bsc (honours) tourism management
TRANSCRIPT
Sheffield Business School
BSc (Honours) Tourism Management
Title: Tourism development in the Polar Regions
Name : WAN Sau Lai
Student No: 91206654
Month Year April 2011
Sheffield Hallam University
Sheffield Business School
Title: Tourism development in the Polar Regions
FULL NAME : WAN Sau Lai
STUDENT No: 91206654
Supervisor: Dr. CONNIE MOK
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Tourism Management.
Month Year April 2011
I
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all those who have helped me and supported me to finish
this paper. This paper would not have been completed if the author had not
received support from some parties.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Connie
Mok, had helped me a lot on answering my questions and make sure I keep
working on my paper and I won’t lose directions.
My friends from school helped me a lot as we will help each other when we
needed help. And they would give me good advises when I’m lost while dong
the paper or researching information.
My family is also been so supportive. They helped me to understanding what I
needed to get done, and sometimes they would tell me what I should try to do in
my paper in order to produce a better quality of work.
II
Table of content
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... I
Table of content ............................................................................................................................... II
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... IV
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. IV
List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... V
SECTION 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 1
SECTION 2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Overview of the Polar Tourism .......................................................................................... 4
2.2 Background information of the Polar Regions .................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Antarctic ................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Arctic ........................................................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Aims and Objectives ......................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Historical development of tourism in the Polar Regions ................................................... 9
3.1.1 Arctic ........................................................................................................................................ 9
3.1.2 Antarctic ................................................................................................................................. 11
3.2 Tourism surveys and statistics on polar tourism ............................................................. 12
3.2.1 Arctic ...................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Antarctic ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 Human impact ................................................................................................................. 16
3.4 Visitor Management in polar tourism............................................................................... 17
3.4.1 The Arctic ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.4.1.1 WWF Arctic Programme’s Principles and Codes of Conduct ......................................... 17
3.4.1.2 Comprehensive Tourism Program .................................................................................. 18
3.4.1.3 Guide licensing and special use permits ........................................................................ 18
3.4.2 The Antarctic .......................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.2.1 Antarctic Treaty System ................................................................................................. 19
3.4.2.2 International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators ................................................ 20
III
3.4.3 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the tourism policy in Polar Regions ................................. 20
3.6 Future issues for polar tourism ........................................................................................ 21
3.6.1 Market trend .......................................................................................................................... 21
3.6.2 Global climate change ............................................................................................................ 22
3.6.3 Barriers of polar tourism ........................................................................................................ 22
SECTION 4 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION .......................................................................................... 24
4.1 Secondary data ............................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Archive analysis method ................................................................................................. 24
4.3 Source of the study ......................................................................................................... 25
4.4 Advantages ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.5 Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 28
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 28
5.1 SWOT analysis of tourism industry in the Polar Regions ............................................... 28
5.1.1 Strength ................................................................................................................................. 28
5.1.1.1 Beautiful nature ............................................................................................................. 28
5.1.1.2 Usual Wildlife watching opportunities ........................................................................... 29
5.1.1.3 Professional and experienced tour operators ................................................................ 30
5.1.2 Weakness ............................................................................................................................... 30
5.1.2.1 High barrier of entry ....................................................................................................... 30
5.1.2.2 Vulnerable Environment ................................................................................................ 30
5.1.2.3 Short period of travel season ......................................................................................... 31
5.1.2.4 Limited facilities ............................................................................................................. 31
5.1.3 Opportunity ........................................................................................................................... 31
5.1.3.1 The Shift in Market Trend .............................................................................................. 31
5.1.3.2 Global climate change .................................................................................................... 32
5.1.4 Threat ..................................................................................................................................... 32
5.1.4.1 Human impact ................................................................................................................ 32
5.1.4.2 Global climate change .................................................................................................... 33
5.2 Comparative study of tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic ............................................... 33
SECTION 6 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 38
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 42
IV
List of Tables
1. Tourism statistics from 2000-2008 in selected regions in the Arctic. 10
2. Ship and land-based passengers to the Antarctic for Antarctic
Austral Summer Seasons
12
3. Attribute list of the Arctic 14
4. Images of Antarctica as a Tourist Destination Prior to Arrival 15
5. Motivations for participation in an Antarctic tour 16
6. Comparative study of tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic 33
List of Figures
1. The map of the Antarctic 6
2. The map of the Arctic 7
V
List of Abbreviations
ATS Antarctic Treaty System
ATCM Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
IAATO The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators
WWF World Wide Fund
1
SECTION 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper examines the tourism development in the Polar Regions, which
includes its history, current situations and the future issues. And identify the
similarities and differences between the Antarctic and Arctic. This will be a
qualitative study using the archive analysis method. The information will be
collected from secondary data. Including books, journal, websites and other
sources.
