!BİOLOGİCAL(PSYCHOLOGY(CH.10((((EMOTION((]Emotions!consist!of!patterns!of!physiological!responses!and!!speciesBtypical!behaviors.!!BIn!humans!these!responses!are!accompanied!by!feelings.!!In!fact,!most!of!us!use!the!word!emotion!to!refer!to!the!feelings,!not!to!the!behaviors.!!B!But!it!is!behavior,!and!not!private!experience,!that!has!consequences!for!survival!and!reproduction.!B!Thus,!the!useful!functions!served!by!emotional!behaviors!are!what!guided!the!evolution!of!our!brain.!!B!Emotion!is!a!behavioral!response,!response!pattern.!!B!Feeling!of!emotion!means!being!aware!of!emotion;!when!become!conscious!of!emotions!you!feel!emotion.!Sometimes!people!unconsciously!experience!emotions.!!Fear!as!an!emotion.!What!is!difference!fear!and!hunger?!Thirst!and!hunger!are!not!particular!response!to!something.!Thirst!and!hunger!are!physiological!needs.!!Emotions!are!responses,!responses!to!particular!situation.!!Mood!is!not!particular!response.!It!can!be!just!negative!or!positive.!Emotions:!fear,!sadness,!happiness,!anger,!etc.!How!can!you!explain!emotions!such!as!fear?!Emotions!are!explained!with!situations!because!emotions!are!responses!to!particular!situation,!so!it!depends!on!situations.!!When!people!feel!fear,!they!show!same!reaction,!same!type!of!responses,!speciesBtypical!behaviors.!!!Emotions(As(Response(Patterns(B!An!emotional!response!consists!of!three!types!of!components:!behavioral,!autonomic,!and!hormonal.!!The!behavioral'component!consists!of!muscular!movements!that!are!appropriate!to!the!situation!that!elicits!them.!!Autonomic'responses!facilitate!the!behaviors!and!provide!quick!mobilization!of!energy!for!vigorous!movement.!!The!activity!of!the!sympathetic!branch!of!the!autonomic!nervous!system!increases!while!that!of!the!parasympathetic!branch!decreases.!As!a!consequence,!heart!rate!increases,!and!changes!in!the!size!of!blood!vessels!shunt!the!circulation!of!blood!away!form!the!digestive!organs!toward!the!muscles.!So,!when!your!heart!rate!increases,!your!blood!pressure/flow!increases,!so!you!can!response!faster!to!situation.!!Hormonal'responses!reinforce!the!autonomic!responses.!!The!hormones!secreted!by!the!adrenal!medullaBepinephrine!and!norepinephrineBfurther!increase!blood!flow!to!the!muscles!and!cause!nutrients!stored!in!the!muscles!to!be!converted!into!glucose.!In!addition,!the!adrenal!cortex!secretes!steroid!hormones,!which!also!help!to!make!glucose!available!to!the!muscles.!Special!behaviors!that!serve!to!communicate!emotional!states!to!other!animals,!such!as!the!threat!gestures!that!precede!an!actual!attack!and!the!smiles!and!frowns!used!by!humans.!Negative!emotions!receive!much!more!attention!than!positive!ones.!Most!of!the!research!on!the!physiology!of!emotions!has!been!confined!to!fear!and!anxiety.!!Emotions!as!response!patterns!consists!of!3!types!of!components:!! Behavioral!–!consists!of!muscular!movements!that!are!appropriate!

to!the!situation!that!elicits!them!" e.g.!dog!defending!its!territory,!growls!and!assumes!aggressive!

posture!! Autonomic!–!facilitate!the!behaviors!and!provide!quick!mobilization!

of!energy!for!vigorous!movement!" e.g.!heart!rate!increase!

! Hormonal!–!reinforce!the!autonomic!responses!" e.g.!hormones!secreted!by!the!adrenal!medulla!(epinephrine!and!NE)!

further!increase!blood!flow!to!muscles!!!!!!!!!!

Fear(and(disgust((BFear!is!survival,!you!cannot!live!without!fear.!!BThe!integration!of!the!components!of!fear!appears!to!be!controlled!by!the!amygdala.!!BCertain!types!of!food!are!disgusting.!Disgusting!is!also!learned!response!as!fear.!Babies!can’t!disgust!first.!But!children!can!disgust!because!they!learned.!Ex:!bugs.!Some!cultures!eat!it,!but!some!people!feel!disgust!due!to!they!learned!it!is!dirty.!A!child!can!drink!a!juice!when!cockroach!is!removed,!but!adults!do!not!drink!because!they!learned!there!could!be!bacteria.!Disgusting!is!not!only!about!meal.!!Disgusting!also!has!special!area!in!the!brain.!Anterior!insula.!Unpleasant!or!painful!stimuli!also!activate!this!field.!Anterior!insular!cortex!is!involved!in!whole!feelings!of!disgusting.!!(Neural(Control(of(Emotional(Response(Patterns:(Role(of(the(Amygdala(Stimulation!of!various!parts!of!the!brain!can!induce!an!animal!to!attack!another!one!or!can!cause!it!to!make!vigorous!attempts!to!escape.!In!other!words,!the!stimulation!can!produce!the!behaviors!associated!with!anger!or!fear.!The!overt!behaviors,!the!autonomic!responses,!and!the!hormonal!secretions!associated!with!these!emotional!reactions!are!controlled!by!separate!neural!systems.!The!integration!of!these!responses!appears!to!be!controlled!by!the!amygdala.!(Anatomy(of(the(Amygdala(]The!amygdala!plays!a!special!role!in!physiological!and!behavioral!reactions!to!objects!and!situations!that!have!biological!significance,!including!those!that!warn!of!pain!or!other!unpleasant!consequences. BResearchers!in!several!different!laboratories!have!shown!that!single!neurons!in!various!nuclei!of!the!amygdala!become!active!when!emotionally!relevant!stimuli!are!presented.!!BThe!role!of!amygdala!is!organizing!emotional!responses!produced!by!aversive!stimuli!(kaçınmalı!uyarıcı).!!BThe!amygdala!(or!more!precisely,!the!amygdala'complex)!is!located!within!the!temporal!lobes.!!BThe!amygdala!has!been!subdivided!into!approximately!twelve!regions,!each!containing!several!subregions.!It!consists!of!several!groups!of!nuclei,!each!with!different!inputs!and!outputsBand!with!different!functions.!The!three!major!parts!of!the!amygdala:!the!lateral'nucleus,!the!central'nucleus,!and!the!basal'nucleus.!!

