botanical evolutionary processes

BOTANICAL EVOLUTIONARY

PROCESSES

SAMEH ABDELGHANY

Abstract Many scientists have discussed many theories of evolution. It was a scientific

competition between scientists to proof the accuracy of their theories and hypothesis. As a result of these theories, understanding of the principles that are related to microevolution, natural selection, adaptation within the species, gene

flow and genetic drift, isolation, and hybridization, will help to evaluate all of these theories. At national and global levels, countries take serious actions and

legislations to secure species survival. During the studying of the simple green plants (bryophytes), scientists discovered that they are beneficial to human

survival. They also have ecological importance. Another important topic is the diversity of the seed plants and the importance of them to both environment and

human. It is also important to understand the diversity of bacteria and viruses and to study their structure and functions. They also are essential to both human and

environment.

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1735.0803

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 1

1 BOTANICAL EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES

Botanical evolutionary processes

Many scientists have discussed many theories of evolution. It was a scientific competition between

scientists to prove the accuracy of their theories and hypothesis. As a result of these theories,

understanding of the principles that are related to microevolution, natural selection, adaptation

within the species, gene flow and genetic drift, isolation, and hybridization, will help to evaluate all

of these theories. At national and global levels, countries take severe actions and legislations to

secure species survival. During the studying of the simple green plants (bryophytes), scientists

discovered that they are beneficial to human survival. They also have ecological importance.

Another critical topic is the diversity of the seed plants and the importance of them to both the

environment and humans. It is also essential to understand the diversity of bacteria and viruses and

to study their structure and functions. They also are crucial to both humans and the environment.

Theories of Evolution

The theories of evolution can be divided into two periods, before and after Darwin. Before Darwin, I

would like to discuss most of the two famous theories about evolution. The first method is invented

by Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829) (Prothero and Buell, 2007). He proposed a theory of

evolution called “The Law of Use and Disuse.” He stated that if the animal uses an organ

frequently, the organ will develop and strengthen, while if it is not used, it will atrophy. He also

invented a theory of “The Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.” He believed that if organ

characteristics developed through adapting to a new lifestyle, it would transfer it to its offspring.

For example, the giraffe used its neck to reach the tree leaves, so its neck stretched, and this

characteristic has moved to the next generations. I completely disagree with this theory because of

the way inheritance works. The second theory of evolution is stated by Charles Lyell, 1830

(Anthro.palomar.edu, 2015). He explained the biological evolution by the geological process called

Uniformitarianism. He assumed that the processes that are happening now had operated in the

past. As a geologist, I can ensure that the impact of uniformitarianism influences the biological

evolution of the same species.

The second period is after Charles Darwin, 1859 theory of evolution (Darwin, Einstein, and Smith,

1859). He explained the development of life from nonlife. He argued that the most complicated

creatures are evolved from more simple ancestors naturally over time. I agree with this theory as it

is more reasonable to me. A good example that makes me agreed with this theory the evidence of

the evolution of horse toes. The ancestors of the horse were five-toes, fox-sized. By the time and

natural selection, horse toes became equine. I would like to maintain that the Darwinian Theory is

the most acceptable theory to me. Lamarck's theory failed to illustrate why the offspring of

metalworkers do not have developed muscles as their fathers. The Lyell theory can be acceptable,

but it cannot give a clear interpretation of how creatures are evolved.

One of the theories that Darwin proposed is called Natural Selection. It is a process of preserving

the functional advantages of a species to survive in the wild. It can be used to control some species

populations by selective breeding. It has four processes; variation, inheritance, high rate of

population growth and, differential survival and reproduction. Microevolution is a change in gene

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frequency within a group (Evolution.berkeley.edu, 2015). We can observe the evolution over short

periods of time, for example, an increase of the pesticide resistance gene in crop pests. Adaptation

within a species is a change in species characteristics, size, color, or organs of offspring due to

environmental changes. Adaptation is the change in the frequency of a gene. Adaptation can be by

evolving a gene as a result of natural selection for a particular function. An excellent example of this

perspective is the streamlined body shape of marine fish. Gene flow and genetic drift are a crucial

part of evolution theories. Gene flow is a movement of a gene from population to population.