The Antarctic and Arctic are the world most wildness, remoteness, coldest and
untouched place. The mysterious of the Polar Regions get the author curiosity
to study about it. In fact, tourism in Polar Regions has grown rapidly in recent
years. The increasing tourism activities in Polar Regions are now raising
concern about the impact and management issues of polar tourism.
Polar tourism refers to the shared environmental, developmental and policy
characteristics of the Arctic and Antarctic regions in tourism, including relatively
high seasonality of activities and tourism flows (Slaymaker & Kelly, 2007).
2
The background information of the Arctic and Antarctic, together with its
uniqueness and characterises would be introduced in this paper. It aims to
study the tourism development in Polar Regions with three main objectives:
I. To gives an overview of the history of polar tourism and its current
situation;
II. To find out the characteristic of Polar Regions; and
III. To analyse and compare the tourism in Arctic and Antarctic.
Polar tourism has grown rapidly in recent years. The remoteness, beautiful
environment and the abundant wildlife of the Polar Regions are the major
motivations to join Antarctic tour (Bauer 2001) .The travellers were of mature
age, professional, and come from developed countries. The development of the
polar tourism has brought negative impact on the environment of the Polar
Regions (Tin et al. 2009; Lamers, 2009; bauer, 2001; Hall and Johnson, 1995;
Kriwoken and Rootes, 2000). To reduce the negative impacts of tourism,
different regulation and code are applied to the Polar Regions.
SWOT analysis and comparative analysis are used by the author to investigate
the tourism industry in the Polar Regions. The strength includes its beautiful
3
nature, usual wildlife watching opportunities, and professional tour operators.
The weakness includes high barrier of entry, vulnerable environment, short
period of travel season and limited facilities. The shift in market trend and global
climate change provides opportunities for further development in the tourism
industry. And, polar tourism has to face threat of human impact and global
climate change.
In conclusion, the development of the polar tourism is now entering a new stage.
Bauer (2001) predicted that there would be a potential increase of tourists from
Asia in the future. Polar tourism will offer more diversifying actives and transport
modes. Polar tour will focus on activity-based tourism rather than
location-based tourism (ASOC, 2008). The adventure market and eco-tourism
market are growing and that also is the market which tourism in the Polar
Regions wants to focus in the future.
4
SECTION 2 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Overview of the Polar Tourism
Polar Regions – the Arctic and Antarctic are the most remote and mystery
places on earth. The mysterious of the Polar Regions get the author curiosity to
study about it. In fact, tourism in the Polar Regions has grown rapidly in recent
years (Hall and Johnston, 1995; Bauer, 2001; Hall and Saarinen, 2010). The
increasing tourism activities in the Polar Regions are now raising concern about
the environmental and management issues of the polar tourism.
Polar tourism refers to the shared environmental, developmental and policy
characteristics of the Arctic and Antarctic regions in tourism (Slaymaker & Kelly,
2007). Such as relatively high seasonality of activities and tourism flows
Tourism in the polar areas has a specific definition which is different from the
tourism in other part of the world. Tourism, defined as “all existing human
activities other than those directly involved in scientific research and the normal
operation of government bases” (Hall 1992). Tourists, defined as “visitors who
are not affiliated in an official capacity with an established National Antarctic
5
Program. They include both fare-paying passengers, whose number are usually
reported reliably by tour operators, and private expedition members and
adventures aboard sea or airborne vessels, whose numbers are more difficult
to determine (Enzenbacher, 1992a, p.17). The definition of Polar tourism which
widely accepted and used is “all travel for pleasure or adventure within polar
regions, exclusive of travel for primarily governmental, commercial, subsistence,
military or scientific purposes” (Hall and Johnston, 1995, p.8).
2.2 Background information of the Polar Regions
2.2.1 Antarctic
The Antarctic is usually defined as south of 60°S latitude which is the area
covered by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty (Hansom, 1998). Antarctica is a landmass
surrounded by ocean. The annual mean temperature at the South Pole in winter
is -60Cand -28.2C in summer. As the harshness of the climate and extent of
sea ice, access to the continent is restricted to the austral summer between
October and March. That period is also the travel season of the Antarctic. This
is also the time of year when there are 24 hours of sunlight a day.
6
In the Antarctic, there is absence of an indigenous human population. There are
no permanent land mammals in Antarctica, only penguins, porpoises, seals,
and whales which inhabit the polar oceans. In nowadays, Antarctica is home to
the largest open-air laboratory in the world. Many important researches and
findings may be attributed to this laboratory.