!!B!Central!nucleus!does!not!know!what!the!thing!that!creates!fear,!but!lateral!nucleus!and!basal!nucleus!only!know.!!1.(Lateral(nucleus((LA)!receive!sensory!information!from!the!all!regions!of!the!neocortex,!including!primary!sensory!cortex,!association!cortex,!thalamus,!and!hippocampal!formation.!The!lateral!nucleus!sends!information!to!the!basal!nucleus!(B)!and!the!other!parts!of!the!brain,!including!the!ventral!striatum!(a!region!involved!in!the!effects!of!reinforcing!stimuli!on!learning)!and!to!the!dorsomedial!nucleus!of!the!thalamus,!whose!projection!region!is!the!prefrontal!cortex.!They!also!provide!sensory!input!to!the!central!nucleus,!which!is!the!part!to!the!amygdala!that!will!most!concern!us.!!!!!!!!

2.(Central(nucleus((CE)!The!lateral!nucleus!(LA)!and!basal!nucleus!(B)!send!information!to!the!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!and!the!central(nucleus((CE),!which!projects!to!regions!of!the!hypothalamus,!midbrain,!pons,!and!medulla!that!are!responsible!for!the!expression!of!the!various!components!of!emotional!responses.!!BActivation!of!the!central!nucleus!elicits!(ortaya!çıkarır)!a!variety!of!emotional!responses:!behavioral,!autonomic,!and!hormonal.!BThe!central!nucleus!of!the!amygdala!is!the!single!most!important!part!of!the!brain!for!the!expression!of!emotional!responses!provoked!by!aversive!stimuli.!!BWhen!threatening!stimuli!are!perceived,!increases!are!seen!in!the!neural!activity!of!the!central!nucleus!and!the!production!of!Fos!protein!in!there!!BDamage!to!the!central!nucleus!reduces!or!abolishes!a!wide!range!of!emotional!behaviors!and!physiological!responses.!!BAfter!the!central!nucleus!has!been!destroyed,!animals!no!longer!show!signs!of!fear!when!confronted!with!stimuli!that!have!been!paired!with!aversive!events.!!BFor!example,!normal!monkeys!show!signs!of!fear!when!they!see!a!snake,!but!those!with!amygdala!lesions!do!not.!The!animals’!blood!levels!of!stress!hormones!are!lower.!In!contrast,!when!the!central!amygdala!is!stimulated!by!means!of!electricity!or!by!an!injection!of!an!excitatory!amino!acid,!the!animal!shows!physiological!and!behavioral!signs!of!fear!and!agitation,!and!long!–term!stimulation!of!the!central!nucleus!produces!stressBinduced!illnesses!such!as!gastric!ulcers.!These!observations!suggest!that!the!autonomic!and!endocrine!responses!controlled!by!the!central!nucleus!are!among!those!responsible!for!the!harmful!effects!of!longBterm!stress.!!

!The!Amygdala.!This!muchBsimplified!diagram!of!the!major!divisions!and!connections!of!the!amygdala!that!play!a!role!in!emotions.!!Conditioned(Emotional(Responses(BA!classically!conditioned!response!that!occurs!when!a!neutral!stimulus!is!followed!by!an!aversive!stimulus;!usually!includes!autonomic,!behavioral,!and!endocrine!components!such!as!changes!in!heart!rate,!freezing,!and!secretion!of!stressBrelated!hormones.!!BResearch!indicates!that!the!physical!changes!responsible!for!classical!conditioning!take!place!in!the!lateral!nucleus!of!the!amygdala.!!BNeurons!in!the!lateral!nucleus!communicate!with!neurons!in!the!central!nucleus,!which!in!turn!communicate!with!regions!in!the!hypothalamus,!midbrain,!pons,!and!medulla!that!are!responsible!for!the!behavioral,!autonomic,!and!hormonal!components!of!a!conditioned!emotional!response.!3.(Conditioned(emotional(response!is!produced!by!a!neutral!stimulus!that!has!been!paired!with!an!emotionBproducing!stimulus.!Briefly,!classical!conditioning!occurs!when!a!neutral!stimulus!is!regularly!followed!by!a!stimulus!that!automatically!evokes!a!response.!!B!Behavioral!arrestB!a!speciesBtypical!defensive!response!called!freezing.!!!!!!

!!((Amygdala!Connections.!This!schematic!diagram!shows!some!important!brain!regions!that!receive!input!from!the!central!nucleus!of!the!amygdala!and!the!emotional!responses!controlled!by!these!regions.!