Migration is one of the ways that the gene may flow amongst communities. Genetic drift is when

unpredictable changes happened in allele frequencies. In a small population, genetic drift is more

impactful to the gene pool than in more prominent communities. It is one of several strategies that

evolution can occur in the population. The last aspect that can affect the development is isolation

and hybridization. There are several ways of isolation; geographic isolation, the reproductive

isolation that is divided into pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation. Hybridization is the

interbreeding of different species to produce different offspring.

Secure species survival

Nationally in the UK, there is the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981. It is very efficient

legislation as it covers the protection of wildlife, including wild plants and wild animals. The great

achievement of this act is the establishment of protected areas as the UK has 5,000 SSSIs (Sites of

Special Scientific Interests) that cover around 8% of the land area of England and 12% of Wales

(GHK Consulting Ltd, 2015). Another strategy that is very successful in the UK is Special Areas of

Conservation (SACs). It helps to conserve 189 habitat types and 788 species that are identified in

Annexes I and II of the EC Habitats Directive; however, the UK has about 652 SACs

(Jncc.defra.gov.uk, 2015). In my opinion, the UK is doing very well to preserve species.

Internationally there are several effective strategies. One of these strategies is The Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The effectiveness

of this approach is that CITES protect 35,000 species against over-exploitation (cites.org, 2015).

Although this strategy achieved a high achievement in protecting species, it failed to protect wildlife

in some areas, such as areas of war. It also cannot enforce non-developed countries to fight illegal

trades. In Egypt, for example, the government cannot prevent illicit trade in endangered species of

fish and coral reefs. Another useful strategy, I believe, is IUCN, the International Union for

Conservation of Nature, Red List. It is succeeded in preserving 23,250 species till 2015. It is also

achieved to protect Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) as its population has increased from 52 mature in

2002 to 156 in 2016 (iucn.org, 2015).

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Bryophytes

They are non-vascular land plants that are a small, herbaceous plant. Bryophyte plants are different

than vascular plants. Its sporophytes have a short life, and they are attached to their gametophytes

as dependents to obtain nutrients from them. Bryophyte sporophytes consist of an unbranched

stalk, or seta, and a single terminal sporangium, and they are 2-5 cm tall (Schofield, 2014).

Bryophyte gametophore structure contains stems, roots, and leaves while the sporophyte produces

spores. Sporophytes are unknown in some bryophytes, and the gametophyte reproduces asexually.

Bryophyte classes are Division Bryophyta, or Mosses (Class Bryopsida, or Musci), Division

Marchantiophyta, or Liverworts (class Heptapsida, or Hepaticae), and Division

Anthocerotophyta or Hornworts (Class Anthocerotopsida, or Anthocerotae) (Mauseth, 1998).

Mauseth, J. (1998). Botany. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

UK SAC/SCI sites summary Jncc.defra.gov.uk, (2016). Special Areas of Conservation (SAC). [online] Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-23

[Accessed 7 Dec. 2015].

http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-23

http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-23

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Bryophytes are considered a simple green plant that is ecologically relevant and for humanity, as

well. The essential mosses that are vital to human survival are peat mosses. They are a primary

source of fuel, and they consider a vast reservoir of different energy. It is used, till now, for cooking

in some countries. About 95% of peat harvested in Ireland is burned to produce electricity

(Science.jrank.org, 2015). A human can use peats to improve soil water-holding capacity. I believe

that peat mosses play an imperative role in human survival. You can imagine that our lives without

Bryophytes, I would argue that we would have an issue in energy demands. The most critical role

they play is they are sensitive indicators of pollutants in the atmosphere.

As we have seen, that green plants are essential for human survival. It also has ecological

importance. Mosses, the liverworts, and lichens are the vast vegetation sources in the absence of

other vegetation. They occupy the areas of hills to prepare the soil for angiospermic and additional

plant growth. Sphagnum plants have great ecological importance as they cover the whole surface of

water help in minimizing the rate of evaporation. They also give an appearance of the soil from the

surface. I also would maintain that some bryophytes play a critical role in protecting soil erosion.

