

related to the pictures. Design of media sharing tools should thus enable storytelling, instead of

being developed solely on the basis of ratings and selections. (Lehtimäki & Rajanti 2008)

Mapping practices is mostly done quite simply, asking people to enumerate and tell about their

practices relevant to a theme being discussed during a workshop. Sometimes we used probe-

like techniques (Gaver, Dunne & Pacenti), as for a workshop on “remembering and reminding”,

where people were asked to make lists of things they had to remember and things they had to

remind somebody of during one normal day. In the workshop we had prepared a list of possible

places where people keep things they have to remember/remind, and asked the Active Seniors to

place their items while enumerating them: thus we got remembering practices such as storing due

library books by the door, or putting a red magnet button on the dish-washer to mark it was full

of clean dishes; or of course littering one’s desk with post-its. (Rajanti)

All these solutions tell about the creativity and problem solving that everyday practices entail.

Also Hippel notes that users who “customize” and “modify”, i.e. innovate further products rather

than ordering custom-made ones do so of course out of such sensible motives as getting exactly

the kind of goods they want, and getting them at lower prices. But users also innovate for the

sheer pleasure that problem solving gives them, they “value the process of innovating because of

the enjoyment or learning that it may give them”. (Hippel, 60 - 61)

2. Closer theoretical look at user-innovation

Let us for a change return to Marx, whose theory of capitalist production has again become relevant

for our understanding of the shift from fordism and classical capitalist production to post-fordism

and new/creative economy. The key concept used by Marx is “general intellect”, meaning human

scientific knowledge that is fixed in machines. Especially a passage in Grundrisse has given rise

to new interpretations and elaborations for understanding the new form of capitalism:

“The development of fixed capital indicates to what degree general social knowledge has become

a direct force of production, and to what degree, hence, the conditions of the process of social life

itself have come under the control of the general intellect and been transformed in accordance

with it. To what degree the powers of social production have been produced, not only in the form

of knowledge, but also as immediate organs of social practice, of the real life process.” (Marx,

706)

Paolo Virno takes “general intellect” further, going on from “the intellect and knowledge objectified

in machines” to general intellect as “live labour, objectified in the live bodies of the workers, in

their linguistic cooperation, in their concrete capacity to act in mutual understanding”. (Virno)

Another significant opening utilizing the concept “general intellect” was made by Toni Negri

(together with Michael Hardt) in their book Empire, who combine general intellect with the

concept of biopower: life has now become an object of power directly and in its entirety; what

is directly at stake in power is the production and reproduction of life itself. Similarly to Virno

Hardt & Negri talk of “informatized” production: of a cooperation that is completely immanent

to the laboring activity itself. “Today productivity, wealth and the creation of social surpluses take

the form of cooperative interactivity through linguistic, communicative and affective networks.”

(Hardt & Negri, 22 – �1, 28� -29�) General intellect now refers to a situation when knowledge in

general, and general human properties, social life in its entirety, becomes the decisive productive

force.

This has direct bearing on the importance of user innovation and everyday creativity. User

innovation is now not merely an added sphere of interest for production, it is the decisive sphere

of social production in general. Innovation shifts from machines to the live productive force of

the workers, and not only to specified productive actions within a definite production process,

but to their social life in its entirety. In creative knowledge capitalism it is not possible to define

exactly where production occurs, when it occurs, and who is achieving it.


3. Everyday creativity and business

Putting social life in its entirety, the general human capabilities for communication and affects

and innovation to work means introducing to business elements that follow a different logic than

economical rationality has been used to. User innovation and creativity is not a tool that can be

simply added to production and business. There can be incompatibilities, conflicts, as well as

huge potential. There might even be fundamental changes in the functioning of production and its

capitalist form, based on private ownership, commodity form and reification, and the functioning

of markets.

A telling example is what happened to FanLib, a new enterprise that sought to profit from the

phenomenon of fanfiction. Fanfiction is one of the new forms of entertainment - waste of time

- that people have developed exploiting new forms of communication and media. It is writing/

literature (also visual production) based on existing works, mostly famed works of fantasy and

fiction such as Lord of the Rings or Harry Potter, or popular TV-series like Start Trek or House.

It is mostly done one websites or blogs maintained by volunteer fans and enthusiasts. A strong

element is peer reviews and feedback, and other forms of communication and exchange, also

carried out over internet in dedicated communities and groups.

FanLib was founded with the idea of turning this free effort into labour and the common resources

into profit-making business. But the bright young businessmen managed to commit just about

every mistake they could think of. They sent a letter of invitation to hundreds of fanfiction writers,

inviting them to start writing on their site, hinting at possibilities to “publish” their work, come

form “marginal to mainstream” and “touch the stars”, possibly getting to TV. Including a nice T-

shirt for 50 of the quickest joiners…

Their offer created directed suspicion and general lack of enthusiasm. FanLib had completely

ignored the fact that most fanfiction writers are women in their 20 - 30ies, not teen-age boys,

to whom the campaign was identified to be addressed to. It had also escaped them that a lot of

fanfiction is smutty versions of the original fiction, not very much stuff for mainstream publication.

Indeed, they seemed not to have given any thought to property rights; whereas the fanfiction

writers were quite aware that they were protected from lawsuits precisely because they published

on sites that require becoming a member.

But the biggest mistake FanLib made was to ignore and underestimate the networked peer

community and collaborative exchange, which is the founding element for fanfiction writers. “Our

social network is valued because it is a social network. This is what FanLib is not getting. Since

in their world value is judged solely by the products produced, the idea that the social interactions

themselves are highly valued in addition to the product is incomprehensible to them.” (lilithilien)

In a few days word spread over internet, FanLib was analyzed and criticized in a wealth of blogs

and sites - also in quickly formed communities such as ”World without FanLib” - and became a

practical flop.

This is not to say that business cannot coexist with user innovation - though the new forms of

production do challenge private property and commodity form in a fundamental way. For instance,

a large part of the fanfiction is hosted on sites that allow free basic usage, but which also offer

additional features for paying customers, such as LiveJournal, or which host advertisement on

the side-bars. These business functions can co-exist with the voluntary collaborative networked

production and creativity, because they do not affect its fundamental functioning.

And as far as they do not affect it: when LiveJournal introduced new intolerant policies, substantial

amount of deviant art creators abandoned the blog.

Hippel identifies three basic strategies for embracing user innovation in business:

“1. Produce user-developed innovations for general commercial sale and/or offer custom

manufacturing to specific users. (Hippel 127 - 128)”

These are more traditional approaches to user innovation, where it is either exploited in a normal

limited production process, or for a limited and privileged audience.

“2. Sell kits of product design tools and/or “product platforms” to ease users’ innovation related

tasks. (Hippel 128 - 130)

3. Sell products or services services that are complementary to user-developed innovations.”

(Hippel 130 - 131)”

These instead are more radical approaches, which do not seek to “tame” or exploit user-innovation,

but seek to give it free hand and allow user innovation a scope of initiative.

The radical approaches to user innovation and everyday creativity in business clearly necessitate

an insight into the user perspective. Not just into distinct needs, but the whole scope of the user.

As is often said, not everything that is technologically feasible, is useful or meaningful to users.

As discussed above, users use technology and products not in isolation, but within the context of

their everyday social lives.

Collaborative design presents business with opportunities and potential just not by producing

better goods, but by offering methods for gaining this necessary insight into the user perspective,

grounding product development and innovation in the everyday practices and everyday creativity

of users as full social actors.


References

De Certeau, M. (198�): Practices of Everyday Life. University of California Press.

La Cecla, F. (1993) : Mente locale. Per un antropologia dell’abitare. Elèuthera.

Gaver, B., Dunne, T., and Pacenti, E.: Cultural Probes. in: ACM International Magazine. January

and February (1999) 21 - 29

Hippel, E.von (2005): Democratizing Innovation. The MIT Press Cambridge.

Lehtimäki, K & Rajanti, T.(2007): ”Local Voice in a Global World – User-centered Design in

Support of Everyday Practices.”. HCI International 2007, 2� – 28.7. Beijing, China

Lehtimäki, K & Rajanti, T. (2008): Documenting the Ordinary - mobile digital photography as

an agent of change in people’s practices concerning storing and sharing of photography. 21th

International Symposium on Human Factors in Telecommunication HFT. Kuala Lumpur, 17 -

23.3.2008 (forthcoming)

Nygaard, K.: The origins of the Scandinavian school, why and how? In: Participatory Design

Conference 1990 Transcript. Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (1990)

Rajanti, T.(2007): Charting Remembering Practices. A workshop with a collaborating community.

In Thematic Publication 1: Remembering and Reminding. ADIK-project, Medialab, Helsinki

University of Art and Design 2007.

Rajanti, T & Vandenbempt, A (2006): Methodological Implications of User Communities’ Co-

design Experiences. Encompas project (Enabling Community Communications Platforms and

Applications) Helsinki University of Art and Design Helsinki

Suchman, L. A. (1987): Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

In the net:

Lilithilien: “Workers of the World Unite: An Old School Marxist Analysis of FanLib vs. Fandom”

http://community.livejournal.com/life_wo_fanlib/17099.html Checked 17.1.2008

Taidon moniääninen reflektioTiina Rautkorpi

Lic. Soc. Sc., Senior Lecturer

Research and development/ Helsinki Polytechnic

Viestinnän tutkijan näkökulmasta taidon tieto on kysymys joka liittyy viestintään. Tässä

kirjassa taidon tiedolla on väljästi viitattu tietoon, joka ei ole propositionaalista ja jossa tekijä

saa taitavuudestaan palautetta suoraan työstämältään kohteelta (Anttila 2005, Volanen 2006).

Konkreettisesti taidon tieto voidaan liittää keskusteluun taitavuuden edellyttämistä ”kyvyistä”,

esimerkiksi ammatillisista kvalifikaatioista (Helakorpi 2005). Verkostoituneen yhteiskunnan

menestymisen kannalta entistä strategisempia ovat ne tavat ja menetelmät, joilla toiminnan

taitavuutta edistävää tietoa tuotetaan, levitetään, lisätään ja rikastetaan monialaiseksi saattamalla

yhteen erilaisia tiedon alueita.

Tämä artikkeli pyrkii käyttämään työntekijöiden puhetta aineistona työn kehittämiseen. Puhe

nähdään innovaatioiden, eli uusien ideoiden, käytäntöjen ja esineiden, synnyttämisen välineeksi

(Rogers 2003). Jos ajatellaan toimintatapojen kehittämistä, vastaan inttäminen voi olla

innovaatioita edistävää. Kyseenalaistaminen voi viedä työn tekemistä eteenpäin. Artikkelissa

esitellään teoreettisia lähtökohtia moniääniselle reflektiolle, joka syntyy kun työntekijät puhuvat

tekemästään työstä.

Kun työntekijöiden puhetta nauhoitetaan, ilmaisua ei rajoiteta. Puheen muoto voi olla oikeastaan

mikä tahansa: kahvipöytäkeskustelu, esitelmä tai haastattelu. Jokaisessa näistä tapauksista

työntekijä tuottaa oman työnsä kehittämispuhetta. Kun työntekijä puhuu työstään, hänen

käyttämänsä kieli on parasta mahdollista ja hän saa itse valikoida parhaat mahdolliset käsitteet.

Vuorovaikutuksen käsite tässä artikkelissa on mahdollisimman laaja, vaikka omat

tutkimusaineistoni perustuvatkin työntekijöiden puheeseen. Jos työntekijä ei halua puhua

työstään sanoilla, hän voi puhua, kuten runoilija puhuu ”välisanoilla” (Enckell 199�, 200�).

Vuorovaikutuksen näkökulmasta hiljaisesta tiedosta voidaan tuottaa yhtä käyttökelpoisia ja yhtä

äänekkäitä kehittämisdialogeja kuin käsitteiksi eksplikoidusta tiedosta. Työstä voidaan vaihtaa

ajatuksia eleillä tai kuvilla. (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995, Goodwin 1981).

Eri työntekijöiden puhe voidaan yhdistää eli orkestroida kehittäväksi keskusteluksi. Orkestroiminen

viittaa kapellimestarin työhön, kapellimestarin tehtävä on antaa kaikille äänille suunvuoro. Työstä


keskusteleminen on aina toimintaa ja samalla sosiaalista organisoitumista. Toimintatutkimuksen

periaatteiden mukaan keskustelu on tarkoitettu ensi sijassa jatkettavaksi (Reason 1988).

Työyhteisössä aloitettu kehittävä keskustelu voi käynnistää sitä ulkopuolelta seuraavissa

reflektoinnin, ja niin yhteiskuntaan syntyy jatkuvasti uusia työtä kehittäviä keskustelun kehiä.

Kehittävän keskustelun idea liittyy pedagogiikan laajempaan kehitykseen, vaikkapa

keskusteluun yhteistoiminnallisesta oppimisesta (Johnson & Johnson 199�) ja sen edellyttämistä

oppimisympäristöistä. Aloitin tutkimusmatkani jo 1990-luvulla yksittäisten keskustelutilanteiden

tarkastelusta tutustumalla mikrososiologiaan, muun muassa etnometodologiseen

keskusteluntutkimukseen (Herritage 1996, Peräkylä 1997, Rautkorpi 2002). Matkani vei lopulta

organisaatioteorioihin, joiden ajattelu irtautuu yksittäisen keskustelun vuorovaikutusjäsennyksestä

ja siinä mahdollisesta vastarinnasta kattamaan kokonaisia työyhteisöjä.

Vuorovaikutuksen tutkimuksessa puhutaan responsiivisuudesta, refleksiivisyydestä,

yhteistoiminnallisuudesta ja yhteiskehittelystä. Kaikki näihin sisältyy ajatus, että erilaisten

puhujien yhteensaattaminen ja siitä seuraava keskustelu on luonnollinen tapa tuottaa innovaatioita.

Keskustelu on tapa edistää yllättävien näkökulmien ja uusien yhdistelmien esiintulemista myös

taidon tietoa levitettäessä. Jatkossa artikkelini etenee keskustelun idean perässä paitsi tieteen,

myös taiteen alueella.

1. Kyseenalaistava dialogi organisaatiossa

Vuorovaikutusta painottavat organisaatioteoreetikot Ralph Stacey ja Douglas Griffin irtisanoutuvat

ajatuksesta, että organisaatiot olisivat pakottavia, ulottumattomissa olevia kokonaisrakenteita

niissä toimivien ihmisten yläpuolella (Stacey 2003, Stacey & Griffin 2005). Heidän mukaansa

organisaatio voidaan nähdä perimmiltään jäsentensä muodostamaksi vuorovaikutukseksi, joka

tuottaa yhteistoiminnan kautta oman tulevaisuutensa. Jos asioita ajatellaan tästä näkökulmasta,

paikkaan ja aikaan sidottu yksittäinen toiminta voi olla hyvin merkityksellistä ja kääntää koko

organisaation kehityksen suunnan.

Staceyn ja Griffinin organisaatioteoriassa on otettu käyttöön kompleksiivisten responsiivisten

prosessien idea. Responsiivisuus voidaan tässä suomentaa kyseenalaistamiseksi. Kompleksisuus

taas viittaa luonnontieteiden kompleksiivisuusajatteluun. Kompleksisuudella tarkoitetaan, että

systeemi voi olla hyvin monia asioita yhtä aikaa, se voi olla yhtä aikaa stabiili ja epästabiili,

ennustettava ja ennustamaton, läpikotaisin tuttu ja osin tuntematon. Sen käyttäytymisestä voi

olla yhtä aikaa täysi varmuus ja täysi epävarmuus. Kompleksisuus liittyy sekä sujuvuuteen

että muokattavuuteen. Kompleksiivinen prosessi on riittävän ennustettava ollakseen nopeasti

toistettavissa, ja riittävän luova niin että siinä voi tapahtua muutoksia. (emt., 7).

Luonnontieteidessä kompleksisuuteen liittyy itseorganisoituminen, ja sillä tarkoitetaan että

jokainen paikallinen toimija järjestäytyy omien organisaatioperiaatteidensa mukaisesti. Stacey

ja Griffin puhuvat luonnontieteiden kompleksiivisista systeemeistä, jotka ensin ymmärrettiin

luonteeltaan ennen kaikkea adaptiivisiksi. Suomeksi voidaan puhua mukautuvista systeemeistä,

joissa systeemin eri toimijat reagoivat ja mukautuvat toisiinsa (emt., 18).

Responsiivisen vuorovaikutuksen ymmärtämisen avain on Herbert Meadin ”I-me” –dialektiikka,

jonka mahdollistaa yleistetyn toisen (the generalized other) käsitteen ymmärtämisen. Meadin

mukaan toisen kanssa kommunikoiminen on kaiken toiminnan ydin. Voidaan ajatella, että kaikki

inhimillinen toiminta syntyy interaktiivisesti. Elettä ja vastausta siihen ei voida erottaa toinen

toisistaan, vaan ele ja vastaus yhdessä muodostavat toiminnan perustavan analyysiyksikön. Tästä

seuraa yksilön ja yhteiskunnan perustava riippuvuus toisistaan, sillä jokainen minä on sosiaalisesti

muotoiltu (minua muotoillaan) samaan aikaan kuin jokainen minä kaiken aikaa itse osallistuu

sosiaalisen muotoiluun (minä muotoilen) (Mead 193�).

Etnometodologisessa keskustelunanalyysissa on tarkastelussa juuri Meadin eleen ja vastauksen

periaate ja siihen sisältyvä responsiivisuuden mahdollisuus vuorovaikutuksen etenemisessä.

Keskustelunanalyysin mikrososiologiassa tutkitaan vuorovaikutuksen jäsentymistapaa (interaction

order) vallankäyttönä. Keskustelunanalyysin näkökulmasta jokainen yksittäinen keskustelutilanne

on toisten mukaanottamista ja toisten poissulkemista, eräänlaista kamppailua siitä kuka saa

puheelleen tilaa ja huomiota (Goodwin 1981). Etnometodologisessa keskustelunanalyysissa

puhutaan responsiivisesta valinnasta, joka tarkoittaa mahdollisuutta poiketa sosiaalisesti

vakiintuneesta vaihtoehdosta keskustelun vuoronvaihdossa (Peräkylä 1997).

Meadin yleistetty toinen yhdistää eleen ja vastauksen kokonaiseen reflektion toimintaperiaatteeseen.

Aina reflektoidessaan toimintaansa ihminen näkee itsensä laajemmin, lopulta kokonaisen ryhmän

tai yhteiskunnan silmin. Tämä ihmisen perimmäinen interaktiivinen toimintapa näkyy myös

itsereflektiossa, siinä että ihminen kykenee itse arvioimaan omaa toimintaansa. Tämä ominaisuus

liittyy läheisesti myös taitoa koskevan tiedon kehittymiseen yhteiskunnassa. Reflektoimiseen

sisältyy aina mahdollisuus olla kriittinen ja kyseenalaistava aikaisempia toiminnan kvalifikaatioita,

välineitä ja toimintaympäristöjä kohtaan (vrt. Helakorpi 2005).

Kompleksisuuden aikakäsitys perustuu nykyhetkeen, joka on elävä (the living present).

Nykyhetkessä on yhtä aikaa läsnä tulevaisuus, jota kohtaan on erilaisia odotuksia, ja menneisyys,

jota koko ajan uudelleentulkitaan sekä nykyhetken että tulevaisuuden odotusten valossa (Stacey

jne., 2000).

Stacey ja Griffin korostavat luonnontieteiden ja ihmistieteiden erilaista luonnetta. Ihminen on

tietoinen ja päämääriin pyrkivä toimija. Tästä näkökulmasta vuorovaikutukseen perustuva

organisaatioteoria on kiinnostunut yhteiskuntateorian keskeisimmistä käsitteistä kuten vallasta

ja toiminnan arvioinnista. Organisaation toimintaan liittyy aina taistelua vallasta, mutta tässä

teoriassa valta on vuorovaikutustilanteessa paikallisesti näyttäytyvä ominaisuus. Stacey ja Griffin

soveltavat Norbert Eliaksen sosiologista ajattelua, joka korostaa että valta ei ole absoluuttista

vaan se esiintyy aina ihmisten välisessä suhteessa (Elias 1939). Valta on toisten poissulkemista

ja toisten mukaan ottamista. Ihmiset mahdollistavat vallan kerttymisen toiselle sillä, että he

tarvitsevat toisiltaan palveluksia. (Stacey & Griffin 2005, 5.)

Stacey ja Griffin painottavat, että toiminta synnyttää ajattelua eikä päinvastoin. He tekevät


organisaatioteoriastaan käsin sen johtopäätöksen, että arvojen tulkinta tapahtuu aina

vuorovaikutuksessa. Vuorovaikutukseen perustuvan organisaatioteorian keskeinen periaate

onkin evaluaatio, se että organisaation on jatkuvasti arvioitava omaa toimintaansa. Keskusteluun

liittyvässä kyseenalaistamisessa on siis samalla kysymys jatkuvien arvovalintojen tekemisestä.

(Stacey & Griffin 2005, 19). Ihmisten välinen vuorovaikutusverkosto toimii luovana

kompleksisena systeeminä, joka synnyttää evaluointiprosessin kautta jatkuvasti uudenlaisia

toiminnan mahdollisuuksia. Makrotason teoriaa kiinnostavat vuorovaikutuksen toteutumisen

mahdollisuudet organisaatiossa. Voidaan pohtia, miten vuorovaikutus saadaan rakennetuksi

mahdollisimman vapaaksi ja taitoon liittyvää tietoa edistäväksi.

2. Erot ja konfliktit muuttavat toimintaa

Ihmistieteissä kompleksisuus liittyy ajatukseen, että yllätykset, toiminnan muutokset ovat aina

mahdollisia. Jos kompleksiivisen vuorovaikutuksen ydin ihmistieteissä ei ole mukautumisessa,

toiminta ei voi perustua muuhun kuin erojen ja konfliktien olemassaoloon. Jo aikaisemmin

todettiin, että Stacey ja Griffin kieltävät ideologisten ylhäältä annettujen kokonaisuuksien ylivallan

ihmisten toiminnan yli. Systeemissä itsessään on oltava riittävä diversiteetti, että se pystyisi

toimimaan kompleksisesti. Vasta toimijoiden erilaisuus takaa että organisaation toimintaa on

mahdollista muuttaa. Kyseenalaistaminen jää toteutumatta, jos vuorovaikutukseen ei osallistu

riittävästi erilaisia ihmisiä..

Mielenkiintoista Staceyn ja Griffinin kehitelmässä onkin, että juuri vuorovaikutuksen kannalta

negatiivisiksi koetut piirteet ilmentävät organisaation diversiteettiä, ja diversiteetti taas on

luovuutta, innovaatioita ja oppimista liikkeellesysäävä voima. Tutkijat puhuvat vuorovaikutuksen

yhteydessä valtasuhteista ja variaatioista, väärinymmärryksistä ja ahdistuksesta, mutta juuri nämä

vuorovaikutusta vaikeuttavat asiat samalla varmistavat sen, että organisaatiota voidaan kaiken

aikaa muuttaa (Stacey 2003, 374-383, Stacey&Griffin 2005, 14-22).

Staceyn ja Griffinin organisaatioteoria painottaa että oppiminen on sosiaalista ja paikallista

(Stacey & Griffin 2005, 35-36). Heidän näkökulmastaan on tärkeää tutkia yhden ryhmän ja

yksilön elävää kokemusta interaktiosta (sense making process, Shaw & Stacey 2005). Tämäkin

ajatus voidaan kytkeä taidon tiedon välittymiseen.

Erityisesti Stacey on paneutunut laajemmin vuorovaikutuksen tutkimukseen, muun muassa

etnometodologiseen keskustelunanalyysiin ja Mihail Bahtinin dialogikäsitykseen (Stacey 2003,

327-329, Shaw 2002, Fonseca 2001, Shotter 1993, Shotter & Billig 1998). Stacey ja Griffin eivät ole

keskustelun tutkijoita, vaan he päätyvät synnyttämään reflektiota ennen kaikkea organisaatioissa

tuotettujen kertomusten avulla (vrt. Fonseca 2003). Tutkijoille kertomus on muoto, joka nostaa

tutkijan ulottuville ideologiset olettamukset toiminnan takana (Stacey & Griffin 2005, 23-24).

Kukin organisaation toimija tuottaa kertomuksia, joita Stacey ja Griffin kutsuvat refleksiivisiksi

persoonallisiksi kertomuksiksi. Niille on tyypillistä, että ne on tuotettu yhden henkilön

näkökulmasta. Henkilön menneisyys muokkaa aina hänen tapaansa valikoida tapahtumia

kerrottavaksi. Kertomusten julkituominen ja yhteinen käsittely on organisaatiolle oppimisen

lähde. Refleksiivinen persoonallinen kertomus paikallistaa henkilön ympäröivään organisaatioon

ja tuottaa raakamateriaalia muiden toimijoiden reflektiolle. Refleksiivisten persoonallisten

kertomusten tuottaminen pitää yllä systeemin diversiteettiä, sillä se korostaa yhden toimijan

muotoileman kokemuksen eroja suhteessa muiden toimijoiden muotoilemiin kertomuksiin. Se,

että kertoja kertoo itse kertomuksensa ja että jokaista kertomusta käsitellään kontekstissaan,

vastauksena toisen kertomukseen, on tutkijalle tärkeä eettinen kysymys otettavaksi huomioon

kertomusten käsittelyssä (Griffin 2002).

3. Ilmaisuvoima lisääntyy improvisaatiolla

Improvisaatio ymmärretään arkikielessä usein toiminnaksi, joka on kaikista säännöistä vapaata

ja muuttuvaa. Yhteistoiminnallinen improvisaatio on kuitenkin pikemminkin tarkkojen

sääntöjen mukaista vuorovaikutusta, jossa ydin on tekemisen siirtymisessä henkilöltä toiselle.

Improvisaatiossa toiminnan käsitteen analyysiyksikkö jäsentyy samaan tapaan eleeksi ja

vastaukseksi kuin Herbert Meadin teoriassa tai etnometodologisessa keskustelunanalyysissa.

Kyseessä on teon ja siihen vastauksena tuotetun teon synnyttämä toiminnan ketju.

Improvisaatiossa toiminnan kaksisuuntainen luonne edistää toiminnan taitavuuden lisäämistä ja

on siten toiminnan taiteellinen ydin. Yhteistoiminnallisesti improvisoitu esitys perustuu toisen

toiminnan havainnointiin ja siihen reagoimiseen. Toisen toimintaan reagoiminen lisää koko

toiminnan ilmaisuvoimaa, sillä jokainen vastaus eleeseen vie toiminnan aina uudelle tasolle.

Taiteessa improvisaatio on siis sekä yksilöiden että ryhmän ilmaisukykyä ja toimintavalmiuksia

lisäävä menetelmä. Se lisää kykyä havainnoida toisia ja reagoida toisten toimintaan, ja samalla se

kasvattaa improvisoijan omaa kykyä ilmaista itseään.

Onnistunut reagoiminen toisen toimintaan on mahdollista, kun ryhmässä vallitsee reilun ryhmän

idea. Johnstonen mukaan improvisaatio saa olla vain ja ainoastaan tekoja ja toimintaa, ja toiminta

syntyy reaktiona toisten toimintaan. Ryhmän vetäjä on vastuussa siitä, että ryhmässä ei ole

kilpailua tai vertailua vaan jokainen ryhmän jäsen on omalla toiminnallaan vastuussa toisten

edistymisestä. Toimiva ryhmä syntyy, kun vetäjä käsittelee kaikkia ryhmän jäseniä tasapuolisesti

eikä kiinnitä huomiota virheisiin, vaan keskittyy ainoastaan yhteistoiminnallisesti tuotetun

toiminnan edistämiseen (Johnstone 2002, 25-29, Spolin 2000). Improvisaatio pyrkii olemaan

kokemuksena vapauttava, se muistuttaa siirtymistä luovaan flow-tilaan, jossa toiminta syntyy

kuin itsestään, pakottomasti. Toimivasta yhteistyöstä taidon lisäämisessä syntyy ryhmäkokemus,

joka on suurempi kuin yksilön kokemus (Csikszentmihalyi 2005).

4. Taiteen dialogi on kykyä altistua uudelle

Myös taideopetuksessa nähdään, että taito välittyy uudelle sukupolvelle nimenomaan dialogissa.


Dialogi on alusta asti kuulunut taideopetuksen keskeisimpään perimään, mestari ja kisälli -

asetelmaan. Taiteilijan työprosessi voidaan nähdä eräänlaiseksi löytöretkeksi, esimerkiksi esi-

intention muuttumiseksi intentioksi ja ei-tietoisen muuttumiseksi tietoiseksi. Silloin kyse on

matkasta, jonka aikana toteutuu taiteellisen työn erityinen teleologinen luonne ja toteutuu lopullinen

teos tai teosten sarja (Tuomikoski 1987, 166-17�). Esimerkiksi Inkeri Savan teksteissä sana dia-

logos (”välissä oleva”) liitetään taiteelliseen matkaan ja taiteellisen päämäärän muotoutumiseen.

Taiteen dialogi on matkan tekemistä yhdessä toisen kanssa, suostumista toisen johdattamiseen ja

johdatetuksi tulemiseen. (Sava 1998, 11�-115.)

Yhtä hyvin taiteen dialogin yhteydessä voidaan puhua etenemisestä kokemuksen varassa (vrt.

Lehtovaara 1996, 29-68). Taiteen kokemuksellisuus on usein ymmärretty laajemmin kuin tieteen

kokemuksellisuus, se voi olla minkä tahansa sisäisen tai ulkoisen prosessin tunnetuksi tulemista.

Taiteelliseen kokemukseen yhdistyy myös sellaisia mahdollisuuksia kuin ainutkertaisuus

vastakohtana toistettavuudelle, selkiytymättömyys vastakohtana kokemukselle jossa subjekti ja

objekti on erotettavissa tai eriytymättömyys vastakohtana kokemukselle, jossa yksilön kokemus

ja kollektiivinen kokemus ovat erotettavissa. (Vadén 2003, 86.)

Dialogi on taiteessakin menetelmä, jossa kaksi ihmistä osallistuu vastavuoroisesti, eri näkökulmista,

toistensa tilanteiden määrittelyyn. Intersubjektiivisuuden ajatus korostaa, että yksilön tai yhteisön

kokemus, sen autenttisuus ja varmuus täytyy aina olla kyseenalaistettavissa. Tärkeämpää kuin

taistelu siitä, kenen kokemus on autenttinen, on se, että mahdollisimman moni (mielellään jokainen)

saa kertoa omasta kokemuksestaan. Jokaisella on mahdollisuus sanoa jotain, joka on yhteisesti

jaettavissa (emt., 88). Dialogiin liittyvä vastavuoroisuuden periaate mahdollistaa kokemusten

jatkuvan uudelleenmäärittelyn ja automatisoituneiden käytänteiden ja konventioiden murtamisen.

Dialogiin suostuminen tarkoittaa taiteen tekijälle yleistä avoimuutta uusien yhdistelmien

mahdollisuudelle, sattuman ja yllätyksen mahdollisuudelle. (Varto 1993, 7.)

Kari Uusikylä puhuu taiteilijan luovasta avoimuudesta. Luovuus on hänen mukaansa avointa

suhtautumista ympäröiviin tulkintoihin. Uusikylän mukaan luovan ihmisen tulee sietää ristiriitoja

ja epävarmuutta ilman, että hän lyö liian nopeasti lukkoon mikä on totuus (Uusikylä 2003, 75,

Rogers 1961). Dialogiin heittäytyminen voikin liittyä esimerkiksi Carl Rogesin määritelmään,

jonka mukaisesti luovuus on kykyä altistua erilaisille käsitteille ja kokemuksille ja osallistua

epävarmuuden prosessiin, jossa lopputulos ei ole ennalta tiedossa (Uusikylä 2003, 7�).

Voidaan myös ajatella, että taiteelliselle kokemukselle ei ole edes ominaista päämäärä, vaan

jatkuva liike ja kokeilu, joka tapahtuu dialogissa ympäröivän maailman kanssa. Esimerkiksi

Donald W. Winnicott paikallistaa koko taiteen syntymisen paikan normaalin ulkopuolelle,

maailmojen välialueelle. Leikin, symbolien ja taiteen alue jää yksityisen ja julkisen eli toiminnan

säännöiksi konventionaalistuneen maailman väliin (Winnicott 1966). Päivi Granön mukaan taide

voi rakentaa verkon kalojen pyydystämiseksi, mutta lopulta olennaiseksi jää prosessi: etsiminen,

kysely ja lopulta saavuttamattomuus (Granö 2003, 133).

Dialogi on taidepedagogiikassa, yhtä hyvin kuin muussakin pedagogiikassa, metodi, joka liittyy

toiminnan reflektointiin. Esimerkiksi Sava toteaa, että dialogin tehtävä on laajentaa toimivan

subjektin tietoja, kokemuksia, havaintoja ja tulkintoja työstään. Kyse on samalla työn taidokkuutta

lisäävistä asioista (Sava 1998, 115). Dialogi toteutuu käytännössä erityisesti opettajan ja opiskelijan

välisessä vuorovaikutuksessa. Marja-Liisa Kuuranne-Autelo kuvaa taideopettajan ja opiskelijan

vuoropuhelua hyvin samoilla mikrotason käsitteillä kuin etnometodologinen keskustelunanalyysi

puhuu keskustelun vuoronvaihdosta (Taikopeda 1998, jakso 3). Martti Raevaaran tutkimuksessa

taideopetuksen palautteenannosta opettajan tai vertaisryhmän puhumattomuus, niukka palaute tai

läsnäolon merkkien puuttuminen koettiin jo sinänsä negatiiviseksi arvioksi ja työn väheksymiseksi.

Opiskelijat halusivat että jokaisen taiteellisesta työstä keskustellaan määrällisesti riittävästi ja

tasavertaisesti (Raevaara 1999, 76, 109).

5. Dialogin rajaaminen tuo syvyyttä

Taidepedagogiikassa käyty keskustelu oppimisympäristöjen laadusta liittyy sekin hyvän dialogin

edellytyksiin. Taideopetuksessa on korostettu paljon tilan merkitystä taitojen tuottajana (vrt.

Anttila 2003), ja nähty, että luovuutta edistävä vapaus ei ole rajatonta, vaan vapautta joka liittyy

tiettyyn rajattuun tilaan. Satu Kiljusen mukaan luovuutta edistää se, että ihminen on tiettyjen

rajoitusten puitteissa vapaa reagoimaan tilanteeseen läsnä olevilla välineillä (Löytönen &Sava

1998, 25).

Taideopetus voidaankin alusta asti nähdä rajojen asettamisena, jotta dialogille saataisiin synnytettyä

suotuisat, keskittyneet olosuhteet. Jo taideopetukseen pyrittäessä opiskelijat valitaan tarkkojen

taitoihin ja ominaisuuksiin liittyvien kriteerien mukaisesti. Opiskelun alussa oppimisympäristöä

on perinteisesti rajattu niin, että ohjataan opiskelijat ensin tutkimaan tärkeimpiä lainalaisuuksia,

jotka liittyvät opiskeltavaan taidemuotoon (Taikopeda 1998, jakso 6).

Kun taidemuodon perustaviin lähtökohtiin liittyvä rajaus on tehty, monet taidepedagogit korostavat

oppimisprosessin mahdollisimman suurta vapautta yksittäisissä projekteissa. Taideopettajat

toteavat, että jos oppimisprosessissa annetaan vapaus ja mahdollisimman väljät ohjeet, opiskelijat

oppivat asettamaan itse tavoitteita ja tekevät keskittyneemmin töitä (Taikopeda 1998, jakso

6). Periaate jonka mukaan innovaatioita syntyy rajatussa prosessissa liittyy yleisemminkin

pedagogiikkaan kun puhutaan esimerkiksi varioinnista oppimisen äitinä. Variointi on tiukasti

asetetuissa rajoissa tapahtuvaa toiminnan muuntelua (Marton 2000). Taidepedagogiikassa

muuntelemisen vapaus tiettyjen rajojen puitteissa ja prosessin aikana käytävä dialogi synnyttävät

yhdessä oppimisympäristön, jossa opiskelija oppii kyseenalaistamaan taiteelliset lähtökohtansa

ja kasvaa uudistamaan edustamansa taidemuodon konventioita, arvoja ja käsityksiä (Löytönen &

Sava 1998, 10-11).

6. Yhteiskehittely on jatkuvaa neuvottelua

Toiminnan teoriassa ja kehittävässä työntutkimuksessa on viime aikoina tarkasteltu paljon

yhteiskehittelyyn perustuvaa työtä. Yhteiskehittely (co-configuration work) on uudenlaista


työn tekemisen taitoa, se on vuorovaikutukselle ja asiakasälykkyydelle perustuva uuden

sukupolven työn tekemisen tapa. Yhteiskehittely on saanut nimensä siitä, että merkitystuotantoon

perustuvassa verkostoituneessa yhteiskunnassa tuotteiden ja palveluiden tekeminen vaatii

jatkuvaa uudelleenkonfigurointia käyttäjän, tuottajan ja tuotteen välisenä vuoropuheluna. (Victor

& Boynton 1998, Engeström 200�).

Toiminnan teoria ja kehittävä työntutkimus on kiinnostunut, miten toimijat itse rakentavat

toimintansa yhteisen kohteen ja miten tätä kohdetta on mahdollistaa laajentaa työntekijöiden

oppimisprosessiin liittyvän ekspansion avulla (Engeström 200�, 59-63). Esimerkiksi

käsityöläismäiseen yhteiskehittelyyn perustuvassa työssä tarvitaan erilaista toimintaa, tekoja ja

operaatioita (Leontjev 1977) kuin massatuotannossa (Victor & Boynton 1998). Työn kehittäminen

on riippuvaista vuorovaikutuksen laadusta. Vuorovaikutuksen tutkimista onkin pidetty kehittävän

työntutkimuksen yhtenä keskeisimpänä tutkimushaasteena siirryttäessä yhteiskehittelyn

aikakauteen (Engeström 200�, 103-12�).

Omassa televisiotuotantoa käsittelevässä tutkimuksessani tarkastelen luovaa sisältötuotantotyötä.

Olen kerännyt aineistoni television keskusteluohjelmien tuotannosta. Television

keskusteluohjelmissa yhteiskehittely tapahtuu sisältötiimin ja visuaalisen tiimin yhteistyönä.

Kulttuuristen merkitysten muodostamiseen ja organisointiin perustuva työ vaatii tekijöiltä

käsityöläismäisiä kvalifikaatioita, mutta television tuotantoprosessi taas organisoituu paljolti

massatuotannon prosessien mukaisesti.

Yhteiskehittelyyn perustuva työ vaatii aina tekijöiden runsasta ja jatkuvaa keskustelua ja

neuvottelua. Omassa tutkimuksessani olen havainnut, että työprosessi voi aika ajoin rajata

merkittävästi vuorovaikutusta. Televisiotuotannoissa tuotantoprosessi jäsentyy ennen kaikkea

taloudellisista ja organisaatioiden rakenteeseen liittyvistä lähtökohdista, ja se on viime aikoina

muuttunut aikaisempaa kaksinapaisemmaksi. Lähtökohtana on entistä useammin tilanne,

jossa televisiokanava tilaa ohjelmasisällöt alihankkijalta, kaupalliselta tuotantoyhtiöltä, mutta

studiotyöskentely, keskustelun monikamerataltiointi, tapahtuu edelleen tilaajan henkilöstöllä ja

tiloissa ja yhä kiireisemmissä aikatauluissa.

Korkealaatuisen journalismin toteuttamisen kannalta tämä on haaste, sillä kanavan palveluksessa

oleva ohjaaja ja ohjelman tuottaja kuormittuvat entistä enemmän sisältöjen suunnittelun

näkökulmasta. Uudessa tuotantotilanteessa he ovat entistä useammin tuotantotiimin ainoita

jäseniä, joilla on kokonaiskuva työstä ja ohjelmasarjan sisällöllisistä tavoitteista. Koko työn

ketjun uudelleen organisointiin ja uudenlaiseen yhteydenpitoon toimijoiden välissä tarvitaan

uudenlaisia toimintatapoja.

Samaan aikaan myös muuttuva television asiakassuhde edellyttää uusia toimintatapoja.

Yleisradiotyyppinen perinteinen suomalainen televisiotoiminta on siirtymässä kaaviojohtamiseen

perustuvasta monikanavatelevisiosta kohti digitaalisen television asiakas- ja jakelukanavakeskeistä

aikakautta. Television ohjelmatuotanto ei ole enää kulttuurin kylvämistä kaikille suomalaisille

(broadcasting), ei enää edes kohderyhmille kohdistamista (narrowcasting), vaan tilanne halutaan

kääntää toisin päin, yleisöillä on mahdollisuus valikoida ja kuluttaa tai jopa rakentaa haluamiaan

sisältöjä (Hujanen 2005). Yhteiskehittelyn periaatteiden mukaisesti myös kulttuuristen

merkitysten arvioimisen ja muodostamisen vastuuta halutaan siirtää entistä enemmän asiakkaille,

televisioyleisöille.

Toiminnan teoriassa ja kehittävässä työntutkimuksessa painotetaan, että työn tekijä on aina oman

työnsä ja työn muutoksen aktori, toimija, joka toimimalla muuttaa maailmaa (Leontjev 1977,

32). Työn kehittäminen on toimintatutkimusta, jossa intervention kohteena on työntekijöiden

oma tulkinta työstään (Virkkunen jne. 1999). Kehittävä työntutkimus on kiinnostunut siirtymistä

eli prosesseista joissa siirrytään vanhoista toiminnan käytänteistä uusiin. Kehittävässä

työntutkimuksessa etnografisia menetelmiä käytetään paljastamaan vanhojen rutiinien ja uusien

työn vaatimusten välistä dynamiikkaa, jossa keskeinen käsite ovat ristiriidat (contradictions).

Toiminnassa koetut häiriöt ovat merkkejä siitä, että toimintajärjestelmän osat ovat ristiriitaisessa

suhteessa keskenään. Työn kehittäminen on jatkuvaa kollektiivista työn merkityksellistämistä ja

uusien työn välineiden kehittämistä.

Omassa tutkimuksessani olen kerännyt laaja-alaisen interaktiivisen etnografisen aineiston

television keskusteluohjelmaa tekevien toimijoiden suhteesta omaan työhönsä. Kehittävässä

työntutkimuksessa aineistoa pyritään usein keräämään paikassa, jossa toiminnan kokonaisuus ja

sen koordinointi rakentuu ja toiminta on yhtä aikaa kaikkien nähtävillä (Suchman 1987). Yksi

keskeisistä aineiston keräämisen paikoista omassa tutkimuksessani on ollut ohjaamo ja studio.

Erityyppisiin puhumisen tilanteisiin (muun muassa suunnittelukokouksiin, haastatteluihin ja

ohjelmien katseluihin) perustuva aineistoni kertoo, millaisia mahdollisuuksia yhteiskehittelyyn

kullakin tuotantotiimin osapuolella tuotannossa on ja miten he haluaisivat työtä kehittää.

7. Kehittämispuhe reflektoi toiminnan kohdetta

Ritva Engeströmin tutkimus lääkärinvastaanottojen keskusteluista soveltaa kehittävän työntutkimuksen

lähtökohtia keskustelujen tutkimukseen. Tutkimuksen aineistona on työtilanteisiin liittyvä puhe.

Engeström tutkii samantyyppisiä analyysiyksikköjä kuin etnometodologinen keskustelunanalyysi,

eli lääkärin ja potilaan vuoronvaihdoista rakentuvia dialogisia episodeja. Hän tutkii miten lääkäri

ja potilas merkityksellistävät yhteistä toiminnan kohdettaan (Engeström 1999, 27-31). Engeström

on kiinnostunut erityisesti vuorovaikutuksessa tapahtuvista häiriöistä ja innovaatioista, jotka hänen

tulkintansa mukaan voivat ilmaista että lääkärin ja potilaan yhteisessä toiminnan kohteessa on jotain

neuvoteltavaa tai se on laajenemassa (emt., 2�6-307, ks. myös 2002).

Omasta televisiotuotannon aineistostani relevantit puheaineistot löytyvät poimimalla. Kutsun

tutkimusaineistoja nimellä ”kehittämispuhe”. Määrittelen kehittämispuheen puheeksi, joka

suuntautuu toimintaan jolla on yhteinen kohde, jossa tiimien välinen yhteistoiminta on


mahdollista ja jossa ilmaistaan joku työn kehittämisen itu, esimerkiksi kehittämisen tarve tai

suunta. Kehittämispuhe on siis puhetta, jossa puhuja merkityksellistää suhdettaan sekä yhteiseen

toiminnan kohteeseen että yhteistoimintaan kohteen haltuunotossa. Käytännössä tämä tarkoittaa,

että työntekijä itse asettaa itsensä johonkin toimijan asemaan sisältötiimin ja visuaalisen tiimin

välisessä yhteistyössä.

Olen kiinnostunut myös siitä, millä abstraktiotasolla työstä puhutaan eli millaisia ovat ne

yleistykset, joiden tasolla puhe liikkuu. Kehittävässä työntutkimuksessa toiminnan havainnointia ja

merkityksellistämistä tehdään kolmella eri abstraktiotasolla (Virkkunen jne. 1999). Ensimmäisellä

tasolla on kysymys työtilanteen kyseenalaistamisesta ja ongelman huomaamisesta, toisella tasolla

on kysymys työkäytännön joidenkin piirteiden kyseenalaistamisesta ja kolmannella tasolla on

kysymys työhön liittyvien ajatusmallien ja periaatteiden kyseenalaistamisesta (vrt. Engeström

1995). Kehittämispuheesta voidaan siis analysoida, millä ekspansiiviseen oppimiseen liittyvillä

reflektion tasoilla työstään puhuvat työntekijät liikkuvat (vrt. Engeström 2004, 119-120).

Yritän myös jäsentää eri toimijoiden kehittämispuhetta puheenaiheiden mukaisesti yhteen niin,

että kehittämispuheesta rakentuu eräänlainen työn kehittämistä reflektoiva virikeaineisto. Kutsun

tällä tavalla rakennettua aineistoa keinotekoisesti rakennetuksi kehittäväksi keskusteluksi.

Orkestroimalla kehittämispuhetta kehittäväksi keskusteluksi pyrin havainnoillistamaan ja

rinnastamaan toisiinsa mahdollisimman monia erilaisia näkökulmia, joista toiminnan yhteinen

kohde voi toimijoille näyttäytyä.

8. Innovaatiot syntyvät yhdistelmistä

Ideani rakentaa kehittämispuheesta kehittävää keskustelua, jossa toistensa kanssa ristiriitaisetkin

näkökulmat nostetaan rinnakkain, liittyy Mihail Bahtinin dialogisuus-ajatteluun (Bahtin

1982, 1987, 1991). Myös Ritva Engeström käyttää Bahtinin tulkintoja omassa lääkäri-potilas

-keskustelujen tutkimuksessaan. Bahtinin romaanikerronnan teoriaan kuuluu moniäänisyys,

polyfonia. Hänen mukaansa romaanin kerronnassa eri toimijoiden äänet on mahdollista orkestroida

dialogiseksi kudokseksi siten, että ne toisaalta säilyttävät autenttisuutensa (living utterance),

toisaalta asettuvat vastakkain paljastamaan toinen toistensa ideologisuuden.

Dialogisen orkestroinnin idea tulee myös taiteen teoriasta, jossa montaasi ja kollaasi merkitsi ilmaisun,

itse asiassa koko esteettisen ajattelutavan, vallankumousta. Bahtinin polyfonia on läsnä esimerkiksi

elokuvan kerronnassa, kun pyritään rinnastamaan toisiinsa erilaisia kerronnan ääniä ja erilaisia

näkökulmia. Bahtinille dialogin ydin on eri toimijoiden intentioiden ristiriitaisuuksien esille tuominen

(von Bagh 2002). Jos tämä lähtökohta siirretään kehittävän keskustelun ideaan, voidaan ajatella, että

dialogimuotoon orkestroitu työn kehittämispuhe edustaa kerronnan muotoa, jossa jokaisen puhujan

on mahdollista säilyä työhönsä nähden yhteiskunnallisena ja kulttuurisena toimijana, joka ilmaisee

omasta näkökulmastaan halunsa muuttaa työtä. (vrt. Shotter 1993, Fonseca 2001).

Kerronnan teorian mukaan dialogin eri puhujien yhteentörmäyksissä syntyy kerronnan

aukkoja (Bahtin 1982, 276-278). Kehittävän työntutkimuksen mukaan vuorovaikutuksesta voi

löytyä häiriöitä ja neuvottelua merkkinä siitä, että toimijat laajentavat toiminnan yhteistä kohdetta.

Kun toiminnasta neuvotellaan, syntyy uusia toiminnan mahdollisuuksia. Tässä yhteydessä voidaan

hyvin puhua innovaatioista (vrt. Bahtin 1987, ks. Stacey jne. 2000, 17�-175, Vygotsky 1982).

Dialogi onkin Bahtinin mukaan ainoa rakenne, jossa puhujat on asetettu, itse asiassa pakotettu

tilanteeseen jossa heidän on mahdollista ymmärtää toisiaan (Bahtin 1982, 282). Dialogi ei ole

ainoastaan uusien tulkintojen, innovaatioiden syntypaikka vaan se on samalla jo paikka, jossa

käynnistyy myös innovaatioiden leviäminen.

Voidaan ajatella, että bahtinilainen ajatus dialogin orkestroinnista korostaa konfliktin paljastamisen

merkitystä toiminnan kehittymisessä. Bahtinin mukaan äänillä jotka ovat dialogissa keskenään

on taipumus vapautua toistensa vallasta, ja dialogiin asettuminen ja dialogiksi asettaminen

johtavat siten ideologiseen tiedostamiseen ja vapautumiseen (Bahtin 1982, 3�8). Kehittävässä

työntutkimuksessa taas toiminnassa koetut häiriöt ja jännitteet ja niiden paljastuminen ovat

välttämätön askel toiminnan kehittämiseen. Näistä näkökulmista uusi yhteiskehittelyyn perustuva

työn tekemisen tapa ei edellytä konsensusta, vaan kykyä käsitellä ja hyödyntää konflikteja.