((((((((((((((4.(Ventromedial(prefrontal(cortex((vmPFC)(The!region!of!the!prefrontal!cortex!at!the!base!of!the!anterior!frontal!lobes,!adjacent!to!the!midline;!plays!an!inhibitory!role!in!the!expression!of!emotions.!The!vmPFC!is!involved!in!process!of!extinction.!!BBehavioral!studies!have!shown!that!extinction!is!not!the!same!as!forgetting.!Inhibition!is!supplied!by!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex.!!BThese!studies!found!that!stimulation!of!parts!of!the!brain!(for!example,!the!hypothalamus)!produced!autonomic!responses!that!are!often!associated!with!fear!and!anxiety!but!that!only!when!the!amygdala!was!stimulated!did!people!also!report!that!they!actually!felt!afraid.!BMany!studies!have!shown!that!lesions!of!the!amygdala!decrease!people’s!emotional!responses.!People!with!lesions!of!the!amygdala!showed!impaired!acquisition!of!a!conditioned!emotional!response,!just!as!rats!do.!BMost!human!fears!are!probably!acquired!socially,!not!through!first!hand!experience!with!painful!stimuli.!For!example,!a!child!does!not!have!to!be!attacked!by!a!dog!to!develop!a!fear!of!dogs.!He!or!she!can!develop!fear!by!watching!another!person!being!attacked!or!see!another!person!display!signs!of!fear!when!encountering!a!dog.!So,!when!a!danger!signal!appeared,!it!is!sufficient!to!evoke!a!fear!response!and!increased!activation!of!amygdala.!!BWe!saw!that!studies!with!laboratory!animals!indicate!that!the!medial!prefrontal!cortex!plays!a!critical!role!in!extinction!of!a!conditioned!emotional!response.!The!same!is!true!for!humans.!BLesions!of!the!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!impair!extinction,!stimulation!of!this!region!inhibits!conditioned!emotional!responses,!and!extinction!training!activates!neurons!there.!!!

!!

BWhen!a!person!experienced!trauma,!his!connection!between!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!and!amygdala,!became!damaged.!He!cannot!decrease!his!fear,!event!the!event!is!in!the!past!he!always!feel!fear.!(ex:!war!traumas)!!Ex:!Pass!to!cross!road!is!also!difficult!for!those!people!who!with!damaged!connection!between!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!and!amygdala.!If!it!were!not!damaged,!prefrontal!cortex!would!be!say!that!there!is!no!fearful!thing!in!the!road,!you!can!pass.!!(Brain!story!how!the!head!of!the!moment)!!Two!ways:!Frightened!seeing!directly!goes!and!activates!amygdala.!!Frightened!seeing!first!goes!to!thalamus,!then!striate!cortex,!visual!association!cortex,!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex,!!!BIncreased!activity!of!amygdala!correlated!with!acquisition!of!a!conditioned!emotional!response,!and!increased!activity!of!the!medial!prefrontal!cortex!correlated!with!extinction!of!the!conditioned!response.!!BWomen!who!had!sustained!damage!to!the!auditory!sensory!cortex,!was!unable!to!perceive!or!produce!melodic!or!rhythmic!aspects!of!music.!She!could!not!even!tell!the!difference!between!consonant!(pleasant)!and!dissonant!(unpleasant)!music.!However,!she!was!still!able!to!recognize!the!mood!conveyed!by!music.!Damage!the!amygdala!showed!the!opposite!symptoms:!They!had!no!trouble!with!musical!perception!but!were!unable!to!recognize!scary!music.!They!could!still!recognize!happy!and!sad!music.!Thus,!the!amygdala!lesions!impair!recognition!of!a!musical!style!that!is!normally!associated!with!fear.!!!Anger(and(Aggression(and(Impulse(Control((BAlmost!all!species!of!animals!engage!in!aggressive!behaviors,!which!involve!threatening!gestures!or!actual!attack!directed!toward!another!animal.!BAggressive!behaviors!are!speciesBtypical;!that!is,!the!patterns!of!movements!(for!example,!posturing,!biting,!striking,!and!hissing)!are!organized!by!neural!circuits!whose!development!is!largely!programmed!by!an!animal’s!genes.!!B!Human!violence!and!aggression!and!serious!social!problems!B!Several!studies!have!found!that!serotonergic!neurons!play!an!inhibitory!role!in!human!aggression!B!For!example!a!depression!rate!of!serotonin!release!(indicated!by!low!level!of!%BHIAA!in!the!CSF)!are!associated!with!aggression!and!other!forms!of!antisocial!behavior,!including!assault,!arson,!murder,!and!child!beating.!!B!If!low!levels!of!serotonin!release!contribute!to!aggression,!perhaps!drugs!that!act!as!serotonin!agonists!might!be!help!to!reduce!antisocial!behavior.!!B!In!fact,!study!has!reported!that!fluoxetine!(Prozac),!a!serotonin!agonist,!decreased!irritability!and!aggressiveness,!as!measured!by!a!psychological!test.!!!BIf!serotonin!level!lows,!activity!of!amygdala!increases.!!BFunctional!imaging!studies!have!found!an!association!between!differences!in!the!genes!responsible!for!production!of!serotonin!transporters!and!the!reaction!of!people’s!amygdala!to!the!viewing!of!facial!expressions!of!negative!emotions.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Amygdala!!!!

Neural(control(of(aggressive(behavior(" The!neural!control!of!aggressive!behavior!is!hierarchical.!" That!is,!the!particular!muscle!movements!an!animal!makes!in!

attacking!or!defending!itself!are!programmed!by!neural!circuits!in!the!brain!stem!

" Whether!an!animal!attack!depends!on!many!factors,!including!the!nature!of!eliciting!stimulus!in!the!environment!and!the!animal’s!previous!experience.!!

! Activity!of!these!circuits!controlled!by!hypothalamus!and!amygdala!! Defensive!behavior!and!predation!can!be!elicited!by!stimulating!the!

periaqueductal!gray!(PAG)!of!the!cat’s!midbrain!" The!activity!of!serotonergic!synapses!inhibits!aggression;!while!

destruction!of!serotonergic!axons!in!the!forebrain!facilitates!aggressive!attack.!!For!this!reason!some!clinicians!have!used!serotonergic!drugs!to!treat!violent!behavior!in!humans.!Destruction!of!serotonergic!axons!in!the!forebrain!facilitates!aggressive!attack,!presumably!by!removing!an!inhibitory!effect!