Despite bryophytes plans are useful for the environment; it might not be helpful for other plants

such as a vascular plant. I think the bryophyte mat can kill vascular seeds if it was deep enough.

Adaptation, Survival, and classification of seeds

Terrestrial plants are well-adapted to grow and persist. Seeds provide a significant adaptation for

terrestrial plants. A diploid embryo that exists in the seed is developed into a sporophyte. It also

stores tissue to help continuous growth, and it acts as a protective coat. Several layers of hard tissue

cover seeds to prevent desiccation of it. Seeds are scattering widely by wind, animals, or water. It

helps them to avoid food competitions with their parents. Plants can access the deep water by their

vascular systems. The most critical adaptation strategy, I guess, this plant can reduce water loss

across the cell wall as it has a waxy cuticle. The other important strategy is that the plant has

stomata on its leaves that can close and open. Plants can be dry tolerant conditions as they develop

spores with a protective wall. I believe that the plant has very efficient adaptation strategies.

Seed survival is crucial to both the environment and human survival. Seeds are the source of food to

a human, while other seeds are valuable raw materials for the manufacture of industrial chemicals.

They are not only necessary for human vegetation, but it also plays a crucial role in human welfare.

The human can eat seeds directly, or they might exist in fruit that humans eat. I usually use an apple

in the morning as a diet for me. It helps me to lose weight and builds my body. Seeds are used to

manufacture flour, starch, oil, and alcohol. Environmentally, seeds are used to restore ecosystems

by the plantation. This is one of the most vital usages of seeds environmentally. Seed banks and

seed genetic engineering can help in restoring the forests. I argue that seeds can control plant

population and crop variety. Although seed genetic engineering is required to conserve plants, it

might, in my opinion, be evil for plant diversity. Any unwell-studied genetic modification or an

error in the gene of a seed, it can damage a whole species of the plant. Seeds can act like a nuclear

bomb for other plant species if it is misused or genetically damaged.

In order to identify seed species, there are two ways to classify seeds. Classification of seeds is by

internal morphology, and by families. By internal morphology, seeds are divided into two classes;

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 5


Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous. The bulk of monocotyledonous families’ seeds

(Gramineae and Cyperaceae) have reserve food tissue. Its embryo has endosperm and seed leaves.

A dicotyledonous embryo occupies a small space of the seed cavity. The classification of seed by

families depends on the seed structure. This strategy is varied from a system to another. There are

four systems of classification, and they are divided into two main groups (Plantexplorers.com,

2015). Gymnospermae includes conifers, cycads, and Welwitschia. Angiospermae is called

“Magnoliophyta,” and it is divided into six main groups; Amborellaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Illiciacea,

Magnoliids, monocotyledons, and Eudicots.

The reproduction strategy of these two groups differs from one group to another. The reproduction

in gymnosperms takes place inside cones due to the absence of flowers or ovaries. The seed can be

transferred by the wind, over water, carried by the animal, or by explosions. In angiosperms, seeds

are developed inside the ovary.

Bacteria and Viruses Species, Structure, and Function

Bacteria are divided into many classes. Class Cyanobacteria species can obtain their energy by

conducting photosynthesis. It is blue bacteria, and they existed as blue-green algae. I consider this

species as they caused the Great Oxidation Event. They produce oxygen as a byproduct of

photosynthesis. Class Prochlorobacteriae is one of the bacteria species that are discovered

recently as photosynthetic bacteria. It contains chlorophyll A & B. Class Eubacteria are unicellular

and contains DNA, and its cell has a wall. This is the most important species as it is used for medical

applications. Class Archaebacteria includes bacteria that live in harsh conditions. They are

anaerobic bacteria. Viruses have two species; Viroid and Prions. Viroid contains small single-

stranded RNA. They can infect plants that are responsible for crop damage. Prions are smaller than

viruses, and it contains neither DNA nor RNA.

Bacteria size is ranged between 0.2 µm and 700µm. They have several shapes. It differs from

species to another (Fastbleep.com, 2015):

- Rod-shaped or bacillus: E.coli and Bacillus cereus.

- Spherical (coccus): Staphylococcus epiderminis.