Keräämällä ja orkestroimalla työntekijöiden kehittämispuhetta on mahdollista näyttää konfliktit

dialogista ja saavuttaa sen kautta entistä moninäkökulmaisempi työn ymmärtäminen.

Artikkelini lähti organisaatioteoriasta, joka edustaa uudenlaista, jatkuvaan keskusteluun

perustuvaa käsitystä monimutkaistuvan organisaation muuttamisesta ja johtamisesta. Sekä

makrotason organisaatioteoria että mikrotason etnometodologinen keskustelunanalyysi lähtevät

siitä, että keskustelu sisältää aina mahdollisuuden vastarintaan ja aitoon toiminnan muuttamiseen.

Taidepedagogiikan tai taiteellisen improvisaation käsitykset dialogin suurista mahdollisuuksista

taas muistuttavat, että rajatussa eleen ja vastauksen tilanteessa on mahdollista synnyttää

täysin uudenlaisia yhdistelmiä, ilmaisun innovaatioita. Toiminnan teoriassa ja kehittävässä

työntutkimuksessa innovaatioita on löydetty vuorovaikutustilanteista, ja silloin käsitteellä

innovaatio viitataan ekspansioon oppimisessa ja samalla luovuuteen. Yhteinen toiminnan kohde

voidaan määritellä uudella tavalla.

Dialogin mahdollisuuksia korostavat teoreettiset lähtökohdat voidaan kääntää myös

toimintaohjeeksi. Näyttää siltä, että toimintaa kriittisesti arvioivien, kyseenalaistavien dialogien

salliminen, rohkaiseminen ja dialogin taitojen opettaminen voivat olla avaimia yhteiskehittelyn

mahdollisimman luovan, moninäkökulmaisen, asiakaslähtöisen työtavan ja sitä tukevan

johtamisen kehittämiseen.

Dialogiin kannustaminen mahdollistaa uusien yhdistelmien syntymisen. Kehittämispuheen

taltiointi ja moniäänisyyden esilletuominen kytkeytyy siis mitä läheisimmin taitoon liittyvään

tietoon ja sen rikastamiseen.


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Culture is basically creativeKatriina Siivonen

MA

Abstract

The core of global transition in our time is considered to be cultural change. Firstly, the essential

point is transition from intended uniformity to creative individuality and cultural heterogeneity.

Secondly, the essential point is the increased value of symbols in culture. Thirdly, it is emergent

glocal networks. However, in the analysis of our times, a transition period, the concept of culture

has not been conceptualised from the standpoint of the individual. In this article I shall present

a semiotic theory of culture, wherein anthroposemiosis is the primary power in the whole global

process of culture. Thus, the basic quality of culture is, on the one hand, the individual dynamics

and creativity and, on the other, the individual capacity to build on the foundation of different

former experiences, actions, habits and symbols, which are shared with other people in the process

of anthroposemiosis. If this individual based cultural process is not visible in a conceptual form

in the theory of culture, it is not truly possible to free the basic, creative power of culture in

different communities.

Cultural change of our time

The core of global transition in our time is considered to be cultural change. Firstly, the essential

point is transition from intended uniformity of industrial time to creative individuality and

cultural heterogeneity at the current time and in the future. This is visible in everyday life, but

also through other changes, such as in economic and administrative activites and structures.

Secondly, an essential element in global transition is dematerialisation of the economy and society.

Increasingly, part of production and consumption will become intangible items, and material part

of the value of products will decrease proportionally. This will increase the value of symbols in

culture. Thirdly, cultural change consists of networks which connect local and global elements to

each other and, thus, to more and more multidimensional and dynamic social structures. The new

era has often been mentioned as a network society according to Manuel Castells. (Castells 1996;

Castells 1998, 336-360; Wilenius 200�, 22-29; see also Florida 200�, 1-17, 267-269.)


In the opinion of Markku Wilenius cultural competence will be even more than before an essential

element in the development of regions, different organisations and enterprises. That is, they will

demand more and more competence in the understanding and managment of heterogeneous

and changing intangible and tangible cultural phenomena, such as different signs and symbols

connected to the material world, all of which are in motion in the global networks. (Wilenius

200�, �0-60). In different enterprises and in administration this competence is already now seen

as being necessary, for instance, for increasing innovation and developing economic wealth.

(Ståhle & Wilenius 2006, 20�-209.)

In the analysis of our times transition period, the concept of culture has not been conceptualised

from the viewpoint of individuals. Culture is, after all, seen in these analyses as a whole, to which

individuals are connected and with the help of which they interpret and act in the world. (See

e.g. Wilenius 200�; Castells 1996; Castells 1997; Castells 1998). For instance, Richard Florida

has identified creative individuals. But for him also, the creative class are those people who work

in branches in which they should be producing independently and with creativity new signs,

symbols, services and products. He focuses on those economic and cultural contexts, wherein

individuality exists in relatively strong form. In this case the basically creative, dynamic and

heterogeneous quality of culture will remain unconceptualised and invisible. (Florida 200�, 8-10

ja passim.) To accept individuals and individual based cultural processes as a part of the concept

of culture is, in my opinion, crucial for understanding the cultural character of the transition of

our times.

In this article I shall define culture primarily as a signification process, in which various conscious

and unconscious cultural wholes exist. I start with individuals and the possibilities they have of

interpreting their surroundings and acting therein. Firstly, this provides the possibility of perceiving

individual everyday creativity as a part of culture. Secondly, this makes it possibe to analyse how

different conscious and unconscious cultural wholes find and take on form in the heterogeneous

and creative process of culture, to which individuals are connected through their thoughts and

actions. At the end of the article, I consider more closely different cultural wholes. With help of

a conceptual whole of this kind it will be possible to link together individual everyday creativity,

cultural competence and different cultural wholes, which are all essential to the understanding of

the transition of our time.

The basic flow of culture

In every single situation, in which a human being perceives something and interprets the

perception, (s)he uses a sign. According to the semiotics of Charles S. Peirce, our possibilities of

knowing anything about the surrounding world is based on sensations, which are organised with

help of signs, to perceptions, interpretations, and understanding of the world (Peirce 1992/1868).

A sign is “something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity” (CP:

2.228).1 A sign is a whole of three interrelated elements, illustrated in the following diagram with

three interlinked segments of line (Merrell 1995: �1–�3; see also CP: 1.3�7; Bergman 200�:

176–177 ).

In human interaction in the whole of a sign, an interpretant is a sign in the mind of a human

being, to which (s)he has combined in her/his interpretation a representamen, that is a material

or immaterial manifestation of the sign, and the object of the sign (CP: 2.228, 27�–302). In front

of an unfamiliar phenomenon, a human being searches and formulates in her/his thoughts an

interpretant, which could organise the perception in the best possible way. After the perception, the

experience of it with the interpretant functions already as a part of the following representamen,

with the help of which it is possible to pass on information concerning the perception to someone

else. It is also possible, that a human being thinks to herself/himself the perception and interprets

it to a new interpretant in her/his mind with a representamen, she/he presents for herself/himself.

The new interpretant is in relation to its own representamen and its own object, and includes the

understanding that the first interpretation brought about the perception. This way a complementary,

dynamic interpretant grows in the mind of a human being. With it she/he can interpret new, similar

kinds of perceptions. Interpretants and signs form chains, in other words a semiosis in the process

of presentations and interpretations of signs. In every situation human beings have in their use a

number of interpretants for organising the richness of perceptions. In every situation interpretants

grow according to the available possibilities and form a number of chains of interpretants and

signs. (Deely 1990: 22–�9; CP:2.303; Deely 199�: 9�–96.)

Perceptions might also concern some immaterial phenomena presented by some other human

beings2, some material phenomena produced by some human beings or some natural phenomena.

1 Following the accepted practice, I refer to the Collected Papers of Charles S. Peirce (CP) by volume and

paragraph numbers, separated by a full-stop.

2 Immaterial phenomena of this kind comes across from one human being to an other human being always

with help of a representamen, that is a physically existing part of the sign. Anyhow, here I just wanted to connect the

thoughts to the ideas of material and immaterial culture, to which culture is customarily divided.

Figure 1. An illustration of Charles S. Peirce’s concept of sign.


In the whole of the sign, the interpretant is connected to these perceived phenomena from outside

of the mind of the perceiver and is completed in interaction with them in the process of semiosis

in interpretants following other interpretants. In other words, a human being remolds her/his

understanding of the outstanding world of her/his mind in that manner, that it becomes a part

of her/his understanding. At the same time her/his understanding and activities based on this

understanding remolds the outstanding world. This happens with all human beings, and the

outstanding world of all of them consists of signs containing thoughts expressed by other human

beings and material surroundings. This is the basis of cultural change and creativity, but at the

same time of learning and memories. (Deely 199�: 30–2; CP: 7.536, 587.)

In the interaction between human beings, their chains of interpretants are linked to the chains of

other people and form a network. One dimension of this network is time. John Deely writes about

semiosis as a network, which covers the whole universum. One part of this network is an interactive

network between human beings and their surroundings. This Deely calls antroposemiosis. (Deely

199�: 22–31.) I understand antroposemiosis as a constantly changing relationship between human

beings and their surroundings. In this network contacts between different individuals and their

surroundings are composed of signs based on sensations. In this network signs are in a state of

inevitable change, because the network consists of the chains of interpretants and signs, wherein

one sign following another is never identical to the previous one.3 In the process of semiosis single,

immediate interpretants become parts of dynamic interpretants, which are always wider than any

single interpretant used in a different situation. At the same time, dynamical interpretants change

continually and grow through single, immediate interpretants. (Bergman 200�: �01-�02.)

Through the process of semiosis, it is somehow possible to discern dynamical interpretants of

one human being always in a certain stage of her/his life. They are matters she/he has learned,

she/he remembers and she/he has produced, in other words her/his life experience and life work.

Through semiosis, it is also somehow possible to discern life work, life experience and memories

of mankind, from which the own semiosis of any single person can not be disconnected. But it

is more difficult to discern some possessed part of semiosis of any group of people that is the

possessed culture of that group. This is difficult, whether or not the group is defined according

nationality, regionality, ethnicity, locality, ideology or, for example, some organisation. Human

fields of interaction are not limited to any border in time, space or social organisation. People are

always connected to other people and they are connected further to some other people until the

whole world is encircled many times. So, semiosis is a global process, which is also obvious in

the global world of our time.

3 Peirce writes in the following quotation about an interpretant, that it can be equivalent or perhaps more

developed than a representamen: “A sign, or representamen, is something which stands to somebody for something

in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or

perhaps a more developed sign.” (CP: 2.228, original emphasis). Deely underlines the little by little clarifying view

of Peirce concerning the nature of signs as constantly growing and changing elements in the process of semiosis

(Deely 1990: 23). Also, for example, Mats Bergman sees the process of semiosis and changes as a central parts of

Peircean semiotics (Bergman 200�: �01–�02).

The antroposemiotic network consists firstly of the physical world with nature, people and a

material environment produced by people, that is, artifacts, buildings and cultural landscape�.

Secondly, this network consists of concepts, thoughts and stories, which people exchange with

each other5. So, in this network both material and immaterial elements are equal and have a mutual

impact on each other. Change is a basic quality of the network. Then again, both people, their

thoughts about their surrounding world, their actions in their surroundings, and their material and

immaterial surroundings are constantly changing. The creative core of culture varies and changes

continually in the process of anthroposemiosis. It is impossible to prevent changes in culture.

The process of anthroposemiosis gives one form of existence to culture and in my understanding

this is the basic form of culture. According to this, culture is a global, constantly changing

diachronically and synchronically varying process, including both material and non-material

elements. As a part of this both internal and external matters of the human mind vary and change.

This happens in the interaction between human beings and their surroundings, which includes

social interplay. The basic element in culture is the one human individual. The wholeness of

culture exists as an interactive network between individuals and their surroundings, in which

they have a mutual impact on each other. This kind of wholeness is never total in the sense that

it would be possible to find some part of semiosis that all involved individuals would know,

remember and recognise as a same kind of whole. But it is a totality in the sense that nobody can

live separated from it.

The creative skill of habits

Besides being something that changes, culture has been seen as habitual, homogeneous and having

the nature to resist change (see e.g. Borofsky 199�). It is possible to attain these qualities of culture

with help of the concept of the sign. In firstness the sign is iconic. In the purest form it is just a

sensation without any conceptual form. In secondness the sign gets its form. Its physical elements

are organised in relationship to each other and form a whole as an indexical sign. In thirdness the

experience of qualitative, iconical elements of the sign and the indexical relationships between

them are combined to become a whole with an interpretant. In other words the experience of

the representamen is combined with the human and cultural understanding of the world. The

symbolic sign in thirdness is the conscious and manifested rule, which explains the sign. Every � Because the physical world has, as a part of antroposemiosis, become a part of human perceiving and

conceptualising, it could be more accurately described with the term Umwelt of Jakob von Uexküll. Umwelt is the

world in such a form, that it can be perceived with, for example, human senses and concepts. This does not make the

physical world dependent of them, rather the interactive relationship between the internal and external matters of the

human mind

defines them both. (Deely 1994: 42–46; Uexküll 1981.)

5 Also from this part the concept of Umwelt decribes the situation. In the entire process of semiosis the

mental parts of signs, that is interpretants, chains of interpretants and networks of interpretants, are in constant

interaction with the external matters of the human mind, that is with Umwelt. Umwelt consists of both physically and

psychically existing material. (Deely 199�: �2–�8.)


human being compiles her/his iconic, indexical and symbolic understanding of the world in the

process of anthroposemiosis in interaction with her/his surroundings. (CP:2.243–264; Deely

199�: 27, 53–58.)

Peirce has expressed the conformity of a sign and an interpretant also using the concept of habit

(CP:1.530–536). Every sign in the present moment is connected, except to coming signs, that is,

to the future and change also to previous signs, that is, to past time, habits, memories, experiences

or, as it could also be expressed, to traditions. I see traditions as dynamical interpretants, which

have perhaps already grown for a long time in the process of semiosis. The chain of immediate

interpretants forming a dynamical interpretant can also be short; equally, the processes of compiling

experiences and memories or the process of traditions can be short. (See e.g. Bringéus 1981:

122–130.)6 In the same manner interpretants are always habitual and they reproduce something

from their previous interpretants. In the chain of interpretants one interpretant following another

can differ from it by a smaller or greater amount, but it cannot be totally separate from it. So,

anthroposemiosis consists of both changing and stabilising elements, which create faster or slower

change in its different parts.

Habituality is one charasteristic of the interpretant. This brings a tendency of stability to the

process of semiosis. Then, one sign following another is very close to the previous sign, but

however, always deviating slightly from it, according to the basic nature of the sign. A habit is

no longer a conscious symbol in the mind of the perceiver and interpreter of the environment. It

does not actualise as interpretant to thirdness. It is also possible that the person in question has

never had it in her/his mind in thirdness. (See CP:1.530–536; Deely 199�: 57; Merrell 1995:

106–108.)

Some concrete actions and skills, even if very well trained, are habits of this kind. They are

very strong in firstness or in secondness and it is sometimes difficult to express them as symbols

argumented in thirdness. For instance, concrete, manual working processes, or silent knowledge of

a work community and the ability to act according to it, are not easy to verbalise comprehensively.

Silent, non-verbal signs come across from one human being to another without argumentation in

firstness and secondness, as with experimenting and imitating. However, it is possible to raise this

kind of knowledge partly to thirdness and make it more visible and conscious with argumentation.

(See Merrell 1995: 106–108; Polanyi 1969; Borofsky 1990/1987: 78–104.)

Consciousness about habits raises conformities to thirdness and to argumented thoughts and

talk, and at the same time open to changes and creative solutions. Consciousness is aroused by

facing up to something different and unconventional. Art is one cultural activity, which plays

with conventionality and makes it visible by releasing habits from everyday routines and putting

6 Tradition is here seen as cultural products, which vary and change in the interactive, human process. It

is not seen as cultural phenomena of a certain, distant, past time, for example, as traditional culture opposite to the

modern time. (Cf. Anttonen 1993.)

them in to objects of conscious perceptions and interpretations. Nevertheless, also everyday

routines themselves consist of creative and changing power. Maarit Knuuttila has analysed this

in her empirical research concerning home meals and cooking. According to her, cooking is

the imaginative combining of food ingredients which create every now and then new and fresh

elements in life. (Knuuttila 2006: 253-260.)

Anthroposemiosis and global cultural transition

According to theories concerning the global transition of our time, the symbolical value of

different human activities and products will increase during this transition, both in everyday life

and in economic and administrative functions. Nevertheless, according to the above presented

part of the semiotic theory of culture, culture is and has always been unavoidably symbolical.

In the terms of Peirce, symbols are conscious and in thirdness. Symbolical phenomena created

by humans will also always turn into habits. When they do it, they are no more conscious, and

in thirdness in the human mind, rather they are in firstness and secondness and more or less

unconscious.

From this perspective, the increasing symbolic value of different cultural phenomena in the global

transition of our time means that different signs and products are actively upgraded to thirdness

and, for instance, to the conscious use of consumers. Also, in this context symbols will become

unconscious habits. It is not possible to prevent this; this is the case even with symbols which are

actively created and aroused to thirdness. However, the circulation of symbols from thirdness to

habits and back to other symbols in thirdness seems to accelerate.

When at the same time, interaction processes become more and more global everywhere and for

every human being, the density of new kinds of connections between signs and symbols, which

were before mutually unfamiliar, will increase. On the one hand, this will raise the consciousness

of symbols, because encountering something unfamiliar turns invisible and habitual cultural

elements into visual ones. On the other hand, symbols will change more rapidly, because the

encountering of unfamiliar phenomena unavoidably changes the interpretants in the mind of

human beings. New interpretants bring, for their part, new kinds of symbols to the fore in the

process of anthroposemiosis. These new symbols will remain for a while in local, global and

glocal human interaction eventually to return again step by step into unnoticeable habits.

Cultural wholes

In the following, I shall outline two different ways in which cultures exist in addition to the

basic cultural process of anthroposemiosis. Firstly, every human being is connected to the

global whole of anthroposemiosis through her/his own material and immaterial surroundings.

Every human being forms her/his own part of the process of anthroposemiosis, which she/he is

constantly re-creating, but also constantly repeating and remembering during her/his whole life.


When some people form relatively homogeneous common parts to the anthroposemiosis through

mutual interaction, it is possible to make visible a relatively homogeneous culture with some

kind of wavering borders. Connective, but not totally common, memories and traditions guide

perceptions, interpretations, actions and productions of new things in somewhat similar ways.

Interactions can occur in a place, although also, for example, on the internet or trough common

interests, media, international organisations or international trade with intertwining chains of

both local and global signs. Common traditions existing in homogeneous condensations of this

kind exist, although they are not conscious events and people are not aware of the homogeneous

condensation.

Secondly, cultures exists as shared consciousness about their own cultural distinctiveness in relation

to other kinds of distinctiveness, be it national, regional, ethnic, local, for example, related to

some organisation. Then, cultures are seen as distinctive wholes with a common cultural heritage.

(See e.g. Hall 2003 / 1995; Barth 1969a; Barth 1994). In these situations, consciousness about

the own cultural originality is argumented in thirdness and own special features are presented

as symbols, which tell about own distinctiveness. It is possible, that some organisational power

supports symbolic originality of this kind. Nations, regions, ethnic groups, ideological groups,

organisations, for example, have their own supporters who create and uphold their own spirit. But

symbolic originality also exists in everyday life.

Consciousness about one’s own cultural distinctiveness grows through cultural interaction when

people encounter something different, as Fredrik Barth remarked even in the 1960s (Barth 1969a;

Barth 199�)7. This symbolic distinctiveness can be expressed as single and clear symbols, like

national flags or songs. The distinctiveness of a culture is, however, also expressed as a symbolic

sign or story about its originality.

It is interesting to observe, that symbolic stories about certain cultures with their original,

symbolic traits are not necessarily the same as common and noteworthy phenomena in the

relatively homogeneous condensations of the same people. But the symbolic cultural wholes and

relatively homogeneous cultural condensations of the same people cannot be totally separated.

(See e.g. Barth 1969b; Barth 199�). In the global process of anthroposemiosis, in the process of

everyday habits and actions, argumented symbols and silent knowledge, cultures argumented

as symbolic wholes can never be totally separated from other corresponding cultures, and the

homogeneity of a symbolic cultural whole is never total on the everyday life level. All stories

and symbols telling about distinctive cultures are eventually subordinate to the global process of

anthroposemiosis and parts of it. So they are unavoidably changing and varying, growing and

becoming unconscious habits in the global, local and glocal process of semiosis, as symbols

always do. Individual creativity does not leave these collective symbols in peace, as it does not

7 Barth writes about ethnicity, but points out that culture and ethnicity are so closely connected that it is

possible to use them side by side (Barth 1994, 176). Ethnicity is not the only definer of cultures, but as an example

it is exellent.

leave any other cultural phenomena.

The basic power of culture

In globalised world, global and local elements are constantly intertwined in glocal, heterogeneous

and dynamical entities. In this process organisational power is no longer able to form and uphold

extensive and homogeneous symbolical cultural wholes. Instead of this, different mutually

competing symbolic worlds will become more common and also more and more important

in different glocal processes. For instance, Castells writes about this in analysing the power

of identities in the network society. (Castells 1997) Nevertheless, the individual based and

heterogeneous cultural interaction process, or in my words the basic process of anthroposemiosis,

remains invisible in his conceptual thinking (Castells 1997, 6-12).

Nevertheless, according to the theory presented above concerning culture, anthroposemiosis is

the primary power in the whole global process of culture. Thus the basic quality of culture is, on

the one hand, the individual dynamics and creativity and, on the other, the individual capacity to

build on the foundation of different former experiences, actions, habits and symbols, which are

shared with other people in the process of anthroposemiosis.

If this is not visible in conceptual form in the theory of culture, it is not truly possible to free

the basic, creative power of culture in different communities, whether or not they are defined

according nationality, regionality, ethnicity, locality, ideology or, for example, some organisation.

Therefore, the conceptualising of individual based cultural processes to become parts of the

concept of culture is essential for understanding current and future glocal interaction with its

heterogeneous and dynamical richness of symbols and habits.

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Agile, Fragile, Flow

Management Strategies in Creative Processes

Marjo Mäenpää

Professor

University of Art and Design, Pori School of Art and Design

In the business world management strategies start from the presumption (hypothesis) that there

is a common goal, a target, better income, better value, victory in competition. The chain of

tasks and values in flow charts is easily drawn as a clear line from left to right. Stability is

the goal. Managers usually want a plan to which they can commit themselves. By making this

commitment, they give up the ability to take advantage of fortuitous developments in the business

and technology environment. Managing processes is a human act. Managing creative processes

and creative teams is an act that deals with tacit knowledge, serendipity and flow.

In this paper I apply the key concepts of creativity and knowledge management – such as normative

creativity and serendipity as well as tacit and explicit knowledge – to the publishing process of

a small independent publishing company. I analyze the phases of a publishing project using the

commonly applied management flow chart and clarifying where there is a need for agile project

management tools, where the process is fragile and needs extra recourses to avoid risks and

failures. If creativity brings along agility, are there any means for management to attain stabile

results? I present a case of managing creative processes in the area of creative economy and

cultural industry. My case study is a small independent publishing house, Taifuuni Ltd, where I

worked as a publishing manager and managing director during 1992-2004.

Keywords: Agile project management, flow, knowledge management, serendipity, creativity

1. Creativity

Creativity cannot exist without a context. If the context is within interdisciplinary processes,

the creativity needs an environment with confidence and open dialogue. Design processes urge

collaboration of different kinds of knowledge, media production that comes true by using various

professional skills. According to a definition, creative thinking is the process of merging between

categories or mental images, either across or within domains, in ways that have not been applied

before, in order to develop an original and appropriate solution in a situation or for a problem.

(Kilgour 2007,17).

In short: Creativity goes beyond the current boundaries, whether these boundaries are technology,

knowledge, social norms or beliefs. (Ettlie, 2006, 55)

A prominent line of reasoning is that the creative thinking process is development of original and

appropriate ideas. This requires some type of a recombination process. (Kilgour, 2007, 16). Ideas

may be born by individuals, but groups and teams mould new ideas into innovative products and

services. My question in this article is: How can we feed creativity into processes and projects

and how can we manage creativity and innovations in projects that belong in the category of

creative industry?

Richard Florida (2002) took the initiative in vivid discussion about creativity that could also

provide answers for many economical problems. In the middle there is a creative class that follows

the trends and principles of pluralism and tolerance towards cultural diversity. The creative class

links artistic and cultural creativity to the structures of information society. Florida tries to answer

the question of new innovative environments and creative business: how and where can the

creative, innovative, highly educated class gather and build innovative new business?

The term “interdisciplinary” is used when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their

approaches and modify them so that they are qualified to solve the problem at hand – like in the

case of the Creative Leadership project at the University Consortium of Pori (cross disciplinary

research project of the Pori Unit of the Turku School of Economics and Pori School of Art

and Media – a faculty of the University of Art and Design called Creative Leadership, 2007)

Interdisciplinarity appears also in related designer workshops, in the team-taught courses, where

students are required to understand how a given subject may appear differently when examined

by different disciplines.

In my case at hand I can easily identify three types of creativity:

1. Normative Creativity: Original thinking is used to solve known problems. In research

problem solving exercises, in, for example, the context of the many technical problems that


arise in the design of a car. In the service sector the opportunities for normative creativity

are enormous – as solving customer issues is a major catalyst for service innovation.

2. Exploratory Creativity: The creativity that is closer to most people’s normal understanding

of creativity. The goal is to identify new opportunities. Unconventional thinking, which

modifies or rejects previous ideas, clarifies vague or ill-defined problems in developing

new views or solutions. Often used in media projects and in designing digital media

services, for example, when solving questions of accessible design.

3. Serendipitous creativity: Accident and good fortune in, for example, identifying an

existing idea that will solve a new problem. (Classic examples are the Post-it stickers,

where the glue that was originally developed for permanent fixing failed.) Serendipitous

creativity cannot be managed easily, although looking for ideas from different sectors

or bringing in experts from other fields can help because the best innovations aren’t

lone geniuses. Multidisciplinary teams and groups are the best places for serendipitous

creativity.

When leading and managing innovative organizations and creative processes there is often a need

for opportunity or a chance for serendipitous creativity with multidisciplinary groups. Serendipity

means a lucky accident. The word etymology comes from a Persian fairytale, Three Princes of

Serendip. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary: “…the faculty or phenomenon

of finding valuable or agreeable things not sought for…” Three princes from Serendip set out to

search for a secret poem that could help them fight against a dragon. On they way the princes

found several other interesting things, and they almost forgot the original reason for their trip.

(Inkinen, 2007, 23)

2. Fuzzy Management

When the projects at hand are like life itself we can speak about fuzzy processes. But can we start

a project without knowing where to go, what the result will be, who will join in and how much it

will cost? Always when working with people, things may change! Where there are people, there

are fuzzy processes (?).

Sometimes goal-posts keep moving, as is often the case with applications and software

development, due to changes in client requirements and changes in technology. In these projects,

once initial objectives have been defined and agreed upon, one must instigate an appropriate

project change management and tracking system.

Variances and changes in projects can result from:• Stakeholder/user requirements

• Work that was more difficult than anticipated

• Delays in procurement

• Increases or decreases in estimated costs

• Triggered risks

• Mistakes

Any change must be assessed for its impact on the project objectives. The impacts are reported

in terms of three project objectives - time, cost and quality. The impact of any change must be

assessed before a decision is made regarding how it is to be managed. It is not possible to protect

against late changes.

3. Agile Project Management

Agile Management takes its ideas from Agile Software Development and applies them to

management in general. Of the software-related agile methods, Scrum is usually considered the

most non-specific to software. However, Extreme Programming has also been used for managing

non-software projects. Agile Management also takes ideas from Lean Manufacturing and general

team building methods.Agile Work is the most general expression of agile management.

One key word in agile project management seems to be flexibility. Creative processes, just like

creative persons, are sensible and they know by intuition the possibilities or threats that arise from

the environment. The sources of creative thinking might include guessing, foreseeing, tolerance

of ambiguity or supporting complexity. (Inkinen, 2006, 27).

There is a distinction between managing projects in an agile manner and management of an

agile project. “Agility is the ability to adapt and respond to change… agile organizations view

change as an opportunity, not a threat.” (Agile Alliance, 2007). The first part of this definition

is a tautology. It is the second part that is useful for project managers. Trouble starts when the

traditional high–ceremony project management methods that are used in some industries are

applied to information technology projects or projects of creative industry – or in my case,

projects of cultural industry.

Since agile project management seems to be a set of unexpected actions, there is a set of “rules”

for agile project management in the web (see: Agile Software Development, 2007).

The non-profit global Agile Alliance (Agile Alliance, 2007) has published The Agile Manifesto,

where the principles for agile programming could be adopted in many kind of creative projects:

“Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support their need,

and trust them to get the job done. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information

to and within a development team is face-to-face conversation.” (Agile Manifesto, 2007)


In fact, plans are “an ongoing dynamic activity that peers into the future for indications as to where

the solution might emerge and treats the plan as a complex situation, adapting to an emerging

solution”, writes Mike Dwyer, IT program manager, in his blog. (Dwyer, 2007)

4. Flow

Flow is a mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is

doing, characterized by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement and success in the process

activity. Usually the mental state of mind in agile software development projects as well as in

cultural or design processes could be described as flow; the artist, programmer or designer needs

to be fully committed to and therefore fully immersed in the task at hand.

The word “flow” was brought into debate by professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1996).

According to his writings, flow is like a sense of ecstasy – like being outside everyday reality. It

is important that one knows that the activity is doable - that the skills are adequate, and the task

is neither worrying or boring.

According to Csikszentmihalyi, the state of flow has preconditions like:

• Clear goals

• Concentrating and focusing

• A loss of feeling of self-consciousness

• Distorted sense of time

• Balance between ability level and challenge

• A sense of personal control over the task

• The activity is rewarding

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)

5. Knowledge Management

Philosopher Michel Polanyi coined the term “tacit knowledge”. He actually described a process

where we know more than we can clearly articulate and that contributes to the conclusion that

much knowledge is passed on by non-explicit means. “We know more than we can tell. “ (Polanyi,

1967). Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi’s book The Knowledge Creating Company (1995)

brought the concept of tacit knowledge into the realm of corporate innovation. In it they suggest

that Japanese companies are more innovative because they are able to successfully collectivize

individual tacit knowledge to the firm. Tacit knowledge by definition is knowledge that people

carry in their minds and is, therefore, difficult to access. According to the writers, tacit knowledge

is a non-linguistic, non-numerical form of knowledge that is highly personal and context-specific

– rooted in individual experiences, ideas, values and emotions. (see: Nonaka, Takeuchi, 1995).

Explicit knowledge is relatively easy to capture and code in organizations. It helps to know

“what” and “why”. Explicit knowledge is easy to access by documentation.

Tacit knowledge is a source of the core competence of a project, team, business or company. Tacit

knowledge could be perceived as a glue that binds the explicit knowledge together. It answers

the question “know how?”. It is difficult to codify, communicate, describe, replicate or imitate

because it is a result of human experience and human senses. It often needs years of experience.

6. Publishing House Taifuuni 1992-2004

Publishing House Taifuuni Ltd was established in 1992. From the beginning it was an independent,

small-sized publishing house specializing in Middle European literature, i.e. translated fiction and

non-fiction mainly from Russia, Ukraine, The Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and the Baltic

countries Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia (Pictures 1 and 2). 1992 marked the beginning of deep

economic recession in Finland, book sales in all genres were low, and East and Middle European

cultures remained in the margins of cultural life. Taifuuni’s publishing program was bound to the

brand and mission of presenting unknown European cultures in Finland. Taifuuni Ltd remained a

small-sized company and had only one paid employee – the managing director who also worked

as a marketing person, salesperson, editor and layout designer. The publishing decisions were

made in the board meetings and the translations and graphic design was outsourced to freelancers.

Since the incomes of the company were of low level, the only fulltime employee was at times

laid off (worked without payment). The work in the publishing house called for a high level of

commitment. It was also clear for the contracted authors and freelancers that Taifuuni was not

able to pay exactly the same compensation as bigger publishing houses, and for the management

it was clear that the more or less voluntary work could not be managed the way projects usually

are. So, in every sense, Publishing House Taifuuni Ltd functioned like any other small-scale

company or non-profit organization in cultural industry.

Picture 1 : Publishing House Taifuuni

Ltd, first www-site 1992: http://www.dlc.

fi/taifuuni


Managing such a company required serendipitous innovations, agile project management and

work full of flow. When authors, editors and translators worked with flexible timetables and

payment, it was not possible to produce fixed plans. Unanticipated problems were the norm

rather than the exception. Agility meant that implementation was merely a matter of executing a

defined set of tasks. But then again, the flow helped avoid chaos: There was great inner clarity in

the projects – as in the flow according to Csikszentmihalyi – everyone knowing what needed to

be done and how well things were going. There was a sense of serenity - no worries about “self”,

a feeling of growing beyond the boundaries of ego, and afterwards, a feeling of transcending the

ego in ways not thought possible.

Picture 2. Taifuuni’s editorial profile

The publishing process passes through several phases.

Usually the first idea for a product was a lucky accident, a result of serendipitous coincidences,

we were seeking something else and then tumbled upon a reasonably good idea, with the help of

informants and with the help of experts. The mission was to seek new questions, rather than to

answer questions. Taifuuni was an “indie” publishing house. The new ideas came from an expert

network, from the authors themselves or translators, people who knew East European cultures

and literature the best.

Picture 3

The new ideas were evaluated by experts and tested from the basis of the mission of the

publishing house. Possibilities of gaining some kind of a reasonable break-even point were also

calculated. Market analyses were usually based on the subjective intuition of the publisher. The

final decision to publish a book is based – after all – on economic facts, marketing analyzes and

artistic evaluation.

After the publishing decision was made, the manager started to recruit the team. The team of

translator, editor and graphic designer worked practically on a voluntary basis. Everyone was

responsible for her/his work to the publishing manager. The team members knew that Taifuuni

would not pay as well as the big companies, yet the quality was very important to everyone.

During the translation and layout work the book was sold to wholesalers, libraries and bookstores.

The bookstores and stocks represented the professional role. They have fixed timetables and an

annually negotiated market share (approximately �0% from the retail price). And the rest was

like a bazaar, relatives, kids and cousins worked in the marketing department, behind the desk at

various book fairs. (Picture �)


Picture 4

Picture 5

The publishing process started to look fuzzy at least by the time the product, the book, faced

public opinion, readers, media, librarians etc. The public opinion was dependent more on

individual readers and articles published in newspapers than on commercial advertisements.

Classical studies, such as the works of Russian cultural scientist Mihail Bahtin, were steadysellers

that brought incomes slowly but over a long period of time, the alternative guidebooks on East

European capitals became popular among young travelers.

Picture 6

Relations with the authors, artists, designers and translators were based on individual relationships.

Personal relations are always very fragile, not the least when personal and financial relations

are mixed. The market analysis was based on personal intuition and experience. The brand and

mission of the publishing house was formed by a few individuals and not written in any way

that could be described as a watertight description of the company’s overall essence. The only

fixed and well documented phase in the whole publishing process were the relations with the

wholesalers, a task that required a skill to solve known, everyday problems because the rules and

regulations with the wholesaler were fixed and known.

The Kirjavälitys Ltd <Kirjavälitys Oy, 2007> wholesaler is the agency for most of the small

and medium sized publishers in Finland. According to the agreement between Kirjavälitys and

Taifuuni, the big wholesaler served as an agency for Taifuuni’s books and paid 36-�0 % out of the

retail price to the publisher for every sold copy.


Picture 7

7. Conclusions: Interdisciplinary and agile management feeds creativity

For every publishing house the task of finding a good manuscript to publish is really a serendipitous

matter. In the publishing business, more than anywhere, serendipity means a lucky accident. In

Taifuuni it was essential to reject previous ideas because the mission for the publishing house was

to feed new thinking. Therefore carrying out market analyses urged unconventional thinking. It

was more important to raise new questions than to give answers to common problems.

In a process where tasks are serendipitous and even defined tasks might lead to unexpected

conclusions, the most important recourse are the people working on the team. There is need for

both individual and collective innovativeness. It is a task of a good manager to bring these skills

into the process.

What do groups need in order to become innovative? In fragile and unstable processes the working

environment needs to be highly flexible. (Aldrea-Partanen, Ponnnikas 2007, 94). A shared intent

and firm common motivation among the team help to bring out the creative potential. In Taifuuni

the teams consisted of independent creative experts. The most important task for the manager

was to assign each individual her/his own well defined area as well as their tasks and objectives

in the process.

For a manager working with a team that consists of more or less voluntary workers it was important

to identify new opportunities and new ways to motivate people. Because of a lack of financial

resources, the whole team needed a great amount of unconventional thinking that clarified vague

or ill-defined problems in developing new views or solutions.

From the viewpoint of working culture it is obvious that understanding and knowledge in a

creative process can only be created if the members of the team are willing to collaborate and

share knowledge. Collaboration and sharing take place in a network that requires openness,

mutual trust, willingness and commitment to share.

In Taifuuni there were different levels of knowledge creation and most of the relations were based

only on the missions and ideas of the manager. Even though the manager has a considerable role

as bearer of all the tacit knowledge, it is also important for everyone involved to see an overall

and a realistic picture of the publishing process: what is the cultural background of the product at

hand, for what kind of audience is the book targeted, what will the marketing efforts be, and what

will the estimated incomes be.

An overall atmosphere of courage and a certain level of informality are seen as enablers of

knowledge creation and creativity itself. With a fragile, creative project and process, one can

never stress agility too much: it ranks in importance with possibilities for open communication

and sharing of knowledge.

Epilogue

Agile management is a demanding task for the manager. The manager is in the center of all

actions and processes. As a publishing manager I controlled every phase of the process and

the projects never actually followed a certain flow chart. The amount of tacit knowledge also

meant possibilities to change the aims of a project. The vagueness created flexibility as well as

instability. I am prone to thinking that had I known about the theory of knowledge building and

management that I know of now, the company would have succeeded much better. But, on the

other hand, can there ever really be a project that beautifully follows the flow chart described in

various guidebooks for managers.

Publishing House Taifuuni published books from East European cultures between 1992 and

2004. Even though it was an incorporated company, the mission was not to create financial value

for the shareholders, the values were more on the immaterial and cultural side. The number of

publications was around 150, including fiction, non-fiction, cookbooks and travel books. Taifuuni

managed to create a brand with its alternative travel books and as an expert of East European

culture. The trademark Taifuuni was sold to Publishing House Like Ltd. The new publisher

continues Taifuuni’s line.


Sources

Aldea-Partanen, Andrea, Jouni Ponnikas (2007) Socially Innovative Networks. In Karkulehto,

Sanna & Laine, Kimmo (eds.) Call for Creative Futures Conference Proceedings. Publication of

the Department of Art and Anthropology A. Literature 15. University of Oulu, 2007. http://www.

cream.oulu.fi/ajankohtaista/documents/ccf_ebook1.pdf

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly 1990 Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York. Harper

& Row, 1990

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (1996) Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention.

New York. Harper Collins, 1996

Ettlie, John E. (2006) Managing Innovation. New Technology, New Products, and New Services

in a Global Economy. 2nd edition. Rochester Institute of Technology. Butterworth- Heinemann.

Florida, Richard (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure,

Community and Everyday Life. New York. Basic Books.

Inkinen Sam (2006) Homo Creativus. Havaintoja eräistä aikalaiskäsitteistä sekä luovuuden

mysteereistä. Teoksessa, Sam Inkinen, Sanna Karkulehto, Marjo Mäenpää, Eija Timonen (toim.)

Minne matka, luova talous? Rajalla. Oulu

Kilgour, Mark (2007) Big C versus little c. Creative Findings: Domain-specific Knowledge

Combination Effects o the Eminence of Creative Contributions. In Karkulehto, Sanna & Laine,

Kimmo (eds.) Call for Creative Futures Conference Proceedings. Publication of the Department

of Art and Anthropology A. Literature 15. University of Oulu, 2007. http://www.cream.oulu.

fi/ajankohtaista/documents/ccf_ebook1.pdf

Nonaka I, Takeuchi H. (1995) The Knowledge Creating Company. New York, Oxford University

Press.

Polanyi, Michael (1967) The Tacit Dimension. Doubleday & Co., 1966 ēReprinted Peter Smith,

Gloucester, Massachusetts, 1983.

Still, Johanna (2007) The influence of R&D network conditions on its knowledge creation – case

new mobile service development network. In Karkulehto, Sanna & Laine, Kimmo (eds.) Call for

Creative Futures Conference Proceedings. Publication of the Department of Art and Anthropology

A. Literature 15. University of Oulu, 2007. http://www.cream.oulu.fi/ajankohtaista/documents/

ccf_ebook1.pdf

WWW-sources:

12 manage – Management Communities (2007) http://www.12manage.com/index.html (read

30.12.2007)

Agile Alliance (2007) http://www.agilealliance.org/ “We recommend agile approaches to software

development because they deliver value to organizations and end users faster and with higher

quality.” (read 30.12.2007)

Agile Manifesto, 2007 http://www.agilemanifesto.org/principles.html (read 30.12.2007)

Agile Software Development (2007) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_Software_Development

is a good collection of links and pros and cons on agile management. (read 30.12.2007)

Creative Leadership (2007) http://www.creativeleadership.fi (read 30.12.2007)

Dwyer Mike, (2007) Herding cats, ideas, comments, and references about project management,

tools, processes and field experiences http://herdingcats.typepad.com/my_weblog/2006/02/agile_

project_m.html (read 30.12.2007)

Kirjavälitys Oy (2007) http://www.kirjavalitys.fi (read 3.1.2008)


INTRODUCTION

Firms are seeking to engage users in their innovation activities by offering them ‘user toolkits

for innovation’ (von Hippel, 2001). User innovation toolkits give users real freedom to innovate,

allowing them to develop their custom product via iterative trial-and-error (von Hippel, 2001).

The underlying idea of engaging users in innovation activities is that users have knowledge about

their needs and the setting of use, and therefore they are better equipped to develop products and

services to match their needs. In other words, the toolkits transfer design capability to users.

Firms, on the other hand, have knowledge about their production capabilities. Their role is to

design the solution space offered by the user toolkit for innovation in such a way that the solutions

developed by the users are producible by the firm. The solution space will be limited, e.g., by the

manufacturer’s process capabilities and constraints. A properly designed use innovation toolkits

ensures that products and services designed by users will be producible without manufacturer

re-engineering.

User innovation toolkits are the link between the knowledge of the firms and the knowledge of

the user. This paper explores the aspects of knowledge and knowledge sharing between firms

and users. Particularly we are interested in tacit knowledge and how user innovation toolkits

externalize tacit knowledge of the firm. We are also interested in how users are able to internalize

firm knowledge. Von Hippel (2001) discusses how toolkits are build upon familiar skills and

tools and von Hippel & Katz (2002) discuss how well-designed user innovation toolkits are user-

friendly in the sense that users do not need training to use them competently. Building on the

arguments of Cohen & Levinthal (1990) we posit that in order for the user to be able to use the

externalized knowledge, some overlap in the user and firm knowledge bases is necessary.

We use qualitative data analysis methods for our study. In the first stage we compare two business-

to-consumer sector user innovation toolkits and their functionalities to find out similarities and

differences. Secondly, we engage in the user innovation activity by using these sites to design our

products.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Our study of the user toolkits for innovation explores the aspects of knowledge sharing between

firms and users. In the following section we review the literature on toolkits for user innovation

and organizational knowledge.

Knowledge and absorptive capacity

Organisational knowledge is a set of beliefs held by a group of people. Polanyi (1966) identified

two types of knowledge: tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge refers to

knowledge that is transmittable in formal systematic language. On the other hand, tacit knowledge

USER TOOLKITS FOR INNOVATION: LINK BETWEEN

THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIRM AND THE

KNOWLEDGE OF THE USER

Pia Arenius

Turku School of Economics, Pori Unit

University Consortium of Pori

P.O.Box 170, 28101 Pori, Finland

E-mail: [email protected]

Tiina Mäkitalo-Keinonen





Sari Liikala





ABSTRACT

Firms are seeking to engage users in their innovation activities by equipping them with appropriate

‘user toolkits for innovation’. These toolkits are a way to transfer design capability to users.

Generally a manufacturer has information regarding solution possibilities and its production

process, while users have information about needs and the setting of use. In this paper we explore

the aspects of knowledge and knowledge sharing between firms and users enabled and/or required

by the user toolkits for innovation.


Lane & Lubatkin (1998) reconceptualized Cohen & Levinthal‘s firm-level absorptive capacity as

a dyad-specific construct – relative absorptive capacity. Lane & Lubatkin (1998) proposed that

relative absorptive capacity is jointly determined by the relative characteristics of the partner firms.

Their measures of relative absorptive capacity had greater explanatory power the established

measures of absorptive capacity in explaining interorganizational learning in pharmaceutical-

biotechnology R&D alliances. For Dyer & Singh (1998), Cohen & Levinthal’s definition of

absorptive capacity suggested that if a firm has absorptive capacity, it is equally capable of learning

from all other organizations. Dyer & Singh (1998) proposed that in a particular relationship

the firms develop partner-specific absorptive capacity, which refers to the idea that a firm has

developed the ability to recognize and assimilate valuable information from a particular alliance

partner. Partner-specific absorptive capacity is a function of (1) the extent to which the partners

have developed overlapping knowledge bases and (2) the extent to which partners have developed

interaction routines that maximize the frequency and intensity of sociotechnical interaction. The

concept of relative absorptive capacity is applicable also in the firm-user relationship.

User innovations – opening up the innovation process

Research has shown that many innovations originate not in the manufacturer but user domain

(von Hippel 2005; Franke & Piller 2003, 200�). The term user innovation refers to an innovation

where users have performed a substantial part of the problem-solving process leading to a solution.

Accordingly a ‘user’ is an actor who expects to profit from an innovation by consuming or using

it, while a ‘manufacturer’ expects to profit from selling or licensing an innovation (von Hippel

2005.)

The main driver of a broad integration of user input into new product development is the internet.

It has enabled larger groups of users to access information that was formerly almost exclusive

to firms (Piller & Walcher 2006, 309.) In recent years methods and “tools” for user involvement

have proliferated, and pioneering companies have developed toolkits for key users to facilitate

experimentation (Heiskanen & Repo 2007, 168-169; Thomke & von Hippel 2002).

Immobility of tacit knowledge – a prerequisite for innovation – is a crucial factor behind the

increasing disintegration of the R&D function. Innovation-related activities will tend to be

allocated between companies and other external sources (customers and users, etc.) depending on

the location of tacit knowledge underlying them. (Yakhlef 2005, 227; von Hippel 2005.) Generally

a manufacturer has information regarding solution possibilities and its production process, while

users have information about needs and the setting of use (von Hippel & Katz 2002, 822).

Transferring tacit knowledge requires that it is externalized. Toolkit development involves

”unsticking” manufacturer solution and production information relevant to the development work

of user-innovators and incorporating it into a toolkit. For example, firms may reduce the stickiness

of a critical form of technical expertise by investing in converting some of that expertise from

tacit knowledge to the more explicit and easily transferable form of a software “expert system”.

has a personal quality, which makes it hard to formalize and communicate. Tacit knowledge is

rooted in action, commitment and involvement in a specific context. Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995)

presents four patterns of interactions which represent how existing knowledge can be converted

into new knowledge. The patterns refer to conversation between tacit and explicit knowledge (see

Table 1).

Table 1. Models of knowledge conversion

Tacit knowledge To Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge Socialization ExternalizationFrom

Internalization CombinationExplicit knowledge

The process of creating tacit knowledge through shared experience is called socialization.

Socialization requires interaction between individuals. Interaction can take place without the use

of language, e.g. apprentices work with mentors and learn craftsmanship not through language but

by observation, imitation, and practice. Second, individuals can exchange and combine explicit

knowledge through such exchange mechanisms as meetings and telephone calls. The creation of

new explicit knowledge from existing explicit knowledge is called combination. Combination

can take place by means of sorting, recoding, adding, recategorisation and reconceptualisation

of explicit knowledge. The third and fourth models of knowledge creation relate to patterns of

conversation between explicit and tacit knowledge. The process of converting explicit knowledge

into tacit knowledge is called internalization and the process of converting tacit knowledge into

explicit is called externalization. Externalization requires the use of metaphor and analogy -

reconciling contradictions and making distinctions. Organizational knowledge creation requires

the interaction between the tacit and explicit knowledge, and is a dynamic process involving all

four patters of knowledge conversion.

An important organizational characteristic with respect to knowledge creation and acquisition

is the ‘absorptive capacity’ (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). To exploit the acquired knowledge, an

organization needs to recognize the value of the knowledge and to assimilate it into its existing

knowledge base. An organization’s ability to do this is labeled as ‘absorptive capacity’ (Cohen &

Levinthal 1990: 128). Their model posited that the more similar prior knowledge is to the new

knowledge, the easier is the adoption of the new knowledge. Thus, learning is more efficient in

the proximity of existing knowledge. Cohen & Levinthal (1990) suggested that organization’s

absorptive capacity tends to develop cumulatively, be path dependent, and build on organizations

prior investments in its members’ individual absorptive capacity. The cumulative nature of

absorptive capacity suggests an extreme case of path dependency. If the firm does not invest in

absorptive capacity, it may not appreciate new opportunities when these arise (Cohen & Levinthal

1990: 136). Furthermore, to the extent that prior absorptive capacity helps the subsequent

development of absorptive capacity, the lack of early investment makes it more costly to develop

a given level of it in a subsequent period.