! 5BHT!does!not!simply!inhibit!aggression!however,!it!appears!to!exert!a!controlling!influence!on!risky!behaviors!

! In!human!subjects,!depressed!rates!of!5BHT!release!are!associated!with!aggression!and!other!forms!of!antisocial!behavior!

! Functional!imaging!studies!found!an!association!b/t!differences!in!the!genes!responsible!for!production!of!5BHT!transporters!and!the!reaction!of!people’s!amygdala!to!the!viewing!of!facial!expressions!of!negative!emotions!

!Role(of(serotonin(of(aggression!B!An!overwhelmingly!amount!of!evidence!suggests!that!the!neural!activity!of!serotonergic!synapses!inhibits!aggression.!Serotonin!does!not!simply!inhibit!aggression;!rather,!it!exerts!a!controlling!influence!on!risky!behavior,!which!includes!aggression.!!B!For!example,!the!investigators!followed!for!4!years!a!large!percentage!of!those!with!the!lowest!serotonin!levels!died,!while!all!of!the!monkeys!with!the!highest!level!survived.!Most!of!monkeys!that!died!were!killed!by!other!monkeys.!In!fact,!one!of!the!monkeys!was!killed!had!the!lowest!serotonin!level!and!was!seen!attacking!two!mature!males!the!night!before!his!death.!(serotonin!also!exerts!a!controlling!influence!on!risky!behavior,!which!includes!aggression).!!B!Serotonin!has!an!inhibitory!role!on!aggression.!!B!The!monkeys!with!low!levels!of!serotonergic!activity!showed!the!lowest!levels!of!social!competency.!B!Several!studies!have!found!that!serotonergic!neurons!play!an!inhibitory!role!in!human!aggression.!B!A!history!of!aggressiveness!in!psychological!test!scores!indicating!antisocial!tendencies!was!related!to!low!levels!of!CSF!5BHIAA!in!a!group!of!naval!recruits.!B!They!found!that!the!men!with!the!lowest!serotonergic!activity!were!more!likely!to!have!close!relatives!with!a!history!of!similar!behavior!problems.!!Role(of(the(Ventromedial(Prefrontal(Cortex(of(Aggression:!BMany!investigators!believe!that!impulsive!violence!is!a!consequence!of!faulty!emotional!regulation.!!BFor!most!of!us,!frustrations!may!elicit!an!urge!to!respond!emotionally,!but!we!usually!manage!to!calm!ourselves!and!suppress!these!urges.!!B!The!vmPFC!receives!direct!inputs!from!the!dorsomedial!thalamus,!temporal!cortex,!ventral!tegmental!area,!olfactory!system,!and!amygdala.!B!Its!outputs!go!to!several!brain!regions,!including!the!cingulate!cortex,!hippocampal!formation,!temporal!cortex,!lateral!hypothalamus,!and!amygdala.!!B!Finally,!it!communicates!with!other!regions!of!the!frontal!cortex.!!B!Thus,!its!inputs!provide!it!with!information!about!what!is!happening!in!the!environment!and!what!plans!are!being!made!by!the!rest!of!the!frontal!lobes,!and!its!outputs!permit!it!to!affect!a!variety!of!behaviors!and!physiological!responses,!including!emotional!responses!organized!by!the!amygdala.!!B!The!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!plays!an!important!role!in!control!of!emotion.!B!If!vmPFC!is!damaged,!people!cannot!control!their!emotions.!!(ex:!Phineas!Gage’s!Accident)!!B!People!whose!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!has!been!damaged!by!disease!or!accident!are!still!able!to!accurately!assess!the!significance!of!particular!situations!but!only!in!a!theoretical!sense.!!

Functions(of(ventromedial(prefrontal(cortex:((Decision]making(B!Patients!with!bilateral!lesions!of!the!vmPFC!develop!severe!impairments!in!personal!and!social!decisionBmaking!even!though!most!of!their!intellectual!ability!is!preserved.!For!instance,!they!have!difficulties!in!choosing!between!options!with!uncertain!outcomes,!whether!the!uncertainty!is!in!the!form!of!a!risk!or!of!an!ambiguity.!!B!After!their!lesion,!these!patients!have!an!impaired!capacity!to!learn!from!their!mistakes,!making!the!same!decisions!again!and!again!even!though!they!lead!to!negative!consequences.!These!patients!choose!alternatives!that!give!immediate!rewards,!but!seem!to!be!blind!to!the!future!consequences!of!their!actions.!However,!the!underlying!mechanisms!of!this!behavior!are!not!yet!fully!understood.(B!People!with!damage!to!the!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!still!retain!the!ability!to!consciously!make!moral!judgments!without!error,!but!only!in!hypothetical!situations!presented!to!them.!There!is!a!gap!in!reasoning!when!applying!the!same!moral!principles!to!similar!situations!in!their!own!lives.!The!result!is!that!people!make!decisions!that!are!inconsistent!with!their!self!professed!moral!values.!B!Personal!relevance!is!important!for!patient!who!have!damage!with!vmPFC!to!make!decision.!For!example,!for!personal!decisions,!they!can!make!immoral!decision,!but!for!impersonal!decisions,!they!can!make!moral!decisions.!!!Regulation(of(emotion(

Activation!of!the!vmPFC!is!associated!with!successful!suppression!of!emotional!responses!to!a!negative!emotional!signal.!Patients!with!vmPFC!lesions!show!defects!both!in!emotional!response!and!emotion!regulation.!Their!emotional!responsivity!is!generally!diminished!and!they!show!markedly!reduced!social!emotions!such!as!compassion,!shame!and!guilt.!These!are!emotions!that!are!closely!associated!with!moral!values.!Patients!also!exhibit!poorly!regulated!anger!and!frustration!tolerance!in!certain!circumstances.(

Patients!with!focal!lesions!in!the!vmPFC!show!personality!changes!such!as!lack!of!empathy,!irresponsibility,!and!poor!decision!making.!These!traits!are!similar!to!psychopathic!personality!traits.!