Figure 1: the map of the Antarctic
Source: A Review of Tourism Research in the Polar Regions (Stewart et al. 2005)
2.2.2 Arctic
The Arctic is a vast ice covered ocean surrounded by land. Arctic nations
include: Canada, Greenland, Russia, United States (Alaska), Iceland, Norway,
7
Sweden, and Finland. The annual mean temperature at the North Pole is -40F
(-40°C) in winter and 32F (0°C) in summer. Human population north of 60°N is
in excess of 4 million. A lot of terrestrial mammals live in the Arctic including
musk ox, reindeer, caribou, fox, hare, wolf, lemming, bears, and more. Marine
mammals include whales, porpoises, seals, and polar bears. Polar night can be
found in Arctic and attracts tourists to the Arctic.
Tourism in the Arctic is highly seasonal with the majority of tourists arriving in
the summer months. Summer is also the cruise season operates as there is no
cruise ships operate in the northern winter.
Figure 2: the map of the Arctic
Source: A Review of Tourism Research in the Polar Regions (Stewart et al. 2005)
8
2.3 Aims and Objectives
This paper aims to study the tourism development in the Polar Regions with
three main objectives:
I. To gives an overview of the history of the polar tourism and its current
situation;
II. To find out the characteristic of the Polar Regions;
III. To analyse and compare the tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic.
9
CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Historical development of tourism in the Polar Regions
3.1.1 Arctic
Tourism activities in the Arctic have been proved for over a century. The earliest
tourists were individual anglers, hunters, mountaineers, and adventurers. Mass
tourism in the Arctic has thrived since the mid-1880 when steamships and
railroads aggressively expanded their transportation networks providing access
to numerous destinations within the Arctic (Notzke 1999). Tourism
entrepreneurs, such as Thomas Cook, formed partnerships with railroad and
steamship companies and thereby pioneered the popular tourism industry.
The travel cost to the Arctic is very high so the numbers of visitors remain
relatively low. But there is rapid growth of the visitor’s number in recent years
(Hall and Johnston, 1995). The Arctic is more accessible for cruise to travel
because of the advanced ship technologies, improved marine charts and
navigational aids (Rand McNally, 1922). The commercial flights also increase
the air access to the Arctic. The advanced transportation technologies not only
10
increased the number of visitors, but also expanded the seasonal and
geographical reach of Arctic tourism (Armstrong, 1972, 1991; Glines, 1964;
Doren, 1993).
Table 1 show the number of visitors in different regions in the Arctic from 2000
to 2008. The total number of the tourists was growing steadily in that period.
Table1. Tourism statistics from 2000-2008 in selected regions in the Arctic
Sources: Polar Tourism: Definitions and Dimensions (Hall and Saarinen, 2010)
11
3.1.2 Antarctic
The exploration of the Antarctic began in the eighteenth century. In that time,
Antarctic was a dangerous place and hardly to access. Expedition to the
Antarctic regions was a kind of heroic journey (Harcha, 2006). The first idea of
the commercial group tour started in 1910. The tour agent, Thomas Cook
considered organizing an expedition to Antarctica. However, the trip never took
place as Captain Scott, the famous explorer and his team were dead during
their expedition to the Antarctic regions in 1912. That made the public to
consider the risk of the Antarctic exploration (Headland, 1994).
Although there were many explorers and private sectors visited the Antarctic in
the past century, the earliest tourist flight to Antarctica with 66 passengers was
flying over the Antarctica regions without landing on 22 December 1956
(Headland, 1994). The first commercial tourist flight to land on Antarctica was
on 15 October 1957.
There was a historic turning point of the development of the tourism in the
Antarctic in 1959 since Antarctic Treaty was signed. The number of tourists of
the Antarctic was keep increasing due to the development of worldwide trend
12
towards nature-oriented tourism, the rising of economic and cultural standards
and also the increasing awareness of environmental issues (Harcha, 2006).
Tourism activities have expanded tremendously. Table 2 shows the growth
trend of tourist to the Antarctic for Antarctic summer seasons from 1980 to 2009.
From time to time, the total number of the visitors increased more than 46 times
which the number of tourists is approaching 40,000 tourists a year.
Sources: Polar Tourism: Definitions and Dimensions (Hall and Saarinen, 2010)
3.2 Tourism surveys and statistics on polar tourism
There are some researches focus on the tourism behaviour and demand. That
includes the numbers of tourists, demographics, motivation, attitudes and
knowledge.
13
3.2.1 Arctic
The number of tourists in the Arctic and tourism activities is far greater than the
Antarctic regions (Hall and Johnston, 1995). It is difficult to collect comparable
data as there are eight countries within the Arctic or Subarctic territory. Each
nations of the Arctic conducts different researches individually (Hall and
Johnston, 1995). For example, The Canadian Tourism Commission collected a
range of tourism statistics. The major activities of visitors enjoyed were road
touring, outdoor adventure, hunting, fishing, and aurora borealis viewing
(GNWT, 1990). The 1992 Western Arctic Visitor Survey also discussed the
primary tourism interests, and identified that wildlife viewing is the first main
interests of the visitors, which native culture follows as a close second (Bufo Inc.