Effective toolkits for user innovation will enable five important objectives. 1) They will enable

users to carry out complete cycles of trial-and-error learning. 2) They will offer users a “solution

space” that encompasses the designs they want to create. 3) Well-designed toolkits are “user-

friendly” in the sense that users do not need to engage in much additional training to user them

competently. �) They will contain libraries of commonly used modules that the user can incorporate

into his/her custom design, thus allowing the user to focus his/her design efforts on the truly

unique elements of that design. 5) Properly designed toolkits will ensure that custom products

and services designed by users will be producible on manufacturer production equipment without

requiring revisions by manufacturer-based engineers. (von Hippel & Katz 2002, 825; Thomke &

von Hippel 2002.)

Companies successfully pursuing mass customization build an integrated knowledge flow – that

not only covers one transaction but uses information gathered during the fulfillment of a customer-

specific order to improve the knowledge base of the whole company. During the whole process

the interface between manufacturer and customer is crucial (Franke & Piller 2003, 581.)

Whilst toolkits theoretically do not have to be based on software, all known mass customizes use

a system which is at least to some extent IT based. Despite a huge variation, mass customization

toolkits consist of three main components: 1) The core configuration software presents the

possible variations, and guides the user through the configuration process. Consistency and

manufacturability are also checked at this stage. 2) A feedback tool is responsible for presenting

the configuration. Feedback information for a design variant can be given as visualization and in

other forms (e.g. price information, functionality test etc.) and is the basis for the trial-and-error

learning of the user. 3) Analyzing tools finally translate a customer specific order into lists of

material, construction plans, and work schedules (Franke & Piller 2003, 581-582.)

There are variations in the types of available toolkits. Some very complex toolkits offer a large

solution space and cannot be employed without a precise technical understanding. They depend

upon the customer taking on a very active role as designer and allow substantial innovations.

Most of them are employed in business-to-business (B2B) settings where the economic benefits

of toolkits are apparent in many situations. Other toolkits, particularly in consumer markets, only

offer a small solution space and only allow users to combine relatively few options. Although

the underlying principle is the same, the latter toolkits focus on individuality and customization

rather than on innovation (Franke & Piller 200�, �03; Franke & Piller 2003.)

(von Hippel & Katz 2002, 82�).

The definition of sticky information also incorporates tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1958) as one

of several possible causes of stickiness. Thus information stickiness may be rooted in the

characteristics inherent to the information itself (e.g., tacitness), and/or it may be due to the

individual characteristics of an information seeker or provider and that provider´s style of

interaction (Franke & Piller 200�, �0�; von Hippel 2005.)

The stickiness of a given unit of information in a given instance is defined as the incremental

expenditure required to transfer it to a specified locus in a form useable by a given information

seeker. When this cost is low, information stickiness is low; when it is high, stickiness is high

(von Hippel & Katz 2002, 822.)

Studies have shown that the stickiness of information can be very high in innovation-related

matters (Franke & Piller 200�; von Hippel 2005). Many users truly are not aware of their needs

when it comes to new products, and even if they are, they often are not able to formulate them

explicitly. (Franke & Piller 200�, �0�)

Knowledge that resists codification remains captive to the body in which it resides and the context

that is bound to. Advances in the sophistication and capacity of technologies will facilitate and

push forward, the conversion of tacit knowledge into codified knowledge, thereby leading to an

increased outsourcing of the knowledge that once was regarded as a company´s crown jewel. The

more companies able to codify the knowledge underlying certain activities into tools, the more

outsourceable to customers or partners these will tend to be. Codification enabled information and

knowledge to circulate between producers and consumers. This way, codification will speed the

process of transferring explicit knowledge from consumers to companies and vice-versa (Yakhlef

2005, 231-232.)

A core challenge for manufacturers when opening the innovation process is how to motivate

users to transfer their innovative ideas (Piller & Walcher 2006, 310). In response to customers´

increased role in innovation, companies will have to structure their customer interface in novel

ways. This interface then becomes a crucial area to manage. It is also a daring move to make

in-house knowledge accumulated through years of experience available on a web site (Yakhlef

2005, 23�-236.)

What is a toolkit?

Toolkit is a design interface that enables trial-and-error experimentation and gives simulated

feedback on the outcome (Franke & Piller 200�, �01). Toolkits for user innovation are coordinated

sets of ”user-friendly” design tools that enable users to develop new product innovations for

themselves. Toolkits are not general purpose. Rather they are specific to the design challenges of

a specific field or subfield (von Hippel & Katz 2002, 821.)


The special characteristic of the left®foot company –toolkit is the offline scanner. The scanner

produces a 3D copy of the foot. Out of the 3D copy 15 different measurements of the foot are

taken to ensure the best possible fit. The scanning gives the manufacturer exact measurements

of the customer’s feet, according to which the company adjusts the solution space offered by

the internet portal. Measuring activity requires company’s tacit knowledge which cannot be

externalized.

According to our experiences the toolkit is relatively easy to use. It offers a variety of design

possibilities: it gives an opportunity to order different width sizes of the same shoe, different

fabrics and soles. Truly innovative solutions, however, are not possible and the role of the user

merely consists in “designing” instead of “innovating”. A screen shot of the website is shown in

Figure 1.

Figure 1 The left®foot company toolkit

Users start on the home page by choosing the appropriate language and product categories.

Toolkit proposes only appropriate shoes to the customer. Proposition is based on measurement

data taken in Left®foot outlet. Users do not have to make a decision for every component because

customer’s choice is limited with five collections.

Users can follow a top-down approach and can go through the different levels of the given

components. The toolkit thus allows for trial-and-error learning with an immediate feedback

function with price but it does not allow trial-and-error learning with design. Users designing

shoes cannot engage in learning by doing because they cannot look immediately at a simulation

that incorporates each design decision made. User can only see alternative options in a small

window without the full picture of the product. Placing the customized shoes in the shopping cart

customer has to wait two weeks to receive the final product.

Case 2. Elite vintners: customized winemaking website http://www.elitevintners.com

Second case experiment in our research is Elite Vintners, a Canada based company providing

custom wine on the internet. Their toolkit is one of the very few toolkits which enter the field of

taste which is much more difficult to describe and customize as fit or functionality.

The toolkit allows a user to mix different grapes, appropriate yeast and a mix of two oak additives

from a large selection of strengths. It is also possible to choose how much alcohol is wanted in

custom vintage (12 to 15% alc./vol.) and select the volume of wine one wishes to make. The

minimum is 12 liters (approx: 16 bottles) and the maximum is 23 liters. The wine is bottled with

user’s custom label and his/her own brand name on it. A screen shot of the website is shown in

Figure 2.

Figure 2 The Elite Vintners Toolkit

CASE EXPERIMENTS WITH TOOLKITS

The purpose of this paper is to explore knowledge sharing between firms and users via the use of

toolkits. We selected two consumer oriented web-based toolkits. In the first stage we compared

toolkits and their functionalities to find out similarities and differences. Secondly, we engaged in

user innovation activity by using these sites to design products matching our needs. In the process

we observed the basic functionality and usability1 of a toolkit. For example how logically did the

process proceed, and how easy was it for a user to accomplish the task.

We engaged in multiple participating observations during the course of this exploratory study and

we used observational protocol for recording data. We made descriptive notes about the website

and reflective notes about our personal thoughts such as problems, ideas, impressions etc.2

The intent of qualitative research is to understand a particular social situation, event, role, group

or interaction. Qualitative research is fundamentally interpretive. This means that the researcher

makes an interpretation of the data. Observation is always subjective and also in this experimental

study findings could be subject to other interpretations. Objectivity to research is gained by being

sensitive to how ones own biography shapes the interpretations and reflecting this systematically

(Creswell 2003, 182, 198; Eskola & Suoranta 2003.)

Case 1. Left®foot company: custom-made shoes https://shop.leftfootcompany.com

The first case experiment in our research is a Finnish company called Pomarfin Ltd and its user

innovation toolkit ‘left®foot company’. Left®foot company –toolkit is target at customers who

desire to have a pair of custom-made shoes. The toolkit consists of a web-based portal and an

offline service for scanning customer feet with 3D technology. Before the customer can use

the web-based portal, he must visit a left®foot outlet where the feet are scanned and password

necessary for accessing the portal is given. The internet portal provides information on potential

shoe options and offers the customers the opportunity to design the shoe based on their needs

and the setting of use. Customer can choose the collection (e.g., classic design, golf), color, sole

and accessories and it is also possible to add a special greeting onto the leather insole of the right

shoe.

The toolkit of left®foot company is relatively simple The problem-solving activities in which

users engage consist only of the visual aspects of shoe design. Functional aspects of shoes are

known to users and consistent across the design space.

1 Usability testing is a means for measuring how well people can use some human-made object (such as a

web page, a computer interface, a document, or a device) for its intended purpose, i.e. usability testing measures the

usability of the object. (see for example Battleson et al. 2001 Usability Testing of an Academic Library Web Site: A

Case Study)

2 For data recording procedures see Creswell (2003, 188-190).


Assuming that tacit knowledge is the source of sustainable competitive advantage and that user

innovation toolkits reveal tacit knowledge, user innovation toolkits might have also negative

consequences. Once knowledge is revealed it becomes public good freely available for use

and looses its value. In the two cases studied in this paper, we found no evidence that the user

innovation toolkits reveal company-specific tacit knowledge.

We encourage future research to investigate user toolkit websites more extensive. In this paper

we explored two business-to-consumer toolkits, and our findings are limited to this context. In

order to have a more accurate understanding of the phenomena future research should pay more

attention to business-to-business context. The challenge is first to obtain access to the business-to-

business toolkits, which are protected by the firms, and second, placing oneself to the company’s

perspective.

Users start on the home page by choosing either Canadian or U.S. site3. After login users will be

directed to a page containing all alternatives. This is step 1. Where user chooses the wines he/she

is interested in using. Maximum is eight at a time. After that the next stage is the blending page

where the chosen varietals will be displayed. In step 2. User selects the yeast and in step 3. Oaks.

In every step the user has a chance to get more information about the ingredients by using the

info-button. The toolkit offers an immediate feedback function with price.

This toolkit allows real innovation because the user has the opportunity to create tastes that have not

existed before. The use of this site requires however experiential knowledge. Although the portal

offers information a user without knowledge about the wine making process might be puzzled

how his/her custom blend might really taste. For an average user there is also recommended

blends available which gives the user a point of view how to blend a wine with accustomary

taste

DISCUSSION

To the extent that innovation is displaced into distributed environments, one of the crucial

implications for organizations is how to build the necessary competencies to effectively exploit,

coordinate and streamline knowledge flows from different sources and turn them into new ideas

and innovations. User involvement also stretches the firm´s capacity to absorb and make use of

new information (Yakhlef 2005, 227; Heiskanen & Repo 2007, 171). In this paper addressed the

issue of knowledge and knowledge transfer between the firm and the user in the context of user

innovation toolkits.

Based on the experience of the user innovation toolkits explored in this study, we conclude that

they clearly require different amounts of user knowledge. Particularly the Elite Vintners wine

customizing site requires experiential knowledge from the user. Because of the user knowledge

requirements we suggest that the proper target customer group of Elite Vintners is the more

experienced home wine makers. The left®foot company -toolkit is easier to use but it also offers

a smaller solution space for the user. Smaller solution space can be acceptable if it decreases

the price of the product. Truly innovative solutions are not possible with the left®foot company

-toolkit and the role of the user merely consists in “designing” instead of “innovating” which is

possible in the Elite Vintners case.

One research question was if the toolkits externalize firm specific tacit knowledge. In the

Pomarfin left®foot company case the tacit knowledge is embedded in the foot measurement

system. Measuring activity requires tacit knowledge which cannot be externalized. In the Elite

Vintners case, the toolkit externalizes knowledge about grapes, yeast etc. This knowledge though

is not particular to the company but to the wine industry in general.

3 At this study we used the Canadian site.


von Hippel, Eric (2005) Democratizing Innovation. MIT Press.

http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/democ1.htm (luettu 26.1.2007)

von Hippel, Eric & Katz, Ralph (2002) Shifting Innovation to Users via Toolkits. Management

Science �8:7, 821-833.

Yakhlef, Ali (2005) Immobility of tacit knowledge and the displacement of the locus of innovation.

European Journal of Innovation Management, 8:2, 227-239.

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4. Leadership and Creativity

WHAT DO YOU MEAN, CREATIVE ECONOMY?

– A CONCEPTUAL MAPPING FROM FIVE FIELDS OF

SCIENCE

Tomi Kallio, Taina Rajanti, Tarja Toikka, Kirsi-Mari Vihermaa & Hanna Willner,

Turku School of Economics,Pori Unit and Helsinki University of Art and Design, Pori *School of Art and Media

Pori University Consortium Finland

During the last few years, various concepts, books, articles, etc. linked to the term ‘creativity’

have colonized both academic and everyday life discourses. If someone should be raised above

others, it is, perhaps, Richard Florida who opened the Pandora’s Box. Soon after the debate

on ‘creative class’, various other, similar concepts have faced their triumph, such as creative

industry, creative economy, creative leadership.

Different concepts attached to creativity overlap several fields of science, and scholars use these

creativity related concepts even in conflicting ways. The ambitious purpose of this paper is to

try to understand the meaning of creative economy by bringing together the perspectives of five

scholars from different fields, approaching the concept from their own academic backgrounds.

The respective fields of science are: marketing, accounting and finance, management and

organizations, sociology, and design research.

The goal of this paper is to find a common ground or at least a field where the mentioned

approaches can encounter, and open room for further discussion. The analysis will be looking for

interfaces and intersections in the present discussion. While it is obvious that the mentioned fields

make only a portion of the overall mixture of the heterogeneous academic discourse connected

to creative economy, an analysis from five different fields would make a interesting opening for

further discussion.


Creative Economy in Social Theory: the Concept of General Intellect

This chapter looks at ”creative economy” specifically from the perspective of what the concept

has to offer or signifies in the field of social theory.

There are several threads of social theory dealing with phenomena relevant to “creative economy”

but here I will concentrate on a discourse stemming from Marx’s understanding of the relation

between capital and labor, of the commodity form of production, and its relevance to the discussion

about the shift from fordism and classical capitalist production to post-fordism and new/creative

economy. The key concept Marx uses is “general intellect”, meaning human scientific knowledge

that is fixed in machines. But a passus in Grundrisse has given rise to new interpretations and

elaborations for understanding the new form of capitalism:

“The development of fixed capital indicates to what degree general social knowledge has become

a direct force of production, and to what degree, hence, the conditions of the process of social life

itself have come under the control of the general intellect and been transformed in accordance with

it. To what degree the powers of social production have been produced, not only in the form of

knowledge, but also as immediate organs of social practice, of the real life process.” (Marx, 706)

Paolo Virno takes “general intellect” further, going on from “the intellect and knowledge objectified

in machines” to general intellect as “live labour, objectified in the live bodies of the workers, in

their linguistic cooperation, in their concrete capacity to act in mutual understanding”. (Virno)

Another significant opening utilizing the concept “general intellect” was made by Toni Negri

(together with Michael Hardt) in their book Empire, who combine general intellect with the

concept of biopower: life has now become an object of power directly and in its entirety; what

is directly at stake in power is the production and reproduction of life itself. Similarly to Virno

Hardt & Negri talk of “informatized” production: of a cooperation that is completely immanent

to the laboring activity itself. “Today productivity, wealth and the creation of social surpluses take

the form of cooperative interactivity through linguistic, communicative and affective networks.”

(Hardt & Negri, 22 – �1, 28� -29�) General intellect now refers to a situation when knowledge in

general, and general human properties, social life in its entirety, become the decisive productive

force.

Now what exactly does this mean? A quite recent example might be of illumination here, the

story about FanLib and fanfiction. Fanfiction is fiction based on existing works, the most famous

and numerous at the present being fiction about Harry Potter. Fanfiction is published in online

boards, which are numerous as well; the biggest board being ff.net, which has in its Potter section

296907 registered members, 809� pages listing the stories, and �060 communities discussing

different aspects of the writing. FanLib instead is a newly launched creative enterprise which

presented a ”value proposition” to the fanfic writers, inviting them to join their website and

publish their stories there to ”get them to the mainstream” and ”make them touch the stars”; with

the idea of making profit over copyrights and advertising. To their surprise, FanLib has miserably

failed to provoke anything but heated discussion and despise from the part of the fanfic writers,

who have organised e.g. a Live Journal (online weblog) community titled LifeWithoutFanLib.

(See icarusancalion).

Not only did the smart young businessmen fail to do a basic analysis of their target audience

– they thought they were addressing 13-year old boys and were completely unaware that 90% of

Harry Potter fanfic is written by adult women. Their real failure was to understand the functioning

of the fanfic writing communities, and that they were communities. From an online discussion:

”Our social network is valued because it is a social network, not simply because it is associated

with the production of product. This is what FanLib is not getting. Since in their world value is

judged solely by the products produced, the idea that the social interactions themselves are highly

valued in addition to the product is incomprehensible to them.”

”They don’t care about the process of writing or reccing or reading, nor should they. The only

use they have for stories (their “value proposition”, as they keep saying) is as products to be

utilized and commodified. In this effort, we are merely workers in their fanfic factory. It’s not

just that they want to make money off us (which they do) but worse, with ideas like “colouring

in the lines”, they’re intent on devaluing the very process of creation itself—as well as our social

interactions involved in feedback, reccing, etc. that have all grown up in fandom.”

Will or nil, creative economy is based on “general intellect”, this live force of production, and

this means that turning thoughts and ideas into immaterial goods is not a mere question of finding

proper techniques or processes, but must find a balance between enhancing and empowering

linguistic, communicative and affective networks, and exploiting, destroying or threatening them

and creating conflicts.

Accounting and finance in the creative economy

Accounting and creativity as concepts are usually not combined, mainly because of the negative

connotations of the “creative accounting”. Accounting is seen as a set of rules and conventions that

the accountants learn and obey. Creativity, by definition, is seen as something new and adaptive

concerning task constraints (See e.g. Amabile, Ochse, Stenberg, Sternberg & Lubart). Therefore

creativity in accounting or finance is often seen as something negative, such as frauds and illegal

actions. The managers do not usually consider the financial people as creative. Still, over the past

decades, we have seen innovations in financial accounting, such as activity-based-accounting

(Cooper & Kaplan 1987; 1988).

When talking about the connection between creativity, accounting and finance, the concepts of


knowledge capital, intellectual capital and knowledge based economy come up. According to these

theories, investments into knowledge will improve the wealth of organizations or entire nations

(Bontis, Brooking, Canibano et al., OECD). In today’s world, if stock analysts only concentrate on

the financial capital of firms, they are missing out important notions of performance, namely the

intangibles. Such intangibles could be expert knowledge, know-how, R&D, learning, alliances,

networks, knowledge creation and social innovations. All of these are more likely to enhance

the firm value than the simple financial capital in the assets. For a financial executive or a stock

analyst it is crucially important to understand the non-financial performance drivers that will

create the future value of the firm. Value in the firm is created in the interaction between the

human capital and the organizational capital (Edvinsson & Bonfour, Nonaka).

The current accounting system is about 500 years old and it is based on historical costs and

transactions reporting. The purpose of accounting, is to show a portray of a firm’s incomes and its

financial state in a realistic way (See e.g. Canibano et al., also Myers). In today’s world, it seems

to get increasingly difficult to do this only based on transaction recording and historical cost

analysis. The backward looking approach may lead to growing inaccuracies in the understanding

of value creation.

A new way for measuring intangibles can be done by taking a lateral perspective into accounting

and address value creators such as alliances, networks, cultural context and know-how on the

balance sheet (Evinsson & Bonfour). Intellectual capital is one of the concepts that link finance

and creativity. In the past, businesses primarily invested in the tangible production. The value of

a firm was more directly linked to value of its physical capital. Nowadays the intangible assets

make it increasingly difficult to understand or valuate the actual value of a company. Intellectual

capital is defined as the difference between the book value of the company and the amount of

money someone is prepared to pay for it. It can be divided into four categories: assets which give

the company power in the market place, those representing property of the mind, those which give

the organization internal strength and those derived from the people who work in the organization

(Brooking). The traditional valuation tools such as price earnings ratio or enterprise value do not

fully capture how intellectual capital affects to firm value (See eg. Covarsi et al.). This is why new

approaches have been developed and still need to be further developed (Sudarsanam et al.).

The success stories of today’s business life are not necessarily the ones creating more financial

capital or real assets on the balance sheet, but the ones building up creative knowledge capital,

resulting in high share values and finally in high intangible values of firms. Building up a new

factory does not guarantee the future capital creation of a firm, but hiring one good designer, for

example, just might.. Also the accountants and analysts have to work with this reality. The Enron

case (see Swatrz & Watkins, McLean & Elkind, Bryce) and its creatively planned accounting

fraud showed that the world of accounting should be more closely linked to the reality of a firm’s

business. In today’s reality, the understanding of accounting and finance are too important to be

left outside of our creative economy.

Marketing and creative economy

According to American Marketing Association’s dictionary for marketing terms marketing is “an

organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value

to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and

its stakeholders.” (AMA, Dictionary for marketing terms) Value in creative economy is created

when technical innovation, artistic creativity and business entrepreneurship join together to make

and distribute a new product for the customers (Creative Clusters).

The creative economy focuses on creating and exploiting intellectual property products; such

as the arts, films, games or fashion designs, or providing business-to-business creative ser-vices

e.g. advertising. The creative economy products usually differ rather a lot of the traditional

products from the industrial era. That is why also new, creative and innovative ways to market

these products and services are called for. The business in creative economy is usually based on

intellectual property, ideas. Once the idea of e.g. computer software is developed, copying it and

spreading it around the world is often fast and inexpensive and potential profits enormous (Coy).

On the other hand many products of the creative economy are quite strictly bound to specific

place and moment, e.g. theatrical performances or concerts. The same idea can even be delivered

to customers using many different media. A book can e.g. be used as a basis for a theatrical

performance, movie, computer game or even a theme park (Kallio, Pulk-kinen, Tiilikka, 6). Due

to the aforesaid issues, also the marketing methods in creative economy need to be multifaceted.

Just an idea isn’t enough; it also needs to be successfully commercialized and transformed into

business, e.g. product, brand or practice (Himanen).

During the industrial era an economy based on mass production only needed to understand people

en masse. The industrial era of business can be successful when it standardizes its relationships

with people, and does not use up its resources treating each employer or consumer as an

individual. At the moment industrial economy is making way to the creative economy and the

world is transforming in to something new, to a world where the key raw materials are knowledge

and information, instead of steel and coal, and where the most valuable products are ideas and

meanings that are produced by the imagination instead of machines. (Creative Clusters). This is

the era of the creative economy, and marketing has a critical role in it.

Marketing itself is usually considered as a creative process. Even in less innovative organizations

marketing division performs a creative process. As a whole, marketing may be conceptualized as

the process of offering creative solutions to consumer problems (Titus, 225-235). However, in the

creative economy and the changing world, marketing faces new challenges as it comes to creating

value to customers. Traditional marketing methods and traditional ways to consider value chains

do not necessarily work in the creative economy.

The structure of creative industries or creative economy can be pieced together through the value


chain. The first link on the chain is content creation, the development of an idea or concept.

In the second phase the content is developed further; it gets packaged, which often means that

it is reproduced as a CD or a video, for example. Finally – in the third phase – the content is

marketed and distributed. (Kallio, Pulkkinen, Tiilikka, 16). Traditionally packaging, marketing

and distribution has increased the value of content dramatically, and the content creation itself has

only been of moderate economic value. In the past 20 years this order has changed substantially.

Distribution channels have multiplied, distribution costs are decreasing and the value of the IPR,

intellectual property rights, has outstandingly increased (CIM).

Creative economy – Perspectives from management and organizational studies

As it comes to the discourse related to “creative economy”, it seems that today there is conceptually

imaginative though somewhat loose and, paradoxically, self-repetitive debate. Moreover, large

part of the debate seems to be taking place at the overall societal level. Even though scholars

specialized in management and organizational studies have widely discussed on general societal

level-questions related to e.g. interorganizational, inter cultural, and even (natural) environmental

topics, in many ways the crux of the discipline still lies “within the organizational boundaries” (see

also Hatch). Thus, many of the key themes of e.g. human resources management, organization

theory, and strategic management deal with “internal”, rather pragmatically oriented questions of

(business) organizations.

Accordingly, from the perspective of management and organizational studies, creative economy

appears not just as another universal trend that boosts “the rise of the creative class” or vice versa

(cf. Florida). Besides the challenges of managing highly educated professionals and knowledge

intensive work, creative economy touches on the everyday challenges of managing and organizing

“less innovative” organizations, such as factories, cleaning firms, and department stores. As the

labor intensive work is increasingly escaping into Third World countries, especially to China

and India, the question of how to organize the remaining labor intensive work is increasingly

topical. Thus, the discourse on managing highly educated creative class should not overshadow

the importance of finding new kinds of innovations and solutions of managing blue-collar

organizations. In fact both knowledge intensive and labor intensive fields may reach amazing

innovations as suggested in the following by the examples of the Manhattan project and the

pyramids.

While the “social desirability” of the actual outcome of the Manhattan project might obviously be

questioned, the development of the atomic bomb undoubtedly works as an ideal type of a successful

project that employed several highly educated professionals and that aimed to a ground-breaking

innovation. In general, it is the ground-breaking technical – or, to somewhat lesser extent, social

– innovations that seem to be in minds of many of the scholars who are interested in creative

economy and creative leadership. On the other hand, as it comes to the innovative process itself,

the situation with the pyramids – even today perhaps the most amazing landmark of mankind

– was in many ways quite the opposite compared to the Manhattan project.

The fact that the pyramids were built by “blue-collar” labor, stand for as in ideal type of completely

different kind of innovative project. As far it is known, the pyramids were designed by relatively

small amount of engineers who made the actual technical innovation of the outstanding project;

i.e. they designed how to build the pyramids in technical sense. It was, however, the management

and organization of the tens of thousands of workers – according to the latest knowledge hired

workers instead of slaves – for decades that made the execution of the technical innovation

possible. Undoubtedly this required numerous social innovations; i.e. the management of blue-

collar labor facilitated and made it possible to build the pyramids in social sense.

In the case of the pyramids, the organization of blue-collar labor stands for as an ideal type of

what can be accomplished by creative management and leadership. Accordingly, should that be

research centers, laboratories, factories, cleaning firms, or department stores, it is always possible

to find social innovations that challenge the traditional ways of doing things. As it comes to the

creative economy discourse, it is therefore the everyday creativity in everyday organizations

that should be raised at the same level of importance with knowledge intensive work. After

all, different kinds of organizations have different tasks, different kinds of challenges and thus

different kinds of coordination mechanisms and ways of management (cf. Mintzberg). To sum up,

from the perspective of management and organizational studies, it is therefore the unprejudiced

way of thinking – in both philosophical and practical terms – the tasks, operations, coordination,

and management of different kind of organizations that should be in the heart of the “creative

economy”.

What comes first –a product/service idea or business idea? Is this a egg / hen problem? –What does design research provide to multi disciplinary process?

Design is multidisciplinary by its nature. The designers deal with the materials, usage context,

production technologies and delivery channels. They apply research methods. Typically those of

sociology, cognitive psychology, anthropology and semiotics. Simulation technologies are applied

when testing the inexistent products of future. As early as 1960 Herbert Simon proposed the idea

of ”science of design”. This idea grew from the need of enabling intellectual communication

across the arts, sciences and technology. (Mäkelä & Routarinne).

Artists and designers mostly function on the basis of ”learning by doing”. There is something verbally

less describable– the flow, concept explained by Mihaly Csikzentmihalyi. (Csikzentmihalyi).

Pentti Routio’s ”Arteology” provides a thorough theoretical framework for design. A complex

and multilayered iteration process helps designers to build the conceptual, holistic understanding.

Designery knowledge components are: knowing by experience, knowing how to do, ”know


how” and theoretical knowing. (Routio). A designer interprets the world, acts, studies skills with

real world materials and techniques. Based on this he/she builds cognitive models to help to

conceptualise the processes.

In the furious competition a holistic approach of understanding the relationship between the user

and the product is needed. Traditional user studies don’t help understanding users behaviour in

the new circumstances. Early prototyping and working with real users in the field and in social

context is the solution. In ”co experience” user experiences and the adaptation and appropriation

of products and technology are studied in the same time. (Battarbee).

Design process is an iterative cycle, where sensual knowledge is interpreted and used to enhance

and motivate acting. The knowledge of experience is central. Other processes, gathering sensual

knowledge, knowledge of action and conceptual knowledge provide input to the actual design activity.

Image source: Routio 2006

When Abraham Maslow described the hierarchy of human needs in the 1970 and created a concept

of human as ”wanting animal”, the equivalent concept for the needs of design was ”hierarchy of

consumer needs”. The basics of these needs are pleasure, usability and functionality. (Jordan) In

our increasingly technical environment the usability has become extremely important. Donald

Norman has outlined the basic principles of usable products. (Norman)

Usability is said to be vital, but not the whole story. The pleasure based approaches are becoming

more important. Jesse James Garrett has defined the elements of user experience for the web

based products. He divides his model in two parts, task oriented and information oriented.

One of the most inspiring user research methods of recent years is using probes. Original probe

process was experimental, artistic and innovative. One of the developers, William Gaver sees this

method profound, heartly and authentic. The probes are designed to help informants to answer

research questions. The probe tools can be almost anything, cameras, diaries, maps, models,

postcards. The data is meant to be used in creating ideas. (Mattelmäki).

Turkka Keinonen has developed the concept of ”fields” and ”actions” to help the communication.

This concept assumes existence of two distinct non overlapping fields of activities, the field of

art and the field of research. These are characterised by a set of practices, values and institutions.

Art exhibitions, professional unions of artists, art museums and galleries form the structure of the

field of art. The academic degrees, scientific journals, conferences and research funding agencies

form the field of research. This concept is theoretical, but useful. (Mäkelä 2006 p.43).

Eight different relationships are proposed.

1. Research interpreting art.(eg. Study of art history)

2. Art interpreting research.(eg. Science fiction)

3. Art placed in the research context (Experiment of art made in research context, eg. Riitta

Nelimarkka)

�. Research placed in art context (Eg. Research based Master works in MOA , master of art

exhibition)

5. Art contributing the research. (eg. Game ideas in IT R&D))


6. Research contributing the art.

7. The common denominator. (action, topic and or time)

8. Overlapping fields, eg. common values like expertise and novelty.

In business context design is a strategic asset. Brands, product identities are immaterial property.

”A brand is an aggregation of all physical and emotional characteristics of a company, a product,

a service encountered by the consumer at all points of contact.” (Karjalainen p.��)

Design research is complex and multidiscipline competence. Therefore it is a natural bridge

between different theoretical viewpoints and a bridge between theory and practice. Designers are

capable to build both cognitive models and practical solutions.

Conclusions & discussion

As we can see, each discipline – not to mention each scholar – has its own perspective and

approach as well as terms and concepts on creative economy . If we go beyond the surface,

however, we note that certain themes obviously connect some of the fields more closely, while

certain fundamental concepts appear in all of them.

It may not be a surprise that knowledge as the emergent constituting factor of production appears

in the texts, and that three of them – marketing, accounting and social theory – even place the

concept as their cornerstones. Knowledge capital and knowledge economy are indeed terms that

usually go with discussions of creative economy.

In addition, the theme of everyday creativity forms a clear interface between the perspectives of

management, design research and social theory. One can find a possible explanation to this from

social theory. Accordingly, by combining the concept of knowledge capital to everyday life, the

new emergent creative economy is based on a development where some general human qualities

and capabilities – such as language, communication, relations and networks based on affects

– come to play a decisive role in all production. As our presentation on management points out,

this is not confined to the new creative industries, but touches all fields of production.

We find it both important and interesting that the very concept that unites all our perspectives is

value. Consequently, it is evident that creative economy will affect our notions of social wealth and

value regardless of how different the perspective to value creation may be between the disciplines.

While the fields of marketing and design research both look at the production of added value by

using the concepts of branding from a dynamic angle, the social theory might here take a critical

stand, warning about the dangers of misunderstanding the dynamics of social production behind

the creation of value. Accounting, on the other hand, approaches creative economy with a certain

caution, mainly due to the negative connotations of ‘creative accounting’. However, the changing

notion of value, and that of the social wealth in particular, forces the discipline to develop new

forms of accounting. For management and organizational studies the primary value is attached

to people; while the logic of creativity varies between different types of organizations, the most

important resource in most cases is internally motivated employees.

Creative economy is a theme that brings different disciplines together rather that separates them.

There is a clear need for joint discussion. This is paper hopefully works as an opening for further

discussion between practitioners from different fields of sciences.

We suggest that traditional scientific discourse might learn some new ways of operating from

design (research) here: to look at the debate as an iterative process drawing strength for each

participant at a time, looking at concrete common issues where accordance can be found despite

general differences and disagreements.


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THE BEAUTY AND THE BEAST:

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ARTS, CREATIVITY AND

LEADERSHIP

Perttu Salovaara

University of Tampere

Department of Management Studies

ABSTRACT

This leadership study analyses how arts, creativity and leadership are connected. The material

for the research was gathered from an internet blog-discussion of a group of professional artists,

educators and academics.

The material suggests broad connections between arts and organizations, but on a linguistic

level there seems to be a wide-spread dichotomy between arts and organizations and even deep

suspicion from both sides. Since arts is described as being a cure for the sufferings of business

life, the image of a fairy tale “The Beauty and the Beast” is employed: the Beauty and the Beast

illustrate the dichotomy, and the point of the tale is the love that transforms the Beast into a

handsome prince.

In the analysis altogether five distinctive themes were taken under consideration. They produce

two discourses, Identity and Negating realities. These discourses emphasize how the question

about the connections between arts, creativity and leadership turns to an ontological question of

how do we see arts and change.

1. BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

“The time is right for the cross-fertilization of the arts and leadership”, Nancy Adler (2006) states

boldly. As current research shows, there is a growing tendency to ask what organizational and

management scientists could learn from a dialogue with arts and aesthetics (Ropo & Parviainen

2001; Hatch, Kostera, Kozminski 2005; Sauer 2005; Adler 2006; Strati 2000, 2005, 2007).

According to above authors, much of today’s ‘mains stream’ leadership research is based on a

rational model of organization which takes leadership into account a) in cognitive terms and b)

as an individual attempt. This study is based on a) an aesthetic approach on organization studies

(Strati 2000; Ropo, Parviainen, Koivunen 2002) and b) an understanding of socially created

leadership ((Smircich and Morgan 1982; Hosking & Morley 200�; Ropo & Sauer 2003). This

paper examines how relations between arts, creativity and leadership are constructed.

Chia (1997, 2002) claims that from epistemological point of view there is a need for a more robust

theory that would enable us to develop a more insightful and richer alternative to understanding

the phenomenon of organization. Making sense of human behavior in organizations requires

also understanding about social processes, emotions and bodily knowledge (Ropo, Parviainen,

Koivunen 2002). These are rather domain of aesthetics than of positivistic realism. Instead of

analyzing organizations as stabile entities, this line of research identifies itself with organizational

ontology of becoming (Chia 2002; Tsoukas & Chia 2002) and emergence (Carlsen 2006).

In an interpretative analysis, a part of the research methodology is to make the researchers position

transparent (Van Maanen 1989; Czarniawska 1998). The same applies to narrative therapies

(White and Epston 1990) and hermeneutics (Gadamer 1960). The following is about positioning

myself and making transparent researcher’s background influences.

I have worked as an organization consultant dealing with leadership and change management for

the last nine years. At the same time I have continued to study philosophy, which was my major

subject whilst still studying at the university. I play guitar and have used arts in my work quite

a lot, so linking arts, creativity and organizations was not a new idea. My link was thus biased:

yes, arts is being used in organizations; yes, creativity is sometimes lacking in organizations

– as elsewhere too; yes, arts is often used to stimulate creativity and to provide new ways of

visualizing various issues; yes, art methods are sometimes hard to apply, since people regard

them as “non-serious business”; no, art is not in “everyday use” in organizations.

I got acquainted with the material through our CREA-project (Leadership in Creative Economy).

There was a discussion with my professor Arja Ropo that - for me as a philosopher - opened up

the whole issue with arts and organizations: it is an epistemological question. As she put: “What

other ways of knowing about organizing and leadership are there than the cognitive faculties?”

That question rang a bell for me immediately for several reasons.


First, business leaders “know” that there are the formal organization and the informal organization,

like in saying “nothing is achieved by deciding it in the management team, it has to happen on

the shop-floor too”. That is a consideration about the process (how), not only about the content

(what), resembling the strategy-as-practice-movement (eg. Mantere 2003).

Second, leaders often show a concern for both good results and people’s well-being. These two

issues are naturally not separated, but managing systems (with Total Quality Management, Lean

Management, Balanced Scorecard, CRM, ERP…) tends to position employees as “passive”

recipients of “active” management. “The other” knowing (human, emotional, sensuous) is only

scarcely used – I mean, it is rather hard for a manager to verify that knowledge with a technical

background in an action oriented environment.

Third, connecting arts with epistemology made a difference to me: Art is not a mere useful tool,

but a platform for organizational research. If we need “a more insightful understanding of the

modern organized world” (Chia 1997), arts can offer ways of seeing things in a new light.

2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

A relation between arts and organizations in general has existed for a long time. Managers have

always liked to be photographed with a piece of art in the background; or the new Volkswagen

luxury car Phaeton, including a lot of handwork, is being marketed as a piece of manufactured

art (Pelzer 2006).

At the Davos World Economic Forum, in a session entitled “If an Artist Ran Your Business”, one

of the questions studied was “What can business leaders learn from artists?” Flatter organization

structures, quest for creativity and a need to utilize human capacities have had an electrifying

effect on leadership: running an organization calls for combining efficiency and productivity

with creativity and understanding of human growth. “The economy of the future will be about

creating value and appropriate forms, and no one knows more about the processes for doing that

than artists.” (R. Austin, as cited in Adler 2006, p. �87).

The question with which arts world has been struggling is designing a creative production process.

The leadership question is not “how to lead creativity?”, since that would implicitly suggest an

instrumental power relation, and that is not the way arts is understood in the material. The initial

research interest grew out of question “How to combine (artistic) freedom and (organizational)

direction?” The leadership question here is being reformulated as follows: How to support

dialogue between individual and group level? To study that question, the following question was

first posed to material: On the level of language, what kind of reality is being constructed between

arts, creativity and leadership?

3. MATERIAL

The material for this research was collected from an internet blog-discussion by the members of

AACORN (Arts, Aesthetics, Creativity, and Organization Research Network) from years 200�-

2007. AACORN is a network for academics, educators, consultants, and artists from Australasia,

Europe and the Americas who are interested in aesthetics and creativity in organizational

settings. There are currently about 200 members at AACORN, who include some internationally

acknowledged organization scientists, leadership researchers and artists.

Research focuses on the texts produced between 200� and March 2007. Material consists of 137

A�-pages of blog-discussion of the members of AACORN. Data is organized in four parts. The

basic data (D0) consists of discussions from 200� to 2007 with tens of different topics, and it

was collected for this research purpose. Data 1-3 are reproductions of AACORN itself. Data 1 is

a blog-entry entitled The Role of the Artist, data 2 is entitled Management as an Art, and data 3

Art’s Place in Organization Studies. All the data can be found in www.aacorn.net.

4. METHODOLOGY

With discourse analysis methods the aim is to study how categories of arts, creativity and

leadership are being created, maintained and changed in a text.

First, there was a need for general account of the content. After having studied the text I employed

a search-engine for the central terms to find out how many times they were referred to, and in what

kind of connections. Through textual analysis and search-engine certain themes were recognized

as repeating patterns.

In order to make sense and analyze those themes the second step was to apply philosophical

hermeneutics (Gadamer 1960). Hermeneutics provides a way for analyzing the material from

the perspective of pre-understanding. This is not an attempt to go “into their heads” but asking a

question: On what grounds is a sentence X understandable in this context? What kind of prejudices

and presumptions are in action for the sentence X to make sense? These questions are built on a

holistic understanding of language, in which “each word supposes a whole of language to give

it full force as a word” (Taylor 1995, p. 9�). A word and its context place a reader in a linguistic

dimension, and the aim is to study meaning as interplay between the context and the interpreter.

A hermeneutic experience is an experience of “something as something. According to that idea I

was searching in the text for something of a thingness-kind, “the thing” or phenomenon at stake

(Figal 2006). The question is: what is the text talking about? That I then ended up describing the

phenomena with a fairy tale image of “The Beauty and the Beast” certainly owes to following

sources: David M. Boje’s analysis of Disney-studios as “Tamara-land” (1995), to Erika Sauer’s

(2005) use of caricatures at the analysis phase, and to Alvesson’s (2003) and Czarniawska’s


(1998) encouragement for researchers to find alternative ways of reporting.

In this research I will employ a detailed analysis of data that keeps alive the “richness” of actual

events. Certainly, during this kind of qualitative research, any researcher would write a different

analysis – story – about the material. The point of different readings is to illustrate multivocal

interpretations and create a relationship between marginalized and dominant stories with the hope

of some unique outcomes (White and Epston 1990; Freedman and Combs 1996).

From a methodological point of view the latest strand adding to these discussions is opened in

the Academy of Management Review with a theme on “richness” (Weick 2007), which suggests

that we should be paying closer attention to the “texts” (artifacts) we are studying. “To go ‘to the

scene of the accident’ in search of meaning, and to locate the scene of that accident deep inside

one’s own head, is to catch the significance of the accident scene and to use that significance

to reanimate analysis.” (Weick 2007, p. 16) As Weick’s research on Mann Gulf incident shows

(Weick 1993), generalizations and habitual reading leave sometimes important cues aside.

What does that attempt mean when the material is text?

Weick mentions five lessons for research to make an account rich. First lesson “Reading Builds

Richness” requires “true reading” that is capable of restoring projects. In terms of research, the

scene of accident is “inside one’s own head” (p. 16). The implication of that is to use one’s own

imagination to understand the scene. The second lesson is that multiplicity of theories adds to

conceptual variety of reading the scene. In that sense theories protect against hubris, one-eyed or

too limited reading. Weick calls the second lesson “Read with Theories in Hand Because Theories

Increase Requisite Variety”. The third lesson, “Rich Comparisons Breed Further Richness”,

is illustrated by an example: before going to an art exhibition, buy a postcard, and then later

compare it with an original work. The point is to make account with own prejudices that do not

prevail when reflected with the reality.

The fourth lesson, “Simple Accounts Mean You’re Not Paying Attention”, says that the most

obvious and clear cut truths or sentences might be worth reconsidering. Easy explanations and

almost “everyday psychology” hide sometimes much more variety and wider possible explanations

than we usually find. The requirement for rich research is to break through the walls of obvious

reflections. The fifth lesson is about avoiding the use of “be”-verb and giving a more detailed

account of the event. From outsiders point of view it is true that someone might “just sit there and

read”, but that would hardly be the reader’s self-description. We cannot know what s/he thinks,

but we know out of our own experience that a) there is a content to what we read, b) we are not

just there, but there are also reasons why and what we read, and why in that particular place, c)

if someone stops us, we react to it according to disturbance and person, and that d) we might as

well have bodily sensations or mental conditions that very much affect the situation (cold, warm,

comfortable, back ache, waiting for a friend, having a hurry to read for exam…).

5. ANALYSIS

In the first phase of the analysis five distinctive themes (contents, “things”, phenomena) were

formulated. When “packaging” and labeling the themes (Czarniawska 1998), I realized that they

form two discourses. The one is about identity building (themes 1-3), the other about Negating

realities (themes �-5). Before going to the themes and discourses in detail, here is a short

overview:

Three themes that constitute a discourse called “Identity”:

a) “The Beauty and the Beast”: Arts and business are counterparts and thus a dichotomy.

b) “The Cure”: From the perspective of arts, business has a massive set of negative qualities,

which are a symptom of sickness, but arts can function as a cure.

c) “The Voice of Integration”: In the midst of this dichotomy there are marginalized voices

to be heard that call for ‘destroying the fences’, for integration.

Another discourse entitled “Negating realities” consists of two themes:

d) “Seeing the Unusual”: Arts reconstruction of reality challenges the usual ways of thinking

and seeing.

e) “Reproducing the Denial”: It is shown that commands lead easily to a denial. How is

resistance reproduced?

5.1 FIRST DISCOURSE: IDENTITY

Meet the Beauty and the Beast (theme 1)! This myth is reconstructed by a dichotomy “the

beauty of the arts and the beast-like business (and management sciences)”.

The dichotomy is illustrated from the arts side by sayings like “as an artist I have certain aesthetic

standards which in the business world had to be (…) compromised to economic perspectives”.

(D3, p. 2) Seeing the other in negative terms applies for both parties: “virtually all of my business

school colleagues have had a negative set against the idea that artistic perspectives and processes

could have a useful place in management education” (D3, p. 7)

How are relations between arts, creativity and leadership built on this ground? This is a typical

comment:

“In addition to its rather instrumental and manipulative role of incorporation into the capitalist

organisation project as a ‘new tool’ for ‘leveraging’ efficiency and effectiveness, art must be

nurtured in its form as opposition to and critique of the excesses of capitalism.” (D0, p. 99)

Arts in this discussion function as counter-part for capitalism, business, greed, efficiency,

manipulation etc. Arts are often seen as having value as such, and its usefulness is a taboo.


Pelzer (2006), for example, argues that this separation is in the very heart of arts: it owes its

identity to separation and independency. Arts would thus not be arts without a separation from

routine flow of events. An experience of arts represents discontinuity. It makes us pay attention,

thus disconnecting and distancing or bringing us closer to something. It also stops the natural or

dominant flow of things and halts the movement.

Where does the dichotomy of “the Beauty and the Beast” originate? An interpretation of the fairy

tale says that the Beast is actually bestial, but the woman’s love is capable of transforming him

into a handsome prince. That is rather close to a picture given in the material: art might be capable

of transforming business into a more handsome “human economics”. Arts are a cure (theme 2)

for saving humanity in the midst of greedy business life.

Chia (2002) claims that “’organized worlds’ have been creatively and painstakingly forged out

from the initial undifferentiated flux of raw experience”. From that point of view organizing is

about “freezing” a natural flow of things. In a mechanistic, machine-like, inhumanly bureaucratic

and organized world the function of arts is to make things alive and moving again.

”Managers and management students don’t understand how to create on cue, how to innovate

reliably on a deadline.....” I had a student about my own age, here in Tasmania a few years back,

say to me “You actually want us to wrote what we think??? We’re not allowed to do that!!!” We

have generations of students, faculty, and managers who have been punished for independent,

creative thinking, and who cringe at the thought of a “peer critique” (certainly my own experience

as student, manager, and faculty) -- Perhaps a year or two in the art school should be required

for everyone!” (D0, p. 89)

It is generally held that organizational or “everyday” life suppresses creativity, so it should be no

wonder if art school or arts can provide a medicine for that illness. Creativity is a cure for more

courageous and open way of living.

If cure is needed, what is the illness? To put the question into the form of dialectics of question

and answer (Gadamer 1960): If art is an answer, what is the question? A symptom of the illness

was lack of creativity, which – according to material – is an effect of organizations attempt to

stabilize the natural movement of things. Illness appears on an ontological level: arts are calling

for a change from “being ontology” to “becoming ontology” (Chia 1997), or to an emergent

approach (Jones 2000; Carlsen 2006).

The dichotomy of the Beauty and the Beast is questioned only in few occasions. The voice of

integration (theme 3) is more visible in later discussions (2007):

”I am eagerly interested in understanding the artistic impact on any of the fields, we all share

interest for, but I am just as convinced that we need to destroy the fences, that we have created at

the same time.” (D3, p. 121)

“To me this is not just about building a bridge between the fields or professions of arts and

business. Its all about humans.” (D0, p. 100)

“(A)rcheologist or curator (…) will not understand our ways of framing (and fragmenting) our

field/s. Sometimes they will not even understand the distinction between an economist and a

management scholar.” (D3, p. 1�)

These are clear signs of avoiding a clear-cut distinction between the Beauty and the Beast. In the

fairy tale they were connected by love that broke the evil spell and transformed the Beast into a

prince. However, it was argued earlier that the identity of arts depends on its role as a counter-

part. If arts become integrated, what happens to their identity?

In Finland there are several on-going discussions about the role of arts in a society. These

discussions concern “the University of Excellence” (an initiative of uniting the universities of

economics, technology and arts), the new Music house in the center of Helsinki, and the financing

of cultural institutions. A common character is that arts should be integrated to the rest of society

for financial purposes. In both AACORN and these Finnish discussions there is a fear of arts

loosing their distinctive, unique character if integrated with non-arts.

The development of integration is an on-going affair, and as such that may not sound like a big

step. It is yet noteworthy, first, that these considerations are taking place, and second, that it is the

Beauty who is taking initiative.

5.2 THE SECOND DISCOURSE: NEGATING REALITIES

Arts are sometimes believed to represent reality, but not ever photography is doing that. An

artist’s work is commenting reality in terms of construction, not reproducing it, and in this way

it brings “a power relation and its asymmetry to light”. (Strati 2000) An asymmetrical power

relation emphasizes the role of artist as a ‘creator’ and constructor. (Here are also the roots of

the myth of genius, to which I will return later.) Growing from the roots of creation, seeing the

unusual (theme �) is an elementary condition for arts.

Seeing the unusual is followed for example in a AACORN blog-entry called “Critical incidents”.

There is an example where a theatre play struck a chord with some spectators.