(Extinction(

Another!role!that!the!vmPFC!plays!is!in!the!process!of!extinction,!the!gradual!weakening!and!eventual!cessation!of!a!conditioned!response.!The!specific!role!played!by!the!vmPFC!concerning!extinction!is!not!well!understood,!but!it!is!believed!that!it!plays!a!necessary!role!in!the!recall!of!extinction!learning!after!a!long!period!of!time.!Studies!show!that!it!aids!in!the!consolidation!of!extinction!learning.!(

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Summary(The!word!emotion!refers!to!behaviors,!physiological!

responses,!and!feelings.!This!section!has!discussed!emotional!response!patterns,!which!consist!of!behaviors!that!deal!with!particular!situations!and!physiological!responses!(both!autonomic!and!hormonal)!that!support!the!behaviors.!!

The!amygdala!organizes!behavioral,!autonomic,!and!hormonal!responses!to!a!variety!of!situations,!including!those!that!produce!fear,!anger,!or!disgust.!In!addition,!it!is!involved!in!the!effects!of!odors!and!pheromones!on!sexual!and!maternal!behavior.!It!receives!inputs!from!the!olfactory!system,!the!association!cortex!of!the!temporal!lobe,!the!frontal!cortex,!and!the!rest!of!the!limbic!system.!Its!outputs!go!to!the!frontal!cortex,!hypothalamus,!hippocampal!formation,!and!brain!stem!nuclei!that!control!autonomic!functions!and!some!speciesBtypical!behaviors.!!Damage!to!specific!brain!regions!that!receive!these!outputs!will!abolish!particular!components!of!emotional!response!patterns.!

Electrical!recordings!of!single!neurons!in!the!amygdala!indicate!that!some!of!them!respond!when!the!animal!perceives!particular!stimuli!with!emotional!significance.!Stimulation!of!the!amygdala!leads!to!emotional!responses,!and!it!destruction!disrupts!them.!(Receptors!in!the!amygdala!are!largely!responsible!for!the!anxiolytic!effects!of!the!benzodiaaepine!tranquilizers!and!the!opiates.)!Studies!of!people!with!amygdala!lesions!and!PET!and!functional!MRI!studies!with!humans!indicate!that!the!amygdala!is!involved!in!emotional!reactions!in!our!species,!too.!Pairing!of!neural!stimuli!with!those!that!elicit!emotional!responses!results!in!classically!conditioned!emotional!responses.!Learning!of!these!responses!takes!place!primarily!in!the!amygdala.!Extinction!of!conditioned!emotional!responses!involved!inhibitory!control!of!amygdala!activity!by!the!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex.!!

Studies!of!people!with!amygdala!lesions!and!functional!imaging!studies!with!humans!indicate!that!the!amygdala!is!involved!in!emotional!reactions!in!our!species,!too.!However,!many!of!our!conditioned!emotional!responses!are!acquired!by!observing!the!responses!of!other!people!or!even!through!verbal!instructions.!!

Aggressive!behaviors!are!speciesBtypical!and!serve!useful!functions!most!of!the!time.!These!behaviors!are!organized!by!circuits!in!the!brain!stem,!which!are!modulated!by!the!amygdala!and!hypothalamus.!The!activity!of!serotonergic!neurons!appears!to!inhibit!riskBtaking!behaviors,!including!aggression.!Destruction!of!serotonergic!axons!in!the!forebrain!enhances!aggression,!and!administration!of!drugs!that!facilitate!serotonergic!transmission!reduces!it.!Low!CSF!levels!of!5BHIAA!(a!metabolite!of!serotonin)!are!correlated!with!increased!riskBtaking!and!aggressive!behavior!in!monkeys!and!humans.!!

The!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!plays!an!important!role!in!emotional!reactions.!This!region!communicates!with!the!dorsomedial!thalamus,!temporal!cortex,!ventral!tegmental!area,!olfactory!system,!amygdala,!cingulate!cortex,!lateral!hypothalamus,!and!other!regions!of!the!frontal!cortex.!People!with!lesions!of!the!mvPFC!show!impulsive!behavior!and!often!display!outbursts!of!inappropriate!anger.!Their!lack!of!an!emotional!response!in!a!situation!that!has!important!consequences!for!them!often!leads!to!poor!decisionBmaking.!!

Evidence!suggests!that!the!prefrontal!cortex!is!involved!in!making!moral!judgments.!When!people!make!judgments!that!involve!conflicts!between!utilitarian!judgments!(one!person!dies!but!five!people!live)!and!personal!moral!judgments!(are!you!willing!to!push!a!man!to!his!death?),!the!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!is!activated.!Activation!of!one!part!of!this!region,!the!anterior!cingulate!cortex,!is!involved!in!weighing!emotional!and!rational!factors!and!coming!to!a!decision!about!what!action!to!take.!People!with!damage!to!the!vmPFC!display!utilitarian!moral!judgments.!The!release!of!serotonin!in!the!prefrontal!cortex!activates!this!region,!and!some!investigators!believe!that!the!serotonergic!input!to!this!region!is!responsible!for!the!ability!of!serotonin!to!inhibit!aggression!and!risky!behavior.!!!Extra!Notes:!!?'Many'investigators'believe'that'impulsive'violence'is'a'consequence'of'faulty'emotional'regulation.'The'amygdala'plays'an'important'role'in'provoking'anger'and'violent'emotional'reactions,'and'the'prefrontal'cortex'plays'an'important'role'in'suppressing'such'behavior'by'making'us'see'its'negative'consequences.'Antisocial'behavior'may'be'associated'with'decreased'volume'of'the'prefrontal'cortex;'thus,'activation'of'the'prefrontal'cortex'may'reflect'its'role'in'inhibiting'aggressive'behavior.''