1992a, 1992b).
Table 3 show the attributes and features of the Arctic though tourists’ eyes.
Most of the respondents were well-educated with high income-level. People
reported a high degree of satisfaction of the journey. Environment, ice and
wildlife are the most significant attributes of the Arctic. It also point out the
visitors have lack of knowledge about the cultural diversity within the Arctic.
14
Table 3. Attribute list of the Arctic
Source: Tourist images of Greenland and the Arctic: a perception analysis (Hubner, 2008 )
3.2.2 Antarctic
Bauer (2001) has investigated and summarized the Antarctic visitor surveys
including demographic profiles, motivations and satisfaction, and concluded
that the travellers were very experienced, were of mature age, professional,
and come from developed countries. Most of the visitors enjoyed their unique
15
experience in the Antarctic with the wildlife and environment there. Davis (1995)
also investigated visitor’s behaviours and ethical standards and concluding that
education is an important part of the visitor’s management of the Polar tourism.
Table 4 shows that the main attributes of the Antarctic held by respondents
were the fauna, ice features and environmental attributes.
Table 4. Images of Antarctica as a Tourist Destination Prior to Arrival
Source: Tourism in the Antarctic: Opportunities, Constraints, and Future Prospects (Bauer,
2001)
16
Table 5 is the survey about the motivation for participation in an Antarctic tour. It
shows that the beautiful environment and the abundant wildlife are the major
motivations to join Antarctic tour.
Table 5. Motivations for participation in an Antarctic tour
Source: Antarctic tourists: Ambassadors or consumers? (Powell, Kellert and Ham, 2008)
3.3 Human impact
As the Polar Regions are recognized as the world most wildness place, many
studies were focused on the impact of tourism activities, which environmental
issues draw most of the concern. The increase in visitor’s volume would lead to
greater impact on the environment and wildlife. Several studies found out that
the human activities have brought negative impact on the environment of the
Polar Regions (Tin et al. 2009, Lamers, 2009, bauer, 2001, Hall and Johnson,
17
1995, Kriwoken and Rootes, 2000). The major negative environmental impacts
include pollution (noise, air, visual and water), environmental hazard, land use
problems, ecological disruption, damage to historic sites and the waste disposal
(Inskeep, 1991).
3.4 Visitor Management in polar tourism
Visitor Management is a significant way to reduce the negative impacts of
tourism (Pearce, 1989; Mason, 2003a), particularly impacts on the environment,
but additionally economic and socio-cultural impacts. Regulation and education
has frequently used as a tool of managing visitors.
3.4.1 The Arctic
As the Arctic region is governed by eight different nations, there is no single set
of regulations relating to tourism come into force to manage the visitor volume
and behaviours. Visitor management applied through various national and
regional agencies.
3.4.1.1 WWF Arctic Programme’s Principles and Codes of Conduct
The World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) Arctic Programme began developing
18
principles and codes of conduct for Arctic tourism in 1995. It aims to encourage
the development of a type of tourism that protected the environment, educated
tourists, respected the rights and cultures of local residents, and increased the
share of tourism revenues that go to communities. It includes ten principles for
Arctic Tourism, a code of conduct for tour operators and tourists. These
guideline and codes are available in all of the eight Arctic nations. However,
they do not contain any legal effect.
3.4.1.2 Comprehensive Tourism Program
Arctic jurisdictions such as Norway, Iceland and Svalbard have developed own
tourism programs to manage tourism in the Arctic region. Their plans define
allowable uses, acceptable behaviour, and locations where recreation can
occur. Johnston (1997) summarized several approaches to visitor regulation in
Polar Regions. That included the case study of tourism regulation in Svalbard
and the Northwest Territories.
3.4.1.3 Guide licensing and special use permits
Guide licensing is one of the most successful management tools for conserving
Arctic resources and control the visitor behaviour. Guide licensing programmes
19
have been applied by wildlife management agencies in all Arctic nations
(Snyder, 2007). Arctic recreation activities require licensed guides with the
special skills and monitor the behaviour of their clients.
3.4.2 The Antarctic
Activities in the Antarctic are governed by the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, and its
associated agreements measures and recommendations under the Antarctic
treaty System (ATS) (Bauer, 2001).
3.4.2.1 Antarctic Treaty System
In 1991, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties adopted the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which designates the
Antarctic as a natural reserve. It includes the Guidance for visitors to the
Antarctic (ATCP, 1994b) and the Guidance for Those Organising and
Conducting Tourism and Non-Governmental Activities in the Antarctic (ATCP,
1994a). The guidance aims to ensure that all visitors are aware of, and are
therefore able to comply with, the Treaty and the Protocol. Visitors are, of
course, bound by national laws and regulations applicable to activities in the
Antarctic.