“Once again, the gritty and real performances from Al and Augustine created reactions in some

audience members that were significant or “critical” enough to lead to a restlessness to change

something. Over the last year I have received a lot of feedback about that sketch creating a

“critical incident” in the lives of some of our audience members, particularly those who see

239 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 2�0

danger signs in their own lives after watching and experiencing the piece.” (D0, p 36)

Seeing the unusual does not mean that a work of art or event as such would be unusual, but that

the interpretation of it becomes meaningful – even so meaningful that it might have power to

change things. The usual would transform to unusual. Something happens to the way we perceive

“the reality”. In being provocative, critical or incomprehensible the arts are challenging the usual

ways of seeing. In confronting arts the interpreter becomes “restless” and as a result – in a way

– negates his/her existing reality. He is not anymore seeing it with innocent eyes or taking it for

granted as usual, since it now ‘sticks out’ of the former routine flow of perceptions

Organizations, on the other hand, are being run by routine processes and management systems

which stabilize an organization, “freeze” it. Since arts is often implicitly commenting and

challenging the existing structures and patterns, it can help in the process of “unfreezing”. The

widely-spread ‘common-sense’ change model of unfreezing-moving-refreezing, developed by

Kurt Lewin in 19�0’s, stays ontologically on the grounds of a stabile status quo, since it ends with

refreezing. So the question remains whether arts relation to change is episodic or continuous.

(Tsoukas and Chia 2002) On an ontological level arts relation to change is ambiguous: arts claim

to stand on “emergent” groundings (identity of arts is built on change), but on a linguistic level it

shows more characteristics of a stabile “being ontology”.

There are notions in the text about the technical, instrumentalist, manipulative, provocative or

organizing qualities involved in arts, but these are not seen as negative as the same qualities in

economics. One can easily conclude that perception in this case is lead by conception, by the

dichotomy of the Beauty and the Beast.

A case-study from the material confirms how hard it is to live with an attitude of seeing the

unusual. In this blog-discussion there is only one occasion where the others have clearly criticized

another member. That happened when a participant wrote in such a philosophical rigor that only

few could follow his reasoning. He was verbally attacked and pushed off-side. Someone being

incomprehensible is not necessarily enjoyable.

So what can we learn from arts for leadership studies? Parallel needs for efficiency and creativity

are a domain that arts seem to understand (eg. p. 7: “how to create on cue, how to innovate

reliably on a deadline”). On the level of phenomenon that means connecting (organizational)

direction with freedom. The material discusses this dilemma at several occasions.

“(M)y observation is that artists commit themselves only when they are totally free of any

commitment... it could explain the no-feed back you got: since people were ASKED to return the

books... they precisely didn’t...The difficulty is: how to get what you want without asking for it.

This seems to be a necessary condition for collaborative working in art...and maybe everywhere

else (love)(breeding)(teaching)(caring)(living)(dying?)” (D0, p. 13)

The situation is that books were asked back but not returned, and an explanation is given: if

you touch the artistic freedom, it kicks you back. This is a physical explanation: every force

produces a counterforce. In social constructionism (Berger & Luckmann 1966), the idea of force

and counter-force is understood as “how denial is socially constructed?” What happens is a

reproduction of denial (theme 5).

We cannot know the background, but a general precondition is given: “artists commit themselves

only when they are totally free of any commitment...” So how to “lead”? If understood in individual

terms “I lead” or “the leader leads”, it implies a power over (Mary Jo Parker) and a subject-

object relation. Socially constructed leadership would see the relation between a leader and led

in more symmetric terms, as a subject-subject relation. The above situation is being displayed as

there was one active member and others were passive objects – which they, according to what

happened, are not.

Change resistance is always a topic in organizational behavior text books (eg. Buchanan &

Huczynski 200�), but rarely in the form “how was resistance socially constructed?” Yet a blog-

entry entitled “Commitment and social creativity” took that course:

“I came to a different conclusion: rather than criticizing this systematic avoiding of asked

commitment, I tend to analyse it in term of responsibility (ability to response). The more

powerful responses being given to questions that you ask yourself; and artists having to develop

this strange skill in order to create their art (that no one ever asked for). So couldn’t it be the

beginning of an understanding of commitment and trust in new terms: we could derivate from the

“pathological” artistic behaviour (and highly...creative by definition) some “rules” like: “don’t

ask for a commitment that you want to get, implement instead a collaborative structure of a kind

that avoid any demand for commitment”... then you’ll get their strongest commitment you’d ever

dream of... Strange and odd? but what allows artists to collaborate AND feel free of any intrusion

within their sanctified privacy (!!!) might be a deep shared organisation of inner capacities to

create, innovate, collaborate, with joy...????or not???”

Here we can pay attention to an internal ambiguity. On the one hand an artist is not reproducing

reality, and is thus celebrated as a creator, as stated earlier (p. 8). That not only leadership and

but also creativity (Hardagon and Bechky 2006) could be socially co-created is an idea that does

not go hand in hand with the myth of genius – with an individual, unconventional bohemian

and heroic “artist” (Parrinder 2007). On the other hand this excerpt clearly acknowledges the

phenomenon of socially created leadership.

Another blog-entry takes a different view on commitment:

“refusing commitment is not a necessary condition of artistic creativity, but a factor that inhibits

creativity in some circumstances and defeats the possibility of artistic achievement in others”.


(D0, p. 16)

The myth of genius is a linguistic convention that has acquired a hegemonic position in discourse

(Jokinen, Juhila, Suoninen 1993, p. 101-105). The myth of genius is not the only available identity

construction in the material. However, as the dichotomy of the Beauty and the Beast implies, it

is the most prevalent identity construction, and that is the reason why the fifth theme is called

reproduction (of denial) instead of construction.

6. RESULT: TWO DISCOURSES

Discourses are “practices which form the objects of which they speak” (Foucault 1972, as cited

in Burr 2003). In discourse analysis, language is not representing “reality” but rather constructing

it. The analysis here shows two discourses that are constructed around the central terms of arts,

creativity and leadership.

The first discourse is called Identity. What is art? Arts identity is built in an opposition to

conventions, which is illustrated by the dichotomy of the Beauty and the Beast. Curiously enough,

the Beauty is taking initiative towards the Beast. Why? To preserve hope? (as in: Adler 2006)

The second discourse, labeled Negating realities, is illustrated by two themes. The first, Seeing the

Unusual, suggests that arts is dealing with change from its essence, and thus understanding that

phenomenon too. The other theme, Reproducing the Denial, pays attention to conditions where

denial is easier to achieve than creative cooperation. It is important to understand the phenomenon

before trying to solve the problem, since otherwise one is solving a wrong problem.

Connecting these two discourses would say that arts identity is about negating realities. The process

is yet more gentle than ‘negating’ suggests: first the spectator needs to identify and recognize the

phenomenon and after that s/he will or won’t understand it in different terms. Understanding is

when we understand in a different way, as the ‘god-father’ of modern hermeneutics Hans-Georg

Gadamer puts it.

The discussion between arts and economics has certain predecessors. Leadership is nowadays

a popular and well distinguished fad of management studies, but that was not always the case.

Same is the case with discourse analysis, social constructionism or narrative theories: they are

slowly getting wind under their wings in organization theory. The research question was “how to

support dialogue between individual and group level?” What the tale of the Beauty and the Beast

tells us about this progress is that if there is love, there is hope.

Keywords – leadership, creativity, arts, epistemology

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FROM ‘MANAGER OF MEANING’ TO ‘MANAGERS OF

MANY MEANINGS’

Social-constructionist approach to creative leadership

Anne-Maria Mikkonen

Department of Management Studies

University of Tampere

Abstract

My research interest is to study creative experts in leadership relations. I am interested in the

meanings these people give to their relations for leadership. In this article, I study creative

leadership by using the social-constructionist approach. I discuss creativity as a collective

phenomenon, and give reasons for why we should move from the dominant view of creative

leadership theory, where leader is seen as a ‘manager of meaning’, to a view where the leader is

a ‘manager of many meanings’. In this article, I try to answer the question: why is managing of a

meaning not enough in creative work? I answer this question: first, by considering the leadership

research; second, by acknowledging the need for polarity in creative organizations; and third,

by studying existing research on collective creativity. I wish to contribute to shared leadership

theory and creativity research by proposing that we should acknowledge both leadership and

creativity practices, not only as individual, but also as shared phenomena.

Introduction

This article is written for the research design of the concepts of leadership and creativity not

only as individual, but also as shared phenomena in organization. The context of the study is

creative expert work, meaning highly educated people, who are expected to work together as a

creative team. As a leadership researcher, my focus is on leadership and the way that dominant

theory shapes leadership practice and the reality in organization. I study the understanding the

phenomenon of leadership as a means of understanding the phenomenon of organization.

Smircich and Morgan (1982) used the term “manager of meaning” to describe a leader as a person

who attempts to frame and define the reality of others in an organization. They (Smircich and

Morgan, 1982) listed three important aspects of leadership as a phenomenon. Firstly, leadership

is a social phenomenon defined through interaction. Secondly, leadership involves a process of

defining reality in ways that are sensible to the led. Thirdly, leadership involves a dependency

relationship in which individuals surrender their powers to interpret and define reality of others.

I will consider these aspects in this article.

I consider leadership practice not to be only about managing a meaning of reality for others,

which it may sometimes be, but about managing of meanings that differ, because they are given

by different people. By differing meanings of reality I refer to a social-constructionist view of

sense-making processes of leadership, where there are both cognitive (intellectual) and political

(social) aspects to consider (Hosking & Morley, 2004). The first aspect concentrates on how

people negotiate how they are willing to describe their different worlds (ibid.). The second aspect

concentrates on those processes by which participants decide how to commit themselves to lines

of action in environments that may involve mixed motives (ibid.).

According to Smircich and Morgan (1982): “Although leaders draw their power from their ability

to define the reality of others, their inability to control completely provides seeds of disorganization

in the organization of meaning they provide” (p.259). They also write: “The concept and practice

of leadership, and variant forms of direction and control, are so powerfully ingrained into popular

thought that the absence of leadership is often seen as an absence of organization” (p.257). My

view of leadership differs from the view expressed by Smircich and Morgan (1982), according

which leadership disappears when the members of the group do not share a common way of

making sense of their experiences like when a group situation embodies competing definitions of

reality. If so, there would be no leadership in the organizations of creative work.

In today’s rapidly changing environments, the complexity of problems requires solutions that

combine knowledge, efforts and abilities of people with diverse perspectives (Brown & Eisenhardt

1998). Individuals do not always have the necessary expertise, ability, or motivation to generate

creative solutions alone. The problem of the research on leadership as well as on creativity is

that it concentrates mainly on individuals: heroic leaders and creative geniuses. This produces


two kinds of illusions. First, it produces an illusion of creativity and leadership, as the attributes

of a leader or a leading creator who inspires the creativity of others by activating the creativity

in them. This means managing organizational reality in a way that is defined by the leader, who

knows best what to do, when to do it and how to do it. Second, what is even more important, the

‘leader’ often needs other people to work - not only for him but with him.

Kurzberg and Amabile (2001) have summarized the state of creativity research: “In all of the

(current) approaches, the focus has rested squarely on the individual, highlighting individual

cognitive processing, stable individual difference, and the effects of the external environment on

the individual. Relatively little attention has been paid to team level creative synergy, in which

ideas are generated by groups instead of being generated by one mind” (p.285). In this article,

I want to pay attention to team level synergy. Considering creativity as a shared or collective

phenomenon, I can’t help thinking that an idea of the leader as a ‘manager of meaning’ may not

be enough in creative work.

From individual to shared leadership

In this chapter, I will describe leadership research dividing it to two different approaches: to

leadership as an individual phenomenon, and to leadership as a shared phenomenon. These

two approaches of leadership have developed on the 20th century. Even though leadership as

an individual phenomenon has gathered more attention on the 20th century, I believe that in the

future we have to be able to see leadership as a shared phenomenon.

Alan Bryman (1996) used a term ”New Leadership” approach to describe a number of approaches

to leadership in 1980s. Together these approaches conceptualized leader as someone who defines

the organizational reality through the articulation of a vision (reflection of organization’s mission

and values). Leaders are seen as ‘managers of meaning’ rather than in terms of an influence

process. The new kind of leadership concerned ’transformational leadership’ (Bass 1985; Tichy

ja Devanna 1986), ’charismatic leadership’ (House 1977; Conger 1989), ‘visionary leadership’

(Sashkin 1988; Westley ja Mintzberg 1989), and just ‘leadership’ (Bennis ja Nanus 1985; Kotter

1990). (Bryman, 1996)

According to Bryman (1996) the ‘New Leadership’ offers a distinctive approach that combines heroic

leaders with the growing self-awareness of many organizations and their missions. He writes ‘New

Leadership’ to be a cause, a symptom and a consequence of self-reflection. Listing the weaknesses

Bryman (1996) acknowledges some important issues. First, ‘New Leadership’ can be accused of

concentrating excessively on top leaders. As concentrating on the leadership of, rather than in,

organizations it has only little to say to the majority of leaders. Second, as it having a tendency

to focus on appointed leaders, the ‘New Leadership’ has little to say about informal leadership

processes. Third, there has been little situational analysis, because ‘New Leadership’ risks creating

a return to universalistic thinking by extolling the virtues of transformational leadership.

Bryman (1996) recognizes four strands of research that illustrate another leadership approach, the

development dispersive leadership. First, Manz and Sims (1991) and Sims and Lorenzi (1992)

developed the idea of ‘Superleadership’, which they considered as the leadership of future, the

new leadership paradigm. In ‘Superleadership’ an emphasis is placed on leading others to lead

themselves. Second, Katzenbach and Smith (1993) wrote about ’real teams’, where a small

number of people with complementary skills work together to achieve a common goal. In a

manner similar to ‘Superleadership’, the leader is here a facilitator who cultivates the group and

its members. Third, Kouzes ja Posner (1993) propose that credible leaders develop capacity in

others by turning their constituents into leaders. These three strands changed the focus away

from heroic leaders and toward a focus of teams as sites of leadership. According to dispersed

leadership tradition the attention should be paid to leadership processes and skills, not only in

formally designed leaders, but also in others. (Bryman, 1996)

Shared leadership approach questions individual thinking by concentrating on leadership practices

as a group phenomenon (Bryman 1996; Spllane, Halverson & Diamond 1999; Pearce & Sims,

2000; Scully & Seagal, 1997; Senge, 1997; Yukl 1998). (Fletcher & Käufer, 2003) The roots of

shared leadership may be traced as far as when Mary Parker Follet (192�) represented the concept

’law of the situation’ (Pearce & Conger 2003). Significantly the theory of shared leadership

started to develop in 1990s.

Shared leadership is still a disintegrated area of leadership theory, beacause of both newly research

and mayby also the marginal nature of the research. The idea of sharing power is not new. Mary

Parker Follett expressed the notion of “power with” as opposed to “power over” already in 192�.

What is still not clear, is the concept of power that is shared in shared leadership. What kind of

power is shared and how? Shared leadership theory is unable to give one answer here. Some

researchers argue that shared leadership is co-created understanding of issues, problems, and

solutions in group so that power is shared among the participants (Fletcher & Käufer, 2003).

Some think that shared power gets different forms as the role of the leader changes when people

start to lead themselves on three levels: on an individual level (‘self leadership’), on a team level

(‘shared leadership’) and on the top management level (‘Superleadership’) (Manz & Sims 1991;

Houghton, Neck & Manz, 2003). Some researchers consider power to be shared among leaders

(O’Toole, Galbraith and Lawler, 2003) while others think that the leadership roles are shared in

compliance with the areas of expertise of the team members (Pearce and Conger, 2003).

What is essential in shared leadership approach is the way the power dynamics become visible

and open for discussion. I will contribute to shared ledership discussion by studying how power

is being shared in creative expert work. All these experts do have their own opinions and feelings

about leadership and about meanings to be managed, even though these opinions and feelings

would be changing. Empirically thinking, most often there is a designated leader in organization,

who is responsible in the end. Feelings and opinions of the power relations may differ a lot even

if there is an appointed leader. Who does then define the organizational reality and who manages

2�9 Creative Futures Conference Proceedings Creative Futures Conference Proceedings 250

the meaning? In this article, the concept of shared leadership means sharing leadership practices

as ‘managers of meaning’. By the notion of manager I do not mean only appointed leaders but

every participant of an expert work team. This kind of thinking makes power, in the spirit of

Mary Parker Follett (192�), ‘power with’ instead of ‘power over’ (Parker, 198�).

Seeking polarity of meanings

The last chapter discussed the process of leadership to have many managers instead of one. In

this chapter, I argue that we should be able to see the variety of meanings that people have in an

organization for example about the organization, leadership, reality and each other. In this way

creativity seeks polarity. This means seeing many meanings of ‘reality’ at the same time.

Classic research on creativity (Guilford, 1950; Torrance, 1969) has described the ability to think

flexible, which means considering many different approaches and categories of thought as one of

the crucial elements that can lead to novelty of new ideas (Kurztberg & Müller, 2005). Creativity

is defined here as an ability to perceive large and small entities without splitting emotions,

thoughts or experiences, which one usually does when striving to peaceful state of mind. For

example, holding the variety of emotions means holding both ‘good’ and ‘bad’. Pure ‘good’ may

feel too sweet as pure ‘aggressive’ statement might feel too attacking. As lying somewhere in

between, creativity is seen here as an ability to outline disharmony in a meaningful way. This

means maintaining both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ emotions, making them tolerable, and giving them

practical meanings. Creativity aspires to free the mind and imagination, to see and experience the

variety of things, and perceive contrasts and deficiencies.

The ability to combine different styles of thinking is more likely to be found in groups of people

working together in teams, networks and systems. That is where they bring together complementary

competences (creative potential) and working practices (creative behavior). In organizations,

problems usually arise rooted in certain contexts, where individuals may have trouble reframing

on their own. Organizations may then benefit from people coming together to collectively work on

defining and solving the problems that have emerged. Ideas may spring up in individual’s mind,

but they are later shared, changed and developed within a team so that it is almost impossible to

trace back the origins of the ideas after a while. The research on creativity in organizations has

generated significant understanding of the effect of ongoing group and organizational context

on individual creativity (Amabile 1983, 1995), but is less concerned with action and interaction

at the collective level. Collective creativity makes creative potential and creative behavior not

only individual, but also inter-individual and group phenomena. Creativity in groups involves

processes that are distinct from the process of individual creativity.

Hargadon & Bechky (2006) give an example of creativity as a group phenomenon. According

to Francis Jehl, one of Thomas Edison’s longtime assistants, “Edison is in reality a collective

noun and means the work of many men” (p.�8�). There was a group of engineers who worked

together and also with Edison in the one-room laboratory in Menlo Park (Millard, 1990). Even

though creativity is mostly researched and appreciated as an attribute of an individual, creative

products are often made collectively. This is another way to see creative accomplishment. Instead

of an attribute of individual, it may be considered as a mode of being together, or a space of

togetherness, where people actually do participate in work at hand. They take actively part in

conversation, chance of opinions, and are willing to develop ideas further.

According to Robert Spitzer (2000), collective creativity happens when people come together

in a spirit of common cause: they are open to one another’s opinions, build one another’s ideas

spontaneously, anticipate what is coming next, and sense how best to implement these ideas. This

happens playfully and experimentally but is very productive (ibid.). Individual’s creativity has

led through creative accomplishment to a social phenomenon, where something is shared among

other people. This has also inspired others to experience individual’s creative way of thinking

as a shared. People do not only experience getting something from this person, but also giving

something to him, and to each other, at the same time. This outlines the difference between

working for someone and working with someone. In a collectively creative process people work

with each other.

Space of togetherness in organization

Collective creativity may be seen developing as a process of dialogue in organization. Scharmer

(2001) has represented a framework that describes the process of dialogue. He argues that when

groups engage in a conversation, the quality of their interaction falls into four phases, each of

which has distinctive characteristics. This framework allows evaluate the quality of group’s social

interaction. The model of four phases of dialogue differs from the notion of active listening because

it conceptualizes dialogue as a group-level phenomenon rather than as individual behavior that

simply occurs in a group setting. The phases in Scharmer’s (2001) dialogue model are: talking

nice, talking tough, reflective dialogue, and generative dialogue. (Fletcher & Käufer, 2003)

As interested in the context of collective creativity, I will focus on the last two phases: reflective

dialogue and generative dialogue. In Fletcher and Käufer’s (2003) study, participants described

a moment when their communication reached a level of connection that transcended individual

interests. Scharmer (2001) calls this reflective dialogue which allows the participants to experience

a group as a whole. What distinguishes it from reflective dialogue is the level of trust and openness

between participants. Fletcher and Käufer (2003) suggest this high level connectedness to be a

necessary condition for the co-created understanding along with group level ownership of issues,

problems, and solutions. The quality of social interaction means here the high level of trust

and mutual engagement that allows the group as a whole to explore new ideas and ways of

thinking and to coordinate itself easily. (Fletcher & Käufer, 2003) This means also that it is safe

for opinions to differ without a fear of engaging in conflicts on a relationship level.

Does change from one phase to another mean change in experience of power relations? If one


person defines the reality of others in an organization what opinions or views are there to confront

with? How is it possible to aim at creative solutions, if there is a lack of multiplicity of realities

and views? Aren’t the solutions convergent if they are made from one already defined perspective

instead of many? If we think creative researchers or artists, aren’t they considered creative just

because they have defined some meanings differently? Managing these experts by defining their

reality would be denying their creativity. But how much then must people agree to be able to

work together as a group or organization? It is, however, as relevant to ask how much do they

have to disagree?

Research on team level creativity or collective creativity is rather scarce. Although groups are

common in organizations, only little is known about the optimal conditions that promote it. I

used EBSCO-host database to scan articles on the phenomena of collective creativity. The term

‘creative collective’ gave 16 answers, from which also one article, “When Collections of Creatives

Become Creative Collectives: A Field Study of Problem Solving at Work” by Andrew B. Hargadon

and Beth A. Bechky (2006) discussed collective creativity. The term ‘creative synergy’ gave 21

answers, from which only Terri R. Kurzberg’s and Teresa M. Amabile’s (2001) article “From

Guildford to Creative Synergy: Opening a Black Box of Team Creativity” dealt with collective

creativity.

For Hargadon and Bechky (2006), the idea of collective cognition, joined with the understanding

of creative problem solving, provides a framework for understanding moments of collective

creativity. As they phrase it:

“Collective mind resides in the mindful interrelations between individuals in a social

system. One person’s action or comments, when considered by others, shape theirs,

which in turn (when heeded) shapes the next. A focus on the collective aspects of

these interactions recognizes that one person’s past thinking and action take new

meanings – to everyone involved – in the evolving context of subsequent thinking

and action”(p. �86).

Hargadon and Bechky (2006) have explored the behaviors that trigger moments of collective

creativity. In their study (2006), they were interested of how those behaviors interact and how

they are supported within the organization. Instead of relying on each individual’s cognitive

skills, collective creativity represented particular moments when people’s perspectives and

experiences were brought together to cope on problematic situations in ways that create distinctly

new solutions. At these points, what to think of as a problem and how to think about it became

the products of a collective process. Instead of studying a constant phenomenon (i.e. creative

individuals and organizations) they studied series of momentary, transient phenomena (i.e.,

creative moments in organizations). They framed the phenomenon of collective creativity as a

moment when individuals come together to find, redefine, and solve problems that no one could

have done easily (if at all) by working alone. (Hargadon & Bechky, 2006)

Analysis of the field data revealed four sets of interrelating activities that play a role in triggering

moments of collective creativity. These were 1) help seeking, 2) help giving, 3) reflective

framing, and �) reinforcing. Help seeking described activities that occur when individual who

either recognizes or is assigned a problematic situation actively seeks the assistance of others.

Help giving represented the willing devotion of time and attention to assisting with the work of

others. Reflective reframing represented the mindful behaviors of all participants in an interaction,

where each respectfully attends to and builds upon the comments and actions of others. And

finally, reinforcing reflected those activities that subtly (and sometimes not so subtly) reinforce

the organizational values that support individuals as they engage in help seeking, help giving, and

reflective reframing. Reinforcing happens as a direct consequence of engaging in these activities.

(Hargadon & Bechky 2006)

The study of Hargadon and Bechky (2006) provides an alternative framework for understanding

the creative process within organizations. In their framework the focus has been shifted from

individuals to interaction between them. What turns collections of creative individuals into creative

collectives? And where do particular interactions yield creative insights, yet those insights cannot

be attributed to particular individuals? How is leadership constructed in creative collectives? The

answer to these questions might be important because the need for individual creative genius is

steadily being displaced in organizations (Hargadon and Bechky 2006).

Kurzberg and Amabile (2001) have also been interested in how creative minds interact in group

processes. In their article, they examine the specific group processes and dynamics that may affect

team-level creative production. They present a description of the ways in which diversity and

different types of conflict in groups may affect the creative process. According to them (Kurzberg

& Amabile, 2001), groups in which task conflict results from multiple opinions produce work

that is more original (Van dyne & Saavedra, 1996), more divergent (Nemeth, 1986), and more

complex (Gruenfeld, 1995) than do the groups in which all members agree. This suggests that the

presence and the defense of multiple viewpoints among group members serves to make conflict

productive for creative outcomes. Along with the creativity literature’s identification or flexibility,

or the number of different perspectives represented (Guilford, 1950), this is an element of creative

outcomes. Guilford talked about flexibility on the individual cognitive level, and some research

has demonstrated a relation between individual creativity and tolerance for conflict (Sheldon,

1995). (Kurzberg and Amabile, 2001)

In their article, Kurzberg and Amabile (2001) noted that only little is known about how group

creativity functions, what affects team-level creativity, and which are the optimal conditions to

promote it. First, they call for a group focus on creativity research arguing that researchers should

study the ways in which the presence of other people and their ideas changes an individual’s

creative thoughts. Second, research on team-level creativity must explore the evolution of ideas


as they progress from one mind to another. Third, research should address the question what

creates the environments, norms, and feelings within a team’s culture that will affect the sharing

of ideas in the team. (Kurzberg and Amabile 2001)

How do feelings and experiences construct sharing of ideas in a team? What I find interesting

is also the diversity of meanings that people create in situations when their opinions differ. Do

they see these differences as creative chances or as creativity breakers? Kurzberg and Amabile

(2001) discussed collective synergy with the concepts of diversity and conflict, which I believe

are essential when thinking about collective creativity any further. When meanings of people

differ, their realities differ and it is supposed that also conflicts will emerge. Are these conflicts

always bad or might there be something constructive in them? The body of research seems to

answer the question by suggesting that task conflict may be constructive but relationship conflict

and process conflict are absolutely not (Jehn, 1995, 1997). How is it possible to differentiate these

from the other two?

From manager of meaning to managers of many meanings

Leadership is socially constructed through interaction (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). It emerges

as a result of the constructions and actions of both the leaders and the led. According to Smircich

and Morgan (1982), leadership is a process of negotiation through which certain individuals,

implicitly or explicitly, surrender their power to define the nature of their experience to others.

Do they really surrender their power in leadership? I disagree with Smircich and Morgan (1982),

because I believe leadership exists even without this kind of power relation. I argue the power

relation (as defined by Smircich and Morgan, 1982) to be an illusion, because everybody has

power in leadership relation. One might still think that (s)he do not have that power, but as well

as somebody has power to make someone to do something, this someone has also the power to

not to do it.

If leadership was all about giving one’s power to define the nature of one’s experience to others,

I would expect that reflective and generative dialogues would rarely happen. In a subject –object

power relation the person who feels that (s)he is an object, starts to observe her-/himself. With

this self-observing the advantage of collective creativity may be lost when a person is not able to

participate in a reflective or generative dialogue.

What is interesting for the leadership research is the way people construct an image of their

power in leadership relations. I believe this may differ from person to person and from moment

to moment. The same person may experience power in some leadership practices as subject-

to-subject influence and in some other practices subject-to-object influence. The feelings of

subjectivity, as well as intensity of this feeling, may differ from one moment to another.

In this article, creative leadership has been seen as balancing between ‘freedom of diversity’

(creativity) and ‘ambition to control’ (power). Both would be impossible alone. Absolute freedom

would lead to chaos as well as absolute form of control would lead to machinery-like bureaucracy.

However, I argue that the different combinations of these two (creativity and leadership) make

different kind of leadership. According to ‘New Leadership’ approach, power relations, as well

as creativity relations may often be subject-object relations. Instead, shared leadership introduces

more subject-subject relations, where both parties of leadership are active on using power. The

collective creativity concept expresses relationship of mutual trust and an agreement to differ.

In the beginning of this article, I presented Hosking & Morley’s (200�) view of a sense-making

process of leadership where there are both cognitive (intellectual) and political (social) aspects

to consider. Creativity as a dimension of leadership can be seen representing the intellectual part

of sense-making process of leadership, as power will represent the social aspect. The creativity

aspect of leadership concentrates on how people negotiate and how they are willing to describe

their different understanding of the world, and the power aspect of leadership concentrates on

those processes by which participants decide how to commit themselves to lines of action, in

environments that may involve mixed motives. As noticing these issues it may not be relevant

to consider leadership to be about one ‘manager of meaning’. Instead, I argue that we should

consider the participants of collective creativity as managers that manage the variety of meanings.

This variety, however, may be the heart of creativity.

References

Berger, P.L. & Luckmann T. 1966. The Social Construction of Reality. New York: Anchor

Books.

Bryman, A. 1996. Leadership in Organizations. In Clegg, S.R., Hardy, C, and Nord, W.R. (eds.)

Handbook of Organization Studies. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Pp. 276-292.

Fletcher& Käufer. 2003. Shared Leadership: Paradox and Possibility. In Pearce, Craig L. & Conger,

Jay A. (eds.) Shared Leadership – Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership. Thousand Oaks

California: Sage Publications. 21-�7.

Hardagon A.B. & Bechky, B. 2006. When collections of creatives become creative collectives: A

field Study of problem solving at work. Organization Science, vol. 17, No. 4, �8�-500.

Hosking, D.M. & Morley, I.E. 200�. Social constructionism in Community and applied Social

Psychology. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 1�; 1-1�.


Houghton, Jeffery D., Neck, Christopher P. & Manz, Charles C. 2003. Self-Leadership and

SuperLeadership: The Heart and Art of Creating Shared Leadership in Teams. In Pearce, Craig L.

& Conger, Jay A. (eds.) Shared Leadersip- Reframing the Hows and whys of Leadership. Sage

Publications Ltd.:London. 123-1�0.

Kutzberg, T.R. & Amabile, T.M. 2001. From Guiford to creative synergy: Opening the black box

of team level creativity. Creativity Research Journal, Vol 13, Nos. 3&4, 285-29�.

Kurtzberg, T.R. & Müller, J.S. 2005. The influence of daily conflict on perceptions of creativity: a

longitudinal study. The International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 16, No. 4, 335-353.

O’Toole, J., Galbraith, J., and Lawler, E.E. 2003. The Promise and Pitfalls of shared Leadership:

When Two (or More) Heads are Better Than One. In Pearce, Craig L. & Conger, Jay A. (eds.)

Shared Leadersip- Reframing the Hows and whys of Leadership. London: Sage. 250-268.

Parker, L.D. 198�. Control in Organizational Life: The Contribution of Mary Parker Follett.

Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9, No, 4, 736-745.

Pearce, Craig L. & Conger, Jay A. 2003. All Those Years Ago: The Historical Underpinnings of

Shared Leadership. In Pearce, Craig L. & Conger, Jay A. (eds.) Shared Leadersip- Reframing the

Hows and whys of Leadership. London: Sage.1-18.

Smircich, L. & Morgan, G. 1982. Leadership: The management of meaning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18, 257-273.

How to teach innovation? – A case in teacher

education

Kuinka opettaa innovaatiota? – Tapaus

opettajankoulutuksessa

Eila Lindfors

Department of Teacher Education in Hämeenlinna,

Faculty of Education, University of Tampere,

Ideas and solutions are considered to be innovative if they are answers to some needs and they

bring some creativity to the daylight. If creative and functional solutions as innovations happen

to be answers for needs of people world wide they will be seen afterwards as success stories of

creativity, design and technology.

Today everybody is after innovativeness. A problem is how to find innovative ideas and make

innovative solutions. National success stories are even more important in the future and therefore

innovation is also a topic of education. To learn how to invent ideas and solutions one should be

encouraged to use creativity instead of learning only traditional ways of doing and performing.

That’s why we have to ask, how to teach innovation for pupils and students who will be the

innovators of the future?

This paper discuss about user-centred design and making process which aimed at inventing usable

solutions to everyday problems found in the close environment. Two examples are reported and

analyzed in craft, design and technology studies in the class teacher training program. Student

teachers applied user-centred design to learn the ways of finding problems and inventing and

creating solutions to them. The starting point was to find problems which the student teachers

themselves met in their everyday living in Northern Finland. The topic was especially connected

to the problems which could be met in cold climate.

The analysis show that active problem searching in real life helps students to start the innovative


design process. An analysis of the use, user and the environment where the solution is supposed

to be used give students ideas which can be developed further. From the teaching point of

view this gives opportunities to develop user-centred design in teacher education as well as in

comprehensive school. The presented products represent examples of innovative solutions made

in the pedagogical context. The guidelines of teaching innovation by applying user-centred design

will be presented.

1. Johdanto

Innovaatio on nykyään yhteiskunnan muotikäsite. Kaikilla yhteiskuntasektoreilla kysytään, kuinka

olisi mahdollista löytää innovatiivisia ideoita innovatiivisten ratkaisujen pohjaksi. Innovaatio

liitetään useimmiten talouselämään, uusiin mullistaviin tuotteisiin ja/tai palveluihin. Kansalliset

menestystarinat ovat tulevaisuudessa entistä tärkeämpiä ja sen vuoksi myös kasvatukseen ja

koulutukseen yhdistetään nykyään innovatiivisuuden vaatimus.

Tilastokeskuksen (2006) mukaan innovaatio on yrityksen markkinoille tuoma uusi tai olennaisesti

parannettu tuote (tavara tai palvelu). Käsitteellisesti innovaatio liittyy läheisesti termeihin luovuus

ja muutos. Rogersin (2003) mukaan innovaatio on jokin uutuus, tavallisimmin jokin uutuustuote,

esimerkiksi teollinen tai tekninen keksintö, jolloin sen perustana voi olla jokin uusi teknologia,

entisten teknologioiden uusi sovellus tai yrityksen hankkiman uuden tiedon hyödyntäminen.

Innovaatio voidaan ymmärtää myös ideana, käytäntönä tai esineenä, jota yksilöt pitävät uutena.

Voidaan puhua mullistavista innovaatioista ja vähittäisin muutoksin syntyvistä innovaatioista.

Innovaatioon kuluu suunnittelun lisäksi uusien ideoiden soveltaminen käytäntöön konkreetilla

tavalla.

Innovaation syntymiseen tarvitaan alkuvaiheessa luovaa ideointia. Jotta on mahdollista

oppia keksimään ideoita ja ratkaisuja, yksilöitä pitäisi rohkaista oman luovuutensa käyttöön

traditionaalisten toimintamallien sijasta. Nykyään monia esimerkiksi koulussa toteutettavia

tuotteita syytetään traditiota toistaviksi. Voidaankin kysyä, miten innovaatiota voitaisiin opettaa

luovuutta synnyttävällä tavalla?

Avoimesta innovaatiosta puhuttaessa (Chesbrough 2003) ymmärretään tilannetta, jossa niin

sanotusta suljetusta innovaatioprosessista pyritään kohti avoimempaa innovaatiotapaa siten,

että innovaation synnyttämiseen tähtäävään toimintaan, innovaatioprosessiin, osallistuu laaja

joukko ihmisiä. Kyse voi olla yrityksen työntekijöistä tai laajemmasta joukosta, joka on tavalla

tai toisella yhteydessä innovaation tavoitteluun. Uudenlaisesta ideasta ja sen toteutusratkaisusta

tulee innovaatio vasta, kun se on otettu käyttöön ja havaittu hyväksi ja toimivaksi.

Uutena suuntauksena tavaroiden ja palveluiden kehittämisessä on niin sanottu käyttäjäkeskeinen

suunnittelu. Uusien tuotteiden ja palveluiden suunnittelu oli aikaisemmin yrityksen toimesta

tapahtuva prosessi, jonka lopputulos sitten markkinoitiin käyttäjälle. Nykyään tuotteen tai

ratkaisun käyttäjä on aikaisempaa suuremmassa roolissa. Käyttäjäkeskeisessä suunnittelussa

on noussut tärkeäksi käyttäjän kokemusten huomioiminen suunnitteluprosessin alkuvaiheessa.

Suunnittelun avulla pyritään löytämään ratkaisuja, jotka ovat käytettävyydeltään hyviä ja toimivia.

Käytettävyydellä (usability) ymmärretään tuotteen toimivuutta.

Käytettävyystutkimus pyrkii löytämään ratkaisuja kuluttajien, tuotteiden käyttäjien tarpeisiin.

Tuotteen käytettävyys puolestaan kertoo sen, kuinka hyvin tuotteen ajatellaan toimivan sille

asetetussa tehtävässä. Tuoteryhmästä riippumatta käytettävyyden arviointi on olennainen osa

tuotekehitystä. Tutkimukset (Coleman 1999; Kwahk & Han 2002; Lindfors 2002; Redström

2006) ovat osoittaneet, että käytettävyys syntyy tuotteen, käyttäjän ja käyttöympäristön

vuorovaikutuksena (Kuva 1). Käytettävyyden analysointi auttaa tuotteen suunnittelijaa tai

suunnittelutiimiä sekä myös itse käyttäjää ymmärtämään käytettävyyden osatekijöitä ja tuo siten

esiin tuotteen kehittelyn kannalta olennaisia asioita.

KUVA 1. Käytettävyys käyttäjän, tuotteen ja ympäristön suhteena.

Käytettävyyden arvioinnin tulee olla monipuolista ja kohdentua niihin tarpeisiin ja ongelmiin, joita

uudella tuotteella yritetään ratkaista (Lim and Sato 2006). Tällöin lähtökohtana on korostettava

todellisia käytännössä havaittuja puutteita tai ongelmia, joita tuotteen käyttäjä kohtaa. Tällöin

nousee esille myös se, miten käyttäjä tuotetta tulkitsee, ymmärtää ja miten hän sen käytön kokee.

Käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun keskeisin elementti on käyttäjien todellisiin kokemuksiin, tarpeisiin

ja ongelmiin tutustuminen. Koska tuotteen lopullinen käytettävyys rakentuu käyttäjän, tuotteen

ja ympäristön vuorovaikutukselle, uudella ratkaisulla voi olla valmistuttuaan useammanlaista

käyttöä kuin mihin se on alun perin suunniteltu. (Lindfors 2006.) Käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun

tulos muuttuu innovaatioksi silloin, kun uudet ja luovat ideat ja ajatukset saavat käytännössä

toimivan kolmiulotteisen muodon ja niiden käytettävyys osoittautuu hyväksi ja toimivaksi.

Koska innovaatio on yhteiskunnassa ja globaalissa maailmassa tavoiteltava menestystekijä,

joudutaan kysymään, kuinka innovaatioita syntyy ja kuinka innovaatiota voitaisiin opettaa. Tässä

artikkelissa tarkastellaan innovaatiota tuotteen suunnittelun ja opettamisen näkökulmasta kahden

tapausesimerkin avulla. Luokanopettajan koulutusohjelmassa opiskelevat opiskelijat sovelsivat

käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan mallia (kuva 2) ratkaistessaan

K äyttäjä

Y mpär istö Tuote

K äytettävyys


lähiympäristössä havaitsemaansa pohjoisessa elämiseen liittyvää kylmässä ilmanalassa

selviytymisen ongelmaa.

2. Käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan malli

Vaikka innovaatio talouselämän näkökulmasta kytkeytyy voimakkaasti kaupallisuuteen, kyseessä

on viimekädessä luovan ja keksivän ihmisen tarve selviytyä omassa ympäristössään. Tässä

mielessä kyse on arkielämässä kohdattavien ongelmien ratkaisemisesta mielekkäällä tavalla

(Lindfors 2003). Tällaisessa tilanteessa keksivä ihminen havaitsee ensin ongelman, määrittelee

sen ja etsii lopuksi siihen erilaisia ratkaisuvaihtoehtoja. Keksivä ihminen optimoi ja arvioi

ratkaisuvaihtoehtoja ja päätyy lopulta jonkin ratkaisun toteuttamiseen. Ratkaisun valmistuttua

selviää, miten hyvin se todellisuudessa toimii ja sitä voidaan tarvittaessa edelleen kehittää. Kyse

on siis sellaisten toimintaprosessien kehittymisestä ja vahvistumisesta, jotka auttavat ihmistä

saavuttamaan tavoitteitaan ja sopeutumaan ympäristöön.

Innovaation opettamisessa voidaan katsoa olevan kyse Peltosen (2001) termiä käyttäen sellaisen

kokonaistoiminnan tavoittelemisesta ja ohjaamisesta, jonka aikana opiskelija valmistaa tuotteen

ratkaisuna havaitsemaansa ongelmaan. Samalla hänen kykynsä hallita itse tuottamistapahtumaa

vahvistuu. Silloin, kun ratkaisu syntyy yksittäiskappaleina materiaalia muokkaamalla, puhutaan

kokonaistoiminnasta, joka jakaantuu käsityölliseen suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessiin. Tällaisen

suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessin alkuvaiheessa ongelman havaitaan ja määritellään. Tekijä tai

tekijäryhmä alkaa etsiä siihen aktiivisesti ratkaisua. Jotta erilaisia ratkaisuvaihtoehtoja voidaan

optimoida, täytyy määritellä ne piirteet ja ominaisuudet, jotka ratkaisun täytyy täyttää. Tuotteelle

täytyy siis suunnitella tehtävä, joka sen tulee täyttää. Samalla määritellään tuotteen aiottu

käyttöympäristö. (Lindfors 2005.)

Sekä lähtökohtana olevaa ongelmaa että mahdollisia ratkaisuvaihtoehtoja on tarkasteltava

suhteessa aiottuun käyttötarkoitukseen, käyttäjään ja ympäristöön, jossa ratkaisun on tarkoitus

toimia ts. sitä on tarkoitus käyttää. Jotta kehiteltävä ratkaisu olisi mahdollisimman optimaalinen,

suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessissa tarvitaan kriittistä faktoihin perustuvaa tietoa ja ymmärrystä

materiaaleista, rakenteista ja niiden ominaisuuksista sekä erilaisten työvälineiden ja tekniikkojen

käyttöä materiaalien muokkaamisessa haluttuun muotoon joko prototyyppeinä tai lopullisina

ratkaisuina.

Käsityön opetus on koulumaailmassa perinteisesti se oppiaine, jossa ratkaistaan konkreetilla tavalla

kolmiulotteiseen esinemaailmaan liittyviä tehtäviä. Monilla aikuisilla on käsityönopetuksesta

negatiivisia muistoja (Lindfors 2007), jotka liittyvät mallinmukaiseen tekemiseen. Käsityön

opetusta voidaankin kritisoida siitä, että tavoitteina olleita käsityön teknisen toteutuksen

materiaalinmuokkaustaitoja on pyritty opettamaan tietyillä tekniikoilla tehtävien tuotteiden

avulla. Tällöin tekijän oman luovuuden hyödyntäminen ja sen edelleen kehittely on jäänyt

vähäiselle huomiolle. Tehtävät tuotteet eivät ole useinkaan olleet sellaisia, että tekijät olisivat

kokeneet tarvitsevansa niitä ja sitä kautta tekeminen olisi ollut motivoivaa.

Islannissa oma-aloitteista ja kekseliästä ratkaisujen löytämisen tärkeyttä korostetaan siinä määrin,

että perusopetuksessa toteutetaan innovaatiokasvatusta (innovation education). Tavoitteena on

auttaa oppilaita löytämään lähiympäristöstään sellaisia ongelmia, joihin he voivat itse keksiä

ratkaisuja. Innovaatiokasvatuksen keskeinen ajatus on, että löytämällä ongelmia ja kehittelemällä

niihin ratkaisuja oppilaat oppivat käyttämään luovuuttaan ja luottamaan omiin kykyihinsä.

Ideoiden kehittelyn ja erilaisten ratkaisujen kokeilun ja työstämisen ajatellaan lisäävän oppilaiden

oma-aloitteisuutta ja rohkeutta. Oppilaiden ajatellaan oppivan toimintaprosessin, jonka avulla he

voivat selviytyä muuttuvissa olosuhteissa tulevaisuudessa. (Lindfors & Thornteinsson 2002.)

Kuva 2. Käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan malli

Yhden konkreetin esimerkin ja vaihtoehdon innovatiivisten käyttäjälähtöisten ratkaisujen

suunnittelun ja valmistuksen opettamiselle tarjoaa Lindforsin (2005) hahmottelema käsityön

1. Etsi ongelma ja analysoi sen ulottuvuuksia.

2. Suunni ttele erilaisia r atkaisuja etsimällä tietoa käyttäjästä ja

käyttötilanteesta.

3. Testaa ja ve r taile erilaisia ratkaisuja nopeiden prototyyppien avulla.

�. Tut ki ja ar vioi erilaisia ratkaisuja ja niiden ominaisuuksia suhteessa

käyttäjään ja käyttöympäristöön.

5. Va litse ratkaisuvaihtoehto ja päätä tuotteelta edellytettävät

ominaisuudet.

6. Testaa erilaisia mater iaaleja ja r akenteita tuotteelta vaadittavien

ominaisuuksien toteuttamiseksi.

7. Suunni ttele tuotteen konkreetti val mistus.

8. Va lmista r atkaisu, suunniteltu tuote.

9. K äytä valmista tuotetta todellisessa käyttötilanteessa.

10. A r vioi tuotetta kr iittisesti ja esitä jatkokehitysideoita.

Käy ttäjä lähtöisen suunnittelun ja va lmi stuk sen kok onaist oiminnan mal li


käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan malli (kuva 2). Malli toimii

esimerkkinä siitä, miten teoreettista tietoa ja ymmärrystä suunnitellusta ratkaisusta, itse tuotteesta,

voidaan soveltaa käytäntöön suunnitelmallisesti huomioimalla tuotteen käytettävyys käyttäjän,

käyttöympäristön ja tuotteen suhteena. Se antaa konkreetin esimerkin, miten edetä vaihe vaiheelta

ja toteuttaa innovatiivinen todelliseen käyttöön tarkoitettu optimaalisin ominaisuuksin varustettu

tuote. Malli tarjoaa mahdollisuuden myös ymmärtää, millaisia vaiheita opetukseen pitää sisällyttää,

jotta voidaan ohjata innovatiiviseen ratkaisuun pyrkivää suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessia

kokonaistoimintana.

3. Nepponen ja lantionlämmitin innovaatioina

Tarkastelun kohteena oleva tapaustutkimus toteutettiin luokanopettajan koulutusohjelman

käsityön didaktisissa opinnoissa kevättalvella 2005. Kyseessä olivat eri oppiaineiden niin sanotut

monialaiset perusopinnot. Näihin opintoihin osallistuvat kaikki opiskelijat, joten kyseessä ei

ollut mitenkään erityisesti tuotteen suunnitteluun ja valmistukseen orientoitunut opiskelijaryhmä.

Tavoitteena oli saada opiskelijat suunnittelemaan ja valmistamaan ratkaisu itse omassa elämässään

kohtaamaansa ongelmaan. Opiskelijat esittelivät ja dokumentoivat tuotteen suunnittelun ja

valmistuksen portfolion avulla. Tämän artikkelin aineistona käytettiin sekä valmiita tuotteita,

jotka olivat itse asiassa ensimmäisen vaiheen prototyyppejä sekä prosessia kuvaavia portfolioita.

Aineistoa tarkasteltiin sisällönanalyysin avulla.

Koska opetuskokonaisuus toteutettiin kevättalvella, aiheeksi otettiin selviytyminen kylmässä

ilmanalassa. Aihealue oli vuodenajasta johtuen sellainen, että jokainen opiskelija kohtasi ainakin

joitakin kylmään liittyviä ongelmia. Opiskelijat muodostivat 3-� hengen ryhmiä tehtävän

toteuttamista varten. Heidät ohjattiin tekemään havaintoja ja etsimään ongelmia tai kehiteltäviä

kohteita kylmässä ilmassa selviytymiseen liittyen. Opiskelijoiden piti kirjata kylmässä

selviytymiseen liittyviä kysymyksiä paperille jatkotyöstämistä varten.

Opiskelijat saivat kerättyä suuren määrän erilaisia tilanteita, jotka he kokivat tavalla tai toisella

hankaliksi kylmyyden vuoksi. Tällaisia olivat esimerkiksi lapsen hoitoon vieminen aamuisin,

pyörällä liikkuminen, odottaminen ja seisoskelu kylmässä, kännykän akun lyhyt toiminta-aika

jne. Työskentely eteni siten, että opiskelijat kävivät ryhmissä läpi kohtaamiaan ongelmatilanteita

ja löysivät sen pohjalta yhteisen ongelman, johon lähtivät ideoimaan ratkaisua. Seuraavassa

esitellään 2 esimerkkiä innovatiivisesta ratkaisusta itse koettuun ongelmaan.

3.1 Nepponen eli nenän ja poskien suoja

Nepposen innovoineen ryhmän opiskelijat pyöräilivät myös talvella. Tällöin ongelmaksi

osoittautui nenän ja poskien paleltumisvaara. Kun opiskelijat pyöräilivät yli - 10 asteen

pakkasessa kasvoihin kohdistui ilmavirta, joka kylmensi kasvojen ulompia osia, kuten nenää ja

poskia. Tällöin näissä kasvojen osissa havaittiin epämiellyttäviä kylmyyden tuntemuksia ja jopa

paleltumisvaara. Ongelmaksi siis muodostui se, miten ratkaista kasvojen säilyminen lämpimänä

pyöräiltäessä kovassakin pakkasessa, jolloin ilmavirta lisäsi pakkasen purevuutta.