- Curved (Vibrio, spirochetes): Vibrio cholera.

- Square-shaped (Arcola)

- Star-shaped (Stella), and

- Flagella: has a leg-like structure that helps to hold the bacterium.

The function of the cell structure is vital to protect the bacteria. The cell wall is responsible

prevent the osmosis shock of the cell and cell wall damage. The cytoplasmic membrane controls

the traffic of substance in and out of the cell. The chromosome holds the bacteria gene. Plasmid

carries the genetic information of the bacteria. Ribosome participates in protein synthesis.

Flagella helps the cell to move. The minerals are stored in the Inclusion body while Pili is

responsible for attaching the cell to the host. An endospore is robust and helps bacteria to survive

in hard conditions.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 6


Viruses have a different structure than bacteria. A protein coat called “a capsid” surrounding the

nucleic acid core. Viruses have two shaped, viral shape, icosahedron – 20 triangular faces, for

example, chickenpox, and helix-coiled spring, for instance, Rabies. Bacteriophage T4 Structure

has many components. Head consists of genetic material surrounded by capsid; it is responsible for

protecting the genome. The neck connects the head to the tail and consists of many discs. The tail

is a contractile protein that helps in the injection of genetic material into the host cell. The base

plate is responsible for attachment to the host (Shomu’s Biology, 2015).

The Importance of Bacteria and Viruses

Both bacteria and viruses are important ecologically and for a human. Environmentally, viruses are

essential in freshwater and saltwater regulation. They play a vital role in the carbon cycle in the

Fastbleep.com, (2015). Bacterial Cell Structure and Function - Microbiology | Fastbleep. [online] Available at:

http://www.fastbleep.com/biology-notes/35/112/654 [Accessed 31 Dec. 2015].

Horne, R. (1974). Virus structure. New York: Academic Press.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 7


marine environment as they destroy the bacteria. Viruses and bacteria form more than 90% of the

biomass in the marine environment (Viral Roles in Ecosystems, 2015). I agree with the fact that

viruses destruct harmful algae bloom that they kill other aquatic organisms. This is a beneficial role

of viruses in marine life. However, viruses are not always harmless. Viruses can kill some of the

marine animals, and for example, Parvovirus was responsible for melting if sea stars along the West

Coast of Canada and the US (Lee, 2014). Bacterial, as well as viruses, play a vital role in the

environment. They are responsible for the decomposition of dead bodies. I would maintain that this

is one of the essential roles of bacteria. The absence of those bacteria can make our lives full of

diseases because of rotten dead bodies. Another active role of the bacteria is that they are useful in

nitrogen fixation and make it available to plants, for example, Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria. Some

scientists can argue that some bacteria are harmful to the environment; however, I find that the

benefits of bacteria to the environment are more effective than their adverse effects.

Viruses and bacteria are not only relevant to the environment. They are also necessary for a human.

Most of the bacteria help humans to digest food and produce vitamins such as gut bacteria. The real

thing in the bacteria is that the human can use them to create dairy food such as cheese, yogurt, and

also sourdough bread. I like the use of bacteria and viruses to make the vaccine. The human takes

the advantages of science to fight the harmful effect of bacteria and viruses by themselves. Although

I believe that viruses have a significant adverse impact on human health, viruses can help humans

as they can kill harmful bacteria. My strong belief is that the adverse effects of the viruses are more

than its beneficial effect.

Conclusion

As we have seen that I agreed with Darwin theory of evolution as I find it more accurate and logic. It

can be considered in the definition of microevolution and natural selection theories. The UK and

other international agencies have maintained very efficient practices to preserve species. The study

of bryophytes and simple green plants lead the scientist to discover the importance of these plants

to human survival, and also, it has ecological imperative as well. Seeds adapt to terrestrial life by

maintaining several useful strategies. One of the methods to understand the diversity of seed is to

know how they classified and how they reproduce. This led me to study viruses and bacteria

diversity as they are crucial to maintaining our environment and our survival. I can tell that

bacteria have a more beneficial effect on humans than viruses. However, modern science takes full

advantage of turning viruses to be useful than it though before.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 8


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