20
3.4.2.2 International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators
The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) was formed
by seven tour operators in 1991 and dedicated to advocate, promote and
practice environmentally responsible private-sector travel to Antarctica (Bauer,
2001). Currently, IAATO have more than 100 members. It set the Guidelines for
the Conduct of Antarctica Tour Operators to let their members to follow it.
IAATO presents its annual report each year at the ATCM that includes the
annual tourism statistics, membership directory and Visitor and Tour Operator
Guidelines. The information can also be found on IAATO's website.
3.4.3 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the tourism policy in Polar
Regions
The implementation and effectiveness of tourism management in Polar Regions
are worth to study. Johnston (1997) summarized several approaches to visitor
regulation in the Polar Regions, and suggested that the approach taken in the
Antarctica has much to offer an Arctic-wide strategy (Johnston, 1997). In a later
article, Johnston (1998) discussed several methods to evaluate visitor
regulation strategies and had comparative studies on how different strategies
21
work in the Arctic and the Antarctic (Johnston, 1998).
3.6 Future issues for polar tourism
3.6.1 Market trend
The market of the Antarctic tourism is known to be traditionally North American,
European, and Australasian (Bauer, 2001), which is target on up-market niche
product. Bauer (2001) forecasted that there would be a potential increase of
tourists from Asia in the future.
There was a rapid development in tourism in the Antarctic in last two decades,
with increasing visitor numbers annually, and diversifying actives and transport
modes. Antarctic tours are focus on activity-based tourism rather than
location-based tourism (ASOC, 2008). Adventurous activities are offered in
recent years, including camping, scuba diving, excursions, and mountain
climbing. (Stonehouse and Crosbie, 1995; Bastmeijer and Roura, 2007).
The polar tourism industry is enticing an increasing number of tourists with
expanding numbers of attractions, recreational activities, international
destinations, and visitor accommodations.
22
3.6.2 Global climate change
The Conference on Tourism and Global Change in Polar Regions was hosted in
Finland in 2007. It is a research program focus on the relationships between
tourism, leisure and global change. Special Report on Regional Impacts of
Climate Change has investigated the impacts of climate change on the Arctic
and the Antarctic (Everett and Fitzharris, 1998). That includes physical,
ecological, sociological, and economic impacts.
The Arctic is likely to respond rapidly than the Antarctic to climate change.
Climate change may encourage tourism. The global warming cause lost of sea
ice and that will encourage shipping, tourism, oil exploration and other industrial
activities in that region (Macdonald, Harner and Fyfe, 2005). However, it would
also damage the ecosystems. Endanger species such as polar bears are losing
their home and might disappear in the future.
3.6.3 Barriers of polar tourism
Bauer (2001) has investigates the possible barriers to the development of future
tourism in Antarctic. That included the costs of operating tours; regulations;
23
opposition by environmental organization; and need for authorized guides
aboard ships add cost.
The most difficult barriers of travel to the polar areas include environmental
condition, cost and time of travel, difficulty of access, and jurisdictional
restraints (Snyder, 2007). Snyder (2009) predicted these barriers would be
reduced in the future: the access would improve due to the climate change,
transport technologies and infrastructure; the cost of travel would become more
affordable and more personal wealth to facilitate travel; People would have
more leisure time and there are large population now entering retirement that
allowed they have enough time to travel to the polar area; jurisdictional
constraints would remove as some prohibited area will allow to enter.
24
SECTION 4 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
This will be a qualitative study using the archive analysis method. The
information will be collected from secondary data. Including books, journal,
websites and other sources.
4.1 Secondary data
Secondary data is data that has already been collected and collated by
somebody for some reason other than the current study (Israel and Glenn,
1993). Qualitative data includes records, documents, published material,
computer database, policy statements, and etc.
4.2 Archive analysis method
Archive contains datasets and other materials deposited by an investigator that
allow another researcher to replicate the analysis in a published article, book, or
dissertation. Archive analysis method is a research method that reanalyzed,
reworked, and compared with complimentary data sources and find out new
conclusion with the use of secondary data. It can be a comparative research,
replication or restudy of original research (Hinds, Vogel and Clarke-Steffen
25
1997,).
Archive analysis is the most appropriate method for the study of the tourism
development in the Polar Regions. It is because data collection of the Arctic and
Antarctic is a long term processes. Archive analysis can save the time needed
in the data collection part. And also, Polar Regions are not easy to access, it is
impossible for the author and observe and do the research in the Polar Regions
in person. Finally, the resources about Polar tourism are already rich enough to
study the tourism development in the Arctic and Antarctic. Therefore it is no
need to conduct a primary research as it is cost and time consuming.