Opiskelijat tekivät kankaasta ja paperista erilaisia suunnitelmia nepposen eli nenän ja poskien

suojan muodosta sekä rakenteesta ja päätyivät lopulta valmistamaan prototyyppejä neulomalla

ne villalangasta. Tavoitteena oli saada aikaa ratkaisu, jota voitiin käyttää tarpeen vaatiessa

pipon kanssa ja joka olisi helppo ja nopea riisua ja pukea. Alla kuvassa 3 on esimerkit nepposen

toteutuksista. Kasvojen alaosan kokonaan peittävä nepponen valmistettiin neulomalla, joten

neulepinta oli suoraan kasvoja vasten. Nenän ja poskien yläosan suojaavan nepposen neulepinnan

alle kiinnitettiin fleece-kaitale pehmentämään ihokosketusta ja antamaan lisäsuojaa kylmää

ilmavirtaa vastaan.

KUVA 3. Kaksi erilaista versiota nepposesta eli nenän ja poskien pyöräilysuojasta.

Kun nepposet oli valmistettu, prosessiin kuului näiden valmistettujen prototyyppien testaus

aidossa käyttötilanteessa. Opiskelijat siis pyöräilivät nepposet kasvoilla ja kirjasivat ylös

käyttökokemuksiaan.

Käytössä osoittautui (kuva �), että nenän eritteet ja pakkasella hengityksestä vapautuva kosteus

tiivistyivät nepposeen. Tämä oli asia, jota ei suunniteltaessa osattu ottaa huomioon. Prototyypin

käyttö siis osoitti, että tuotteen materiaalin tuli olla helposti puhdistuvaa. Samoin ilmeni, että

jos villalangasta valmistettu neulepinta oli suoraan ihoa vasten, se aiheutti epämukavuuden

tuntemusta.

Käytön perusteella laadittiin lista niistä asioista, jotka kuvasivat tuotteen käytettävyyttä

aidossa käyttötilanteessa. Tämän perusteella voitiin arvioida niitä ominaisuuksia, joita jatkossa

pitäisi kehittää. Tällaisia olivat mm. tuotteen puettavuus ja käyttömukavuuden osa-alueella

erityisesti tuntu sekä hoidettavuus (ks. Lindfors 2002). Opintojen laajuus ei kuitenkaan antanut

mahdollisuuksia uuden nepposen valmistamiseen saatujen käyttökokemusten perusteella. Siten

nepponen jäi ensimmäisen vaiheen prototyyppiasteelle.


3.2 Lantionlämmitin

Yhden ryhmän muodostivat opiskelijat, jotka kokivat lantiolla epämiellyttäviä kylmän tuntemuksia

odottaessaan esim. pysäkillä linja-autoa. Tämä oli pitkälti seurausta vuonna 2005 vallalla olleesta

muodista. Naisten paidoissa ja topeissa, erityisesti nuorisovaatteissa oli vallalla lyhythelmaisuus

samalla, kun housut olivat niin sanottuja lantiohousuja. Tästä seurasi, että vaatetuksen yläosa

riitti juuri ja juuri siihen kohtaan, josta lantiomalliset housut alkoivat.

Tämän ryhmän opiskelijat suunnittelivat ja valmistivat lantionlämmittimiä ratkaistakseen

palelemisongelmansa (kuva 5). Ratkaisu muodostui yhdestä tai kahdesta suorakaiteen muotoisesta

neulotusta kappaleesta, jotka liitettiin toisiinsa saumalla tai nauhoilla. Ratkaisu oli tarkoitettu

käytettäväksi tarpeen vaatiessa, joten sitä saattoi kuljettaa esim. laukussa muiden tavaroiden

mukana.

Käyttökokemusten analyysi osoitti, että lantionlämmitin osoittautui melko toimivaksi ratkaisuksi.

Koska se puettiin muiden vaatteiden päälle, villalanka ei aiheuttanut ärsytysoireita. Opiskelijat

huomasivat, että tuote ratkaisi myös luentosalissa palelemisen ongelman. Vaikka tuote

suunniteltiin alun perin ulkokäyttöön, osoittautui, että sitä voitiin käyttää aina kylmäntuntemusten

ilmaantuessa. Edelleen kehiteltävän ongelman muodosti lantionlämmittimen puettavuus. Jotta

tuotteella olisi pitkäikäistä käyttöä, se pitäisi voida pukea nopeasti ja helposti. Ensimmäisen

vaiheen prototyyppiä joutui asettelemaan ja venyttelemään, jotta se tuntui osuvan kohdalleen ja

oli miellyttävä käyttää.

KUVA 4. Nepposen suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessin kuvaus.

4. Kuinka innovaatiota voidaan opettaa?

Tässä artikkelissa tarkastelun kohteena on sellaisen innovatiivisen tuotteen suunnittelu- ja

valmistus, jonka tekijä on myös ratkaisun käyttäjä. Kysymyksessä oli ongelma, johon opiskelijoilla

ei ollut olemassa valmista tuotetta eikä sellaista ollut vielä edes markkinoillakaan saatavissa.

Uuden kehittely ja kokeilu sekä prototyyppiratkaisun testaaminen todellisessa tilanteessa

oli opiskelijoista hauskaa ja palkitsevaa. Sen sijaan, että tehtävä olisi ollut ulkoapäin annettu,

opiskelijoille syntyi omakohtainen, todellinen tarve ratkaista kohtaamansa ongelma.

Esitellyt tapaukset kuvaavat sitä, miten opiskelijat etsivät ongelmaa omien kokemustensa

kautta. He kokivat tuotteen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen mielekkäänä, sillä he saivat ratkaista

omassa elämässään kohtaamaansa todellista ongelmaa. Koska ongelmat liittyivät opiskelijoiden

jokapäiväiseen elämään, he pystyivät erittelemään yhteistä ongelmaa omakohtaisesti ja löytämään

siihen ratkaisun sekä arvioimaan ratkaisun käytettävyyttä todellisessa käyttötilanteessa.

Neponen ja lantionlämmitin syntyivät opiskelijoiden yhteistyön tuloksena, jolloin opiskelijoiden

ryhmätyöskentelyn myötä syntyi yhteisesti kehitelty avoin innovaatio

Esitellyt tapaukset kuvaavat sitä, miten innovaatio on sidoksissa aikaan ja paikkaan.

Lantionlämmitin oli opiskelijalle tarpeellinen erityisen muodin valta-aikana. Nepponen sen

sijaan olisi todennäköisesti tuote, jota voitaisiin kehitellä pidemmälle. Se voisi löytää laajan

käyttöalueen ulkona työskentelevien, retkeilijöiden ja laskettelijoiden keskuudesta.

Opettamisen näkökulmasta tarkasteltuna käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen

kokonaistoiminnan malli (kuva 2) esitteli selkeät ja konkreetit vaiheet, joiden perusteella

opiskelijoiden toimintaa voitiin ohjata ongelman etsimisestä kohti sen ratkaisemista.

Tapausesimerkkien valossa näyttäisikin siltä, että mallin avulla voitaisiin ohjata opiskelijoita

etenemään vaiheesta toiseen toimivan ratkaisun löytämiseksi. Esimerkit osoittivat, että

opiskelijoiden ohjaaminen ongelman analysointiiin suhteessa ratkaisun käyttäjään, aiottuun

KUVA 5. Lantionlämmitin


käyttöön ja käyttöympäristöön helpotti konkreetin työskentelyn aloittamista. Esimerkkien valossa

näyttäisi myös siltä, että aktiivinen omassa elämässä kohdattujen ongelmien huomaaminen auttoi

innovatiivisen työskentelyn alkuun. Kun ongelma oli löytynyt ja yhteisesti määritelty, sitä voitiin

eritellä omien kokemusten valossa. Näin se tarjosi selkeän lähtökohdan ratkaisun kehittelylle ja

prototyyppien testaamiselle. Ongelman määrittely ja ratkaisuehdotusten konkreetti koettelu auttoi

opiskelijoita kehittelemään innovatiivisia ratkaisuja ja arvioimaan niiden toimivuutta. Tuotteen

käytettävyyden arviointi todellisessa tilanteessa antoi opiskelijoille konkreettia palautetta siitä,

mitä tekijöitä erityisesti ratkaisussa tulee korostaa. Tapausesimerkkien valossa näyttäisi siis

siltä, että käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan malli tarjoaa yhden

esimerkin innovatiivisen prosessin toteuttamiseksi ja näin auttaa opettamaan innovaatiota.

Nepponen ja lantionlämmitin edustavat käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun opetuksen tuloksena

syntyneitä innovatiivisia ratkaisuja. Innovaation synnyttävässä prosessissa on keskeistä

lähtökohtana todellinen ongelma, jota on mahdollista tarkastella monesta näkökulmasta ja eritellä

erilaisten mahdollisten ratkaisujen suhteen. Omakohtaista ongelmaa on mahdollista eritellä

omien kokemusten avulla. Mikäli ongelma on sellainen, että siitä ei ole omia kokemuksia, voi

ongelmaa eritellä mahdollisen tulevan käyttäjäryhmää haastattelemalla ja seuraamalla mahdollisia

käyttäjiä todellisessa tilanteessa. Ongelmasta saatu informaatio auttaa ratkaisun kehittelijöitä

hahmottamaan todellista käyttäjää ja käyttöympäristöä siten, että innovatiiviseen lopputulokseen

pyrkivän käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen kokonaistoiminnan mallia seuraamalla

ratkaisua kehitellään mahdollisimman hyvän käytettävyyden saavuttamiseksi.

Innovaation ja käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun problematiikka antaa ajattelemisen aihetta myös

perusopetuksen käsityön kehittämistä ajatellen. Käyttäjälähtöisen suunnittelun ja valmistuksen

kokonaistoiminnan malli tarjoaa mahdollisuuden oppia arvioimaan tuotteita kriittisesti ja

samalla mahdollisuuden ymmärtää millainen tehtävä tietyllä tuotteella on ja millainen tuote

voisi olla suhteessa sille aiottuun tehtävään. Yleensä tuotteen suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosessi

päättyy tuotteen valmistumiseen. Käyttäjälähtöisessä suunnittelussa prosessi jatkuu vielä

tuotteen testaamisella ja sen arvioimisella täyttääkö tuote sille asetetun tehtävän. Mikäli tuote on

käytettävyydeltään hyvä, sillä on edellytykset tulla arvioiduksi innovatiiviseksi ratkaisuksi.

Tämän artikkelin ja esimerkkitapausten valossa näyttää siltä, että opetuksessa voidaan tukea

innovaatiota synnyttäviä suunnittelu- ja valmistusprosesseja ottamalla suunnittelun lähtökohdaksi

konkreetti olemassa oleva ongelma, jota voidaan eritellä ja, josta voidaan tehdä havaintoja

ratkaisun kehittämisen pohjaksi. Toinen keskeinen tekijä näyttäisi olevan ryhmässä tapahtuva

toiminta. Todellinen ongelma antaa opiskelijoille mahdollisuuden kehitellä ratkaisua yhdessä.

Käytännössä tapahtuva käytettävyyden arviointi antaa selkeää palautetta siitä, mihin suuntaan

ratkaisua pitää kehittää.

Jatkokehittelyn kannalta haasteellisen kysymyksen muodostaa sekä ongelman määrittely että

ratkaisun käytettävyyden arviointi. Opetuksellisesti näihin vaiheisiin liittyy kysymys siitä,

kuinka nopeasti ideointivaiheesta siirrytään konkreettiin ratkaisun valmistamiseen ts. materiaalin

muokkaamisen. Erilaisten heurististen tekniikoiden käyttö tuotteen käytettävyyttä suunniteltaessa

auttaa opiskelijoita todennäköisesti tarkastelemaan kehiteltävää ratkaisua esiteltyjä esimerkkejä

syvällisemmin ja monipuolisemmin.

Lähteet:

Chesbrough, H. 2003. Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from

Technology. Harvard Business School Press.

Coleman, R. 1999. Inclusive Design – Design for All. In W. Green & P. Jordan (ed.)Human

Factors in Product Design. Current Practice and Future Trends. USA: Taylor & Francis Group,

159–170.

Kwahk, J. & Han, S. 2002. A methodology for evaluating the usability of audiovisual

consumer electronic products. Applied Ergonimics 33, �19–�31.

Lim, Y.-K. & Sato, K. 2006. Describing multiple aspects of use situation: applicantions

of Design Information Framework (DIF) to scenario development. Design Studies 27, 57–76.

Lindfors, E. 2007. Sloyd in education – Student teacher perspective. Teoksessa M.

Johansson & M. Porko-Hudd (toim.) Knowledge, Qualities and sloyd. Research in Sloyd and

Crafts Science. Techne Series. A:10/2007, 53-73.

Lindfors, E. 2006. Novice Designer Perspective to Usability Evaluation. Teoksessa A-L. Rauma,

S. Pöllänen & P. Seitamaa-Hakkarainen (toim.) Human perspectives on Sustainable Future.

Research Reports of the Faculty of Education. University of Joensuu, 152-161.

Lindfors, E. 2005. En teknologisk produkt i pedagogisk slöjd (A Technological product

in pedagogical craft and design) . Teoksessa S. Kullas & M-L. Pelkonen, (toim.) the relationship

of Nordic handicraft studies to product development and technology. Techne Series. Research in

Sloyd Education and Crafts Science B:14/2005, 239–250.

Lindfors, E. 2003. Product evaluation in pedagogical context. In C. Benson, M. Martin

& W. Till (toim.) Fourth International Primary Design and Technology Conference. Designing

the Future. Faculty of Education. University of Central England, Birmingham, 109-111.

Lindfors, E. 2002. Tekstiilituotteen teknologiset ominaisuudet. Tekstiilituotteen Joensuun

yliopisto. Kasvatustieteellisiä julkaisuja n:o 77.


Lindfors, E. & Thorsteinsson, G. 2002. Sloyd, Innovation and the Future. Teoksessa Jostein

Sandven (toim.) Sloyden - Idealet om ett bra liv? Techne Serien. Forskning i slöjdpedagogik och

slöjdvetenskap B:11/2002, 9-19.

Redström, J. 2006. Towards user design? On the shift from object to user a the subject of

design. Design Studies 27, 123–139.

Rogers, E. M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations. 5. edition. Free Press: New York.

Tilastokeskus 2006. Innovaation käsite. (http://www.stat.fi/meta/kas/innovaatio.html). Luettu

30.10.2007

Kompleksisuus luovan johtamisen paradigmana

–muotoilun prosessit mahdollisena

komponenttina

luovuutta tukevaan johtamiseen

Tarja Toikka, researcher

University of Art and Design

+358407723405 , [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Creativity is seen as a driver of the new economy. Innovations occur in the multidisiplined teams on the edges and overlapping areas of the different competencies. Creativity is an indispensable precondition for the innovations. (Wallas), therefore leading creativity or as we call it, creativie leadership is a necessary for human resource managers of any fields in today’s business life. The innovation environment theorists write enthusiastically about the intellectual capabilities that multi-culturality brings along. But they don’t face the practical challenges of the grass root level.

Chaotic looking innovation process has been made more easily perceivable. For example in the Lindell’s stage model innovation is seen as a linear series of stages. (Lindell 1991) But in the knowledge economy social innovations and the role of different user groups is increased. The innovation processes are often “fuzzy” in the beginning and therefore the simplified model does not make the process necessarily more feasible. The iterative way of human thinking requires also different concepts of building the cognitive models.

The paradigm of the work is changing in the knowledge economy. Instead of carrying out solutions the expert work consists of interaction and problem specification in the complex social networks. There is a severe lack of leading and management skills in expert organizations. Creative processes are so badly managed, that the personnel suffer from burn out, and their brains and self esteem is threatened. There is a constant lack of time. (Mertanen).


Creativity adds the experience of complexity in the organizations. Creative persons have a strong affection towards what they do. They have inner motivation and need to participate something bigger than oneself. This paper concerns leading and maintaining or enabling creativity and suggests that allowing complexity instead of simplifying the problems could be beneficial. This paper provides several different viewpoints to support this proposition. Beside the above mentioned innovation and network economy, I’ll deal with some cognitive theories concerning creativity and introduce design process model that perhaps could be applied as practical solutions to other fields as well.

Artikkelini liittyy vv.2007-2008 käynnissä olevaan Creative Leadership-hankkeeseen.

Siinä monitieteinen tutkijajoukko kehittää yhdessä luovuutta ja luovaa työnotetta tukevia

johtamis-käytäntöjä ja malleja. Syntyvää uutta tietoa käytetään maisterikoulutuksessa ja

täydennyskoulutuksessa sekä monialaisen tutkimuksen kehittämisessä. Oma näkökulmani

aiheeseen on design-tutkimus. Esitän teoriataustaa sille, miten design-tutkimus liittyy luovuuden

tutkimukseen ja johtamiseen. Design-prosesseilla saattaa olla annettavaa luovuuden johtamiseen.

Luovuuden teoria, erityisesti luovien ihmisten motivoituminen sisäisesti ja design-prosesseista

muissa yhteyksissä saatu kokemus antaa viitteitä tähän suuntaan. Tutkimukseni jatkuu

keväästä 2008 alkaen yritysten ja yhteisöjen kanssa järjestettävissä työpajoissa tapahtuvana

toimintatutkimuksena. Luovuus on jossain määrin hallitsematon ilmiö. Hallitsemattomuus

ei ole kielteinen asia vaan seurausta dynaamisesta tietämysympäristöstä ja ihmisten sisäisestä

motivaatiosta. Dynaaminen tietämysympäristö perustuu tiedon spontaaniselle jakamiselle. (Ståhle

1999) Luovat ihmiset ovat halukkaita siirtämään osaamistaan kontekstista toiseen. Tällainen

on mahdollista dynaamisen tietämysympäristön yrityksissä. Luovuus on välttämätön ehto

innovatiivisuudelle. Kun tavoitellaan innovaatiokyvykkyyttä, johtamisen tulisi tukea luovuutta.

Perinteinen johtamisen keskeinen tavoite on ollut eliminoida yrityksistä hallitsemattomia

komponentteja, virtaviivaistaa prosesseja selkeyden ja tehokkuuden nimissä. Näin menetellen

syntyy riski, että kyky innovoida katoaa. Kompleksisuutta tulisi oppia sietämään. Koska design-

prosessiin kuuluu olennaisesti erilaisten näkökulmien, materiaali-, tuotantoteknologia-, tilaaja-ja

loppukyttäjänäkökulma, ottaminen prosessiin, design-tutkimus ja design-prosessit voivat tarjota

menetelmiä kompleksisuuden hallitsemiseen ja sen käyttämiseen innovoinnissa.

Luovuus on kognitiivinen ominaisuus ja koska elämme tietämystaloudessa, johtamisen

näkökulma tässä kirjoituksessa on tietämyksenhallinta. Yksilön suhde tiedon saantiin määrittelee

ammatissa toimimisen rajat. Organisaatiot ovat keskenään erilaisia suhteessa tiedon välittämiseen.

Yrityksen tietämyshallinnan kuvaamiseen voidaan käyttää kolmijakoa: mekaaninen, orgaaninen

ja dynaaminen. (Ståhle 1999)

Design tarkoittaa periteisesti tuotteen tai artefaktin suunnittelua, erityisesti sen ulkoasun

muotoilua. Nykydesign käsittää myös itse kehittämisprosessin ja kattaa tuotteen käyttökontekstin

suunnittelun. Design-prosessi on siis varsin kompleksinen. Käyttökonteksti liittyy kiinteästi

tuote-tai palveluimagoon ja identiteettiin. Imago on tuotteesta vallalla oleva mielipide halutussa

kohderyhmässä. Identiteetti on tuotteen ilmiasu, johon kuuluvat esimerkiksi logo eli virallinen

kirjoitusasu, tuotemerkki, pakkaus, värit, kuvitus ja muu visuaalisuus sekä puhuttelutyyli. Muotoilun

prosesseja on käsitteellistetty ja mallinnettu innokkaasti1990-luvulla. Muotoiluosaaminen ei

ole enää muotoilijan kokemusperäistä osaamista. 1950-luvun tähtimuotoilijoista on siirrytty

monialaisiin tiimeihin. TEKES rahoitti vuosina 2002-2005 MUOTO 2005 - Teollisen muotoilun

teknologiaohjelmaa. Ohjelman kokonaisbudjetti oli 27 miljoonaa euroa. Ohjelman tavoitteena

oli tehdä muotoilusta merkittävä osa kansallista kilpailukykyä kehittämällä muotoilun

tutkimuksen tasoa ja muotoilun osaamisen hyödyntämistä yritysten tuotekehityksessä ja

liiketoimintastrategiassa. (TEKES 2005)

Opiskelin Taideteollisessa Korkeakoulussa 1980-luvulla. Tuolloin design-tutkimusta

oppilaitoksessa vasta aloiteltiin. Lopputyötäni 90-luvun alussa ohjasi koulun ensimmäinen

tohtoriksi väittelevä Päivi Hovi. Design-tutkimus on kovin nuori ala, mutta kiristyvässä globaalissa

kilpailussa design nähdään keskeisenä kilpailutekijänä, siksi aiheeseen panostetaan. Design

teonsanana tarkoittaa järjestelmällistä, suunniteltua ja refleksiivistä (omaa toimintaa tarkastelevaa)

ajan ja tilan hallintaa jonkin hankkeen toteuttamiseksi. (Raike). Suunnittelumenetelmien hallinta

on tärkeä osa design-osaamista. Design-suunnittelumnenetelmien kehittäminen on ollut 1990-

luvulla aktiivista. Erityisesti käyttäjälähtöiset menetelmät ovat tulleet käytettävyystutkimuksen

ja käyttäjätiedon keruun menetelmien vanavedessä suunnittelijoiden kyvyksi.Käyttäjälähtöisyys

(user centeredness) on kehittynyt käytettävyys-ja käyttäjätutkimuksesta. Design-tutkimus on

useimmiten soveltavaa tutkimusta. Sitä tehdään tuotteen tai palvelun luomiseksi tai olemassolevan

kehittämiseksi tai johonkin toiseen viitekehykseen, kuten tässä johtamiseen ja esimiestyöhön.

Kompleksisuutta tulisi oppia sietämään ja ihmisellä näyttäisi olevan kyky sopeutua

kompleksisuuteen. Yleisen käsityksen mukaan ihminen tulee yhä mukavuudenhaluisemmaksi

ja laiskistuu henkisesti. Uskotaan, että media turruttaa ja tylsistyttää. Päinvastaista tietoakin

on alkanut esiintyä. Steven Johnsonin mukaan ihminen sopeutuu yhä kompleksisemmaksi

käyvään ympäristöön. Esim. TV-sarjojen juonet ja verkkopelit ovat kehittyneet aikaisempaa

monimutkaisemmiksi. Asian huomaa helposti itsekin, kun seuraa esimerkiksi 1980-luvulla tehtyjä

TV-ohjelmia. Massakulttuuri ei tee ihmistä tyhmemmäksi, kuten on luultu, vaan sen uudet muodot

ovat älyllisiä ja hienostuneita. TV:n katsojien kyky käsitellä samanaikaisesti useiden eri hahmojen

hyvinkin vaihtelevia motiiveja ja tekemisiä on kasvanut. (Johnson). Elokuvien “pahikset” eivät

ole enää tummatukkaisia sänkileukoja vaan hyvinkin hienostuneita ja moniulotteisia hahmoja.

Ihmisellä on kyky ja halu kehittyä kompleksisemmaksi. Johtamisessa tai esimiestyössä tämä

tarkoittaa sitä, että osaamisen ja haasteiden on hyvä kasvaa, jotta ihmisen motivaatio työhön säilyy.

Aistinautinto ilman ponnistelua tai päihteiden tuottama kemiallinen simulaatio voivat tuottaa

mielihyvää. Mutta tarkkaavaisuuden täydellinen suuntaaminen ja huomion kiinnittäinen johonkin

tuottaa iloa. (Csikszentmihalyi s.79) Ilo on palkinto, joka motivoi ihmisen harjoittelemaan taitoja.

Ihminen on ainoa eläin, joka säilyttää leikkisyytensä koko eliniän. Kaikki eläinlapset telmivät

ja painivat pentuina. Mutta tämä taipumus katoaa eläimen vartuttua aikuiseksi. Kognitiotiede

esittää, että ihmisen elämän mittainen leikkisyys johtuu aivojemme tarpeesta saada jatkuvasti


stimulaatiota, joka verestää hermosolujen välisiä kytköksiä. (Milekic 2007) Leikki tuottaa myös

paljon iloa.

Luovan asiantuntijan keskeisiä ominaisuuksia ovat moniosaaminen ja oppimisen taidot.

(Työterveyslaitos) Ihmisten oma kokemus työstään ei vastaa yksinkertaistusta, ei myöskään

asiantuntijatyöstä tehty tutkimus. Asiantuntijuus koostuu ympäristön monimutkaisuuden

ymmärryksestä ja tämän monimutkaisuuden hallinnan osaamisesta. Älykkäässä ja muutoksiin

valmiissa organisaatioissa visiot ja strategiat elävät ja muuttuvat. Tilanteen mukaan elämisestä

löydetään ennustettavuus ja jatkuvuus. Se muokkaa toimintamalleja. Todellinen asiantuntija-

organisaatio toteutetaan työntekijöiden keskinäisessä vuorovaikutuksessa. Yksilö kantaa vastuuta

organisaation toiminnasta ja sen ehtojen jatkuvasta määrittämisestä. (Työterveyslaitos)

Perinteisesti asiantuntija-ammatteina pidetään lääkäreitä, lakimiehiä, opettaja psykologeja,

arkkitehteja. Tietoyhteiskunnan asiantuntijanimikkeitä ovat: suunnittelija, kehittäjä, kehitysjohtaja,

konsultti. Asiantuntijaksi ei tulla teoreettisen koulutuksen kautta, vaan työskentelemällä

asiantuntijana ja olemalla vuorovaikutuksessa kollegojen kanssa. Asiantuntija-työssä sovelletaan

teoriatiedon lisäksi tilanteeseen liittyvää sekä kokemuspohjaista, hiljaista tietoa.

Luovia ihmisiä ajaa sisäinen motivaatio ja tarve osallistua “itseä suurempaan”. Psykologit

käyttävät termiä integraatio, joka tarkoittaa liittymistä muihin ihmisiin ja itsen ulkopuolella

oleviin kokonaisuuksiin. Toisaalta luova yksilö tavoittelee myös ainutlaatuisuutta ja haluaa

erottautua muista. (Csikszentmihalyi 2005) Luova prosessi on ennustamaton, koska siinä

käytetään intuitiota ja hiljaista, kokemusperäistä tietoa. Luovuuteen liittyy keskeisesti kaksi

ilmiötä: tietoisuuden epäjärjestys, entropia ja tietoisuuden järjestys eli flow. Entropian vallassa

emme kykene toimimaan, meitä estää pelko, tuska, levottomuus tai vaikkapa mustasukkaisuus.

Jokin kielteinen tunne tai asia vie huomiomme ja estää meitä toteuttamasta aikomuksiamme.

Flow on entropian vastakohta, optimaalinen kokemus, jossa psyykkinen energiamme virtaa ilman

ponnistelua. Luova ihminen tavoittelee tätä miellyttävää kellumisen flow-tilaa. Ihminen tuntee

olevansa yhtä tekemisensä kanssa. Häneltä katoaa ajan ja paikan taju.

Flow-tilan voi saavuttaa vain silloin, kun työn vaativuus ja omat kyvyt ovat tasapainossa. Jos työ

on kykyihin nähden vaikeaa, ihminen turhautuu. Jos tehtävät ovat liian yksinkertaisia kykyihin

nähden, niin ihminen pitkästyy. Luova ihminen pyrkii tasapainottamaan omaa tilannettaan ja

varmistmaan pääsynsä flow-tilaan. Luova ihminen joko kehittää työtään vaativammaksi tai hankkii

uutta osaamista tarpeen mukaan. Vaikka luovuus ja jopa sen äärimmäinen ilmenemistapa flow,

uppoaminen, tekemisen kanssa yhteensulautuminen on toivottavaa ja positiivista, niin luovuus

organisaatiossa ei aina olekaan tervetullutta. Luovuuden tielle kasataan esteitä. Näin tapahtuu

osittain siksi, ettei organisaatiossa ole käsitelty tai ymmärretty luovuutta strategisena tekijänä,

osittain siksi ettei luovuuden käyttöön ole menetelmäosaamista. Luovuutta myös mystifioidaan

ja se liitetään aivan turhaan pelkästään taiteelliseen toimintaan. Innovaatioita ei voida synnyttää

loogisella päättelyllä. Innovaatio ei synny konsensuksessa.

Luovalla yksilöllä on kyky keksiä ja ratkaista ongelmia. Luovaan toimintaan liittyy kyky ratkaista

ongelmia siirtämällä tilanteeseen toisaalla opittua tai aiemmin toiseen kontekstiin kytkeytynyttä

osaamista. Tämä aiheuttaa helposti ristiriitoja, jos yrityksen toimintakulttuuri ei salli totutusta

poikkeavien toimintatapojen käyttöä. Luovat ongelmanratkaisijat ymmärtävät, että oppimiseen

kuuluvat luonnostaan erehdykset, takaiskut. Tämä näkemys auttaa toimimaan tuntemattomissa

tilanteissa. Erehdyksien ja takaiskutjen saaminen hyödylliseksi oppimiseksi edellyttää suurta

sallivuutta, ei syntipukkien nimeämistä.

”Älykkyyden määrittely on vaikeaa, eikä edes erityisen tärkeää. Kyseessä on

universaali ominaisuus, johon kuuluu nokkeluus oivaltaa, kyky poimia oleellinen, nähdä

asioiden yllättävätkin yhteydet ja kyky kysyä, kun ei ymmärrä”, miettii matematiikan professori

Juhani Karhumäki.”

(Kuokkanen)

Luova yksilö kykenee keskittämään huomionsa ongelman ratkaisuun pitkiä aikoja. Pitkittyneeseen

prosessiin sitoutumista tukee sisäinen motivaatio. Toiminnan tulosten merkityksellisyys synnyttää

motivation. Luova ihminen ei ole “innovaatiotehdas”, joka tuottaa ideoita konemaisen nopeasti

ja tehokkaasti. Esimerkiksi yliopistojen luovimmat tutkijat kiintyvät ongelmiinsa. (Ruth 198�).

Tutkimusten valmistuminen tulosten julkaisu ajallaan saattaa olla heille toisarvoista. Luovan

työnotteen johtamisen tulee kehittää malleja myös hautumisvaiheen mahdollistamiseen osana

prosessia.

Luova organisaatio

Innovaatioiden sanotaan olevan talouden keskeinen ajuri. Innovaatoita ei voi syntyä ilman

luovuutta. Luovuus on toimintaa, joka muuttaa olemassaolevaa alaa (domain) tai muuttaa

sen kokonaan uudenlaiseksi. (Csiksentmihalyi). Normaalisti toimiala antaa luovalle

ongelmanratkaisulle ehdot. Alojen rajapinnoilla on sijaa luovuudelle ja siellä uudet reunaehdot

syntyvät konfliktien kautta. Mietitään vaikkapa uusien tieteenalojen syntyä. Vakiintuneet

tieteenalat vastustavat usein raivokkaasti uusia tulokkaita, kunnes tiedon tarve voittaa.

Organisaation luovuus lisää kompleksisuutta monesta syystä. Organisaatiossa voi olla tapana

keskittyä ongelmien ratkaisuun. Mutta luovat ihmiset havaitsevat, jopa hakevat käsiinsä ja

kehittävät jatkuvasti uusia ongelmia kehittääkseen osaamistaan, oppiakseen. Luovalle persoonalle

on ominaista tutkia asioita oman tietämyspiirin ulkopuolella. He eivät vain hae vastauksia

esitettyihin kysymyksiin, vaan aktiivisesti etsivät uusia. Tämä voi johtaa konflikteihin. Flown

saavuttaminen edellyttää, että tehtävien haasteellisuus ja tekijän osaamistaso ovat tasapainossa.

Turhautumista tai pitkästymistä estääkseen luova ihminen hakee lisähaasteita, kun kykyjä on yli

tarpeen. Tai hän etsii oppimismahdollisuuksia, kun tutut ja turvalliset kuviot alkavat pitkästyttää.


Luovuuteen liittyy monesti kyky hahmottaa asioiden välisiä yhteyksiä, joten luovat henkilöt tuovat

organisaatioon helposti myös “naapurin ongelmat”. He kokeilevat omia rajojaan. He laajentavat

ja kokeilevat toimialojen ja viitekehysten rajoja. He “keikuttava venettä” . He pyrkivät pois

passivoivasta konsensuksen tilasta. Kukin toimiala ja yhteisö tunnistaa luovuutta omalla tavallaan.

Akateemisessa kontekstissa yliopistojen professorit ja tutkijat ovat keskeisiä henkilöitä arvottamaan

luovuutta. Käyttäjät arvioivat tuotteita ja vertaiset sosiaalisia suhteita. Slavko Milekicin mukaan

emme pysty määrittelemään luovuutta, mutta tunnistamme sen kyllä, kanssaihmisten toimintaa

havainnoidessamme. Johtajan tai esimiehen tulee harjaannuttaa kykyjään tunnistaa luovuutta.

Yritysten tavoitteena on tuottaa innovaatioita. Innovatiivisuus edellyttää kaaosta. Pieni

epäjärjestys ei innovaatioon riitä. (Ståhle 1999). Ståhlen mukaan innovointia auttaa luova

ahdistus. Se puolestaan saadaan aikaan sillä tavalla, että tietoa tuotetaan paljon ja samalla pidetään

avoimena, mitä siitä tullaan hyödyntämään ja mitä ei. Innovoiva yritys kykenee tuottamaan,

säilyttämään ja poistamaan entropiaa eli luovaa ahdistusta hallitusti. Entropia on luovuuden lähde

ja epävarmuuden mittari. Itseään jatkuvasti uudistava organisaatio kykenee viipymään riittävän

kauan kaoottisessa, tasapainottomassa hämmennyksen ja epävarmuuden tilassa. Kyvykkäässä

organisaatiossa ymmärretään, milloin on tarve lisätä entropiaa ja milloin vähentää sitä. (Ståhle)

Monet ihmisetkin osaavat soveltaa tätä ajatusta. He saattavat itsensä “ajolähtötilanteeseen”,

esimerkiksi tarttuvat toimeen viime hetkellä ennen määräaikaa. Silloin entropia auttaa heitä.

Viivyttelyyn on kyllä toinenkin selitys kuin tarve kokea entropiaa. Luovuus vaatii myös

hautumisvaiheen eli inkubaation. Ehkä luovuuden ylläpitämiseen riittävät kevyemmätkin

keinot. Erilaiset ideat, leikinomaisuus, rakentavat väittelyt ja hedelmälliset konfliktit kirvoittavat

luovuutta. (Uusikylä 2000) Luovassa johtamisessa on sallittava näennäisesti tuottamaton porina,

koska se ylläpitää luovuuden tärkeää edellytystä, tiedon virtaamista ja antaa aikaa ideoitten hautua.

Hautumista ja epävarmuutta sisältävä luovuus ja tulosvastuu vaikuttavat ristiriitaisilta asioilta,

mutta niiden yhdistäminen on välttämätöntä. On tunnistettava luovuudelle luonteva paikka, samoin

kohta, jossa tiukka järjestelmällisyys tuottaa tarkoituksenmukaisumman tuloksen. Organisaatiossa

olisi hyvä esiintyä mekaanisia, orgaanisia ja dynaamisia tiedon jakamisen järjestelmiä, jotka

tulevat mukaan prosessin eri vaiheissa. Luovuus on voimakkaimmillaan dynaamisessa osassa,

mutta tuotanto, jakelu ja hallinto on hyvä hoitaa mekaanisen järjestelmän avulla.

Tietopääoman elinympäristöt

Koska elämme tietoyhteiskunnassa, ja koska innovaatiot edellyttävät runsasta tiedon virtaa, yrityksiä

on syytä tarkastella tietämyshallinnasta käsin. Tietopääoman elinympäristöt voidaan Pirjo Ståhlen

mukaan jakaa kolmenlaisiin: mekaaninen, orgaaninen ja dynaaminen. Prosessi, tuotos ja toiminta ovat

saman kolikon eri puolia.Tietopääoman hallinta on osaamisen, suhteiden ja tietovirtojen hallintaa.

Mekaanisessa toimintajärjestelmässä pyritään mahdollisimman yksiselitteisiin, ennalta

määriteltyihin tulkintoihin. Mekaanista toimintaympäristöä hallitaan yhtenäisen tiedon ja

määriteltyjen vaikutussuhteiden avulla.

ympäristön tunnusmerkit:

tunnusmerkit: Mekaaninen Orgaaninen dynaaminen

Tavoite Hallittavuus, pysyvyys Hallittu kehitys Jatkuva innovointi

Tieto Täsmällistä, määriteltyä Kokemusperäistä, piilevää Intuitiivista, potentiaalista

Vaikutussuhteet Aseman perusteella Vastavuoroisia, konsensukseen pyrkiviä

Spontaaneja, verkostomaisia

Tiedon virta yksisuuntainen edestalkainen Kaoottinen

Hallinnan väline Johdon määräykset ja ohjeet

Dialogi, sovitut toimintamallit, itsearviointi verkostovalmiudet

Dynaaminen toimintaympäristö on globaali ja täynnä mahdollisuuksia. Siinä kohdataan

ennakoimattomuutta. Toimintaympäristössä pyritään hylkäämään mahdollisimman paljon vanhoja

ajattelumalleja ja tekemään tilaa intuitiolle uuden luomisen prosessissa. Kaikenlaista tietoa pitää

olla paljon. Toimitaan avoimessa tiedon kentässä. Uusi tieto ei synny ihmiselle tyhjästä vaan se

perustuu hänen alitajuiseen tietovarastoonsa. Intuitio on tärkeä tiedon muoto, kun synnytetään

jotain uutta. Intuitio on aiemmin koetun hyödyntämistä. Luovuus on kykyä käyttää intuitiota.

Kaaos on edellytys sille, että uusi näkökulma, uusi tuote tai toimintatapa voi kehittyä.. Sodissa ja

katastrofeissa on myös ilmennyt epätavallisen paljon keksintöjä, koska sota suistaa elämän raiteiltaan.

Ydinkysymyksiä ovat: miten luovuutta rakentava kaaos synnytetään; miten kaaosta hyödynnetään;

miten sen kanssa voi elää. Kaaoksen tuottaminen vaatii kykyä monitahoiseen yhteistyöhön ja

verkottumiseen. Kaaos syntyy kahdesta syystä, tiedon runsaudesta ja sen monimuotoisuudesta.

Kaaoksen määrä lisääntyy tilanteissa, joissa asioiden määritteleminen on vaikeaa ja

tapahtumien kulku ennakoimatonta. Perusturva vähenee, epävarmuus ja hämmennys lisääntyvät.

Ristiriidat toimivat kaoottisena voimana. Konsensus tuottaa tasapainoa ja levollisuutta, mutta

ei johda innovaatioon. Kaaos ei tunnu mukavalta ja sitä pyritäänkin välttämään. Joustava,

uudistumiskykyinen organisaatio kykenee ristiriitojen avoimeen käsittelyyn. Dynaamisessa

ympäristössä, jossa on tavoitteena tuottaa innovaatioita on tehokasta tuottaa paljon ylimäärää ja

poiketa useille harhapoluille.


Design-prosessi on iteratiivinen,

tieto liikkuu vapaasti ja ruokkii eri

vaiheita.

Prosessissa on samanaikaisesti eri

tasot:

Tiedon muodostuksen taso (knowledge

flow)

Prosessin etenemisen taso (Process

steps) ja tuotosten (Outputs) taso.

Tavallaan näen tämän analogisena

kolmen eri tietämysympäristön

kanssa, alakuva.

Yrityksessä on hyvä olla kaikkia

kolmenlaisia tietämysympäristöjä.

Tietämysympäristöjen ja design-

prosessin tasojen välillä voi ajatella

olevan suhde.

Dynaaminen ympäristö vastaa

knowledge flow-tasoa.

Orgaaninen vastaa prosessin

vaiheet-tasoa.

Mekaaninen vastaa tuotokset -tasoa.

Design-prosesin

tietämyksenhallintaa voi tarkastella

tämän idean pohjalta.

Innovaatiokyvykkyyttä lisäävä kaaos

Termodynamiikassa entropia tarkoittaa energian tuotossa syntyvää systeemin kannalta

käyttökelvotonta energiaa. Kun termiä käytetään organisaation tietojohtamisessa, se tarkoittaa

yrityksen kannalta tuottamatonta tiedon välittämistä esimerkiksi juoruilu tai huhujen levittely.

Äkkiseltään entropia näyttää jos ei suorastaan haitelliselta, niin ainakin turhalta. Mutta

entropia pitää systeemin poissa tasapainosta eli kyvykkäänä innovoimaan. (Prigogine)

Innovaatiot edellyttävät paljon sellaista tietoa, jota ei ole organisoitu, arvotettu, luokiteltu

tai priorisoitu. Pinttyneet toimintamallit perustuvat tiukasti organisoituun tietoon. Lorenzin

vallankumouksellinen löytö osoittaa, että kaaos järjestyy itsestään. Tuotettu tiedollinen

sekasortokin järjestyy jossakin vaiheessa itsestään. Ihmisellä on luontainen kyky kehittää

merkityksiä, nähdä suhteita asioiden välillä. Olen Taideteollisessa Korkeakoulussa opettaessani

havainnut miten esimerkiksi runsas toisiinsa liittymättämien, erillisten ja eri tyylisten kuvien

käyttö tai erilaistn materiaalien käyttö tuotteen tai palvelun konseptoinnin yhteydessä tai

skenaarioiden, käyttötilannekuvaustan, kirjoittamisessa nopeuttaa tehtävän suorittamista.

Opiskelijat tulkitsevat kuvia ja materiaaleja, he löytävät niiden avulla merkityksiä, yhdistelevät

kuvia intuitioihinsa luottaen. Luotainten käyttö design-tutkimuksessa perustuu myös ihmisen

kykyyn tuottaa merkityksiä artefaktien avulla. Päiväkirjat, kartat ja valokuvat tai esineet

auttavat informantteja välittämään tutkijoille etenkin affektiivista, tunnepitoista informaatiota.

Tiedon tuottaminen ylenmäärin ei ilahduta kaikkia. Eivät kaikki tutkijat usko siihen,

että ihmismieli organisoi kaaoksesta innovaatioita ja muita hyötyjä ja jopa nauttii siitä.

Uhkana on tietoähky, joka tuo ongelman sen vuoksi, että ihmisen fysiologia ja kognitiivinen

tiedonkäsittely pyrkii hahmottamaan kokonaisuuksia peräkkäisestä tiedosta. Nyt tietoa

tulvii rinnakkain pirstaleisina palasina monesta eri kanavasta. Tämän seurauksena ihmisen

hahmotus-kyky kärsii ja pahimmassa tapauksessa todellisuudentaju heikentyy. Ihminen

altistuu manipulaatiolle, ahdistuu ja ehkä luo lopulta fiktiivisen todellisuuskäsityksen oman

toiminnan viitekehykseksi. Todellisuutta kun ei enää pysty hallitsemaan. (Koski 1998).

Yrityksen tulee paitsi soveltaa jo tunnettua tietoa, myös kyetä kehittämään uutta tietoa avoimissa

tilanteissa. Osaamispääomaan kuuluu sekä vanhan soveltamisen, että uuden kehittämisen kyky.

(Ståhle 1999) Organisaatio rakentuu ihmisten välisistä suhteista. Organisaatio on sitä joustavampi

ja luotettavampi, mitä vahvempi suhdeverkosto yritys on. Suhdeverkosto on pääomaa, jota

ohjataan eri yrityksissä eri tavoin: joko tiukasti kontrolloiden tai spontaanisuutta, aloitteellisuutta

ja yhteistoimintaa tukien. Tietämyshallinnan piiriin kuuluu tietää, miten on viisasta toimia milläkin

toimialaloilla. On hallittava ulkoinen ja sisäinen tietoverkosto. Kontrolloitu “varman päälle”-

yritys on sellainen, jossa tieto liikkuu ylhäältä alas säädellysti ja jossa vallitsevat hierakkiset

raportointi-ja alaisuuhteet. Tiedonvaihto on hidasta ja muodollista. Avoimessa spontaanissa

ohjausjärjestelmässä tieto liikkuu ennakoimattomasti, ilman säätelyä. Kaikissa yrityksissä on

vastattava kysymykseen: miten osaamisen, suhteiden ja tiedon virtausta hallitaan kokonaisuutena.

Yrityksissä tarvitaan erilaisia käytäntöjä. Joissakin toiminnoissa mekanistinen ympäristö on

tarkoituksenmukainen, esimerkiksi taloushallinto, logistiikka, asiakaspalvelu, laskutus hyötyvät

siitä, että toiminta on hallittua ja ennakoitua. Onnistuminen mekaanisessa ympäristössä vaatii

yksilöltä ehdotonta tottelevaisuutta ja kykyä soveltaa ohjeita ja käskyjä. Kaikki olennainen tieto

on kirjallisessa muodossa. Tällaisen ympäristön huonona puolena on, että yritystä ei kiinnosta

yksilön osaaminen yli määriteltyjen tehtävärajojen. Tiedon ja vaikutuksen virta on vertikaalinen,

asiat etenevät ainoastaan esimiesten kautta. Mekaaninen toimntaympäristö on tehokas siellä,

minne se sopii. Mutta valitettavasti sitä sovelletaan sellaisissakin, jonne se ei sovi. Kaikkein

haitallisinta on, jos esimiehet ja alaiset elävät eri tietämyskulttuureissa ja tätä asiaa ei tiedosteta.


Design-prosessi on dynaaminen

Taideteollisuudessa on aina toimittu monialaisissa tiimeissa, joiden arvostettuna ytimenä

on ollut luova idea. Teollinen muotoilu on muuttunut 90-luvulla. Sodanjälkeisen designin

kultakauden ikonit ja henkilöihin liittyvät sankaritarinat ovat historiaa. Muotoilun katsotaan

olevan aikamme innovaatioajuri. Muotoilijalla on holistinen näkemys yhteiskuntaan. Muotoilu

on integroitunut palveluiden kehittämiseen, se tavoittelee saavutettavuutta, kestävää kehitystä,

hyvää elämää. Muotoilua on aina tehty monialaisissa tiimeissä eri osaajien asiantuntijuutta

kunnioittaen ja toinen toiselta oppien.(Anna Valtonen) Taideteollisuuden prosessit tuntuvat

kaavioiksi piirrettyinä ja käsitteellistettyinä muistuttavan ideaaleja luovia prosesseja.

Niissä on suuntaa antavia ajureita, mutta ne ovat avoimia ja reflektoivia. Yhdessä tekemällä

ja käyttökonteksteja sekä käyttäjiä tutkimalla tuotetaan moneen suuntaan liikkuvaa ja

avautuvaa tietoa hankkeen tueksi. Ajurit saadaan selville käyttäjä-tai markkinatutkimuksella.

Yksi tärkeimpiä välineitä tietoajan ja tietoyhteiskunnan haltuunotossa on proaktiivisuus. Se

voi tarkoittaa kykyä olla mukana tulevaisuuden tekemisessä ja suunnitte-lemisessa tai myös

sen tiedostamisena, että tulevaisuuden suunta ja laatu ovat viime kädessä meistä itsestämme

kiinni. Proaktiivinen ihminen on tietoinen valintojensa seurauksista. Proaktiivisuus edellyttää

siten aktiivisuutta, aloitteellisuutta ja vastuunottoa valinnoista. Design-koulutus Suomessa antaa

hyvät valmiudet pohtia tuotteen elinkaarta, kestävää kehitystä, saavutettavuutta ja muita eettis-

ekologis-ekonomisia seurauksia. Proaktiivisuutta tukemaan on kehitetty menetelmiä yhdessä

tulevaisuuden tutkimuksen kanssa, esimerkkinä mainittakoon visioiva tuotekonseptointi. Siinä

ihmiskunnan tulevaisuutta hahmotetaan tuotteiden kautta. Tuotteet taas perustuvat teknologioitten

ja materiaalien kehittämisen visioihin ja tulevaisuuden megatrendeihin. Visioiva tuotekonseptointi

voi pitää yllä yrityksen luovaa virtausta, jos se otetaan osaksi yrityksen toimintaa. Tekesin

MASINA-teknologiaohjelmassa vv 2002-200� kehitettiin systemaattinen lähestymistapa

tulevaisuuden tuotekonseptien kehittämiseksi. (Kokkonen)

Tarkoituksellinen toiminta

Ihmisellä on luontainen pyrkimys tarkoitukselliseen ja syklisesti kehittyvään toimintaan.

Tämä on pehmeän systeemimetodologian lähtökohta. Metodologian tehtävä on antaa tälle

luonnonmukaiselle toiminnalle formaali muoto. Checkland määrittelee metodologiansa

joukoksi systeemiajattelullisia periaatteita, jotka ohjaavat tarkoituksellista muutostoimintaa

pyrkimyksenään selviytyä rakentavasti tosimaailman tilanteista. Checkland (Checkland &

Scholes 1993, 5-8) kokoaa metodologiansa perusteet seitsemään kohtaan (Lainaus): “1.ihmiseteivätvoiollasitomattamerkityksiämaailmanhavaintoihinsa(informaationtulkinta-eli

tiedonmuodostusprosessi)

2.merkityksetmuodostavatmaailmantulkinnan,jonkavoiajatellajuontuvankokemusperäisestä

tiedostasiitämitämaailmaon

3.tulkinnatvoivatjohtaapyrkimyksiinjaintentioihin,jotkavoidaan’jalostaa’tarkoitukselliseksi

toiminnaksijonkuntilanteenparantamiseksi

4.tarkoituksellinentoiminta,jokasulkeeedellistenvaiheidensyklin

5.syklivoidaankuvatajaoperationaalistaasysteemiajattelunavulla

6.pehmeäsysteemimetodologiamallintaajärjestelmäntoiminnanjaprosessinjohdonmukaisella

tavalla,jokatekeesiitäsamallatutkimus-jaoppimisjärjestelmän

7.pehmeäsysteemimetodologiaauttaaohjaamaanoppimissykliämerkityksenluonnista(meaning)

intentioihin(intention)janiistätarkoitukselliseentoimintaan(purposefulaction)jäykistämättä

toimintaaliiankaavamaiseksi.”