EXPRESSION(AND(ROCOGNITION(OF(EMOTIONS(]Many!species!of!animals!(including!our!own)!communicate!their!emotions!to!others!by!means!of!postural!changes,!facial!expressions,!and!nonverbal!sounds!(such!as!sighs,!moans,!and!growls). BThese!expressions!serve!useful!social!functions;!they!tell!other!individuals!how!we!feel!and—more!to!the!point—what!we!are!likely!to!do. Facial(Expression(of(Emotions:(Innate(Responses(B!Charles!Darwin!(1872/1965)!suggested!that!human!expressions!of!emotion!have!evolved!form!similar!expressions!in!other!animals.!!B!He!said!that!emotional!expressions!are!innate,!unlearned!responses!consisting!of!a!complex!set!of!movements,!principally!of!the!facial!muscles.!Thus,!a!human’s!sneer!and!a!wolf’s!snarl!are!biologically!determined!response!patterns,!both!controlled!by!innate!brain!mechanisms,!just!as!coughing!and!sneezing!are.(B!No!matter!how!isolated!people!are,!they!show!the!same!facial!expressions!of!emotion,!then!these!expressions!must!be!inherited!instead!of!learned.!B!Because!the!same!facial!expressions!were!used!by!people!who!had!not!previously!been!exposed!to!each!other,!Ekman!and!Friesen!concluded!that!the!expressions!were!unlearned!behavior!patterns.!In!contrast,!different!cultures!use!different!words!to!express!particular!concepts;!production!of!these!words!dos!not!involve!innate!responses!but!must!be!learned.!B!Other!researchers!have!compared!the!facial!expressions!of!blind!and!normally!sighted!people.!They!reasoned!that!if!the!facial!expressions!of!the!two!groups!are!similar,!then!the!expressions!are!natural!for!our!species!and!do!not!require!learning!by!imitation.!In!fact,!the!facial!expressions!of!young!blind!and!sighted!children!are!very!similar.!Also,!a!study!of!the!emotional!expressions!of!people!competing!(and!winning!or!losing)!athletic!events!in!the!2004!Paralympic!Games!found!no!difference!between!the!expressions!of!congenitally!blind,!noncongenitally!blind!and!sighted!athletes.!!B!Thus,!both!the!crossBcultural!studies!and!the!investigations!with!blind!children!confirm!the!naturalness!of!these!expressions.!Researchers!have!not!yet!determined!whether!other!means!of!communicating!emotions,!such!as!tone!of!voice!or!changes!in!body!posture,!are!learned!or!are!at!least!partly!innate.!!Neural(Basis(of(the(Communication(of(Emotions:(Recognition(! Effective!communication!is!a!twoBway!process.!!BRecognition!of!another!person’s!facial!expression!of!emotions!is!generally!automatic,!rapid,!and!accurate. BPeople!can!express!emotions!through!their!body!language,!as!well!as!through!muscular!movements!of!their!face. Laterality(of(Emotional(Recognition(B!We!recognize!other!people’s!feelings!by!means!of!vision!and!auditionBseeing!their!facial!expressions!and!hearing!their!tone!of!voice!and!choice!of!words.!!B!Many!studies!have!found!that!the!right!hemisphere!plays!a!more!important!role!than!the!left!hemisphere!in!comprehension!of!emotion.!For!example,!many!investigators!have!found!a!leftBear!and!a!leftBvisualBfield!advantage!in!recognition!of!emotionally!related!stimuli.!! In!studies!of!hemispherical!differences!in!visual!recognition,!stimuli!are!usually!presented!to!the!left!or!right!visual!field!so!rapidly!that!the!subject!does!not!have!time!to!move!his!or!her!eyes.!Many!studies!have!shown!that!the!left!hemisphere!is!better!than!the!right!at!recognizing!words!or!letter!strings!but!that!the!right!hemisphere!is!better!at!detecting!differences!in!facial!expressions!of!emotion.!These!results!suggest!that!when!a!message!is!heard,!the!right!hemisphere!assesses!the!emotional!expression!of!the!voice!while!the!left!hemisphere!assesses!the!meaning!of!the!words.!! !!

!Perception!of!Emotions.!The!PET!scans!indicate!brain!regions!activated!by!listening!to!emotions!expressed!by!tone!of!voice!(green)!or!by!meanings!of!words!(red).!

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Damage!to!the!visual!association!cortex!can!cause!prosopagnosia?'inability!to!recognize!particular!faces.!Just!as!recognition!of!the!meaning!of!words!and!the!emotion!expressed!by!tone!of!voice!are!accomplished!by!different!brain!functions,!so!are!recognition!of!particular!faces!and!facial!expressions!of!emotions.!! Patients!with!right!hemisphere!damage!had!difficulty!producing!or!describing!mental!images!of!facial!expressions!of!emotions.!!!