4.3 Source of the study
Books:
Tourism in Peripheries: Perspectives from the Far North and South
Tourism in the Antarctic: Opportunities, constraints, and future prospects
Polar tourism: Tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic regions
Prospects For Polar Tourism
Journals:
Polar Record
26
Journal of Travel Research
Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Polar Research
Websites:
IAATO
http://www.iaato.org/
The Antarctic Treaty
http://www.ats.aq/index_e.htm
The World Fact book
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html
Polar Discovery
http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/poles/features.html
Earth’s Polar Regions
http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/polar/polar.html
Database:
Google Scholar
The Archives Hub
International Polar Year Publications Database
Cambridge Journals Online - Polar Record
ProQuest
EBSCOHost
The Arctic Science and Technology Information System (ASTIS) database
27
4.4 Advantages
The major advantage of using secondary data is cost effectives. Because the
data were already collected by someone else, the researcher does not have to
devote resources to this phase of research (Kiecolt, Nathan, 1985). The reuse
of the data will save costs and time as it is expensive and difficult to collect
primary data. Sometimes new analytical tools can highlight parts of data that
were previously ignored in the original analysis (Boslaught, 2007)
4.5 Disadvantages
For the disadvantage of using secondary data, it is often difficult to determine
the quality of some of the data in question (Boslaught, 2007). Because
secondary data is usually not collected for the same purpose as the original
researcher had, the data may not fit for the new study. In addition, sources may
conflict wit each other and makes it is difficult to evaluate the result.
28
CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the author will use SWOT analysis and comparative analysis to
study the tourism in the Polar Regions. SWOT stands for strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal
factors. Opportunities and threats are external factors. The SWOT analysis
identifies both internal and external factors to view industry's current status and
future (Humphrey, 2005). As the Arctic and Antarctic have many similarities,
comparative analysis can helps comparing and contrasting the tourism in the
Arctic and Antarctic clearly.
5.1 SWOT analysis of tourism industry in the Polar Regions
5.1.1 Strength
5.1.1.1 Beautiful nature
The beauty of the Polar Regions is unique. The Antarctic and Arctic are the
world most wildness, remoteness, isolated, coldest and untouched place (Hall
and Johnston, 1995). These are the most attractive attributes of the polar
29
tourism to encourage visitors to experience something special and challenge.
Other than the unspoiled environment, tourist may see the world’s most
amazing natural phenomena - polar light.
5.1.1.2 Usual Wildlife watching opportunities
Wildlife watching is one of the most attractive attributes of the in the Arctic and
the Antarctic. Most of the species living in there are unique and some were
endangered. In Antarctica, tourists can watch wildlife such as penguins, whales,
porpoises and seals. Nearly all wildlife in Antarctica unafraid of human and may
even approach tourists (Lonely planet: Antarctica, 2005).
In the Arctic, the natural resources are richer than the Antarctic. It is because
the Arctic are much warmer than Antarctic and allow more species to live there.
That Including musk ox, reindeer, caribou, fox, hare, wolf, lemming, bears,
whales, porpoises, seals, polar bears and more( Lonely plant: Greenland & The
Arctic, 2005). Similar to the Antarctic, some of the species can only find in the
Arctic and watching that kinds of animals are one of the most attractive
activates and motivation in the tour.
30
5.1.1.3 Professional and experienced tour operators
The tour operators in the Polar Region are professional and experienced. All
the guides have to get licenses and follow the tourism code of the Polar Region.
They are well-trained and responsible for educate tourists to have right attitude
and behaviour when visit the Antarctic and Arctic.
5.1.2 Weakness
5.1.2.1 High barrier of entry
The barriers of travel to the polar area are very high and that discourage the
visitors to have a trip on the Polar Regions. The most difficult barriers of travel
to the polar areas include environmental condition, cost and time of travel,
difficulty of access, and jurisdictional restraints (Snyder, 2007).
5.1.2.2 Vulnerable Environment
The environment of the Polar Regions is very sensitive. Its environment is
easily damage by the human impact and global warming. Therefore it is
important to protect and do the conservation project in the Polar Regions.
31
5.1.2.3 Short period of travel season
The travel season of the Arctic and Antarctic restricted to a few months only.
This limited the number of business and also income of the tourism industry in
the Polar Regions.
5.1.2.4 Limited facilities
In the Arctic and Antarctic, the facilities and infrastructures are very limited. The
cruise includes most of the facilities the traveller needed. However, in case of
emergency, there are limited resources within the region to support and help
immediately.