Ihmiselle on ominaista valmius luoda merkityksiä havainnoilleen ja kokemuksilleen.

Näyttää siltä, ettei ihmiskunta siedä merkityksellisyyden poissaoloa. Jokaiseen tekoon

pyritään liittämään merkitys ja motiivi. Tuotamme tarkoituksia ja perustamme valintamme

tilanteista tekemiimme tulkintoihin. Aiemmat kokemukset ja merkitykset luovat odotuksia,

jotka vaikuttavat tulkintaan. Tulkinta sisältää siis ansoja, mutta ihmisellä on mahdollisuus

tarkistaa tulkintaa havaintojen ja toiminnan seuraamusten perusteella. Checkland käyttää

tarkoituksellisen teon (purposeful action) käsitettä kuvaamaan ihmisen toiminnan suhteellista

vapautta verrattuna vaikkapa käen munintaan tai koiran haukuntaan. Tarkoituksellinen

teko on harkittu ja haluttu teki sen sitten yksilö tai ryhmä. (Checkland & Scholes 1993, 2)

Tutkimusmetodini tulevassa työpajojen sarjassa on yhteisölliseen tekemiseen perustuva

toimintatutkimus. Tarkoitukseni on testata, miten design-prosessi soveltuu monialaisen

tiimin yhteisölliseksi merkityksen luomisen kontekstiksi. Suunnittelun, toiminnan,

havainnoinnin ja reflektoinnin vaiheet ovat toimintatutkimukselle luonteenomaisia.

Näyttää siltä, että luovuuden ja tietämyksenhallinnan teoriat tukisivat käsitystä, että

design-tutkimus ja design prosessit voivat olla hyödyllisiä innovaatioita tavoiteltaessa

ja luovaa työnotetta johdettaessa. Design-prosessit näyttäisivät tuottavan sekä

innovatiivisuutta tukevaa entropiaa että iloa ja sisäistä motivaatiota tuottavia flow-

kokemuksia. Kenttätutkimuksen selvitettäväksi jää, millaisia toimintamallien olisi oltava.

Lähteet

Painetut lähteet:

Csikzentmihalyi Mihaly, Flow elämän virta, Tallinna 2005

Heiskala Risto, Hämäläinen Timo j., (200�): Sosiaaliset innovaatiot ja yhteiskunnan uudistumiskyky Helsinki

Himanen Pekka, Luovan yhteisön kaiku on yksittäistä ääntä vahvempi, artikkeli Arttu-lehdessä 2/2007

Johnson Steven, Kaikki huono on hyväksi, Helsinki 2006

Ville Kokkonen - Markku Kuuva - Sami Leppimäki - Ville Lähteinen - Tarja Meristö - Sampsa Piira - Mikko

Sääskilahti: visioiva tuotekonseptointi


Teknologiateollisuus ry 2005

Koski, Jussi T, Luova hierre, Jyvskylä 2001

Lindgren Monica, Packendorff Johann, Performing arts and the art of performing –On co-constructions of project

work and professional identities in theatres, artikkeli International journal of Project management May 2007

Mertanen, Virve toim. (2005): Asiantuntijan luovuus koetuksella

Työterveyslaitos, Helsinki

Mäkelä, Routarinne, toim. The art of research, research practices in art and design, Jyväskylä 2006

Ståhle, Pirjo, Grönroos Mauri: Knowledge management –tietopääoma yrityksen kilpailutekijänä

Valtonen Anna, Redefining Industrial design, 2007

WWW-lähteet

Bentley, Tom; Seltzer, Kimberly: The Creative Age

Artikkeli: Knowledge and skills for the new economy

Demos http://www.demos.co.uk/ Luettu 10.5.2007

Bill Kuechler, Vijay Vaishnavi

Association for Information Systems

Design Research in Information Systems luettu 9.5. 2007

http://www.isworld.org/Researchdesign/drisISworld.htm#designResearchMethodology

Artikkeli: Juha Kronqvist Luettu 8.5.2007

http://www.cream.oulu.fi/tutkimus/documents/LuovuusonIn1_kronqvist_toukokuu06.pdf

Artikkeli: Katja Kuokkanen, Äly putosi jalustalta Luettu 5.5.2007

http://tyl.utu.fi/arkisto/2003/15/juttu2.htm

Raike Antti, Elokuvan taju Luettu 1. 5. .2007

http://www.uiah.fi/ISBN/951-558-172-9/1.html

TEKES: MUOTO 2005 - Teollisen muotoilun teknologiaohjelma 2002-2005

http://akseli.tekes.fi/opencms/opencms/OhjelmaPortaali/ohjelmat/MUOTO_2005/fi/etusivu.html

Muut lähteet

Designing pleasurable products and interfaces, konfferenssi Taideteollinen Korkeakoulu 22.-25.8. 2007

Milekic, Slavko; keynote 11.10. 2007 Creative Futures-konffrenssi Porin Yliopistokeskus

5. Regional and Local Perspectives to Research

and Education in the Creative Industries


Porin visuaalinen keskus -hanke – luovia

kohtaamisia ja kipinöitä Essi Lindberg

Projektipäällikkö

ABSTRAKTI

Kuvataide ja visuaalinen kulttuuri ovat satakuntalaisen kulttuurin vahvuuksia. Porissa toimii useita

taiteilijaseuroja ja visuaalisen alan organisaatioita, joiden toiminta on ollut valtakunnallisesti ja

kansainvälisestikin näkyvää. Samaan aikaan visuaalisen kulttuurin alalla on Porissa merkittävä

tilantarve. Yksittäisten työhuoneiden lisäksi kasvava tarve on muun muassa yhteisille työ- ja

verstastiloille, galleria- ja näyttelytiloille sekä taiteilijoiden yhteiselle kohtaamispaikalle,

taidekahvilalle.

Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen esiselvitysosuudessa keväällä 2007 kerättiin yhteen paikallisia

toimijoita sekä kartoitettiin tilatarpeiden laajuus; toimijoita haastateltiin, nykytilat dokumentoitiin

sekä tarpeita listattiin myös verkkokyselyn avulla. Potentiaalisten yhteistyökumppaneiden

lisäksi etsittiin alustavasti keskukselle sopivia tiloja. Vuoden 2007 loppuun asti kestävässä

suunnitteluhankkeessa tutustuttiin suomalaisiin ja ulkomaisiin konseptiesimerkkeihin Porin

visuaalisen keskuksen tila-, toiminta- ja rahoitusmallin kehittämisen pohjaksi. Suunnitteluhanke

päättyy valmiiseen suunnitelmaan ja esitykseen Porin visuaalisen keskuksen perustamisesta.

Kulttuurialan yhteisöt ja organisaatiot saavat suunnitteilla olevasta keskuksesta kipeästi

tarvitsemansa toimitilat ja alan yritykset näyttävän ympäristön liiketoiminnalle. Vuorovaikutus

profit- ja non-profit -toiminnan välillä on omiaan synnyttämään uusia tuotantoja Satakuntaan ja

edistämään maakunnan mainetta taide- ja mediaosaamisen saralla. Saman katon alla toimiminen

tuo mukanaan synergiaetuja, kuten mahdollisuudet käyttää yhteistä laitteistoa, ohjaajia ja tiloja.

Yhteinen keskus myös lisää organisaatioiden saavutettavuutta yleisön kannalta. Visuaalinen

keskus on tila, jossa julkiset kulttuurilaitokset, yksityissektori ja kansalaistoiminta tukevat

toisiaan. Visuaalinen keskus on paikka luoville kohtaamisille.

Taiteen ja luovan talouden merkitys tulee entistään korostumaan tulevaisuudessa. Visuaalinen

keskus -hankkeen tavoitteena on vahvistaa Porin merkitystä ja näkyvyyttä kulttuurikaupunkina

tukemalla kulttuuria, taiteellista monimuotoisuutta, rikasta kulttuuriperintöä ja edellytyksiä

luovaan työhön. Visuaalinen keskus -hanke edistää valtioneuvoston taide- ja taiteilijapolitiikkaa,

jonka mukaan keskittäminen tehostaa alan toimijoiden verkostoitumista ja tehostaa taiteilijoiden

työllistymistä. Hanke on sisällytetty uusimpaan maakunnalliseen Ilon ja valon Satakunta – kulttuurin

toimenpideohjelmaan ja se tukee Porin kaupungin omaa Pori 2012-kehittämisstrategiaa.

1. ESISELVITYSVAIHE

Porin kaupungin ja Satakuntaliiton yhdessä rahoittama Visuaalinen keskus -hanke alkoi

esiselvityksellä, joka toteutettiin 27.11.2006–31.3.2007 välisenä aikana.1 Esiselvityksessä

kartoitettiin visuaalisten alojen toimijoiden nykytilanne haastattelemalla alan keskeiset toimijat

ja dokumentoimalla niiden nykyiset toimitilat. Toimijahaastatteluissa selvitettiin kattavasti

toimintaympäristöön ja erityisesti tiloihin kohdistuvat tarpeet sekä kerättiin toiveita toimenpiteistä,

joiden myötä nykytilannetta voitaisiin parantaa. Haastattelujen pohjalta, yhteistyössä toimijatahojen

edustajien kanssa syntyi alustava Porin visuaalisen keskuksen tilaohjelma.2

PORIN VISUAALISEN KESKUKSEN TILATYYPIT

NÄYTTELYSALI & MONITOIMITILATila vaihtuville näyttelyille, tapahtumille ja poikkitaiteelliselle toiminnalle

KAHVILA & KLUBITILAKohtaamispaikka taiteentekijöille ja keskuksessa vierailevalle yleisölle

ARTOTEEKKITaiteilijaseurojen ylläpitämää taidelainaamo- ja teosvälitystoimintaa

GALLERIATILOJATaiteilijaseurojen ylläpitämää galleriatoimintaa

ELOKUVASALI & AUDITORIOTila näytös- ja opetustilaisuuksille

YHTEISIÄ VERSTAS- JA TYÖPAJAHUONEITAValokuvapimiö, grafiikan, keramiikan sekä puu- ja metallityön verstas- ja työpajahuoneita

STUDIOTILOJATekniikka-, elokuva- ja animaatiostudiotiloja toimijoiden omaan ja yhteiskäyttöön

NEUVOTTELU- JA KOKOONTUMISTILOJAKeskuksen toimijoiden yhteiskäyttöön

TAITEILIJOIDEN ATELJEETILOJA Työhuoneita taiteilijoille ja yhteisölle vuokrattavaksi

TOIMISTO- JA TOIMITILOJAKeskuksen toimijatahojen vuokrattavaksi

VARASTOTILOJA Toimijoiden omia ja yhteisiä varastotiloja vuokrattavaksi

TAITEILIJARESIDENSSI Kansainvälinen taiteilijaresidenssi vieraileville taiteilijoille

Taulukko 1. Porin visuaaliseen keskukseen alustavasti suunniteltuja tiloja ja toimintaa.

1 Esiselvityksen tilaajana oli Porin kaupunki ja sen vastuullisena toteuttajana toimi Porin lasten

kulttuurikeskus.

2 Ks. Lindberg, 2007, 11–18. Tämän lisäksi jokaiselle taiteilijaseuralle ja esiselvitysvaiheessa mukana olleille

toimijoille laadittiin toimijakohtaiset tilaohjelmat. Lindberg, 2007, LIITE �.


Esiselvityksen aikana hankkeesta ja sen tavoitteista tiedotettiin avoimesti myös alueen

muille kulttuuritoimijoille. Keskusteluja käytiin muun muassa käynnissä olleiden, muiden

kulttuurialojen tilahankkeiden yhtymäkohdista Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen kanssa ja selvitettiin

mahdollisuuksia yhteistyöhön.3

Esiselvityksen aikana kerättiin myös listaa esimerkeistä, miten muualla Suomessa taiteilijoiden

työ- ja näyttelytilatarpeita on ratkaistu ja millaisia kulttuurikeskuksia on perustettu.�

Esiselvityshankkeen tuloksena valmistui esitys Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen suunnitteluhankkeen

käynnistämisestä, minkä tavoitteet ja päämäärät ovat seikkaperäisesti luettavissa hankkeen

verkkosivuilla julkaistusta esiselvityshankkeen loppuraportista.5

1.1 TAITEILIJAELÄMÄÄ PORISSA -VERKKOKYSELY

Taiteilijaelämää Porissa -verkkokysely toteutettiin osana Visuaalinen keskus -esiselvityshanketta.6

Kyselyssä selvitettiin taiteilijoiden työ- ja näyttelytilatarpeita, visuaalisen alan yrittäjien ja

3 Lindberg, 2007, LIITE 9.

� Helsingin kaupungin taiteilijatyötilaselvitys, 2006.

5 PORIN VISUAALINEN KESKUS – Esiselvityshanke visuaalisen alan toimijoiden nykytilanteesta, toiminnasta

ja tilatarpeista sekä alustava suunnitelma vaadittavista toimenpiteistä visuaalisen keskuksen perustamisesta Poriin.

Lindberg, 2007. www.pori.fi/visuaalinenkeskus.

6 Lindberg, 2007, 7-10.

Taulukko 2. Visuaalisen alan toimijoiden

yhteenlaskettu arvio tilantarpeesta hankkeen

esiselvitysvaiheessa oli arvioitua suurempi.

Kuva 1. Esiselvitysvaiheessa aloitettiin kat-

tava kohdekartoitus, jossa selvitettiin eri tila-

vaihtoehtoja ja niiden soveltuvuutta Porin

Visuaalisen keskuksen toimitiloiksi.

JULKISET YLEISÖTILAT 6�0 m²

YHTEISET TOIMITILAT 695 m²

YKSITYISET TYÖTILAT 2075 m²

YHTEENSÄ N. 3�00 m²

KOHDEKARTOITUSARVIOITU TILANTARVE muiden toimijoiden tilatarpeita sekä kerättiin heidän näkemyksiään ja toiveitaan Porin visuaalisen

keskuksen suunnittelua varten. Kysely kohdennettiin pääasiassa Porin alueella toimiville

taiteilijoille, taideopiskelijoille sekä muille visuaalisten alojen ammattilaisille, mutta siihen saivat

vastata myös muut asiasta kiinnostuneet.7

Kysely muodostui kolmesta osasta: 1) Minä visuaalisen kulttuurin kentällä, 2) Työ- ja

näyttelytilat sekä 3) Ajatuksia visuaalisesta keskuksesta. 8 Kyselyn onnistui kiitettävästi tavoittaa

ruohonjuuritason toimijat, sillä parissa viikossa se sai vastauksia yhteensä 50, joista �5 oli verkossa

täytettyjä ja viisi paperille täytettyjä kyselylomakkeita.9 Kyselyn vastauksissa oli paneuduttu

porilaisten ja satakuntalaisten taiteilijoiden sekä muiden visuaalisen alan toimijoiden nykyhetken

kuvaamiseen työ- ja näyttelytilojen osalta sekä niihin toiveisiin ja toiminnan reunaehtoihin, jotka

liittyvät taiteilijoiden työskentelymahdollisuuksiin Satakunnassa sekä taiteilijoiden tilatarpeisiin

yleensä. Myös visuaalisen keskuksen toimintojen ja tilojen sisällön ideointiin saatiin kiinnostuneita

vastauksia.10 Vastaajien tarpeet ja suunnitteilla olevaan Porin visuaaliseen keskukseen liittyneet

toiveet osoittautuivat pienelläkin otoksella hyvin toistensa kaltaisiksi.

Satakunnan Taidetoimikunnasta keväällä 2007 saadun karkean arvion mukaan

ammattikuvataiteilijoiden määrä Satakunnassa liikkuu noin sadan tienoilla ja toinen sata arvioitiin

olevan sellaisia, joiden ammattilaisuus on tulkinnasta kiinni.11 Kyselyyn vastanneista 32 henkilöä

eli 6� % ilmoitti itsensä ammattitaiteilijaksi, mikä Satakunnan Taidetoimikunnan antamaan arvioon

suhteutettuna olisi karkeasti arvioiden 16 % kaikista kahdesta sadasta arvioidusta satakuntalaisesta

kuvataiteilijasta. Ammattilaistaiteilijastatukseen liittyvien tulkintavaikeuksien vuoksi kyselyn

otoksen edustavuutta on kuitenkin vaikea arvioida tarkasti. Voidaan kuitenkin sanoa, että kyselyllä

tavoitettiin edustava joukko satakuntalaisia, Porissa toimivia ja siellä työskenteleviä visuaalisen

alan toimijoita, joiden merkitys Poriin suunnitteilla olevalle Visuaaliselle keskukselle ja sen

sisältöjen rakentamiselle on keskeinen.12

Porissa ja Satakunnassa on suuri määrä kulttuurin harrastajia ja taideyleisöä, jotka toivovat nykyistä

7 Tietoa kyselystä jaettiin sähköpostitse pääasiassa taiteilijaseurojen ja muiden visuaalisen alan toimijoiden,

kuten Satakunnan Taidetoimikunnan ja alan oppilaitosten postituslistojen kautta. Myös paperisia kyselylomakkeita

toimitettiin useimpiin visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen yhteistyötahojen toimipisteisiin. Taiteilijaelämää Porissa -

verkkokysely oli avoinna kaikille asiasta kiinnostuneille Porin kaupungin verkkosivuilla 15.1.–26.1.2007 välisenä

aikana.

8 Kyselyyn oli mahdollista vastata itse valittujen kysymysten osalta, mikä tarkoitti sitä, että kaikkiin

kysymyksiin ei tullut yhtä paljon vastauksia.

9 Kyselyn pienen otoksen vuoksi kyselyraportin tuloksia ei ole muutettu prosenteiksi. Osin kyselyn suppean

otoksen ja kvalitatiivisen luonteen osin eri kysymyksiin saatujen eritasoisten vastausten vuoksi raportissa ei ole

katsottu tarpeelliseksi esittää tuloksia kuvaavien ja edustavien tilastojen muodossa. Lindberg, 2007, LIITE 5.


11 Penttinen-Lampisuo, 2007.

12 Kyselyyn vastanneet osoittivat kiinnostuksensa hankkeeseen ja aktiivisuutensa kentällä jo pelkästään

vastaamalla kyselyyn.


monipuolisempaa kulttuuritoimintaa ja jotka ovat myös valmiita maksamaan alan palveluista ja

tuoreesta tarjonnasta.13 Tämän lisäksi eräs Porin Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen tausta-ajatuksista

on edelleen kasvattaa tätä aktiivista kulttuuriyleisön määrää alueella tuottamalla uudenlaisia

sisältöjä sekä panostamalla tarjonnan korkeatasoiseen laatuun. Siten Porin Visuaalinen keskus

-hanke pyrkii omalta osaltaan kasvattamaan ja tukemaan Porin mainetta kulttuurimyönteisenä

kaupunkina. Tutkimusten mukaan kaupunkien monipuolinen kulttuuritarjonta lisää muun muassa

korkeasti koulutettujen kiinnostusta jäädä seudulle. Hanke tähtää Porin ja koko Satakunnan

vetovoimaisuuden ja kiinnostavuuden lisäämiseen. Tämän vuoksi myös osa verkkokyselyn

kysymyksistä oli muotoiltu selkeästi nimenomaan taiteen ja kulttuurin yleisön näkökulmaa

ajatellen.1�

16. Mitä palveluja Porin visuaalinen keskus voisi tarjota taiteilijoille?

työtiloja (35)galleria- ja näyttelytoimintaa (29)

olohuonemaisen kohtaamispaikan taiteilijoille ja

inspiroivan tukiyhteisön(26)palveluja (11)

välinevuokrausta ja taidetarvikemyyntiä (9)

neuvottelu- ja kokoontumistiloja (9)informaatiokeskuksen, jossa tietoja neuvontapalvelupiste, alan kirjasto ja

langaton internet (7)

teosvälitys- ja taidelainaamopalvelu (8)

koulutusta (6)kahvilan ja lounasravintolan (5)

varastotiloja ja teosten kuljetusvälineitä (3)

elokuvateatterin (3)

porilaisen kuvataiteen markkinointia ja tunnettavuuden edistämistä (2)työtä (1)

Kuva 2. Kuvasta näkyy, mitä kyselyyn vastanneet taiteilijat odottavat Porin visuaaliselta

keskukselta.15

13 Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen yleisökävijämäärän arviointi on vaikea tehtävä varsinkin, kun

suunnitteluhankkeessa puhutaan sellaisista palveluista, joita ei vielä Porissa ole olemassa. Visuaalisten alojen

keskittymä lisäisi tarjottavien kulttuuripalvelujen saavutettavuutta ja siten se myös lisäisi yleisön määrää.

1� Jos kuitenkin haluttaisiin tarkemmin ja laajemmin tutkia Porin visuaalisen keskuksen potentiaalisen yleisön

kiinnostusta eri taiteenalojen tarjontaa sekä visuaalisen alan palveluja kohtaan, pitäisi sitä varten teettää erillinen

kysely, joka olisi kohdennettu ja markkinoitu nimenomaan kuluttajille.


1.2 TOIMIJAHAASTATTELUT

Esiselvitys aloitettiin haastattelemalla sellaisten taiteilijaseurojen sekä alan opetusta tarjoavien

oppilaitosten edustajia, joiden akuuteista tilatarpeista koko hanke oli saanut alkunsa. Nykyiset

toimitilat dokumentoitiin ja niiden mahdolliset puutteet kirjattiin. Keskusteluja käytiin laajasti

visuaalisen alan toimijoiden16 kanssa, mikä osoitti jo melko varhaisessa vaiheessa, että toimijoiden

tilatarpeet ovat arvioitua laajemmat ja että eri taiteenalojen toimijoiden tilatarpeet vastasivat

monelta osin toisiaan.

Suurin tarve Porissa, mutta myös muualla Satakunnassa on ensinnäkin monenlaiseen käyttöön

muuntuville työtiloille niin yksittäisten taiteilijoiden työtiloille kuin yhteisille studio-, verstas-

ja työpajatiloille sekä toimistotiloille. Toiseksi, tarvetta on sekä galleria-, näyttely-, auditorio-

ja monitoimitapahtumatiloille että kohtaamispaikkana toimivalle taidekahvilalle, joka tarpeen

mukaan voisi muuntua vaikka esittävän taiteen näyttämöksi. Haastattelujen perusteella

Satakunnassa on tarve kokoavalle keskukselle, joka kerää kaikki visuaalisten alojen maakunnalliset

toimijat yhteen, toimii kohtaamispaikkana ja edustaa Satakuntaa ja satakuntalaista visuaalisten

alojen osaamista niin valtakunnallisella tasolla kuin kansainvälisissäkin verkostoissa aktiivisesti

toimien.17

Kuvat 3., 4., 5., ja 6. Kuvassa Porin Taidegraafikot ry:n ja Porin lasten ja nuorten kuvataidekoulun

varasto-, toimija opetustiloja.

16 Kysymys siitä, mitä visuaalisuus -käsitteellä tässä yhteydessä tarkoitetaan, on ollut heti hankkeen alusta

asti esillä. Hanke on lähtenyt kuvataiteen ja audiovisuaalisen kulttuurin toimijoiden tarpeista, mutta matkalla se on

laajentunut käsittämään yhä laajempaa visuaalisten taiteiden kenttää. Suunnitteluvaiheessa mitään toimintoja ei ole

haluttu rajata pois, vaan kaikkien toiveita on kuunneltu tasapuolisesti.

17 Toimijahaastattelujen pohjalta on hankkeen aikana kerätty listaa keskeisimmistä porilaisista ja Porista

käsin koko Satakunnan alueella toimivista visuaalisten alojen toimijoista ja organisaatioista, joilla on tilatarpeita

sekä halu kehittää ja tiivistää alan keskinäistä yhteistyötä. Päivitetty lista löytyy hankkeen verkkosivuilta: <www.

pori.fi/visuaalinenkeskus>

Kuva 3. Kuva �.


2. SUUNNITTELUHANKE

Porin kaupunki käynnisti Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen suunnitteluosuuden 1.6.2007, joka

jatkuu vuoden 2007 loppuun. Suunnitteluhankkeen tavoitteena on valmiin esityksen laatiminen

Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen perustamista varten.18 Esitys pitää sisällään suunnitelmat keskuksen

toimintamallista sisältäen mallit hallinnosta, rahoituksesta ja henkilöstöstä kohdekartoituksen

tulokset, keskuksen tilaohjelman ja perustamishankkeen rahoitussuunnitelman.

Toimintamallin kehittämisen pohjaksi suunnitteluhankkeessa on tutustuttu pääasiassa suomalaisiin

konseptiesimerkkeihin vastaavanlaisista kulttuurikeskuksista.19 Esiselvitysvaiheessa laadittua

tilaluetteloa tarkennetaan koko suunnitteluprosessin ajan ja sen pohjalta valmistuu tilasuunnitelma

arvioituine budjetteineen vuoden 2007 loppuun mennessä.20

Visuaalinen keskus -hanke on ensinnäkin tilahanke, jossa alueen visuaalisten alojen toimijoita

pyritään kokoamaan saman katon alle. Toiseksi hankkeessa on kyse keskuksen konseptin

kehittämisestä ja innovoimisesta yhdessä hankkeessa mukana olevien toimijatahojen kanssa.

Kolmanneksi Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeessa on kyse verkostoitumisesta ja uudenlaisten

18 Suunnitelma valmistuu vuoden 2007 loppuun mennessä ja se tulee pitämään sisällään 1) vision Porin

Visuaalisesta keskuksesta, jossa hahmotellaan keskuksentulevaa toimintaa, toimijoita ja toimintaympäristöä, 2)

suunnitelman keskuksen toimintamallista, joka käsittää suunnitelman keskuksen toiminnan rahoituksesta, hallinnosta

ja henkilöstöstä sekä tiloista ja 3) hankesuunnitelman toimenpiteineen keskuksen perustamisvaihetta varten.

Toimintamallin lisäksi suunnitteluvaiheen aikana Porin Visuaaliselle keskukselle etsitään sille parhaiten soveltuvia

tiloja, minkä pohjalta perustamishankkeelle laaditaan budjetti.

19 Kiinnostavimpiin kohteisiin hanke on järjestänyt ekskursioita sekä hankkeen ohjausryhmälle, jossa on

ollut mukana niin toimijoiden, rahoittajien kuin kaupungin edustajia että toimijatahoille, joiden osanottajat ovat

koostuneet pääasiassa taiteilijoista ja muista hankkeen toimijatahojen edustajista.

20 Ks. alustava tilaohjelma: Lindberg, 2007, 11–27.

Kuva 5. Kuva 6.

yhteistyömuotojen etsimisestä.

Suunnitteluhankkeen toteutuksessa johtoajatuksena on ollut toimijoiden keskinäinen

vuorovaikutus ja aktiivinen osallistuminen keskuksen konseptin suunnitteluun. Hankkeen aikana

on muun muassa järjestetty kaikille hankkeesta kiinnostuneille avoimia keskustelutilaisuuksia,

joissa on tiedotettu sidosryhmille hankkeen etenemisestä sekä kannustettu niitä osallistumaan

keskuksen ideointiin ja suunnitteluun. Avoin tiedottaminen tapahtumista ja vaiheista hankkeen

verkkosivujen kautta sekä hankkeen esittely erilaisissa seminaareissa ja tilaisuuksissa on ollut

keino markkinoida keskusideaa, testata eri toimijoiden kiinnostusta, mutta myös selvittää eri

näkökulmista, millainen keskus Poriin tarvitaan.

Suunnitteluhankkeen aikana toimijoiden ja muiden sidosryhmien kanssa on kierretty Porissa

tutustumassa vaihtoehtoisiin kohteisiin. Kierrosten tarkoituksena on ollut sekä yhdessä kartoittaa

vaihtoehtoisten kohteiden soveltuvuus suunnitteilla olevan keskuksen toimitiloiksi että innostaa ja

kannustaa hankkeessa mukana olevia toimijoita visioimaan Visuaalisen keskuksen sisältöjä omissa

organisaatioissaan, mutta myös konkretisoimaan paperinmakuisia kuvauksia keskuksesta.

Toimijoiden rooli suunnittelussa on ensisijaisesti ollut pohtia omien organisaatioidensa

näkökulmasta, miten eri tavoin suunnitteilla oleva keskus voisi heitä palvella ja millä eri tavoin he

haluavat keskusta hyödyntää oman toimintansa kehittämisessä. Tämän lisäksi kunkin organisaation

toiminnan reunaehtojen pohtiminen ja tiedon välittäminen hankkeen suunnittelijalle on ollut

keskuksen suunnitteluprosessin kannalta ensiarvoisen tärkeää. Tiloja ja niiden käyttöä koskevien

reunaehtojen lisäksi jokaisella organisaatiolla on omat toimintamallinsa ja käytäntönsä, joilla on

merkitystä toimittaessa yhteisissä tiloissa muiden kanssa. Kukin organisaatio on itse vastuussa

siitä, että tällainen ns. piilossa oleva tieto välittyy uuden keskuksen suunnittelijalle. Toimijoita

on tiedotettu roolistaan hankkeen alusta asti ja niille on annettu tehtäväksi pohtia omaa rooliaan

porilaisen visuaalisen kulttuurin kentässä uudella tavalla, osana suurempaa kokonaisuutta.

Hankkeen alusta alkaen taiteilijaseurojen ja julkisen puolen organisaatioiden edustajien lisäksi Porin

Visuaalisen keskuksen suunnittelussa on ollut mukana myös luovien alojen yrittäjien edustajia.

Profit- ja non-profit - yhteistyö onkin eräs keskushankkeen kulmakivistä. Suunnitteluhankkeen

aikana on siis myös pohdittu, millä eri tavoin suunnitteilla oleva keskus voisi parantaa luovien

alojen yrittäjien toimintamahdollisuuksia Porissa ja Satakunnassa. Visuaalinen keskus itsessään

mahdollistaisi tilojen yhteiskäytön muiden Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeessa mukana olevien

toimijoiden kanssa. Eräs keino tukea luovien alojen yrittäjiä voisi olla luovien toimialojen

yrityshautomopalvelujen tarjoaminen keskukseen sijoittuville yrityksille. Yritysyhteistyötä

on tarkasteltu suunnitteluhankkeen aikana myös laajemmin kuin keskukseen mahdollisesti

sijoittuvien yritysten näkökulmasta. Kehitteillä olevan toimintamallin pohjaksi toteutetaan

syksyn 2007 aikana alueellinen yritysyhteistyöselvitys yritysyhteistyön ja vuorovaikutuksen

mahdollisuuksista Porin Visuaalisessa keskuksen kanssa. Selvityksen tarkoituksena on saada

tietoa pääosin satakuntalaisten yritysten kiinnostuksesta ja mahdollisuuksista yritysyhteistyöhön


ja vuorovaikutukseen Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen kanssa.21

2.1 SUOMALAISET KONSEPTIESIMERKIT

Porin visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen suunnitteluvaiheen alussa tutustuttiin muissa suomalaisissa

kaupungeissa sijaitseviin kulttuurikeskuksiin. Konseptiesimerkkejä etsittiin ensin verkkosivustojen

kautta, minkä perusteella valittiin ne kohteet ja kaupungit, joissa käytiin vierailemassa paikan

päällä.22 Vierailukohteiksi valittiin pääasiassa sellaisia keskuksia, joiden toimintaperiaatteet

vastasivat mahdollisimman paljon Porin Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen tavoitteita. Mukaan

tutustumiskohteiden joukkoon haluttiin myös sellaisissa kaupungeissa sijaitsevia keskuksia,

jotka sopivat Porin kokoluokkaan suhteutettuna hyviksi vertailukohteiksi.23 Kohteiden valintaan

vaikuttaneita sisällöllisiä ja toimintamalleihin liittyviä kriteerejä olivat muun muassa 1) profit- ja

non-profit -yhteistyö, 2) poikkitaiteellinen toiminta ja 3) vuorovaikutus kolmannen sektorin eli

ns. vapaan taidekentän, yksityisen sektorin eli kulttuuri- tai ns. luovien alojen yrittäjien ja julkisen

sektorin eli valtion sekä kunnallisten taideinstituutioiden ja kulttuuripalveluiden välillä, �) tilojen

rahoitukseen liittyvät ratkaisut kuten tilojen porrastetut rahoitusmallit sekä 5) taiteilijoiden

työtilojen rakentamiseen liittyvät ratkaisut ja vanhoihin tehdaskiinteistöihin tehdyt tilojen

saneeraukset. Vierailukohteiksi valikoitui esimerkkejä Helsingistä, Turusta, Hämeenlinnasta,

Hyvinkäältä, Porvoosta, Jyväskylästä, Lahdesta ja Oulusta.2�

21 Selvityksen lähtökohta on, että monipuolinen ja laadukas kulttuurituotanto on arvo sinänsä, väline alueen

arvon kohottamisessa ja siten keino houkutella ammattitaitoista työvoimaa Satakuntaan sekä taloudellista toimintaa.

Yritysyhteistyöhön liittyvä selvitystyö on siis samaan aikaan sekä suunnitteilla olevan Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen

toiminnan mainostamista että yritysten yhteiskuntavastuun peräänkuuluttamista alueellisen kulttuurielämän

kehittämisessä.

22 Esimerkkikonseptit kartoitettiin ja niihin käytiin tutustumassa pääosin kesä-elokuun 2007 välisenä

aikana.

23 Tämän vuoksi kartoituksesta ei selviä, millaisiin kokonaisratkaisuihin eri kaupungeissa on päädytty

muuten, kuin niiden esimerkkien osalta, joihin suunnitteluhankkeessa tutustuttiin. Kartoituksesta selvisi kuitenkin

ne pääasialliset tavat, joilla keskuksia on saatu aikaan ja joilla niiden toimintaa pyöritetään.

2� Näiden kaupunkien lisäksi tutustuttiin myös muutamiin muissa kaupungeissa sijaitseviin esimerkkikohteisiin,

kuten Mikkelin Wanhojen Veturitalleihin, Mikkelin Kenkäveroon, Tampereen Rock Leipomoon, Turun B-

galleriaan.

Lista vierailukohteista:

HELSINKI

1. Helsingin Kaapelitehdas

2. Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamo

3. Vallilan taiteilijatalo

�. ARTLAB-taiteilijayhteisö

TURKU 5. Turun Manillan Tehdas

HÄMEENLINNA6. Hämeenlinnan Verkatehdas

7. Poltinahon taidekasarmi

HYVINKÄÄ 8. Hyvinkään Villa Arttu

PORVOO 9. Porvoon Taidetehdas

JYVÄSKYLÄ10. Tanssisali Lutakko

11. Tourulan kivääritehdas

LAHTI 12. Lahden Taidepanimo

OULU 13. Oulun NUKU-keskus

Kohteisiin tutustuttiin pääasiassa vastaanottavan tahon toiminnasta vastaavan henkilön tai muun

työntekijän johdolla. Vierailujen aikana tutustuttiin tiloihin, keskuksen historian vaiheisiin

ja nykyiseen toimintamalliin eli niihin rakenteisiin ja paikallisiin ratkaisuihin, joiden varassa

keskuksen toiminta lepää.

Tutustumiskäynneillä selvitettyjä asioita:

HISTORIA

TILAT TOIMINTAMALLI

SIJAINTI SISÄLTÖTUOTANTOKOKONAISKERROSALA RAHOITUS, TUKIJAT

KÄYTTÖASTE HENKILÖSTÖ

OMISTUS UHAT JA HAASTEET

RAHOITUS VAHVUUDET JA EDUTHALLINNOINTI

VUOKRALAISET

TILATYYPIT

Konseptiesimerkkien kartoitus osoitti, että Suomen kaupunkien kulttuurikeskusten kirjo on suuri.

Kaupunkien tarjoamien kunnallisten kulttuuripalvelujen rinnalla vierailluissa kulttuurikeskuksissa

toimii aktiivisia kolmannen sektorin kulttuuritoimijoita sekä kasvava määrä luovien alojen

yrittäjiä. Kunnallisten kulttuuripalvelujen, vapaan taidekentän ja luovien alojen yrittäjien

sijoittuminen yhteisiin tiloihin on johtanut hedelmälliseen yhteistyöhön monissa kaupungeissa.

Onnistuneimmat esimerkit löytyvät keskuksista, joissa on pyritty tiiviiseen ja mahdollisimman

tasa-arvoiseen yhteistyöhön kaikkien kolmen edellä mainitun sektorin välillä. Yhteistyön

ensimmäinen taso on useimmissa keskuksissa ollut porrastetun vuokrajärjestelmän kehittäminen.

Porrastetuissa vuokrajärjestelmissä sekä pitkäaikaisesti että tilapäisesti vuokrattavissa tiloissa


noudatetaan samaa hinnoitteluperiaatetta, jonka mukaan liiketoimintaa harjoittavien yritysten

sekä julkisia kulttuuripalveluja tuottavat organisaatiot maksavat korkeampaa hintaa kuin vapaan

kentän kulttuuritoimijat.25

Kolmannen sektorin kulttuuritoimijoiden ja luovien alojen yrittäjien toimintamahdollisuuksien

tukemiseen on satsattu sekä määrällisesti että laadullisesti hyvin eri tavoin Suomen eri kaupungeissa.26

Esimerkiksi voidaan ottaa taiteilijaseurojen ylläpitämät galleriat, jotka ovat kaikkialla täysin tai

lähes täysin riippuvaisia kaupunkien myöntämistä toiminta-avustuksista. Niissä kaupungeissa,

joissa kaupunki on tarjonnut taiteilijaseuroille toiminta-avustusten lisäksi keskitetysti edulliset ja

galleriatoimintaan soveltuvat tilat, on yhdistyspohjalta toimivien taiteilijaseurojen ollut helpompi

panostaa korkeatasoisen sisällön tuottamiseen. Sama sääntö pätee taiteilijoiden ateljeetiloihin,

tosin galleriatoiminnassa edullisten tilojen hankkiminen saavutettavuuden vaatimuksen vuoksi on

vaikeampaa kuin työtiloiksi soveltuvien tilojen löytäminen ja niiden saneeraaminen. Molempien

tilatyyppien osalta kuten kokonaisten kulttuurikeskustenkin kohdalla oleellista on ollut kaupungin

poliittinen tahto edistää kulttuuri- ja luovien alojen toimijoiden toimintamahdollisuuksia.

Vaikka Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen yhteydessä tehty konseptiesimerkkien kartoitus ei kata

kaikkia suomen kaupunkeja, niin se osoittaa kiinnostavia eroja eri kaupunkien välillä. Sellaisten

kulttuurikeskusten tukemiseen ja rahoittamiseen, jossa pääasiallisen sisällön tuottavat kolmannen

sektorin kulttuuritoimijat yhdessä luovien alojen yrittäjien kanssa, ovat lisääntymässä. Esimerkiksi

Oulussa, Porvoossa ja Hämeenlinnassa kulttuuritoimintoja on lähdetty pitkäjänteisesti keskittämään

yhteen kokonaisuuteen siten, että sekä kolmannen, yksityisen että julkisen sektorin toimijat ovat

keskenään tiiviissä yhteistyössä, mistä kaikki tuntevat hyötyvänsä. Valtaosassa suomalaisista

kulttuurikeskuksista kaupungin rahallinen tuki on tärkeä keskusten perustamisprosesseissa, tilojen

saneeraamisessa ja keskuksen ns. brändin sisällöllisessä kehittämisessä, mutta myös toiminnan

rahoituksessa. 27 Vierailtujen kulttuurikeskusten perustamisvaiheen rahoitusta on kaupunkien

lisäksi haettu EU-ohjelmista, kansallisista kehittämistuista sekä yksittäisiltä säätiöiltä ja muilta

sponsoreilta. Kaikkien keskushankkeiden kohdalla kaupungin rooli ei kuitenkaan ole ollut alusta

asti yhtä merkittävä, mistä hyviä esimerkkejä ovat Turun Manillan Tehdas ja Helsingin ART LAB

-yhteisö. Erot näkyvät usein sekä laadullisesti että määrällisesti niiden sisältöjen ja palvelujen

kautta, joita kolmannen sektorin kulttuurintuottajat ja luovien alojen yrittäjät kaupungissa

pystyvät tarjoamaan. Kaikkialla suurin ongelma tuntuu olevan kuitenkin sama: taiteilijoilla ja

25 Pitkäaikaisesti vuokrattavilla tiloilla tarkoitetaan tässä vuokrattavia taiteilijoiden ateljeetiloja, yritysten

toimitiloja ja muita niin sanottuja toimijoiden yksityisiä tiloja. Tilapäisesti vuokrattavilla tiloilla tarkoitetaan tässä

useimmissa keskuksissa olevia tapahtumatiloja, joita vuokrataan tilapäisesti taidenäyttely-, konsertti-, messu- ja

muuhun pääasiassa kulttuuritapahtumakäyttöön. Kullakin keskuksella on omat periaatteensa sille, minkälaisille

toimijoille ja minkälaisiin tapahtumiin tiloja vuokrataan.

26 Tuen laadullinen ja määrällinen vertailu eri kaupunkien välillä ja saadun tuloksen tarkasteleminen erilaisten

alueellista vetovoivaisuutta kuvaavien indeksien kontekstissa olisi erittäin kiinnostavaa, mutta vaatisi oman kattavan

tutkimuksensa.

27 Hänninen, 2007, 1�–15.

muilla luovien alojen toimijoilla on huutava pula riittävän edullisista toimitiloista.

VAPAIDEN KULTTUURIKESKUSTEN1 YLEISIMPIÄ HALLINTOMALLEJA MUUALLA SUOMESSA

Hallinnollisesti ja rahoituksellisesti toimintamallit

vaihtelevat täysin yksityisrahoitteisista

kulttuurikeskuksista lähes kokonaan kaupungin tuen

varassa toimiviin kulttuurikeskuksiin.

• JULKINEN KULTTUURILAITOS -MALLI

• PUOLIJULKINEN KULTTUURILAITOS -MALLI

• KIINTEISTÖYHTIÖ -MALLI

• PUBLIC-PRIVATE -MALLI

• YKSITYINEN SÄÄTIÖ/YRITYS -MALLI

Malliesimerkki julkisesta kulttuurilaitosmallista on Oulun Nuoriso- ja kulttuurikeskus, NUKU,

jonka toimintakonsepti perustuu kaupungin tarjoamiin toimitiloihin sisältäen kaiken tekniikasta

ja muusta laitteistosta aina toimintaa koordinoivaan ja tiloista vastaavaan henkilökuntaan. Oulun

NUKU -keskus on yksi Oulun kaupungin seitsemästä kulttuurilaitoksesta ja talon toiminnan

tarkoitus on tuottaa kulttuuripalveluja yhteistyössä taide- ja kulttuurijärjestöjen sekä yhdistysten

ja taiteilijoiden kanssa. Nuku tuottaa itse lastenkulttuurin palveluita Oulun alueella. Kaupungin

kulttuuritoimen lisäksi Nukuun on keskittynyt elokuvaan, tanssiin ja valokuvaan liittyviä

toimintoja, joiden toiminta perustuu tilojen nimelliseen käyttökorvaukseen. Tapahtumatiloihin

pääasiassa keskittynyt NUKU on laajentanut tilojaan ja samalla toimintaansa viimeksi syksyllä

2007, jolloin sen tilat täydentyivät uusilla työpajatiloilla. 28

Esimerkki puolijulkisesta toimintamallista on Porvoon Taidetehdas, jonka tilat omistaa Porvoon

kaupunki ja jonka toiminnan rahoituksesta vastaavat Porvoon taidetehtaan säätiön osakkaat,

Porvoon kaupunki yhdessä kulttuurimesenaatti Ensio Miettinen -säätiön kanssa. Porvoon

Taidetehtaan säätiön perustaminen vuonna 1999 käynnisti Taidetehtaan kunnostussuunnitelmat

ja peruskorjaustyöt. Taidetehtaan saattaminen kulttuurin ja taiteen monitoimitaloksi on yksi

keskeisistä tulevaisuuden tavoitteista Porvoon kaupungin strategiassa. Porvoon Taidetehtaassa on

yhteensä n. 7500 m². Yli neljäkymmentä vakituista vuokralaista ja suuret määrät tilapäisiä tilojen

vuokraajia kuvaavat keskuksen asemaa �7 �00 asukkaan Porvoon kulttuuritoiminnassa. 29

Esimerkki puhtaasta kiinteistöyhtiöstä on Helsingin Kaapelitehdasta hallinnoiva Kaapelitalo

oy, joka pystyy vuokratuotoillaan toteuttamaan kiinteistössä tarvittavat korjaukset ja kiinteistön

kehittämistoimet. Tiloissa toimii noin 150 kuvataiteilijaa. Kaapelitehdas siirtyi Helsingin

kaupungille Nokia oy:ltä vuonna 1990, jolloin siitä muodostettiin erillinen, kokonaan kaupungin

omistama kiinteistöyhtiö, josta kaupunki ei odota saavansa osinkotuloja. Yhtiö vuokraa tiloja

erilaisiin tarkoituksiin erisuuruisin vuokrin. Taiteilijat maksavat alinta (6 e/m²) ja julkiset

28 Vierailu Oulun NUKU -keskuksessa 27.8.2007 keskuksen toiminnanjohtaja Arja Huotarin johdolla. Käynti

NUKU keskuksen verkkosivuilla http://www.ouka.fi/nukukeskus/, 30.10.2007.

29 Vierailut Porvoon Taidetehtaalla �.7.2007 ja 26.9.2007 Porvoon Taidetehtaan säätiön asiamies Susanne

Dahlqvistin johdolla. Käynti Porvoon taidetehtaan verkkosivuilla http://taidetehdas.fi, 30.10.2007.


instituutiot kuten museot ja koulut ja muut ns. ”kaupalliset” toimijat korkeampaa vuokraa. 30

Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamo oy on esimerkki Public-Private -mallista, joka toimii yksityisen yrittäjän

ja kaupungin kiinteässä yhteistyössä. Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamon tulot muodostuvat useasta

toisiaan tukevasta toiminnosta ja tilasta kuten baari-, ravintola- taidegalleria-, musiikkiklubi-,

teatteri- ja toimistohotellitoiminnasta. 31

Esimerkki puhtaasti yksityisomisteisesta säätiöstä on Turun Manillan Tehdas. Manillaan

1990-luvun alussa kotiutunut Aurinkobaletti perusti vuonna 1997 Pro Manillasäätiön,

jonka tavoitteena on kulttuurihistoriallisesti arvokkaan Manillan suojelu ja kunnostaminen

kulttuurikeskukseksi, alueen kulttuurihistorian tunnetuksi tekeminen sekä tanssitaiteen ja muun

kulttuurin tukeminen ja edistäminen. Vuonna 2000 tehdyllä kaupalla tehdaskiinteistö siirtyi Pro

Manillasäätiön hallinnoimalle Kiinteistö Oy Turun Manillalle. Suojelukaava vahvistettiin vuonna

2001. Manilla on vilkas kulttuuritehdas, jossa toimii mm. kolme teatteria, kuvataiteilijoita,

valokuvastudioita, arkkitehtitoimistoja sekä muita taide- ja kulttuurialojen pienyrityksistä.

Manillassa järjestetään vuosittain satoja kulttuuritapahtumia: tanssi- ja teatteriesityksiä,

konsertteja, näyttelyitä ja festivaaleja. Pro Manilla säätiön tuottama Tehdasfestivaali Manifesti

täyttää Manillan vuosittain syyskuussa. 32

Tutustuminen muiden suomalaiskaupunkien kulttuurikeskusten konseptiesimerkkeihin

osoitti, että kulttuuritoimijoiden ja -toimintojen keskittämisestä saatavat hyödyt ovat ilmeiset

kaikille osapuolille, joskin keskittymien aikaansaaminen vaati vuosien pitkäjännitteisen

työn lisäksi kulttuuritoimijoiden saumatonta yhteistyötä yhteisen tavoitteen puolesta. Lähes

kaikkien esimerkkikeskusten vaiheissa kaupungin vahva tuki osoittautui olennaisen tärkeäksi

yhteistilahankkeiden onnistumiselle. Kulttuuripalveluja tuottavien vapaiden toimijoiden

sekä luovien alojen yrittäjien toimintamahdollisuuksien tukemistavoitteiden kirjaaminen

maakunnallisiin ja kaupunkien omiin strategioihin on tärkeää, mutta se vaatii käytännössä myös

konkreettisia toimenpiteitä ja oikeanlaisia kehittämisvälineitä. Kulttuurikeskus on hyvä väline

vapaan taidekentän toimijoiden ja luovien alojen yrittäjien toimintaympäristön parantamisessa,

sillä se keskittää eri toimijaryhmät ja vastaa tasapuolisesti kaikkien tarpeisiin. Keskusten

perustamisprosessi toimenpiteineen vaatii kuitenkinkaupungin vahvaa poliittista tahtoa ja

hankkeita vetävien tahojen keskinäistä yhteisymmärrystä.33

30 Vierailut Helsingin Kaapelitehtaalla 11.7.2007 ja 26.9.2007 Kaapelitalo oy:n viestintäpäällikkö Marja

IstalaKumpusen johdolla. Käynti Helsingin Kaapelitehtaan verkkosivuilla http://www.kaapelitehdas.fi, 30.10.2007.

31 Vierailut Helsingin Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamolla 11.7.2007 koordinaattori Anna Karin johdolla ja Trans

Europe Halles -verkoston Innovating White Rabbits -seminaarissa 26.10.2007. Käynti Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamon

verkkosivuilla http://www.korjaamo.fi/, 30.10.2007.