!Role(of(the(Amygdala(B!The!amygdala!plays!a!special!role!in!emotional!responses.!It!may!play!a!role!in!emotional!recognition!as!well.!!B!Several!studies!have!found!that!lesions!of!the!amygdala!impairs!people’s!ability!to!recognize!facial!expressions!of!emotionB!especially!expressions!of!fear!report!the!case!of!a!woman!who!had!normal!hearing!but!had!difficulty!recognizing!emotionsBparticularly!fear!and!angerB!expressed!in!a!person’s!tone!of!voice.!!BThe!rapid!response!suggests!that!visual!information!that!the!amygdala!receives!directly!from!the!subcortical!visual!system!(which!conducts!information!very!rapidly)!permits!it!to!recognize!facial!expressions!of!fear.!B!When!people!view!photographs!of!faces!expressing!fear,!then!there!are!large!increases!in!the!activity!of!amygdala.!But!there!are!only!small!increases!or!even!decreases!when!they!view!photographs!of!happy!faces.!However,!amygdala!lesions!do!not!appear!to!affect!people’s!ability!to!recognize!emotion!in!tone!of!voice.! B!The!found!that!fearful!faces!produced!the!largest!response!and!that!the!amygdala!showed!activity!before!the!visual!cortex!did.!The!rapid!response!suggests!that!visual!information!that!the!amygdala!receives!directly!from!the!subcortical!visual!system!(which!conducts!information!very!rapidly)!permits!it!to!recognize!facial!expressions!of!fear.!!B!If!fusiform!face!area!is!damaged,!people!still!can!recognize!facial!expression!of!people.!!B!Amygdala!is!responsible!for!visual!information.!It!does!not!identify!noise.!!BAmygdala!is!not!involved!in!expression.!Just!involved!in!recognition.!!!Role(of(Imıtation(in(Recognition(of(Emotional(Expressions(B!Adolphs!discovered!a!possible!link!between!somatosensation!and!emotional!recognition.!!B!They!compiled!computerized!information!about!the!locations!of!brain!damage!in!108!patients!with!localized!brain!lesions!and!correlated!this!information!with!the!patients’!ability!to!recognize!and!identify!facial!expressions!of!emotions.!They!found!that!the!most!severe!damage!to!this!ability!was!caused!by!damage!to!the!somatosensory!cortex!of!the!right!hemisphere.!!

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BThey!suggest!that!when!we!saw!a!facial!expression!of!emotion,!we!unconsciously!imagine!ourselves!making!that!expression.!Often,!we!do!more!than!imagine!making!the!expressions!–we!actually!imitate!what!we!see.!!BAdolphs!suggest!that!the!somatosensory!representation!of!what!feels!like!to!make!it!perceived!expression!provides!cues!we!use!to!recognize!the!emotion!being!expressed!in!the!face!we!are!viewing.!!BIn!support!of!this!hypothesis,!Adolphs!and!his!colleagues!report!that!the!ability!of!patients!with!right!hemisphere!lesions!to!recognize!facial!expressions!of!emotions!is!correlated!with!their!ability!to!perceive!somatosensory!stimuli.!That!is,!patients!with!somatosensory!impairments!also!had!impairments!in!recognition!of!emotions.!!!Neural(Basis(of(the(Communication(of(Emotions:(Expression(B!Facial!expressions!of!are!automatic!and!involuntary.!!B!It!is!not!easy!to!produce!a!realistic!facial!expression!of!emotion!when!we!do!not!really!feel!that!way.!!The!difficulty!actors!have!in!voluntarily!producing!a!convincing!facial!expression!of!emotion!is!one!of!the!reason!that!led!Constantin!Stanislavsky!to!develop!his!system!of!method!acting,!in!which!actors!attempt!to!imagine!themselves!in!a!situation!that!would!lead!to!the!desired!emotion.!!B!Once!the!emotion!is!evoked,!the!facial!expressions!follow!naturally.!!

!!5.(Volitional(facial(paresis!is!caused!by!damage!to!the!face!region!of!the!primary!motor!cortex!or!to!the!fibers!connecting!this!region!with!the!motor!nucleus!of!the!facial!nerve.!The!interesting!thing!about!volitional!facial!paresis!is!that!the!patient!cannot!voluntarily!move!the!facial!muscles!but!will!express!a!genuine!emotion!with!those!muscles.!Volitional(facial(paresis(is!difficulty!in!moving!the!facial!muscles!voluntarily;!caused!by!damage!to!the!face!region!of!the!primary!motor!cortex!or!its!subcortical!connections.!Fusiform!face!area!is!in!temporal!lobe.!!!6.(Emotional(facial(paresis!is!caused!by!damage!to!the!insular!region!of!the!prefrontal!cortex,!to!the!white!matter!of!the!frontal!lobe,!or!to!parts!of!the!thalamus.!Emotional(facial(paresis(is!lack!of!movement!of!facial!muscles!in!response!to!emotions!in!people!who!have!no!difficulty!moving!these!muscles!voluntarily.!! People!with!this!disorder!can!move!their!face!muscles!voluntarily!but!do!not!express!emotions!on!the!affected!side!of!the!face.!These!two!syndromes!clearly!indicate!that!different!brain!mechanisms!are!responsible!for!voluntary!movements!of!the!facial!muscles!and!automatic,!involuntary!expression!of!emotions!involving!the!same!muscles.!

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! The!right!hemisphere!plays!a!more!significant!role!in!recognizing!emotions!in!the!voice!or!facial!expressions!of!other!peopleB!especially!negative!emotions.!They!found!that!the!left!halves!were!more!expressive!than!the!right!ones.!Because!motor!control!is!contralateral,!the!results!suggest!that!the!right!hemisphere!is!more!expressive!than!the!left.!! The!left!side!of!their!faces!appeared!to!make!stronger!expressions!of!emotions.!They!confirmed!these!results!in!the!laboratory!by!analyzing!videotapes!of!people!telling!sad!or!humorous!stories.!! Left!hemisphere!lesions!do!not!usually!impair!vocal!expressions!of!emotion.!For!example,!people!with!Wernicke’s!aphasia!usually!modulate!their!voice!according!to!mood,!even!though!the!words!they!say!make!no!sense.!In!contrast,!rightBhemisphere!lesions!do!impair!expression!of!emotion,!both!facially!and!by!tone!of!voice.!! Amygdala!is!involved!in!the!recognition!of!facial!expression!of!emotions,!but!it!is!not!involved!in!emotional!expression.!!! Amygdala!lesions!did!not!impair!the!patient’s!ability!to!produce!her!own!facial!expressions!of!fear;!she!had!no!difficulty!accurately!expressing!fear,!anger,!happiness,!sadness,!disgust,!and!surprise.!But!when!she!saw!a!photograph!of!herself!showing!fear,!she!could!not!tell!what!emotion!her!face!had!been!expressing.!!Experience,!Recognize!B>!Amygdala!!Expression!is!not!a!job!of!Amygdala.!!!