5.1.3 Opportunity
5.1.3.1 The Shift in Market Trend
Polar tourism was target on up-market niche product which mainly from North
American, European, and Australasian (Bauer, 2001). Bauer (2001) forecasted
that there would be a potential increase of tourists from Asia in the future. Polar
tourism will offer more diversifying actives and transport modes. The adventure
market and eco-tourism market are also growing. That will enhance the growth
32
of the polar tourism development.
5.1.3.2 Global climate change
The global warming cause lost of sea ice and that will increase accessibility in
polar area (Macdonald, Harner and Fyfe, 2005). Shipping, tourism, oil
exploration and other industrial activities in that region would increase in the
future (Macdonald, Harner and Fyfe, 2005). The increase in temperature also
makes the climate in the polar area more acceptable for tourism activates.
5.1.4 Threat
5.1.4.1 Human impact
Several studies found out that the human activities have brought negative
impact on the environment of the Polar Regions (T. tin et al. 2009, Lamers,
2009, bauer, 2001, Hall and Johnson, 1995, Kriwoken and Rootes, 2000). The
negative impact might destroy the tourism industry in the Polar Regions in long
term. The major negative environment impacts include pollution (noise, air,
visual and water); environmental hazard; land use problems, ecological
disruption; damage to historic sites and waste disposal (Inskeep, 1991). More
33
regulation would set up to control and limit the tourism activities if the situation
is getting worse.
5.1.4.2 Global climate change
Global climate change brings both threat and opportunity to the Polar Regions.
The increase in temperature would damage the ecosystem of the Polar
Regions and all over the world. The unique attribute of the Arctic and Antarctic
might disappear in the future. That would lower the attractiveness of the Polar
Regions.
5.2 Comparative study of tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic
Table 3: Comparative study of tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic
Antarctic Arctic
History First exploration :
18th century
First exploration:
16th century
Heroic journey The earliest tourists were
individual anglers, hunters,
mountaineers, and adventures
Weather South Pole:
-60C in winter, -28.2C in
summer.
North Pole :
-40C in winter, 0C in summer.
Best Travel From late October to From March to October
34
season February
Wildlife and
Species
Penguins, seals, whales,
albatross, petrels, krill,
mosses and grasses
Whales, porpoises, seals, and
polar bears, musk ox, reindeer,
caribou, fox, hare, wolf,
lemming, bears, and more.
Number of
tourists
About 40,000 tourists a year More than five million a year
Population No native people and
permanent residents, but
there is a sparse population
(1,000 in winter to 4,000 in
summer) at various scientific
stations
4 million in north of 60°N
Govern Antarctic Treaty Canada, Russia, Greenland, the
United States, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, and Iceland
Management
program
Antarctic Treaty System,
International Association of
Antarctica Tour Operators
WWF Arctic Programme’s
Principles and Codes of
Conduct,
Comprehensive Tourism
Program through various
national and regional agencies
Access Sea and air only land ,sea and air;
Tourism
Products
Ship based, yachts, land
based with air support, over
flights without landings
Ship based, land based
35
Antarctica is unique in that it is not owned by any one country. It has no
permanent resident population and managed through the Antarctic Treaty
System. Expect tourism industry, almost all other forms of commercial activity
are prevented. In contrast, the Arctic is governed by Canada, Russia,
Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland.
Managing tourism in the Arctic is more complex than in Antarctica as different
nations have different laws and jurisdictions in the Arctic. WWF Arctic
Programme’s Principles and Codes of Conduct were voluntary code devised for
managing Arctic tourism. It was distributed to more than 5000 user groups,
government bodies and local communities in the Arctic (Mason et al., 2000).
However, it is voluntary for the tourists and tour operators to follow the
guidelines as it does not have legal validity.
The Arctic attracts a far greater number of tourists than the Antarctic, and the
Arctic has a much longer tourism history than the Antarctic. There are more
tourism products choices in the Arctic. There are indigenous peoples in the
Arctic but not in the Antarctic. Therefore, the Arctic has its own tradition, culture,
heritages and attractions. Enable the tourism products to be more diverse in the
Arctic when compare with the Antarctic. In addition, the Arctic is easier to
36
access as tourists can travel to the Arctic by land, sea and air while the
Antarctic can only travel by sea and air as the Antarctic is a landmass
surrounded by ocean.
The Arctic and the Antarctic share similar environment condition, and being the
world‘s most wildness and coldest place. Most of the wildlife living in the Arctic
and the Antarctic are unique. Polar night is also the natural phenomenon
specially occurs in the Polar Regions.
Tourism in the Polar Regions has grown rapidly in recent years. Tourism in the
Arctic and Antarctic are highly seasonal with the majority of tourists arriving in
the summer months. It is because in winter polar seas are covered by the ice,
but they can be relatively free from ice for sea transportation in summer
(Stonehouse, 1992).