32 Käynti Turun Manillan Tehtaan verkkosivuilla http://www.manillantehdas.fi/ 30.10.2007.

33 Sellaisissa esimerkkitapauksissa, joissa kaupungin tuki on ollut vähäisempää, on kaupungin ohella ollut

tukena joku muu, paikallinen kulttuurimesenaatti tai sellainen ulkopuolinen rahoittajataho, joka on halunnut tukea

kaupungin kulttuuritoimintaa.

Suomalaisiin kaupunkeihin syntyneiden ns. vapaiden kulttuurikeskusten keskittämisestä

saatavia etuja toimijoiden mukaan ovat muun muassa: 1) luova työyhteisön rakentuminen

eli synergia eri toimijoiden välillä, joka mahdollistaa monipuolisen osaamisen keskuksissa,

2) yhteismarkkinoinnilla saavutettu aikaisempaa suurempi näkyvyys ja tunnettavuus,

3) kulttuuripalvelujen saavutettavuuden lisääntyminen yleisön kannalta, �) resurssien

yhdistämisestä saavutettu hyöty tilojen, laitteistojen ja henkilöstön osalta, 5) taiteilijoiden

työtilatarpeen helpottuminen, 6) yhteishengen paraneminen alueen toimijoiden keskuudessa,

7) luovien alojen yritysten toimintamahdollisuuksien parantuminen uusien verkostojen kautta,

8) uusien yritysten, tuotantojen ja työpaikkojen syntymisen edistäminen ja vakiinnuttaminen,

9) alueen vetovoimaisuuden ja kiinnostavuuden lisääntyminen, 9) keskusten käyttäminen

välineinä kaupunkikeskustojen kehittämisessä ja elävöittämisessä sekä saatavat hyödyt

kulttuurihistoriallisten rakennusten suojelussa sekä 10) alueen elinkeinoelämän saamat hyödyt

kulttuurimatkailun lisääntymisestä ja kehittymisestä.

2.2 TAVOITTEENA PORIN VISUAALINEN KESKUS

Porin Visuaalinen keskus -hankkeen päätavoite on perustaan Poriin visuaalisten alojen toimijoiden

yhteinen keskus. Matkalla koti tavoitetta on kuitenkin monia kysymyksiä, jotka vaativat oman

ratkaisunsa. Hankkeen aikana tutustuttiin suomalaisiin esimerkkikulttuurikeskuksiin, joita kaikkia

yhdisti poikkitaiteellisuus eli keskuksiin oli useimmin sijoittunut kaikenlaisten taiteenalojen

toimijoita samoissa tiloissa. Myös Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen osalta on päätettävä, halutaanko

keskuksesta poikkitaiteellisuutta korostava monen taide- ja kulttuurialan toimijan yhteinen keskus

vai tiukasti tiettyihin visuaalisen kulttuurin aloihin keskittyväksi ja erikoistuvaksi keskukseksi.

Kysymys on tärkeä, sillä se vaikuttaa myös keskusten rahoitusmalliin eli siihen, millaisista

asioista keskuksen tulonmuodostus rakentuisi. Toinen toimintamalliin liittyvä kysymys liittyy

keskuksen tuottamiin sisältöihin ja siihen, kuka siitä olisi vastuussa.

Vapaiden eurooppalaisten kulttuurikeskusten muodostaman Trans Europe Halles -verkoston

Helsingin Korjaamolla 26.10.2007 järjestämässä Innovating White Rabbits -seminaarissa

esiteltiin eurooppalaisten kulttuurikeskusten toimintamalleja.


Kuva 4. Kuva perustuu Helsingin Kaapelitehtaan toimitusjohtaja Stuba Nikulan esittelemään

pyramidimalliin Innovating White Rabbits -seminaarin Real Estate -workshopissa, joka kuvaa

taloudellisesta näkökulmasta eurooppalaisten kulttuurikeskusten toimintamalleja. Kuva ja sen

stilisointi sekä suomalaisten kulttuurikeskusten sijoittaminen kaavioon: Essi Lindberg.

Shopping Mall of Culture -mallissa kulttuurikeskuksen kulttuurisisällön tuottavat tiloja vuokraavat

taide- ja kulttuuriorganisaatiot. Malli lähentelee tavallisen kiinteistöyhtiön toimintaperiaatteita

sillä erotuksella, että kulttuurikeskusten tapauksessa vuokralaisten valintaa ohjaa toimintasääntö,

joka määrittää tilojen vuokraamisesta kulttuuriin ja taiteeseen erikoistuneille toimijoille. Ns.

ostoskeskus -malli on keino siirtää tuotantojen yleisöön ja lipputoihin liittyvät riskit sisällön

tuottajaorganisaatioille. Toisaalta keskuksen tuottaman kulttuurisisällön yhtenäisyys riippuu täysin

keskukseen sijoittuvien toimijoiden aktiivisuudesta kehittää keskinäistä yhteistyötä keskuksen

varsinaisen hallintokoneiston keskittyessä korkeintaan yhteistyöhankkeiden koordinointiin ja

sisäiseen viestintään. Ostoskeskus -malli sopii hyvin esimerkiksi sellaiselle kulttuurikeskukselle,

jonka keskeisenä tehtävänä on kunnostaa ja hallinnoida laajojen tilojen saneeraustöitä.

Department -malli on keskusjohtoinen kulttuurikeskusmalli. Mallin mukaisella keskuksella

on yksi budjetti sekä tuotantoon ja sen suunnitteluun erikoistunut henkilökunta. Mallin etuja

on mahdollisuus hallita ja rakentaa keskuksen tuotannoista ja muista kulttuurisisällöistä

yhtenäisiä koordinoimalla tiiviisti toimijatahojen välistä yhteistyötä. Selvä etu on myös erilaisten

toimintojen yhdistämisen kautta saatavat pääomatulot kuten esimerkiksi konserttisalin lipputulot

yhdistettynä ravintola- tai baarituottoihin. Mallin etu on mahdollisuus muodostaa yhden budjetin

avulla toimiva kokonaisuus eri toiminnoista ja monipuoliset mahdollisuudet rakentaa keskuksen

toimijoiden yhteisiä hankkeita, sekä ottaa vastaan niin julkista kuin muutakin toimintatukea.

DEP A R T MEN T S T ORE

BOU T IQUE

SHOPP ING MA LL O F CUL T URE

INCUB A T OR

Kulttuuri tehdas Korja amo Helsingi n

Kaapelitehdas

Porvoo n Taid etehdas

Turun Manillan Tehdas

Oulu n NUKU -keskus

Puhdas kulttuurimarketti -malli ei kuitenkaan anna keskuksessa toimiville organisaatioille täyttä

vapautta sisältöjen tuottamiseen ja oman toimintansa hallintaan. Keskuksen yhteinen budjetti

vaatii pysymään tietyissä raameissa ja siten se määrittää keskuksessa toimivien organisaatioiden

määrää ja toimintamahdollisuuksia, mutta samaan aikaan se tarjoaa turvan ja mahdollisuuden

toiminnan kehittämiselle ja tulevaisuuden suunnittelulle.

Boutique -malli on esimerkki verrattain pienestä ja erikoistuneesta keskuksesta, jonka toimijoiden

valinnasta, toiminnan pyörittämisestä ja taiteellisesta tuotannosta vastaa oma ogranisaatio.

Putiikki -mallin mukainen keskus tuntee edellä mainittuja malleja paremmin oman yleisönsä

ja kohdistaa tarjoamansa kulttuurisisällön myös tarkemmin tietyille ryhmille. Mallin mukaiset

keskukset ovat tietoisia omasta linjastaan, tuntevat trendit ja tarjoavat useimmiten vaihtoehtoista

taide- ja kulttuurisisältöä tiedostaville asiakkailleen.

Incubator -mallin mukaan rakennettu keskus tarjoaa tiloja vuokraaville toimijoille

hautomopalveluja, tuotantojen kehittämis-, kasvattamis- ja vakinnuttamiseen liittyvää tukea.

Luovien toimialojen hautomopalveluihin ja kulttuurituotantojen ja tuotteiden managerointiin

sekä kehittämiseen erikoistuneita palveluja voivat tarjota useat edellämainitut kulttuurikeskukset

joko keskusjohtoisesti tai sitten ostamalla palvelut ulkoa. Incubator -mallin mukainen keskus on

onnistunut, kun joku sen tiloissa toiminut organisaatio tai yritys alkaa pärjätä omillaan, kasvaa ja

lopulta muuttaa keskuksesta pois tilojen käydessä ahtaaksi. Hautomo- ja managerointipalveluja

tarjoava keskus palvelee sekä keskuksen toimijoita että houkuttelee niitä kehittämään omaa

sisältöään ja auttaa tuotantojen myymisessä ja yritysyhteistyössä.

Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen toimijoiden päätettäväksi jää, minkälaisen mallin mukaista keskusta

Poriin päädytään ehdottamaan. Tarpeellista on pohtia esimerkiksi julkisten ja yksityisesti

vuokrattavien tilojen suhdetta eli sitä kuinka suuri osuus keskuksen tiloista on tarkoitus vuokrata

pitkäaikaiseen käyttöön ja kuinka suuri osuus tiloista jää tapahtumiin vuokrattavaan käyttöön.

Pitkäaikaiseen käyttöön vuokrattavat toimitilat ovat useimmiten yksityistä tilaa, kun taas

tapahtumatilat ovat avoinna yleisölle ja siten ne tuovat keskukseen elämää, uusia kasvoja ja

uusia ideoita ja ovat sinällään tärkeä osa keskuksen markkinointia. Entä, onko keskuksella tiloja,

jotka ovat kaikille keskuksen käyttäjille yhteisiä? Vai peritäänko esmerkiksi neuvottelutilojen ja

auditorin käytöstä vuokraa? Tärkeä kysymys on myös, miten suuri osuus Porin kuapungilla olisi

keskuksen ylläpitämisessä?

Edellä mainittuihin kysymyksiin pyritään löytämään vastaukset vuoden 2007 lopussa päätyvän

suunnitteluvaiheen aikana, jolloin valmistuu esitys Porin Visuaalisen keskuksen perustamisesta.


KIRJALLISUUS

Julkaisut

Selvitys taiteilijatyötiloista Helsingissä. (Toim. Kajantie et al.) Helsinki, Lasipalatsi 2007.

Vesikansa, Esko: Kuvataiteilijoiden työtilat 2003. Selvitys kuvataiteilijoiden työtiloista ja

tilantarpeesta sekä tilojen lisäämisohjelma. Opetusministeriön työryhmämuistioita ja selvityksiä

200�:2. Helsinki, Yliopistopaino, 200�.

Vilenius, Markku: Luovaan Talouteen – Kulttuuriosaaminen tulevaisuuden voimavarana.

Helsinki, Edita Prima oy, 200�.

Lehtiartikkelit

Hänninen, Kari: Kulttuurikeskukset käyvät kuntien kukkaroilla, Kauppalehti, 16.8.2007, 1�–15.

Internetlähteet

Lindberg, Essi: PORIN VISUAALINEN KESKUS – Esiselvityshanke visuaalisen alan toimijoiden

nykytilanteesta, toiminnasta ja tilatarpeista sekä alustava suunnitelma vaadittavista toimenpiteistä

visuaalisen keskuksen perustamisesta Poriin. Pori, 31.3.2007.

Sähköpostit

Penttinen-Lampisuo, Tuuli: Kuvataiteilijat Satakunnassa. Pori, 13.3.2007.

Vierailut kulttuurikeskuksissa

Helsingin kaapelitehdas 11.7.2007 ja 26.9.2007 esittelijänä Kaapelitalo oy:n viestintäpäällikkö

Marja Istala-Kumpunen.

Helsingin Kulttuuritehdas Korjaamo 11.7.2007 esittelijänä koordinaattori Anna Kari ja TEH-

seminaari 26.10.2007 johtajana Korjaamo oy:n taiteellinen johtaja Raoul Grünstein.

Helsingin Vallilan ARTLAB-taiteilijayhteisö 11.7.2007 esittelijänä yhteisön tiedottaja, kirjailija

Essi Henriksson.

Helsingin Vallilan taiteilijatalo 26.9.2007 esittelijänä Suomen Taiteilijatalosäätiön asiamies Esko

Vesikansa.

Hyvinkään Villa Arttu �.7.2007 esittelijänä keskuksen työntekijä Anu Haikonen.

Oulun NUKU -keskus 27.8.2007 esittelijänä toiminnanjohtaja Arja Huotari.

Hämeenlinnan Poltinahon taidekasarmi 28.6.2007, esittelijänä ARS Häme ry:n toiminnanjohtaja

Sirpa Taulu, Hämeen Taidetoimikunnan puheenjohtaja Anne koivunen sekä kuvataiteilija Olli

Larjo.

Hämeenlinnan Verkatehdas 28.6.2007 esittelijänä kokousemäntä Laura Laakso, sekä 6.9.2007

esittelijänä toimitusjohtajana Jouko Astor.

Lahden Taidepanimo 28.6.2007 esittelijänä Kauno ry:n näyttelysihteeri.

Porvoon Taidetehdas �.7.2007 ja 26.9.2007, esittelijänä Porvoon Taidetehtaan säätiön asiamies

Susanne Dahlqvist.

Tanssisali Lutakko 2.7.2007 esittelijänä tanssisalin promoottori Matti Salmela.

Tourulan kivääritehdas 2.7.2007 esitelijänä valokuvataitelija Rune Snellman.


Leadership and Virtual Teams Working Globally

Ulla Heinonen

University of Turku

Abstract

In modern life, leadership faces new challenges which are caused by global working. Organizations

work as virtual teams. Leadership, teams and trust have to be built without face to face contacts.

In the presentation I will report challenges of cooperation and leading in network-based

communities based on four different case studies. One of the goals of these case studies is to

understand how virtual teams work. In this presentation I will report the results of the following

research question: what kind of leadership makes the teams creative and successful in their

work?

The target group of the case studies was a community that consists of teams that cooperate at

the global level in the network of the distributed organization. The research data was collected

by using qualitative methods and analyzed by using content analysis. In this presentation I will

report the experiences of the cooperation between the team members.

According to the results of the case studies, keys to success are linked with a sense of community,

trust, time, technology and language. The team dynamics and the basic elements that make the

team work easier and more successfully, namely the well-defined rules and clearly defined

responsibilities, technological support and allocation of time. Clearly defined responsibilities and

creative leadership, the motivation and the commitment of the partners as well as their cooperation

skills also appeared to be very important.

Key words: creative leadership, network-based cooperation, virtual teams, distributed

organizations

The management of distance work is as old as work itself (see for instance O`Leary &al. 2002,

5). Modern organizations are working commonly in virtual teams. The teams, team members

and leaders of the teams are facing new kinds of challenges compared to working face to face.

Information technology makes working globally and communicating through networks easy

but also challenging. Working in virtual environments and teams also offers new possibilities

especially for cooperation. And it is not only the organisation, but also the leaders have to face

them.

There are several reasons to work in virtual teams: 1) promote the work, 2) dissipate the time

and distance and also 3) get information quicker (see also McGrath & Hollingshead 1993). In

global organizations, working in virtual teams is daily practise. In fact there are many teams that

never meet each other face to face at all. This is especially the case if the team members work

in different countries and they have a tight schedule. There can also be quite surprising reasons

to work in virtual teams. In this report, the case study 1 was a good example of that. Some of

the team members had to work without face to face contact because of the SARS (Severe acute

respiratory syndrome). At the time, any kind of travelling in Asia was not allowed.

In the presentation I will report challenges of leadership in virtual teams. The case studies are part

of the MOMENTS consortium, which, in turn, is part of the Life as learning research programme

of the Academy of Finland. One of the goals of these studies is to discuss, how to build a sense of

community in virtual teams. In this presentation, I will report the results of the following research

question: what kind of leadership makes the teams creative and successful in their work.

The case study groups consisted of teams that cooperate at the network of the distributed

organization. The groups either studied or worked virtually. The data was collected from different

questionnaires and diaries and analyzed by using content analysis. The teams worked or studied

virtually by using different online messaging (such as chat, screen sharing, low communication).

The Communication technology is often in remarkable role in the organizations (see Jokinen &

al. 2006, 197).

I will focus on some experiences of the team members based on four different case studies in virtual

teams (N=92; n1=23, n2=8, n3=19, n�=�2). The goals of these case studies are to understand,

what the cooperation was like in virtual teams, how the new technology was used and how the

sense of community was built in those teams. In my report I will focus on what kind of a role the

leaders had in the processes. The teams worked world wide in multicultural fields.

In these four cases the leaders were facilitators who took care of the activities which had to be

done during the schedule. In this presentation I view facilitators as leaders. The facilitators were

responsible for reaching the goals and targets and also the study and work of the team members.

They were also responsible for technical problems, in case of any. These results can be useful in

developing creative leadership in virtual teams.


Background of the case studies

In all case studies the teams mainly used instant messaging (such as on-line list, low level

communication, screen sharing, intranet, shared files, net meetings, chat, e-mail) in their

communication. Telephone and video meetings were also among the tools used by virtual teams

while working or studying. It is important to realize that also these tools and new technology in

multicultural environments bring some challenges with them in these case studies.

In case study 1 there were two smaller teams (n1=23) working virtually without any face to face

contacts. They used instant messaging and mostly telephone in all their communication. The data

was collected by using questionnaire.

In case study 2 (n2=8) there were three small teams studying e-tools together. Each smaller team

comprised three or four members, who studied together. This study included 12 persons but only

eight of them took part in this case study. The teams gathered together as a larger group several

times during their studies. All meetings took place in the net, but they met face to face before

the course was started. The participants learnt that it was very good. The team members felt that

the virtual meetings were very good, dynamic and succesful. The data was collected by using

learning logs, diaries. Each of the participants had their own learning log in the net.

In case study 3 (n3=19) there were 29 persons who attended these virtual working sessions, with

eventually 19 of them taking part in this study. There were working in three different sessions.

The sessions were similar. In the first study there were six participants who took part in this study,

in the second one there were five and in the third there were eight. In this study the participants

used some group working methods in virtual environments. The data was collected by using a

questionnaire.

In case � (n=�2) there were 56 persons who attended the virtual sessions. Only �2 of them took

part in this study. In this study the participants were using some new working methods that had

not been used in the net before. Some of the participants were familiar with that method in face to

face contacts. Two of these team members were working in the net for the first time, 17 of them

have worked 1 to 5 times, 11 of them had worked 5 to 10 times while 12 participants had worked

more than 10 times virtually before this study. The data was collected with the questionnaire.

Challenges of leading virtual teams globally

In virtual teams, whether they are study or work teams, there are always some challenges involved.

Authoritarian leadership is not the most successful type of leading in virtual environments. The

leader has to be mature for democratic leading. The leader has to learn how to lead, manage,

motivate and inspire the team member, regardless of their nationality or multicultural background.

Leadership in the net is much more than just giving orders (see Lipnack & Stamps 2000; Lewis

2006). Richard Lewis (2006) writes that organizations have to realize the cultural differences and

backgrounds to make the work successful (Lewis 2006, 10�-135).

We also have to focus on commitment to teams, trust and the sense of community.

One of the main reasons why virtual teams often fail is that they overlook the implications of

the obvious differences in their working environments. Team members and leaders do not make

accommodation for how different it really is when they and their colleagues no longer work face

to face. Teams fail when they do not adjust to this new reality by closing the virtual gap. (Lipnack

& Stamps 2000, 19.)

It is also possible that the leader and the members of his team never meet each other. One of the

challenges is shorten, or even better, cut the distance between the members.

In global work, members are from different countries and they all have multicultural backgrounds.

This leads to more challenges (see Kayworth & Leidner 2000; Lewis 2006). Then the person in

charge must face the different values, norms, and different cultural habits. This comes out mainly

in daily routines, meetings, rules and responsibilities. Also the language in different ways has a

significant role in virtual teams (see Fiol 2002, 653-666). The leader and the members have to

understand each other and also the leader has to know the language the team is using. Virtual

teams can create a language on their own quite fast (see e.g. Cherny 1999; Sveningsson 2001).

Virtual environment and used tools can make the communication difficult to understand. For

instance, in a net meeting the telephone line is poor and the used language is not native language

for the team members it can be almost impossible to understand what the other person is saying.

Distributed work and virtual work need to have purposeful, result oriented and a strong leader.

The team members have to know the goals and the target of the work. Also they have to be

repeated during the work. Otherwise, one or some of the team members can make their own goals

and target, which are different from the original one. (Vartiainen & al. 200�, 8�.)

Experiences of the team members of the virtual teams

In each of my four case studies (N=92) the team members felt that working and studying in

virtual teams was flexible and dynamic mostly because they did not have to travel so much. The

distances between the team members were pretty long, so without the virtual working rooms they

should have travelled a lot. This also made the stress level lower.

The team members used mostly instant messaging when they needed quick answers and

information, such as problem solving or work in progress. More than half of the team members

in case 1 reported in their questionnaires that virtual working has a positive impact on their

work (16/23) and on the atmosphere (14/23). One of the team members told: “In virtual team

contacts are very easy and it helps in problem solving. The professionals and support are always

available.” (n1/4).

And another member tells: “Instant messaging is certainly better than email as you get an

immediate reply to queries. I find it a better way to communicate than verbal conversation. I can

express myself better… you can clear the targets easily.” (n1/8) Also in the other cases there were

many similar comments.

It was also felt that “virtual working makes the organization less formal than while working face

to face.” (n3/11).


Virtual working provides closer ties with all employees of a same team. With the virtual tools one

can always see when the others are online and can have a chat with them with an immediate reply.

The members felt that “this made it easier to contact anyone, other members or the leaders.”

(n2/3).

There are some main lines which have to be taken into account when working and leading these

teams. Here I will report of some of comments from the case studies. The main lines are: The

sense of community and trust, rules and responsibilities in teams, social and cultural aspects and,

last but not least, technology.

The sense of community and trust

Working in virtual teams is much more successful if the sense of community and trust is developed.

It has reported that the sense of community improves work satisfaction, loyalties between team

members, altruism and courtesy (Borroughs & Eby 1998). Successful collaboration requires

trust between the team members and the members have to feel that they are part of the team. It

also requires active part taking and interaction (see also Lipnack & Stamps 1997; Järvenpaa &

Leidner 1998; Jackson 1999; Smith & Kollock 1999; Kayworth & Leidner 2000; Kimble & al.

2000; Lipnack & Stamps 2000; Heinonen 2005).

In all case studies there appeared some trust and sense of community with the team members. But

there are some details that have to be recognized by the leaders of the teams. Even the sense of

community can be developed at once when the work starts and it can also be destroyed as fast.

According to the results of the case study 1, the challenges of building up a sense of community

can be surprising. In this study, one of the teams was working in Asia at the time of the infection

SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome). The team members had to build the sense of

community and trust without any face to face contacts. However, the team members had a strong

feeling of trust and togetherness from the moment they started to work virtually. The members

of the team reported in their questionnaires that they felt so close to each others that they were

really surprised to realize there were actually long distances between them, when using the

phone. Online messaging, social needs that people have and parasocial interaction (see Isotalus

200�) can make distributed virtual work and managing successful without building the sense of

community in face to face contacts.

In case study 2 (n2=8) one team had the trust and sense of community developed fast. But trust

can be easily lost in virtual teams. One team member reported in the learning log that they lost

the trust and good feeling, because one of the team members was late.

In all cases, many participants reported that trust was easy to build. It seems like clear targets, goals

and schedules forced the members to trust each other and motivate them to work dynamically.

One of the participants tells in the questionnaire: “First of all, we are supposed to be open and

honest with each other, since we are doing the same thing. The good pre-work means that people

are prepared and know perfectly what shall be done.” (n3/11) And another member reported:

“…it was easy to feel open; the discussion was good for openness. Pair work and group talks

showed that there is a strong trust between us. But we knew what we are doing.” (n3/14).

Also the leaders made the atmosphere open. As one participant, among others, tells: “The

facilitators are friendly and encouraging and also understanding, that was good for the team.”

(n3/9). And another tells: “…Spontaneous comments by participants were responded quickly;

making it feel like contribution was valued…I think all the participants were comfortable with

making comments or asking questions.” (n3/7).

It is also interesting that even negative feedback can be taken as a positive detail. One participant

reported: “In today’s busy business world people quite anxiously make comments if things are

going wrong or if they have different opinions, any kind of critics can be easily heard and it just

have to be taken as a feedback. That is openness and trust. Sometimes the feedback is positive

too. Nothing changes if there is only hand clapping. Open comments and discussion made me feel

closely with other participants.” (n3/17).

Rules and responsibilities in teams

The rules and responsibilities are very important in virtual environments. They have to be clear

and the team members have to commit them. One of the leader’s important duties is to take care

of the schedule and the other rules. It is also very important that the members know which part of

the work they are responsible for.

In case 2 (n2=8) the participants reported in their learning logs that they felt trust and openness

because they had clear rules and responsibilities. At the beginning of this case study the teams

were told by the course leaders what they are responsible for and which part the teams have to

take care of. At the same time the facilitators gave clear rules, schedule, and what has to be done

during the course. One of the main reasons for success was that the facilitators told that they will

take care of all technical problems if there are going to be any. The team members are not familiar

with all the technical tools they used during the study. Some of them were using the tools for the

first time. In virtual teams it is important to know who is responsible for technical solutions (see

also Rubens & al. 2005) Lipnack and Stamps (2000, 1�5) also note that nothing is more important

to the virtual team than its clear purpose.

One participant tells about his commitment: “I tried to be a good student and team member, sticking

to deadlines and contributing as much I possibly could. Then I of course learned from other group

members, we felt good.”(n2/2). The other member tells: “Rules of the sessions should always be

agreed together. … Everyone should have returned their work on time. The time schedule was

very tight to complete the work. Being late it is unforgiveable. … we all participated actively and

got good results in a shorter time as scheduled. We had an very effective meetings. … it was good

to have feedback right after the sessions.” (n2/4). And in the third case study one member reports

in the questionnaire: “We had clear responsibilities. We knew what we are doing. The growing

group work spirit and obvious commitment from all group members was definitively a very good

experience. Thanks for the leading trainers!” (n3/5).


Social and cultural aspects

The participants reported that the team leaders have to be aware of social and cultural backgrounds

(n1-n�).

In the case studies the team members reported some difficulties in understanding the language.

This showed up especially in net meetings when the telephone was used. English is the common

and official language of the organization but the team members are not native English. The

members also wanted to see the spoken language. So it was recommended that they used chat.

The group members found chat to be a very useful tool to solve this culturally based problem. In

building the sense of community and team spirit it is not meaningless how the language is used

and understood. In the organization the common language is English but it is not the mother

tongue for many of the participants. So English was spoken with different accents or dialects.

In case � (n�=�2) the team members reported in their questionnaires on different social and

cultural aspects. One of the participants tells: “There are some dialects that are very hard to

understand (like Scottish English) or if the participants do not speak English well (sometimes the

Asians or French), it is hard to keep the attention during the meetings. And in the net meetings if

the phone line is crackly, it can be even much harder to understand people.” (n4/8).

One of the members suggests that: “It could be helpful if in the net meetings spoken language

could be also seen, like in chat. Or if introductions could be send before in files or something.”

(n4/10).

Language has got an important role in teams (see Fiol 2002, 653-666) as I have already pointed

out earlier in this report. It is common in different teams that inside of the team they have their

own “slang”. Especially in case 2 the participants told in their learning logs that in their teams

they had their own words and terminology for different things. They told that it is common in

their work to develop some words for usual daily things that they were doing and handling. The

members used such words as “of course”, “naturally” or “often” when they were telling if they

had a language of the team. One participant reported: “In our team we use an ITC -language,

having different nicknames for tools and also for some topics. We use them with our team. With

customers we try to use “easy to understand language. We tend to use product names rather than

service names.” (n2/1) The team leaders have to know that terminology. For the team members

it can be also a problem if all the members do not have the same terminology. As one of the

participants in case study 4 tells: “We did not have time to have break because we could not find

“a common language” in the initial group; more difficult to find one in “e” compared to face to

face.” (n4/1).

An other social or cultural problem that occurred was time and keeping the agreed schedule. One

of the participants reported: “for us, Finns, it is hard to understand that some natives are always

running late. In every meeting there are certain nationalities that are late. It is terribly disturbing!”

(n3/9). This can also be a problem at the personal level.

Social and cultural challenges can be easily met by making clear rules and keeping up the rules.

According to these case studies, in multicultural organisations people are used to work and live

globally, that these kinds of problems are not very serious. As one of the participants tells: “I am

half Asian and half European and living in somewhere between so I really do not know if there

are any cultural challenges in global organisation for me.”(n1/13)

Technology

In all the case studies there were members who were beginners in working virtually and also

those who have worked virtually from the beginning of the e –work of the organization (more

than 6 months). There are some clear differences how the technology deals with the beginners or

with those who are used to work in the net.

In the fourth case (n�=�2) the members have a clear “practising time”. Those who were used to

instant messaging in less than two months used them only to solve problems, clarify details and

update information. Those used to instant messaging over a period of more than six months used

them in every working area (picture 1.).


Picture 1. Virtual working becomes tame.

In the target groups the use of instant messaging increased evenly after two months’ use. After six

months of use, the instant messaging became tame. Messaging is used daily and in all possible

situations. When the technology is new to the users they are reserved. After practising the use and

some experience they get reliability.

Adaptability, accessibility and usability effect strongly in collaboration (see Koskimaa & Heinonen

2005; Ruokamo & Tella 2005).

In case study 4 (n4=42) it was very difficult to those who have worked in virtual teams for less

than two months to feel any sense of community or trust or openness. They felt only insecure and

for them, keeping up with social relations or discussions was hard. They spent their time trying to

handle the new technology. Even they were told that in case of any technical problems they will

have help right there online or in telephone.

The sense of community and trust and openness were easily built after the technology become

tame. Instant messaging and online working made that the other members of the team came closer,

the team members reported that they felt like they are in the same room (see also Reidlinger &al.

200�, �91-522).

In case study 3 the participants who did not have lots of experience in using instant messaging

reported that they missed the body language. Those participants who were used to work in virtual

environments felt that working in online rooms is more dynamic. This showed up in many ways,

as one participant tells: “We were supposed to be open and honest with each other since we are

doing the same thing but how can we do that when we can not see each other face to face and

do not know how the other person is reacting.” (n3/2). This participant was working in a virtual

room for the first time. Another participant have reported: “E-meetings and working in e are new

concepts. And they require some habits / improvements which come naturally by using them.

I have now done several e -meetings, I would say that they are more and more efficient every

time.” (n3/14).

In case study � the participants reported in the questionnaire that team leaders and facilitators

need to be well trained to their duty. They think that it is not possible to have good leading if the

leader does not handle the technical skills. As one member tells: “The team leader is in a very big

role: needs to be familiar with the e –working methods themselves and experienced in using e

–tools. Needs to have facilitation skills and lots of technical skills.” (n4/33)

What kind of leadership makes the teams creative and successful in their work?

According to the results of these case studies, the keys to success are linked with a sense of

community, trust, time, technology and language. The team dynamics and the basic elements that

make the team work easier and more successfully, namely the well-defined rules and clearly defined

responsibilities, technological support and allocation of time. Clearly defined responsibilities

and creative leadership, the motivation and the commitment of the partners as well as their

cooperation skills also appeared to be very important. In picture 2. There are some factors that

have to be available if the leader wants to have success in a virtual team. Teams must have sense

of community and trust and it has to be built at the beginning of the work. Commitment comes

with the sense of community. Rules and responsibilities include the schedule, target and goals.

Social and cultural backgrounds of the members have to be noticed already at the beginning but

also during the work. Technology skills have to be strong if good team work is wanted.

Picture 2. Factors which successful leading requires


Sometimes clear targets, awareness of responsibilities, rules and commitment with a certain

schedule develop the sense of community and trust and those together overcome even the technical

problems if they occur. When the team members know that they are responsible for their own

work as a team they are motivated to solve even extra problems. Like in case study 2, one team

had some technical problems but they solved them together inside the team and did not ask help

from the e-support person.

These are only results from small group case studies but I can see that they can give some details

to discussions about how to manage leading in virtual teams for those who intend to do so.

References:

Burroughs, S.M. & Eby, Lilian: (1998) Psychological Sense of Community at work: A measurement system and

explanatory framework. Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 26, 509 - 532.

Cherny, Lynn: (1999) Conversation and Community. Chat in a Virtual World. CSLI Publications, Stanford.

Fiol, C.M.: (2002) Capitalizing on Paradox: The Role of Language in Transforming Organizational Identities.

Organization Science, 13 (6), 653 - 666.

Heinonen, Ulla: (2005) Tässä ja nyt – mutta tuhansien mailien päässä. Työskentely ja opiskelu hajautetussa

organisaatiossa. In Levonen, J., Järvinen, T. & Kaupinmäki, S. (eds.) TUOVI 2: ITK ’0� Tutkijatapaamisen artikkelit.

Tampereen yliopiston hypermedialaboratorion verkkojulkaisuja 8. http:77tampub.uta.fi/tup/951-44-6038-3.pdf.

Isotalus, Pekka: (200�) Valmius ihastua tietokonepersoonaan. In Paunonen Ulla & Suominen Jaakko (eds.)

Digirakkaus. Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitoksen julkaisuja II, Turun yliopisto, pp.87-96.

Jackson, Paul: (1999) Virtual Working: Social and Organisational Dynamics. Routledge, London.

Jokinen, Karina, Aula, Pekka & Matikainen, Janne: (2006) Näkökulmia organisaatioiden verkkoviestintään. In

Aula, P., Matikainen, J. & Villi, M. (eds.) Verkkoviestintäkirja. Yliopistopaino, Helsinki University Press, Palmenia,

Helsinki.

Järvenpää, Sirkka & Leidner Dorothy: (1998) “Communication and trust in global virtual teams”. Journal of

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Kayworth, Timothy & Leidner, Dorthy: (2000) The Global Virtual Manager: A perspective for Success. European

Management Journal 18 (2), pp.18�-193.

Kimble Chris, Li Feng & Barlow Alexis: (2000). ”Effective Virtual Teams through Communities of Practise”.

Management Science / 09.

Koskimaa, Raine & Heinonen, Ulla: (2005) TEKNOLOGIAVÄLITTEINEN VUOROVAIKUTUS VERKKO-

OPETUKSESSA Teoreettisen mallin tarkastelua tapaustutkimusten valossa. In Tella, S., Ruokamo, H., Multisilta, J.,

Smeds, R., (eds.) Opetus, opiskelu, oppiminen. Tieto- ja viestintätekniikka tiederajat ylittävissä konteksteissa. Lapin

yliopiston kasvatustieteellisiä julkaisuja 12. Lapin yliopisto, Rovaniemi.

Lewis, Richard D.: ( 2006) When Cultures Collide: Leading, Teamworking and Managing Across the Globe. Nicholas

Brealey Publishing (UK).

Lipnack Jessica & Stamps Jeffrey: (1997) Virtual Teams: Reaching Across Space, Time, Organizations with

Technology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Lipnack Jessica & Stamps Jeffrey: (2000) Virtual Teams, people working across boundaries with technology. John

Wiley & Sons, New York.

McGrath, Joseph & Hollingshead, Andrea:( 1993) Groups Interacting with Technology: Ideas, Evidence, Issues and

an Agenda. Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, (CA).

O`Leary Michael, Orlikowski Wanda & Yates JoAnne: (2002) Distributed Work over the Centuries: Trust and

Contron in the Hudson`s Bay Company, 1670-1826. In Hinds, P., J. & Kiesler S. (eds.) Distributed Work. The MITT

Press, Cambridge, (MA), 27 - 5�.

Riedlinger, M.E., Gallois C., MsKay S. & Pittam J.: (200�) Impact of Social Group Processes and Functional Diversity

on Communication in Networked Organization. Journal of Applied Communication Quartely, 10 (�), pp.�91-522.

Rubens, Wilfred, Emans, Bruno, Leinonen Teemu, Skarmeta, Antonio & Simons Robert-Jan : (2005) Design of

web-based collaborative learning environments. Translating the pedagogical learning principles to human computer

interface. Computer & Education �5, 276 - 29�. www.sciencedirect.com.

Ruokamo, H. & Tella, S.: (2005). An M+I+T++ Research Approach to Network-Based Mobile Education (NBME)

and Teaching-Studying-Learning Processes: Towards a Global Metamodel. In The IPSI BgD Transactions on

Advanced Research: Multi-, Inter-, and Transdisciplinary Issues in Computer Science and Engineering. Special Issue

on the Research with Elements of Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary, and Transdisciplinary: New York, Frankfurt,

Tokyo, Belgrade: IPSI Bgd Internet Research Society. July 2005, 1(2), 3-12. The Best Paper Selection for 2005.

http://internetjournals.net/journals/transactions_on_advanced_research/2005/january/TARVol1Num2.pdf.

Smith Marc & Kollock Peter: (1999) Communities in Cyberspace. Routledge, London.

Sveningsson, Malin: (2001) Creating a Sense of Community. Experiences from a Swedish Webchat. Dissertation.

Linköping. Linköping Studies in Art and Science.

Vartiainen, Matti, Kokko, Niina & Hakonen Marko: (200�) Hallitse hajautettu organisaatio. Paikan, ajan,

moninaisuuden ja viestinnän johtaminen. Talentum, Helsinki.


RAJOJA RIKKOMASSA

Porin yliopistokeskuksen Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus

Emma Susi

Tutkija, FM

Turun yliopisto, Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitos

Porin yliopistokeskus

Abstrakti

Rajoja rikkomassa -raportissa tarkastellaan Porin yliopistokeskuksesta valmistuneiden luovien

alojen korkeasti koulutettujen sijoittumista työelämään. Sijoittumistutkimuksen lisäksi

ennakoidaan tulevien taiteen ja filosofian maistereiden määrän runsasta kasvua vuoteen 2010

mennessä ja työllistymisen vaihtoehdoiksi esitetään vaihtoehtoisia työuria yksityisen sektorin

puolelta. Sekä Taideteollinen korkeakoulu että Turun yliopisto ovat toimialoina suhteellisen uusia

Satakunnassa, joten alojen tunnetuksi tekeminen erityisesti maakunnan elinkeinoelämän piirissä

on nähty tarpeelliseksi.

Tutkimusaineistona on 20 Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median osastolta sekä

Turun yliopiston Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitokselta valmistunutta taiteen ja

filosofian maisteria. Aineisto koostuu sijoittumiskyselyn vastauksista sekä teemahaastatteluista.

Tämän lisäksi on haastateltu kahdeksan, hyvin eri toimialoilla toimivaa satakuntalaisyritystä.

Tutkimusaineisto on kerätty kevään 2007 aikana.

Tutkimuksen keskeisimpinä tuloksina voidaan pitää Satakunnasta valmistuneiden maistereiden

erinomaista työllistymistä. Tyypillisin luovien alojen osaajien työnantaja on julkinen tai kolmas

sektori; kunnat, korkeakoulut ja opistot. Maakuntaan on jääty töihin vielä toistaiseksi useimpien

valmistuneiden kohdalla. Työsuhteet ovat pääasiassa määräaikaisia ja työtehtävät liittyvät

suunnittelu- ja koordinointitöihin sekä tutkimus- ja opetustehtäviin. Taiteen maisterit ovat

työllistyneet hyvin pitkälti pääkaupunkiseudulle media- ja viestintäalan töihin.

Luovuus, luovat toimialat, luovat prosessit ja luova luokka ovat olleet tapetilla niin kansallisesti

kuin kansainvälisestikin kuluvalla vuosituhannella. Satakunnassakin luovat toimialat nähdään

tulevaisuuden voimavarana ja alana johon tulisi tulevaisuudessa panostaa. Alueellisesti

merkittävistä toimijoista esimerkiksi Porin yliopistokeskus1 on tarttunut luovien toimialojen

haasteeseen Satakunnan työelämäkentällä. Porin yliopistokeskuksen rekrytointipalvelut on

teettänyt tätä asiaa tarkastelevan Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimuksen, jonka tuloksia esitellään

tässä artikkelissa. Tutkimus on ajankohtainen, koska alamme saada ensimmäisiä tilastoja siitä,

miten Porin yliopistokeskuksen yksiköistä valmistuneet ja erityisesti luovilta aloilta valmistuneet

opiskelijat työllistyvät. Luovat toimialat on määritelty tilaajan mukaan tarkoittamaan Turun

yliopiston (TY) humanistisen tiedekunnan Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitoksesta

(Pori) valmistuneita filosofian maistereita sekä Taideteollisen korkeakoulun (Taik) Porin taiteen

ja median osastolta valmistuneita taiteen maistereita. Molemmat toimialat ovat suhteellisen

uusia Satakunnassa, joten alojen tunnetuksi tekeminen erityisesti maakunnan elinkeinoelämän

piirissä on nähty tarpeelliseksi. Tutkimus toteutettiin Turun yliopiston kulttuurituotannon ja

maisemantutkimuksen laitoksen johdolla yhteistyössä Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen

ja median osaston sekä Turun kauppakorkeakoulun Porin yksikön kanssa.

Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median osastolla harjoitetaan visuaalisen

kulttuurin opetusta ja tutkimusta. Osastolla on mahdollista suorittaa visuaalisen kulttuurin

maisteriohjelma sekä tehdä sivuaineopintoja ja jatkotutkintoon tähtäävää tutkimustyötä.

Visuaalinen kulttuuri on poikkitaiteellinen ja -tieteellinen kokeileva oppiaine. Opiskelija voi

painottaa maisteriopinnoissaan joko visuaalisen kulttuurin taiteellis-tuotannollisia opintoja,

visuaalisen kulttuurin teoriaa tai mediatuotantoa. Koulutusohjelma on kaksivuotinen, 120

opintopisteen laajuinen, taiteen maisterin tutkintoon johtava opintokokonaisuus. 2

Turun yliopiston humanistisen tiedekunnan Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen

koulutusohjelmasta valmistuu humanististen tieteiden kandidaatteja ja filosofian maistereita.

1 Yliopistokeskukset ovat osa nykyistä korkeakoulujärjestelmäämme. Keskusten idea on koota yliopistojen

alueelliset erillisyksiköt yliopistokeskuksen ”sateenvarjon” alle. Virallisesti maamme kuusi yliopistokeskusta

(Kajaanissa, Kokkolassa, Lahdessa, Mikkelissä, Porissa ja Seinäjoella) on perustettu vuonna 200�. Porissa varsinainen

yliopistotoiminta käynnistyi 1983 Tampereen teknillisen korkeakoulun (nyk.Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto,

TTY) tutkimus- ja koulutustoiminnalla. Tutkintokoulutus diplomi-insinööriksi alkoi vuonna 1987 insinöörien

muuntokoulutuksella. Turun kauppakorkeakoulu (TuKKK) aloitti merkonomien ja tradenomien muuntokoulutuksen

kauppatieteiden maistereiksi vuonna 1997. Vuonna 2001 aloitettiin ylioppilaspohjainen koulutus niin teknillisellä

kuin kaupallisellakin puolella. Samaan aikaan tutkintokoulutuksensa aloitti Turun yliopiston (TY) humanistinen

tiedekunta. Taideteollinen korkeakoulu aloitti toimintansa Porissa 2002 ja ensimmäiset opiskelijat otettiin sisään

vuonna 200� suorittamaan maisterin tutkintoa. Myös Tampereen yliopistossa (TaY) aloittivat ensimmäiset

yhteiskuntatieteiden opiskelijat vuonna 200�. Yliopistokeskus antaa opiskelijoille ristiinopiskelumahdollisuuden

kaikissa keskuksen yksiköissä. Vähäsantanen et al. 17, 2006.

2 Porin taiteen ja median osaston kotisivut: http://www.pori.uiah.fi/index.html, luettu 27.6.2007 &

maisteriohjelman esite, 2007.


Humanististen tieteiden kandidaatin tutkinnon suorittaminen kestää noin kolme ja maisteriopintojen

kaksi vuotta. Laitoksen pääaineita ovat kulttuuriperinnön tutkimus, maisemantutkimus ja

digitaalinen kulttuuri. Sivuaineena voi opiskella kulttuurimatkailua, kulttuurituotannon

suunnittelua sekä museologiaa ja aineellista kulttuuria. Laitoksen opetus on uudenlaista verrattuna

perinteiseen humanistiseen koulutukseen. Koulutusohjelma painottaa vankan tieteellisen

koulutuksen lisäksi käytännönläheisyyttä ja tiedon soveltamista. Laitoksella voi suorittaa myös

jatko-opintoja. Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitos on perustanut tieteellisen

julkaisusarjan. Sen puitteissa julkaistaan uutta laadukasta humanistista tutkimusta, joka liittyy

laitoksen sekä sen oppiaineiden keskeisiin erityisalueisiin. 3

Lähtökohtia

Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimuksessa selvitetään Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovilta aloilta

valmistuneiden opiskelijoiden sijoittumista työelämään sekä tarkastellaan opintojen tarjoamia

käytännön valmiuksia työelämässä. Tutkimuksessa myös kartoitetaan, kuinka paljon valmistuneita

em. aloilta on heinäkuuhun 2007 mennessä ja kuinka monta taiteen ja filosofian maisteria tulee

yliopistokeskuksesta valmistumaan vuoteen 2010 mennessä. Työn erityisenä painopisteenä on

pohtia Satakunnan yksityisen sektorin työllistämismahdollisuuksia. Tutkimuksessa selvitetään

kahdeksan yritystapauksen kautta, miten hyvin yritykset tuntevat Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovien

alojen toimijoita ja miten yrityskenttä voisi nykyistä paremmin hyödyntää heidän osaamistaan

omassa liiketoiminnassaan. Tutkimuksessa ei käsitellä humanisti- ja taideaineista valmistuneiden

tyypillisimpiä työnantajia, kuten julkista ja kolmatta sektoria.

Luovien alojen osaajat Porin yliopistokeskuksesta ovat valmistuttuaan sijoittuneet Satakunnassa

hyvin pitkälti korkeakouluihin tutkimus- ja opetustehtäviin sekä kaupunkien ja kuntien

palvelukseen (museot, opistot). Näiden sektoreiden kapasiteetti työllistää valmistuneita on

rajallinen. Tästä syystä nähdään tärkeänä tarttua humanisti- ja taidemaailmalle joiltakin osin

vieraampaan yksityisen sektorin tarjoamiin mahdollisuuksiin työllistyä Satakuntaan ja näin ollen

pitää luovien alojen korkeasti koulutettujen osaamista myös tulevaisuudessa maakunnassa.

Tutkimusaineisto koostuu Turun yliopistosta ja Taideteollisesta korkeakoulusta toukokuuhun

2007 mennessä valmistuneiden haastatteluista sekä kirjallisen sijoittumisselvityksen vastauksista.

Haastattelujen kautta selvitettiin laajalti valmistuneiden sijoittumista työelämään, ajatuksia

koulutuksen sisällöstä ja sen antamia työkaluja työelämään siirryttäessä. Lisäksi kartoitettiin

valmistuneiden toiveita työtehtävien ja työskentelypaikkakuntien suhteen sekä alan arvostusta

ylipäätään Satakunnassa.

Valmistuneiden syntymävuodet jakaantuvat vuosille 1956 – 1982. Molemmista oppilaitoksista

3 Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitoksen kotisivut: http://vanha.hum.utu.fi/satakunta/, luettu

27.6.2007 & koulutusohjelman esite, 2007.

valmistuneista ja tutkimuksessa mukana olleista henkilöistä vain kaksi oli miespuolisia.

Valmistuneet maisterit olivat opintoihin lähtiessään useimmiten kotoisin Porista (�0 %,

kahdeksan henkilöä). Lisäksi opiskelemaan oli lähdetty mm. Turun seudulta, Pirkanmaalta sekä

pääkaupunkiseudulta. Haastatteluhetkellä useimmat asuivat edelleen Porissa (65 %, 13 henkeä).

Nykyiseksi kotikunnaksi ilmoitettiin myös Helsinki ja Turku lähialueineen. Turun yliopistosta

valmistuneiden opinnot ovat kestäneet keskimäärin viisi vuotta ja Taideteollisesta korkeakoulusta

valmistuminen kestää kahdesta kolmeen vuoteen. Pääaineet ovat jakaantuneet melko tasaisesti

eri oppiaineisiin. Yli puolella valmistuneista on takanaan myös aikaisempia tutkintoja mm.

ammattikorkeakoulusta.

Tutkimukseen haastateltiin lisäksi maakunnan elinkeinoelämän edustajia. Haastatteluja tehtiin

kahdeksan hyvin erityyppisen ja eri toimialalla toimivan satakuntalaisen yrityksen kanssa. Tästä

aineistoista nousevat ajatukset ja toimenpide-ehdotukset käytetään yliopistokeskuksen luovien

toimialojen yksiköiden toiminnan kehittämiseen. Yrityshaastatteluissa selvitettiin yleisesti

yrityksen rekrytointia, sen tarpeita ja mahdollisia puutteita. Tämän lisäksi keskityttiin pohtimaan

luovien alojen osaajien kompetenssin käyttömahdollisuuksia yrityksessä. Mihin tehtäviin

kulttuurien tai maisemantutkija tai mahdollisesti visuaalisen tai mediatuotannon alan asiantuntija

voisi yritysmaailmassa sijoittua? Samalla tuotiin esille Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovien alojen

osaamista ja tunnettuutta.

Satakunta työllistää

Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovilta aloilta valmistuneet taiteen ja filosofian maisterit ovat maan

yleisiin keskiarvoihin nähden työllistyneet erinomaisesti kyselylomakkeen ja haastatteluissa

saatujen tietojen mukaan �. Useimmat valmistuneiden työsuhteista ovat vallitsevan tendenssin

mukaan määräaikaisia, mikä hieman varjostaa työtilannetta. Turun yliopiston Kulttuurituotannon

ja maisemantutkimuksen laitokselta valmistuneet työskentelevät suurin osa Porissa oman alan

työtehtävissä. Haastatteluhetkellä yksi oli työttömänä työnhakijana ja yksi toimi osa-aikaisena

muussa kuin oman alan töissä. Porin taiteen ja median osastolta valmistuneista taiteen maistereista

� Esimerkiksi 2007 on julkaistu raportti Viisi vuotta työelämässä – humanistien sijoittuminen työmarkkinoille

Aarresaari-verkoston ja Akavan Erityisalojen toimesta. Tutkimuksen mukaan työttömyys oli humanistien keskuudessa

yleisempää kuin koko tutkimusjoukossa (korkeasti koulutetut ja valmistuneet vuosina 1997 – 2001). Hankalinta oman

alan työn löytäminen oli tutkimuksen mukaan taiteiden ja kulttuurien tutkimuksen ryhmässä ja työttömyysjaksot uran

alussa vaivasivat erityisesti historia-aineista valmistuneista. Taideaineissa ylemmän korkeakoulututkinnon tehnyt

on maan keskiarvollisesti näitäkin em. aloja huonommassa tilanteessa. www.aarresaari.net/pdf/UraraporttiNetti.pdf,

8.8.2007.

Turun yliopiston humanistisesta tiedekunnasta 2000-luvulla valmistuneiden työttömyysprosentti on liikkunut 9-

27 prosentin haarukassa. Nämä luvut ovat olleet koko ajan korkeampia kuin muista tiedekunnista valmistuneiden

työttömyysprosentit. Lisäksi työllistymisen laatu on ollut jatkuvasti muista tiedekunnista valmistuneita huonompi.

Noin 15 prosenttia vastanneista humanisteista on täysin koulutusta vastaamattomissa töissä. Vastaava luku Porissa

on vuonna 2007 vajaa 7 %. Carver 2006, 8-12.


jokainen oli työllistynyt oman alan töihin. Heistä kukaan ei varsinaisesti työskentele Satakunnan

alueella.

Vastausten perusteella useimmat TaiK:sta valmistuneet tekevät viestintä- ja media-alan töitä.

Turun yliopistolta valmistuneiden yleisimmät työtehtävät liittyvät tutkimustyöhön, suunnittelu-

ja koordinointitöihin sekä projektihallinnollisiin töihin. Tyyppihumanisti on porilainen

suunnittelija, joita vastauksissa nousi esille eniten. Suunnittelutehtävät ovat hyvin moninaisia,

eikä ammattinimike kerro sinällään juuri mitään työtehtävistä -ja kentästä. Taiteen maistereista

peräti kahdella on oma media-alan toiminimi ja yksi toimii alan työtehtävissä freelancerina.

Tutkimuksessa mukana olevista filosofian maisterista ainoastaan kolme työskentelee yksityisellä

sektorilla. Loput 12 työskentelee korkeakoulujen, kuntien tai yhdistysten palveluksessa.

Haastatteluista kävi ilmi, että useimmat valmistuneista eivät kuitenkaan ole tietoisesti ajatelleet

julkisen tai yksityisen sektorin eroja työnatajana. Eräs vastaajista totesi kysymykseen onko ajatus

työstä yritysmaailmassa vieras seuraavaa: ”Ei mulla oo semmosta vastakkainasettelua siinä, et

työ kun työ, se sisältö tuo siihen sen mielekkyyden, eikä sinänsä se, että mikä sektori se on…5”

Näin ollen julkisen sektorin työpaikat ovat ennemminkin työtilanteiden sanelemaa, kuin tietoista

valintaa tietylle työnantajasektorille.

Suurimmat erot yksityisen ja julkisen sektorin välillä nähtiin suhtautumisessa rahaan,

humanistiseen ajatteluun sekä eettisiin arvoihin. Tätä voidaan pitää myös peri idealistisena ja

humanistisena näkemyksenä. Asia kiteytyy hyvin seuraavassa lainauksessa:

” Mul on kyl jotain henkilökohtaisia eettisiä ja ekologisia periaatteita…mä oon kuvitellu et on ollu

varaa sillai valita et minkä tahansa firman palvelukseen mä en edes menis. Mä oisin sit mennyt

opiskelemaan jotain muuta asiaa…mä en esimerkiks lähtis myymään mitä tahansa tuotetta…mä

nään sen sillai et jos mä oon ollu jossain työpaikas, jota mä en kehtaa kirjottaa mun cv:een se ei

oo kauheen fiksuu…6”

Koulutuksen ja työmarkkinoiden suhde

Valmistuneet maisterit ovat yhtä mieltä, että tutkinto on antanut heille riittävät valmiudet alan

työtehtäviin. Samaa mieltä oltiin myös siitä, että tutkinnolla ei juuri työllisty ilman työkokemusta.

Opintojen aikana kerättyä oman alan työkokemusta, joko osa-aikaista tai kokopäiväistä on

kertynyt lähes jokaiselle valmistuneelle jo opintojen aikana kahdesta kuukaudesta 30 kuukauteen.

Työssäoloaikaa ei ole juurikaan sisällytetty tutkintoihin. Tämä viittaisi siihen, että opintojen

aikana kerättyä oman alan työkokemusta ei osata tai haluta sisällyttää opintoihin.

5 8 H N 82 Po F kt 06

6 9 H N 81 Po F mt 07

Erityisesti Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitokselta valmistuneet olisivat kaivanneet

opintojen loppuvaiheessa tietoa opiskelun jälkeisestä elämästä, siihen liittyvästä työnhausta ja

eri työnantajasektoreista. Vastauksissa tuli myös ilmi, että yksityistä sektoria ei oikein tunnettu

eikä osattu ”luovasti” ajatella oman osaamisen hyödyntämistä yrityskentällä. Luovien alojen

opiskelijoille olisi hyödyllistä tarjota valmentavaa ohjausta työelämään siirtymisen helpottamiseksi

sekä järjestää nykyistä enemmän mahdollisuuksia tutustua valmistuneiden työpaikkoihin

antamalla konkreettisia esimerkkejä siitä, mihin näiltä laitoksilta valmistuneet ovat opiskelujen

päätyttyä sijoittuneet. Opiskelijoita olisi myös hyvä kannustaa yritysyhteistyöprojekteihin sekä

opintoihin liitettävään ja yliopiston tukemaan työharjoitteluun. Työharjoittelupaikkoja voisi

neuvotella osittain valmiiksi, jotta harjoitteluun siirtyminen helpottuisi ja aikaisemmin luotuja

hyviä kontakteja pidettäisiin yllä. Myös valmistuneiden kannattaisi olla nykyistä aktiivisemmin

yhteydessä yliopistokeskuksen rekrytointipalveluihin, joka antaa neuvoa ja opastusta mm.

työnhakuun liittyvissä kysymyksissä.

Haastatteluissa tiedusteltiin valmistuneen käsityksiä omasta erityisosaamisestaan, jonka

näkisi vahvuutena yrityskentällä. Yleisesti ottaen saadut vastaukset olivat ympäripyöreitä ja

osaamisalueet jäivät abstraktille tasolle, kuten asiakaspalvelutaidot, kielitaito, analyyttisyys

ja organisointitaidot. Onkin syytä miettiä ovatko nämä sellaisia osaamisalueita, joilla luovien

alojen korkeasti koulutetut henkilöt voisivat kilpailla työpaikoista yritysmaailmassa esimerkiksi

tradenomien, kauppatieteilijöiden tai vaikka ammattikorkeakoulun medianomien kanssa? Taiteen

ja filosofian maistereiden tulisikin terästää itselleen nykyistä paremmin se akateeminen osaaminen

ja tieteen soveltamisen taito, missä he ovat ylivoimaisia. Näin heillä on hyvät lähtökohdat pärjätä

työelämän kilpailussa muiden alojen henkilöiden kanssa.

Muutamia sellaisia osaamisalueita, joista olisi kilpailuetua yksityisellä työnantajasektorilla, nousi

haastatteluissa esille muutamia. Eräs digitaalista kulttuuria pääaineenaan lukenut haastateltava esitti

omaksi asiantuntijuudekseen markkinoinnin ja digitaalisen kulttuurin yhdistämisen kehittämällä

esimerkiksi uudenlaisia ratkaisuja yritysten verkkokaupankäyntiin 7. Yhdessä haastattelussa

nousi esille kyky tutkimustiedon kaupallistamiseen, jonka ko. henkilö näkee merkittävänä

taitona yritysmaailmassa 8. Esille nostettiin myös taito tunnistaa kunnallisen sektorin tarpeet,

jolloin henkilö voisi toimia esimerkiksi yritysmaailman ja kuntasektorin yhteistyön linkkinä.

Konkreettisimmin tämä tapahtuisi siten, että luovien alojen asiantuntija pystyy kertomaan

yritykselle, mitä se voisi kunnalliselle sektorille tarjota, mihin hintaan ja mikä olisi järkevin

yhteistyömuoto kunnan ja yrityksen välillä. 9 Maisemantutkijat nostivat esille arkkitehtitoimistojen

tarpeet maisemaselvityksille, joiden tekoon heillä olisi kompetenssia 10. Erityisosaamiseksi

tarjottiin myös uusmedia-alan yrityksiin trenditutkijaa ja sisällöntuottajaa sekä valokuvauskentällä

7 2 H N 79 Po F dk 07

8 � H N 7� Po F dk 06

9 6 H M 68 Po F kt 05

10 17 H N 80 TS F mt 05 & 9 H N 81 Po F mt 07


erikoistumista ruokakuvauksiin 11. Yhdessä haastattelussa valmistunut kulttuurien tutkija pohti

luovien alojen osaamisen hyödyntämistä yrityksissä hieman syvällisemminkin:

” Tätä ajattelutapaa ja kulttuuriperintöä…olis terveellistä juurruttaa yrityksiin ja yritystoimintaan

ja tälläseen kaupalliseen toimintaan… Esimerkiksi…suuri rahallinen tavoittelu voitaisiin

kanavoida enemmän ympäristöystävällisemmin tai kulttuuriystävällisemmin…Ja yks on myös

esimerkiksi [yritys], joka tarvii esim. sellasta kiillottamista. Et en mä sit tiedä onko se eettisesti

väärin kiillottaa sitä. Onhan se myös yks tapa vaikuttaa… Samoja töitähän sitä voi tehdä jollakin

muullakin koulutuksella mut siin on pikkusen sit erilainen se näkökulma, joka tuodaan. 12

Luovien alojen korkeasti koulutettujen tulevaisuus Satakunnassa

Filosofian maisterit haluaisivat tulevaisuudessakin mielellään työskennellä Porissa, tai sen

lähialueilla. Taiteen maisterien kohdalla tilanne on päinvastainen. Heistä yksikään ei näe

mieluisena vaihtoehtona työskennellä Porissa tai muun Satakunnan alueella. Filosofian maisterit

näkevät yleisesti ottaen Satakunnan luovien toimialojen työllistymismahdollisuudet hyvinä tai

vähintäänkin kohtuullisina. Taiteen maisterit eivät pidä oman alansa työllistymismahdollisuuksia

hyvänä Satakunnassa. Seuraavassa sitaatissa tiivistyy hyvin useimpien valmistuneiden näkemys

alan työllistymistilanteesta Satakunnassa:

”Kyl mä uskon että … työllistymismahdollisuudet on erittäin hyvät, mutta se vaati semmoisen

viiden vuoden sisäänajon luultavasti, ja hivuttautumisen työmarkkinoille. Ei semmoista

varsinaista mustaa aukkoo viel oo joka imaisisi ihan kaiken minkä tämä laitos tuuppaa ulos, mut

kuitenkin käytännön tarvetta osaamiselle on huomattavan paljon, eli siinä mielessä kun tämä

vaan organisoituu niin luultavasti aika hyvät mahdollisuudet on työllistyä tällä alueella. 13”

Valmistuneiden haastatteluissa kävi ilmi, että jokainen työssäkäyvästä kahdestakymmenestä

haastateltavasta koki olevansa jo heti valmistuttuaan sellaisessa työssä, jossa näkee itsensä myös

tulevaisuudessa. Vaikka pätkittäinen projektityö ahdistaa joitakin valmistuneita, siitä huolimatta

projektityöt nähtiin useissa vastauksissa myös tulevaisuutena, johon on vain mukauduttava.

Pieniä korjauksia työnkuvaan toivoi muutama henkilö. Yksi haastateltava toivoi itselleen

alakohtaista työtä, vaikka olikin suhteellisen tyytyväinen nykyiseen, ei opintoja vastaavaan

työhönsä 1�. Kaksi vastaajista toivoi tulevaisuudelta akateemisia jatko-opintoja ja siihen liittyvää

omatoimista tutkimustyötä 15. Tutkijan työ koettiin yleisesti ottaen suosituksi tulevaisuuden

kuvaksi. Kahdestakymmenestä valmistuneesta peräti kahdeksan (�0 %) koki tutkimustyön

kiinnostavana vaihtoehtona. Näistä yksi toivoi työn sijoittuvan yritysmaailmaan ja erityisesti

11 20 H N 81 Po dk 05 & 13 K N 75 Po T vk 07

12 15 H N 67 Po kt 06

13 6 H M 68 Po F kt 05

1� 3 H N 82 Po F kt 06

15 1 H N 63 Po F kp 06 & 16 K N 80 Po F kt 06

digitaalisen markkinoinnin ja sen tutkimuksen kentälle 16.

Muilta osin tulevaisuuden työtehtävät liittyivät suunnittelu -ja asiantuntijatöihin, erilaisiin

kulttuuri/museo/historiaprojekteihin, kulttuurihallinnollisiin työtehtäviin, kulttuurin ja taiteen

managerointiin, vapaaseen kirjoitustyöhön, toimittajan työhön, perinneopetukseen, graafiseen

suunnitteluun sekä taiteellisen ja soveltavan valokuvauksen sopivaan yhdistelmään. Ainoastaan

yksi vastaaja oli täysin epätietoinen tulevaisuuden työtehtävistään. Tätä hän selitti monialaisella

osaamisellaan, jolloin työpaikka voi löytyä useilta eri sektoreilta. 17 Yksi koki työyhteisön

tärkeimpänä indikaattorina tulevaisuuden työtehtäviä punnitessa – palkka tai oma status ei ole

merkityksellisiä, jos vain työyhteisö miellyttää. 18

Taideteollisen korkeakoulun ja Turun yliopiston Porin yksiköistä on valmistunut heinäkuun 2007

loppuun mennessä yhteensä 26 taiteen ja filosofian maisteria. Näistä kuusi on valmistunut TaiK:

sta ja 20 TY:lta. Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitos on arvioinut, että vuodesta

2007 lähtien valmistuneiden määrä vuositasolla olisi 25 henkilöä. Porin taiteen ja median osasto

on arvioinut, että kuluvana vuonna valmistuneita tulisi kaikkiaan kuusi, ensi vuonna kahdeksan

ja vuosina 2009 – 2010 yksitoista kumpaisenakin vuonna. Tätä pidemmälle ei arvioita ole vielä

luotu. 19 Tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että vuoteen 2010 mennessä luovien alojen korkeakoulutettuja

olisi valmistunut Porin yliopistokeskuksesta kaikkiaan noin 150. Tämä on huomattava nousu

nykyiseen 26 maisteriin. Jos arviot toteutuvat, on näiden alojen opiskelijoiden, korkeakoulujen

ja työelämäkentän varauduttava tilanteeseen parhaalla mahdollisella tavalla. Tämä edellyttää

valmistuneilta vaihtoehtoisten työurien kartoittamista ja oppilaitoksilta hyviä työelämäyhteyksiä,

joihin opiskelijat voivat tarttua jo opintojen aikana. Varteen otettavana vaihtoehtona on siirtyä

työnhakuun nykyistä aktiivisemmin yrityskentän puolelle.

Satakuntalaisten yritysten kanssa käydyissä keskusteluissa nousi esille, että Porin

yliopistokeskuksen toimintaa, sen koulutustarjontaa tai rekrytointipalveluja tunnettiin hyvin

huonosti. Turun yliopisto ja Taideteollinen korkeakoulu ovat olleet mukana oleville yrityksille

täysin vieraita rekrytointiväyliä. Haastattelujen jälkeen yritykset kuitenkin näkivät selviä

yhteistyömahdollisuuksia luovien alojen oppilaitosten kanssa ja kiittelivät yhteydenotosta

ylipäätään. Myös tämä tieto osoittaa, että on tärkeää ylläpitää kontakteja yrityskenttään –

konkreettiset esimerkit luovien alojen osaajien toimenkuvista tuovat osaamisen ja siitä saatavan

hyödyn arkiselle tasolle.

Tähän tulisikin yliopistokeskuksen rekrytointipalveluiden sekä alan oppilaitosten tulevaisuudessa

kiinnittää huomiota. Esimerkiksi vuosittaisten rekrytointimessujen tulisi tarjota kontakteja

myös luovien toimialojen osaajien ja mahdollisten työnantajien välille. Rekrytointimessut ja

16 2 H N 79 Po F dk 07

17 1� H N 67 PIR T vk 07

18 15 H N 67 Po kt 06

19 Porin kaupungin talousarvio 2008


muut markkinointikampanjat ovat tärkeitä väyliä luovien alojen osaamisen esiintuomiseksi

maakunnassa. Sama asia nousi esille myös valmistuneiden maistereiden haastatteluissa. Erityisesti

filosofian maisterit kaipaisivat Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovien alojen esillä oloa julkisuudessa

nykyistä enemmän. Toivottiin lisää yhteistyöprojekteja eri työnantajasektorien kanssa ja laitosten

esiin tuomista sekä markkinoimista mahdollisille työnantajille. Ikään kuin silotettaisiin tietä

valmiiksi valmistumisen jälkeiseen elämään. Toisaalta tulee pohtia, mikä on korkeakoulun tehtävä

opiskelijoiden työtilaisuuksien ja harjoittelupaikkojen etsimisessä. Opiskeluaikaista työtilannetta

voidaan kuitenkin yleisesti ottaen pitää Satakunnassa hyvänä, verrattuna esimerkiksi Suomen

isompiin yliopistokaupunkeihin.

Rajoja rikkomassa

Yrityshaastatteluissa tuli ilmi, että yhdellä erikoistaidolla / osaamisalueella ei heidän mielestään

työelämässä pärjää. Yritykset haluavat palvelukseensa henkilöitä, jotka ovat moniosaajia.

Asiantuntijaosaamisen ja sisältöosaamisen lisäksi kaivataan tietämystä liiketoiminnasta ja

yritystoiminnan pelisäännöistä. Toisaalta yritysten tulisi pyrkiä aktiivisemmin laajentamaan

henkilökuntansa koulutustaustaa. Samoja töitä voidaan tehdä useilla eri koulutuksilla. Esimerkiksi

luovien alojen korkeasti koulutetut tuovat liiketoimintaan oman näkökulmansa. Maakunnan

yrityskulttuurin kehittäminen ja jalostaminen sellaiseksi, että luovien alojen osaajille tulisi

suurempi merkitys ja todellinen tarve liiketoiminnan ytimessä, vaatii pitkäjänteistä työtä. Luovien

toimialojen osaamista ei olisi syytä nähdä yksityisellä sektorilla kuorrutuksena, joka tuodaan

satunnaisesti yrityksen liiketoiminnan päälle ydinbisnestä virkistämään.

Turun yliopiston ja Taideteollisen korkeakoulun kanssa toteutettavat yhteiset projektit,

opinnäytetyön ohjaukset ja soveltavat harjoitustyöt kiinnostavat satakuntalaista yrityskenttää.

Porin yliopistokeskuksen luovien toimialojen kannattaisikin panostaa entistä tiiviimpään

yritysyhteistyöhön. Varsinkin pienehköt yritykset ottavat mielellään vastaan uusia toimintamalleja

ja ehdotuksia yhteisiksi projekteiksi. Ei ole olemassa erityisen luovaa tai vielä vähemmän ei-

luovia työyhteisöjä. Kyse on luultavasti enemminkin siitä, miten luovuus kanavoidaan osaksi

liiketoimintaa. Vanhakantaisia rajoja humanistien ja insinöörien välillä ei ole syytä ylläpitää.

Sekä oppilaitoksia että valmistuneita taiteen ja filosofian maistereita tulisi rohkaista rikkomaan

raja-aitoja ja puhumaan yhteistä kieltä eri työnantajasektorien ja yhteistyökumppaneiden välillä.

Tämä on varmasti pitkä, mutta maakunnan kilpailukykyisyyden ja elinvoimaisuuden kannalta

tärkeä tie.

LÄHTEET

Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus, valmistuneiden haastattelut 2007. Haastatteluja kaikkiaan 16

kpl. Haastattelijana Susi, Emma. Turun yliopisto, Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen

laitos, Pori.

Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus, yrityshaastattelut 2007. Haastattelijana Susi, Emma. Turun

yliopisto, Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitos, Pori.

Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus, kyselylomake 2007. Vastauksia kaikkiaan 20 kpl. Turun

yliopisto, Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitos, Pori.

Akavan erityisalojen työelämätiedote 1/07, raportti Viisi vuotta työelämässä – humanistien

sijoittuminen työmarkkinoille:

www.aarresaari.net/pdf/UraporttiNetti.pdf (luettu 8.8.2007).

Carver, Eric 2006: Humanisti valmis työelämään. Oppiaineiden ja työnantajien näkökulmia

työelämävalmiuksien kehittämiseen humanistisessa reaaliainekoulutuksessa. Turun yliopisto,

Rehtorinviraston julkaisusarja 4/2006.

Porin kaupungin talousarvio vuodelle 2008. Pori, 2007.

Susi, Emma 2007: Rajoja rikkomassa. Porin yliopistokeskuksessa toimivien Turun yliopiston

Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitoksen sekä Taideteollisen korkeakoulun

Porin taiteen ja median osaston Luovien alojen ennakointitutkimus 2007. Turun yliopiston

Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen julkaisuja XII, Pori.

Taideteollisen korkeakoulun Porin taiteen ja median osaston esite 2007 ja kotisivut: http://www.

pori.uiah.fi/index.html (luettu 27.6.2007).

Turun yliopiston Kulttuurituotannon ja maisemantutkimuksen laitoksen koulutusohjelman esite

2007 ja kotisivut:

http://vanha.hum.utu.fi/satakunta/ (luettu 27.6.2007).

Vähäsantanen, Saku et al. 2006: Porin yliopistokeskuksen toiminnan kehitys ja aluetaloudelliset

vaikutukset. Turun kauppakorkeakoulun julkaisusarja A12, Porin yksikkö.


6. Verification of Knowledge Creation and

Enabling in the Finland Model

Creating Knowledge and Synthesizing Capability

of Application

Junko Tohda

Hagoromo University of International Studies

Osaka, Japan

Introduction

In the society of the future, “knowledge” will be recognized as the fifth property following human

resources, products and services, capital, and information. This is what is called “the knowledge

intensive society”.

The essence of knowledge management is “creating knowledge” and “synthesizing capability

of application”. Finland is a progressive country which tackles dynamic knowledge creation

through positive efforts at national level, practicing innovation which has resulted in a degree

of success. Through my fieldwork, I can readily sense the desire of Finland to advance from a

“knowledge-based country” to a “knowledge creating country”.

In accordance with the theme of this conference, I would wish to look at a few issues for Finland

to consider as the nation advances toward 20151.

The first half of this discussion is about the progress of my research on the Finnish success,

since the 1990’s up until the present, and results I have obtained, particularly concerning, “the

construction of knowledge infrastructure period”.

In the second half, I would like to offer some perspectives on what I believe are important

considerations when looking toward the future in order to be certain to attain full practical

benefits from “knowledge infrastructure”.

1 Finnsight2015 http://www.finnsight2015.fi/


Stages to becoming a forerunner

To the left is an overall flow chart that depicts how Finland has achieved world leadership.

There are three distinct stages. The first stage is “the construction of knowledge infrastructure

stage”, the second stage is “the incubational stage”, and the third stage is “the operational stage”

resulting in world leadership.

The core key words in each successive stage are [Research & Development], [Marketing

&Production], and [Networking & Management]. The reason why I highlight these aspects is that

a huge national investment is necessary to attain a robust economy in order to achieve the aims

of a true welfare state. This is because realistic growth cannot be acquired merely through R&D,

considering globalization and global competition, if it doesn’t effectively turn profitable enterprises

into a growth engine.

The infrastructure stage is closely tied to investment. Collecting those investments and generating

earnings will aim at dynamic further profits at the incubational stage and the operational

stage through strategic management. Therefore, the first and the second stages are goal driven

toward achieving an optimal future.

Innovation based on Internal Factors

With regard to IT revolution, my research indicates that we can judge this stage as “very

successful”. The WEF, IMD and OECD in their evaluations all rank Finland as a forerunner.

Nevertheless, Finland has some inevitable weak points. If you want to overcome those weak

points by relying on the former industrial economic model, you have to create a domestic market,

or you need to centralize industrial production, both of which require enormous capital.

However, the time when Finland began to aim at economic renewal was the period just when the

world rushed into the real IT revolution. So this IT tool was a magic card that changed all the

weaknesses of Finland into strengths. The nation moved in these ways.

From transport difficulty to Internet utilization.

From a very small domestic market to direct access to global markets.

From scarce natural resources to the appearance of knowledge workers.

When “IT revolution” evolved into “knowledge revolution”, the Finnish government adopted

immediately 1) emphasized market economy, 2) privatized the public sector, 3) executed

deregulation, replacing stodgy old enterprises with newer, more efficient companies, and 4)

adapted a new industrial policy.

My project focused on the �th, “industrial policy”, particularly the methods of disseminating and

popularizing policies.

When we talk about industrial policy, there are four pillars.

#1 Industry-academic-governmental cooperation that values high-tech field,

#2 Introduction and promotion of Science Park system

#3 Creating public support for the potential industries, and

#� the SME policy.

All four of those pillars were implemented simultaneously. This “synchronization” and continual

political determination to seize economic opportunities may well be viewed as Finland’s

strength.

Skillful Strategies

Uniqueness of Finland appears to be its “skillful strategies”. In 1982, the government adopted

a “technology first” principle, assuring technology promotion as a broad social phenomenon


rather than a matter restricted to technologists. In the 1990s, TEKES, the Academy of Finland,

and SITRA -- these three institutions carried out important roles in research and development:

Under the advancement strategy of “specialization which centers on high technology”, the Finns

started up public sector institutions represented by TEKES, through a layered funding system2

that selected and assigned skillful personnel, and placed science parks under private management.

Moreover, efficiency and speed were emphasized to eliminate inefficient strategies.

“Construction of knowledge infrastructure” in Finland depended on whether late-started science

parks were able to replicate the successful experience from Oulu. So, uniqueness of Finland

appears especially to be in the science parks.

Under this vision, universities throughout the whole country became cores of guiding this

development, and many science parks started up in this period. Today, those science parks have

become engines that support the growth of Finland because Finland adheres to an industrial

strategy of which the mainspring is technological innovation.

Through governmental policy, the Finns promoted regional leadership instead of excessive

centralization. Thus, individual science parks were able to expand their network of global

interaction.

The entire country now shows a self-proliferated network and expansion. Moreover, there seems

to be an effect of improving the mutual competitive edge among domestic science parks, too.

As a result, coupled with the brand recognition of Nokia around the world, Finland gained the

presence of an IT establishment which incorporates knowledgeable workers.

It may reasonably be concluded that the main reason for these growth phenomena lies in the role

which TEKES carried out as the driving force.

Science park: Organic cooperation

TEKES is the agency which carries out intensive investments in R&D of small and medium-sized

2 TEKES Presentation Materials http://www.tekes.fi/eng/publications/A_technopol/RD-Finland.PPT

enterprises (SMEs), and their manner of leadership is a good model of a set of organizational

activities that positively affect knowledge creation.

“Ambitious and lively national organizations like TEKES might be very few.” Such kind of

positive evaluations can be heard from many voices abroad. The principal aim of TEKES is

strengthening international competitiveness through acquisition of foreign currency.

TEKES way of thinking strives to thoroughly utilize leverage of capital, talent, and technology;

and TEKES has adopted an attitude directed to eliminating wasteful investment and inefficient

procedures.

TEKES begins by arranging the necessary organization for a successful SME first; thereby

making it possible to attract a talented staff. In every country, “vitality of private sector” is the

keyword for successful business ventures. There seems to be a deep understanding and respect

for this notion within TEKES. The extent to which its SMEs are energetic, projecting a strong

and favorable image of a society, is a barometer of industrial advancement of the country.

A dynamic knowledge creation activity is necessary to promote the function of science

parks. Universities offer the technologies, the science park companies offer premises and business

services, local authorities offer sites and social infrastructures, and enterprises offer their vigor

in pursuing commercial activity. Clearly, collaboration and networking are the nexus of this

model.

Knowledge enabling grid and its practice

As outlined by Professor Ikujiro Nonaka, “knowledge enabling” is the overall set of organizational

activities that positively affect knowledge creation. In order to create knowledge, we must pass

through five steps cited in the top horizontal axis in this figure3.

Firstly, [Sharing the Tacit Knowledge], next [Creating the Concept], [Justifying the Concept],

[Building a Prototype], and finally, [Cross-Leveling Knowledge].

Within each step, five factors for promoting knowledge creation are identified. These are (1)instill

a knowledge vision, (2)manage conversations, (3)mobilize knowledge activists, (�)create the

3 von Krogh, Nonaka, Ichijo (2000), p9.


right context, and (5) globalize local knowledge.

Those so-called “enablers”, indicated on the left vertical axis, play important roles.

First one is [Sharing Tacit Knowledge]. This is the step where individuals socialize their tacit

knowledge mainly through conversation in the appropriate context. Next, [Creating a Concept] is

the step where the concept is created in conversation by using metaphor and analogies. [Justifying

the concept] is the step where invited people from outside the organization meet with insiders

to evaluate a business idea. The Venture Cup Finland that TEKES sponsors might be a good

example. [Building a Prototype] is the step where participants shape abstract ideas into concrete

form. And finally, [Cross-Leveling Knowledge] step unites the community members to achieve

the actualization of the idea. Among these, “creating the right context” and “management of

conversation” are the enablers which are deeply related to all the steps.

So, what kind of working environment is needed in the science parks? Instead of using the words

“enabling context”, Prof. Nonaka use a Japanese word “Ba” which means physical, virtual and

mental context which may include virtual communication via e-mails, for instance. As we are

in the Internet era, “Ba” is a keyword which attracts more and more interest and attention. If we

want to use IT tools effectively, it is indispensable to foster strong inter-personal relationships

that will support an effective cooperation undercurrent.

When we look at the structure of the buildings at the science parks, cafés and restaurants are

intentionally located at the centre of those buildings. And also, corridors are designed to allow key

personnel to interact more frequently and freely.

However, knowledge creation cannot be promoted simply by enhancing the structure of

buildings. Personnel need to be encouraged to interact collegially by sharing and elaborating

ideas. For this purpose, you need “face to face” communication. Therefore, within every step,

“conversation management” is definitely important. The people in the science parks interviewed

for this project are practicing well the “walk and talk” with people, and are actively contributing

to knowledge creation.

When we ask the Finns how they see themselves, they answer using words such as “open minded”,

“trusting”, “cooperative” or sisu. On the other hand, the Finns also say that they are “shy”. Especially

in former times, we heard that the Finns were characterized as “backward”, but through our

fieldwork, we have come to have a completely opposite, far more positive, impression.

If there were a criticism that the Finns seem passive on the outside, the reality is that the Finns

today are positively promoting the idea of “conversation management” and “creating the right

context” very deliberately. The Finns are not just constructing buildings within a science park,

but practicing the underlying aims through understanding of means and processes. . This is the

hidden factor of the Finnish success, in my opinion.

However, one intriguing question comes to mind. It concerns the Finnish people’s is initiating

present Science Parks. If that is the reason why the Finns can keep naturally “open minded”,

then, can this skill continue to be practiced when a large number of foreigners flow into Finland?

Similarly, can the Finns do the same thing in foreign settings?

Anyway, in the knowledge creation process, it is clear that necessary skills have been provided

as I have seen through field work. That is why it might be preferable to study these “Enablers”,

and make explicit what personnel are already doing unconsciously.

Incubational Stage

Turning to the second half of this discussion, a key question emerges: In the incubational stage,

what dimensions are most important in order to build upon the profits secured from success in the

infrastructure stage?

I would like to refer to some criticisms that have arisen in this area. As I mentioned earlier,

if a nation is determined to promote “a welfare state”, it must have a realistic point of view of

what will increase the wealth of the nation. A government has to be conscious of globalization

and international competition and it must position the most profitable enterprises as the growth

engines. Technological innovation and the existence of science parks are the triggers.

However, the level of technology being high, ultimately, the national wealth is determined by how

many vigorous enterprises exist in that country. By crafting a strong policy of market economy,

Finland has embarked on national economic management. Speaking directly, profit corresponds

to investment, and development of enterprises has become indispensable.

But, in order to move on to the next stage, it is necessary to place more focus upon actual marketing

and production efficiency that will secure profit amounting to several times the original investment.

Doing so will change somewhat the way we evaluate success.

Firstly, numerous former evaluations obtained high appraisal, based mainly on the viewpoint of

predominance for “growth potential”, in other words, an index of possibilities.

Secondly, given the inherent conditions of their small economy, the Finns mined research fields,

injected capital, and increased their effectiveness over a short period. Unfortunately, these

prudent actions are too often appreciated only in the closed world of R&D which recognizes that

a degree of investment that exceeds profit is inevitable for eventual success of an enterprise.

Finland, in the incubational stage seems to be facing the turning point as to whether “Potential

Power” can be converted into “Actual Power”. The key is a strong approach to “Marketing”

and “Production”. It is necessary to factor in all three powers of “R&D”, “Marketing” and

“Production” in order to achieve a substantial result.

Nokia became a global enterprise in mobile phone production with the highest market share


in the world, but did Nokia stop at R&D? NO! Nokia shows the model of corporate self-

development moving beyond the process of “Marketing” and “Production”.

The business profit of Nokia brought the formation of the remarkable IT cluster which is called

“the Finnish model”. Nokia uses profit to stimulate research with that profit. Research funding

is also provided to universities and other research institutes for further development of new

technologies. And in Espoo, residential development and service industries to meet demands of

a newly incoming population were promptly started. Nokia not only realized its own development,

but also brought the bloom of regional economic prosperity.

This is what I mean by “the business result”. Among the Finnish science parks, is there any

other industrial cluster formed at the same level as this example? Probably not! In the global

marketplace, a self-recovered enterprise like Nokia is a rare case. To expand economic success,

we ought to generalize to gain the business profit.

Topology of industries

The key industries that have supported Finland up to now are the paper industry that effectively

uses still preserved forest resources and the metal industry which has gained renewed attention

with the expansion of mobile phone manufacturing. But as you can see in the figure, both lie in

the same lower left. For us as end-users, both are quite “upstream industries” which are “heavy,

long, and large”.

You may bundle them with the industry of a technology-oriented economy where the special

know-how of the upstream is accumulated. On the other hand, the newly appeared IT industries

reach consumers directly, and thus can be plotted as “downstream industries”. The mobile

telephone is a representative product. Its feature is “light, short and small”.

Whenever a product is close to the end-users, new innovations must be offered constantly to

meet various and changing tastes, so the competition is very keen. Thus, R&D activity is

concentrated here.

In Oulu we can see an IT cluster base coexisting along with traditional industries. In theory,

one might predict a synergy-effect between new and old industries. But Finland has enjoyed

a long, successful experience as a leader in the paper and pulp industry. So, it is probable the

technology orientation of smoke-stack industry still predominates Finnish people’s way of

thinking.

All ICT (Information and Communication Technology) industries are positioned on the right of

the above chart. Moreover, there are two distinct types within the ICT industrial domain.

Firstly, there are enterprises that offer hard-technologies such as security control and operating

systems. Finnish companies like NetHawk, SSH Communications Security, and F-Secure are

prominent examples. These ICT ventures play an active role in the global market. Free Operating

Systems, such as Linux can be plotted here as well. As the topology shows, all of these are

examples of upstream industries.

Secondly, “new industries” such as Amazon and Google or Second Life and You Tube offer

soft-technologies, particularly communication services. This second group belongs to the

downstream industries. So, where might we place Nokia in this typology?

This year, Nokia’s entry into the developing country of India was headline breaking news. But in

200�, the business community was astonished to observe that Nokia’s market share suddenly fell

to the level as low as five years previously. The reason may be related to the company’s failure to

develop a variety of “folding-type” mobile phones, which are extremely popular in Asian and

North American markets. Nokia took over Motorola and became the market leader after the GSM

technology from Europe became the dominant global standard. But Nokia stuck to the “Candy

bar” type mobile phone for years and fell behind in introducing a line of “folding-type” phones.

It was not until 2004 that the company finally started to market the folding type.

Because end-users buy their mobile phones from the mobile carriers, they don’t usually show

any particular brand awareness of mobile phone manufacturers. But Nokia only belatedly started

to view end-users as their direct customers. While other makers tried to cooperate with the

mobile carriers, Nokia resisted this approach. As a result, there arose a crucial gap between the

company’s products and consumer tastes and needs. However, one must appraise highly Nokia’s

speed in reaction, once they noticed that their solutions to bridge this gap were inadequate.

Some critics would say that Nokia became self-righteousness by ignoring end-users and

considering mobile carriers to be their true customers, but I do think technological overemphasis

was deep-rooted in this case.

Likewise, the semiconductor major, Intel, which is a global enterprise the same as Nokia,

wrongly adopted a company culture of “if good technology is developed, it can be sold”. After

some years, Intel started to listen to its customers’ needs, and strain its eyes to track the change of

the market. Apple Computer, renowned for its ever popular i-Pod also follows such a consumer

orientation.

Finland has gained worldwide recognition as being quite advanced in ICT utilization. But there

are few globally recognized ICT enterprises that fall in the upper right of the topology chart.


Innovation Model

Products that incorporate new technologies, such as mobile phones, thin LCD TVs, and digital

cameras, have become household commodities almost instantaneously. We live in an age of

a fierce competition where today‘s hot brand items can turn into obsolete merchandise by

tomorrow. Technological development of any one enterprise cannot always catch up with the

market trend; therefore, its market share is always fluid. So an enterprise must give priority to

a customer-appealing design to assure its market leadership. Even ordinary products are being

marketed as fashion items nowadays. In order to respond to constantly changing demands of the

market, innovation must also occur in the way an enterprise is structured.

Formerly, the process of innovation which created economic value was perceived as a linear-

model as shown in the upper part of this chart. We start from “research”, followed by development,

design, production, and, finally, we end up with profitable sales.

This linear model suggests that the realization of a product idea is “driven by technology itself”.

However, the market is actually quite different nowadays.

In Kline’s newer “chain-link model”, the starting point is “idea” and “market discovery.” Including

architecture, the different designs relate closely to each other, and knowledge is built upon the

interaction of research and economic value.

Under this model, the essence of innovation rests on the assumption that “consumers and the

market take the initiative”. For example, in Japan, there is a venture company developing a

domestic wind power generator. In order to create this product, the combination of different

technologies is needed. For example, high aeromechanics obviously, but also conversion to light

weight materials and special processing are also required. So many scientists, enterprises and

universities are collaborating.

But, in order to make a break-through from [a- high-price-product-with-low-market-share] to [a-

low-price-product-with-high-market-share], we have to clear the big hurdle, production method

and cost. Just the same as changing R&D into technology, in order to change technology into

profit, Kline’s Chain-link Model can serve as a practical guide.

Whether an enterprise is strong enough to survive in the market or not depends on value creation

for consumers via an economically rational process. If we separate marketing from production,

we cannot acquire profits. Because marketing emphasizes “how to create customer value” as its

primal object, while Production actually supplies finished products, both must clear the hurdle

together.

Society innovates Finland

Consider the example that the world automotive industry is not as preoccupied with developing

new model cars as it was before. Since environmental protection and soaring gasoline prices

have become consumer issues, society is increasingly demanding innovation in transportation,

not merely newer models of what is seen to be inefficient.

We are entering an age in which the economy and technology don’t move the world, rather, society

innovates the world. It is our first time to experience such an age. Until the 1990’s, technology

and economy have always predominated social issues. In his book, Managing in the Next Society,

Peter Drucker discusses in detail the emergence of these factors.

Among the four factors that are likely to greatly change the present trend of Finland, I have

looked mainly at demographics: the shrinkage within younger population, and expansion of

the ageing population. The rapid decrease in younger population not only brings difficultly

in recruiting an effective work force as part of the nation’s capital, but also brings substantial

changes in market formation.

Market formation becomes difficult in the domestic market as long as immigrants and “guest

workers” are not accepted in the more economically advanced countries. In addition, the mass

consumption market is fed mainly by shifting from a youth market to the middle-aged, elderly-aged

market. Moreover, the system of recruitment and employment of elder people who have superior

academic backgrounds becomes important due to population decrease.

1) Finland does not have a sizable domestic market, and so, it inevitably must aim toward the overseas


market. Competition will overheat. A more advanced value creation is demanded if an economy aims

at advanced country markets. If developing countries are market targets, the know-how of low-cost

mass production becomes inevitable. But if you want to cover both advanced country markets and

developing country markets, enormous capital and know-how are absolutely required.

2) The dependency rate upon the younger generation will be heavy. In Finland, which advocates

egalitarianism, there must be a guarantee of an adequate tax base. In other words, the younger

workers must become a high earning work-force.

3) As the economic growth of Finland progresses, the level of income demand will rise. People

will seek an ever higher standard of living. Pursuit of quality of the living environment

and everyday comforts will produce a service industry on a scale that has never existed before.

�) Knowledge in the “knowledge society” travels even more effortlessly than money. So, in the

borderless society, upward mobility becomes available. However, although anyone may obtain

the “means of production”, not everyone can win. Thus, it will be a society where the potential

for failure as well as success exists.

5) An income gap might trigger changes in tax revenues as well as personal wealth and the

traditional consciousness of equal social obligation which has supported the present social

structure.

Thus, today’s extremely egalitarian society may change into a highly competitive society.

The population problem can well lead to political changes, market changes, business changes

and, inevitably, industrial changes. Therefore, starting from the population problem, the

mainspring of change will likely shift from economy or technology to society.

Innovation of value

“Innovation” is the word which was first defined by Austrian economist, Joseph Schumpeter.

Innovation is to create something new or to improve something existing by introducing new

enhancing elements. And “production” refers to the fusion of material and power. This is a matrix

of patterns of innovation and their impact upon the market and technology.

There are at least four types of “innovation”:

1) Architectural Innovation: Deconstruction of an existing technology and production system

and creation of a completely new market. The inventions of the airplane and the computer would

be located here.

2) Revolutionary Innovation: Deconstruction of an existing industry or production

system, while keeping the connection with existing market. Audio technology innovations from

analog to digital and automobile transmission from manual to automatic are examples here.

3) Market Niche Innovation: While using an existing technology or production system, new

markets are developed. The headphone stereo and home video games are good examples.

�) Regular Innovation: Through improvement of technology or methods of production, a product

or service of high quality can be provided more cheaply.

Common concerns of advanced economies are environment, health and aging. Among present

social priorities in Finland, there are health care, food and nutrition, and energy and environment

– all of which can be expected to assume vital roles in a “post IT” society. All of these are located

in the domain of Architectural Innovation.

These problems cannot be solved by “academic” institutions that are vertically divided. Rather,

the solution lies in the creative collaboration of knowledge and technologies. Today, in order

to meet the demands of society, all industries and enterprises must look outward for inspiration.

So, no innovation can succeed if it is not supported by current social and cultural values.

Society obtains customer satisfaction from technological innovation, but we can say customer

appreciation is based on clever marketing.

Conclusion

What is a proper agenda in order to bring substantial growth in the “knowledge creation” age?

I would like here to offer what may be some prevailing views.

The key context is the paradigm shift of:

1. Moving from a technology orientation toward a market orientation

2. Moving from an economic orientation toward a social orientation

Many people think that innovation lies exclusively in R&D --- in other words, it’s a matter of

technology. But real innovation is to initiate change in your products and services in order to

respond to an ever changing market.

Marketing is not a concept directed on how to sell technology or products. That is what we call

“sales” or “sales promotion”. Marketing is, based on “customer consciousness”. By accurately

predicting what customers NEED and WANT in advance, it is the activity which keeps creating

new products and services.

This is in contradiction to the presently dominant technology-centered concept. Currently,

marketing aims at differentiating among market niches so that product development is based on

investigating and analyzing the life style and sense of values of that segment of the market who


might be likely to consider buying the product or those who actually did buy it.

However, the Internet society has changed the dynamics of the relation between customer and

the market. Through the spread of Internet, consumers around the world may know what is

available, what suits their needs, and where to buy it. In regard to marketing, it is necessary to

consider the emergence of new opinion leaders born in the Internet age. The Internet is a means of

reaching potential customers, and even “non-customers” who, in turn, may convey their needs and

preferences, thus allowing the enterprise to more accurately predict changes coming in the market.

Nowadays, it is more important than ever to develop better marketing tools. We are in an age where

an individual enterprise cannot establish its own market easily if it doesn’t understand that the

self-proliferate customers and non-customers exchange information and share or propagate

opinions via Internet.

To assure success, customer needs and preferences must continually be taken into account at

all points in the business process from start to finish. It might seem easy to follow the “how-to”

of marketing. However, marketing is not a mathematical technology. It is an abstract knowledge

activity, not simply a robotic sequence. As Peter Drucker has already pointed out, it cannot be

achieved only through “curriculum of university and MBA method”. Isn’t it an important thing to

make the IDEA OF MARKETING take root more than marketing itself? Knowledge creation does

not belong to R&D alone. In marketing and production, knowledge creation is also important.

I have already mentioned three public institutions which led successful R&D at the (first)

“knowledge infrastructure stage” --- Academy of Finland, TEKES and SITRA. Can these three

institutions be expected to also take the lead even in the (second) “incubational stage aiming

at acquisition of profit”? I don’t really think so.

In the flood of information in which we are now living, science has been intricate and the speed of

its change is rapid. So, technology has to concentrate on technology, and R&D has to concentrate

on R&D, and marketing has to concentrate on marketing. If each one is not fully focused on its

own unique and vital role, it is impossible to face global competition and continuous growth

is completely out of the question. It is impossible for any one organization to handle different

specialties at the same time.

It is the same as Schumpeter’s emphasis: “the creative deconstruction that destroys existing value

by the entrepreneur and creates new value is a source of economic growth”. Therefore, as we

move into the second stage, the main actors must change. I believe the best use of the experience

of a foundation such as TEKES is to allow it to focus on the first stage, “infrastructure”, and

create new organizations to address issues concerned with the second stage, “marketing and

production”.

Looking at Japan, the industrial system can be viewed as a “problem child” that changed into an

“honour student” and then reverted back to a “problem child”, all in the span of forty years.

Based on a management form of vertical integration, Toyota became No1 in the global automotive

industry while following the Japanese system. On the other hand, in the mobile phone industry,

Nokia selected a vertical, integrated type model of mass production in contrast to its competitors

since they make most products in-house, designing their own wireless chips. However, I think

that the challenges facing Japan are not caused by the “Japanese management system”, but by the

low recognition of knowledge base which began with the IT revolution.

In an era of knowledge based production, architectural reform is indispensable. But Japan, being

still overly dependent on mere process innovation and accumulated differentiation strategy in

production, appears to be almost unaware of newer waves in innovation.

Finland which has persevered with utmost effort resembles Japan after World War II. Finland

has an advantage in producing technological hardware, but comparatively, is at something of a

disadvantage in developing software. However, as Finnish society continues to mature, people

will increasingly demand products and services which offer enjoyment, beauty, and relaxation.

I would like to conclude this discussion by summarizing some key concepts to keep in mind

as Finland moves forward toward 2015.

Marketing

The fields of Post-IT deeply relate to human sensitivity and individual tastes. Product development

must be based on customer appreciation. Otherwise, there is no hope for success. All the more, if

you set the advanced countries as your target market, individual preference and sense of values

are in infinite variety and customer expectations are extremely high.

Production

In manufacturing, there are new movements. New business models appear such as “foundry”

(production system) and EMS (Electronics Manufacturing Services) as new industries in Taiwan

and China who have become major employers, without requiring large manufacturing sites of

their own.

Also, there are a great many enterprises in United States where most of the headquarters’

function is dominated by marketing. Moreover, countries on the receiving end of “knowledge

process outsourcing” such as India have recently emerged. Advances in globalization might

inevitably force global manufacturers to shift the focus of their business to the service industry.

Society

Finland should overcome any unknown hurdles beyond the technological side, once it moves into

the “operational stage”.

No one can tell what kind of age the knowledge based society will be. But, in order to find their

own solutions, every government, enterprise, and the individual must construct viable models

based upon the sum total of available knowledge.

In order to maintain the national welfare, it is necessary to move forward toward a “knowledge

society” that is leveraged on principles of dynamic knowledge creation. Interested observers

around the world are looking forward to seeing what new models the Finns present to overcome

their limited resources and exploit their inherent strengths.


Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to Prof Daniel Michel Walsh for his continuous effort in

providing translation.

References

Castells, Manuel and Pekka Himanen (2002), The Information Society and the Welfare State: The

Finnish Model, Oxford Univ. Press.

Drucker, Peter F. (2003), Managing in the Next Society, Griffin.

Hatano, Tohru (Ed.) (2006), White Paper for Technology Competitive Advantage, PHP (in

Japanese).Kline, Stephen J. (1985), “Innovation Is Not A Linear Process”, Research Management,24(4), pp.36-�5.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2006), White Paper on Science

and Technology 2006, MEXT

Schumpeter, Joseph A. (19�2), The Process of Creative Destruction, Unwin

TEKES, Academy of Finland (2007), Finnsight2015: The Outlook for Science, Technology and

Society, TEKES, Academy of Finland.

von Krogh, Georg, Kazuo Ichijo, Ikujiro Nonaka (2000), Enabling Knowledge Creation: How to

Unlock the Mystery of Tacit Knowledge and Release the Power of Innovation, Oxford, Oxford

University Press.

building innovation culture

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