The Arctic and Antarctic are both target on the world’s up-market and has high
barrier of entry. The barrier includes environmental condition, cost and time of
travel, difficulty of access, and jurisdictional restraints (Snyder, 2007).The
travellers have similar background such as they are of mature age, professional
with high income level and come from developed countries. Climate change
37
and environment issues are the biggest concern that the Arctic and the
Antarctic have to face nowadays.
38
SECTION 6 CONCLUSIONS
The development of the polar tourism is now entering a new stage. The Polar
Regions were not a tourism destination until 80th century. The Antarctic and
Arctic are the world most wildness, remoteness, coldest and untouched place.
However, the isolation which has long served the Polar Regions is now the
major feature that encourages tourists to explore these places.
The environment condition in the Polar Regions is too harsh to access and visit.
However the Polar Regions still attract many visitors who seek for challenging
and uniqueness. The wildlife watching, adventure activities and its unspoiled
environments are the most attractive attribute of the polar tourism on the
visitor’s view. Greater wealth, and increased leisure time are enabling greater
numbers of people to visit these remote polar areas.
Snyder (2007) summarized the most difficult barriers of travel to the polar areas.
Include environmental condition, cost and time of travel, difficulty of access, and
jurisdictional restraints. These barriers are reduced in the recent years and
enhancing the development of the polar tourism. The accessibility of the Polar
Regions was the major concern in the past, but the advanced ship technologies
39
together with improved marine charts and navigational aids have allowed cruise
ship travel to increase exponentially (Rand McNally, 1922.) Regularly
scheduled and charter flight and cruise also make the Polar Regions becomes
more accessible and affordable. The improved transport technologies not only
added numbers of tourists, but also expanded the seasonal and geographical
reach of polar tourism (Armstrong, 1972, 1991; Glines, 1964; Doren, 1993).
The number of tourists to the Arctic and the Antarctic is quite different. The
number of tourists travel to the Arctic is far greater than the Antarctic. It is
because the Arctic has a permanent human population, offers more tourism
products and more accessible when compare with the Antarctic.
As the Arctic and Antarctic have some common characteristics, polar tourism
also shares some opportunities and threats. Bauer (2001) predicted that there
would be a potential increase of tourists from Asia in the future. Polar tourism
will offer more diversifying actives and transport modes. Polar tour will focus on
activity-based tourism rather than location-based tourism (ASOC, 2008). The
adventure market and eco-tourism market are growing and that also is the
market which tourism in the Polar Regions wants to focus in the future.
40
Climate change brings both threats and opportunities for the development of
the polar tourism. The increases in the temperature cause lost of sea ice and
that will increase accessibility in polar area (Macdonald, Harner and Fyfe, 2005).
It also makes the climate in the polar areas more acceptable for tourism
activates such as different kinds of adventure and exploration. However, in
other points of views, climate change would damage the ecosystem and the
unique species of the Polar Regions will be lost in the future. According to the
surveys about the image and motivations of the polar tourism, the attractive of
the Polar tourism were based on the remoteness, wildlife, images of cold and
extreme natural environmental condition. The change on the environment in the
Arctic and Antarctic would reduce the attractiveness of the Polar Regions and
the tourism activities in there might also decrease.
Given that the number of tourists increasing rapidly year by year, it is necessary
to manage the volume and tourism activities. Visitor management is an
important issues in travel destinations and especially significant in polar tourism
as the environment of the Arctic and Antarctic is very sensitive and easily
damage by the human impact. Appropriate visitor management can reduce the
negative impacts of tourism (Pearce, 1989; Mason, 2003a). In Antarctic, all the
41
tourism and non-governmental activities have to follow the Antarctic Treaty
system. That includes the Guidance for visitors to the Antarctic and the
Guidance for Those Organising and Conducting Tourism and
Non-Governmental Activities in the Antarctic. Most tourist operators active in
the Antarctic belong to the International Association of Antarctica Tour
Operators, which also participates in the ATCM as an invited expert
organisation. However, the effectiveness of the voluntary codes of conduct is
reducing due to the increasing number of both operators and tourists.
In contrast, it is much difficult to control and manage the tourism in the Arctic as
the Arctic nations are governed by eight different countries. Each nation has
different policies and level of involvement on the control of the tourism activities.
There are no unified laws and regulations to control the tourism activities in the
whole area of the Arctic region. Although The World Wide Fund for Nature
Arctic Programme began developing principles and codes of conduct for Arctic
tourism, it is voluntary for the tourists and tour operators to follow the guidelines
as it does not have legal validity. Therefore, it is important for the Arctic nations
to work together and develop an international agreement on tourism and restrict
the unfavourable activities in the Arctic regions for sustainable growth.
42
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