Summary(! We!(and!members!of!other!species)!communicate!our!emotions!primarily!through!facial!gestures.!Darwin!believed!that!such!expressions!of!emotion!were!innateB!that!these!muscular!movements!were!inherited!behavioral!patterns.!Ekman!and!his!colleagues!performed!crossBcultural!studies!with!members!of!an!isolated!tribe!in!New!Guinea.!Their!results!supported!Darwin’s!hypothesis.!We!also!receive!information!about!people’s!emotions!from!their!body!posture!or!movement.!! Recognition!of!other!people’s!emotional!expressions!involves!the!right!hemisphere!more!than!the!left.!Studies!with!normal!people!have!shown!that!when!people!judge!the!emotion!of!voices,!the!right!hemisphere!is!activated!more!than!the!left.!In!addition,!some!people!with!pure!word!deafness,!caused!by!damage!to!the!left!hemisphere,!cannot!recognize!words!but!can!still!recognize!the!emotions!portrayed!by!tone!of!voice.!!! The!amygdala!plays!a!role!in!recognition!of!facial!expressions!of!fearfulness;!lesions!of!the!amygdala!disrupt!this!ability,!and!functional!imaging!studies!show!increased!activity!of!the!amygdala!while!the!subject!is!engaging!in!this!task.!The!ability!to!judge!emotions!by!a!parson’s!tone!of!voice!is!not!affected.!! The!amygdala!receives!more!primitive!visual!information!from!subcortical!regions!of!the!brain,!and!this!information!is!used!in!making!judgments!about!fearful!expressions.!There!is!natural!tendency!to!imitate!the!emotional!expressions!of!other!people.!Feedback!from!this!activity,!which!is!transmitted!to!the!somatosensory!cortex,!appears!to!help!us!to!comprehend!the!emotional!intentions!of!other!people.!!! Facial!expressions!of!emotions!(and!other!stereotypical!behaviors!such!as!laughing!and!crying)!are!almost!impossible!to!stimulate.!For!example,!only,!a!genuine!smile!of!pleasure!causes!the!contraction!of!the!lateral!part!of!the!orbicularis!oculi!(Duchenne’s!muscle).!Genuine!expressions!of!emotion!are!controlled!by!special!neural!circuits.!The!best!evidence!for!this!assertion!comes!from!the!complementary!syndromes!of!emotional!and!volitional!facial!paresis.!People!with!emotional!facial!paresis!can!move!their!facial!muscles!voluntarily!but!nut!in!response!to!an!emotion,!whereas!people!with!volitional!facial!paresis!show!the!opposite!symptoms.!In!addition,!the!left!halves!of!people’s!faces!tend!to!be!more!expressive!than!the!right!halves.!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Feelings(Of(Emotions(So!far,!we!have!examined!two!aspects!of!emotions:!the!organization!of!patterns!of!responses!that!deal!with!the!situation!that!provokes!the!emotion,!and!the!communication!of!emotional!states!with!other!members!of!the!species.!The!final!aspect!of!emotion!to!be!examined,!the!subjective!component:!feelings!of!emotion.!How!do!we!know!what!we!are!feeling?!!!The(James]Lange(Theory(! William!James!(1842B1910/American)!and!Carl!Lange!(1834B1900/Danish)!independently!suggested!similar!explanations!for!emotion,!which!most!people!refer!to!collectively!as!the!James]Lange(Theory.!Basically,!the!theory!states!that!emotionBproducing!situations!elicit!an!appropriate!set!of!physiological!responses,!such!as!trembling,!sweating,!and!increased!heart!rate.!The!situations!also!elicit!behaviors,!such!as!clenching!of!the!fists!or!fighting.!The!brain!receives!sensory!feedback!from!the!muscles!and!from!the!organs!that!produce!these!responses;!it!is!this!feedback!that!constitutes!our!feeling!of!emotion.!!When!you!are!crying,!you!realize!that!I!am!sad.!If!you!are!in!funeral,!and!you!are!crying,!then!you!realize!that!yes!I!am!in!funeral!and!I!am!sad.!But!if!you!are!wedding!and!you!are!sad,!you!interpret!that!I!am!crying!because!I!am!happy.!!BWe!interpret!our!physiological!reactions,!and!that!is!how!we!know!what!we!are!feeling.!!!7.(James]Lange(theory.!A!theory!of!emotion!that!suggests!that!behaviors!and!physiological!responses!are!directly!elicited!by!situations!and!that!feelings!of!emotions!are!produced!by!feedback!from!these!behaviors!and!responses.!!BJames!says!that!our!own!emotional!feelings!are!based!on!what!we!find!ourselves!doing!and!on!the!sensory!feedback!we!receive!from!the!activity!of!our!muscles!and!internal!organs.!!BThus,!when!we!find!ourselves!trembling!and!fell!queasy,!we!experience!fear.!BWhere!feelings!of!emotions!are!concerned,!we!are!selfBobservers.!!!! James’s!description!of!the!process!of!emotion!might!strike!you!as!being!at!odds!with!your!own!experience.!Many!people!think!that!they!experience!emotions!directly,!internally.!Or!did!you!ever!find!tears!coming!to!your!eyes!while!watching!a!film!that!you!did!not!think!was!affecting!you?!!!BSeveral!experiments!suggest!that!feedback!from!the!contraction!of!facial!muscles!can!affect!people’s!moods!and!even!alter!the!activity!of!the!autonomic!nervous!system. BA!functional!imaging!study!by!Damasio!et!al.!(2000)!asked!people!to!recall!and!try!to!reBexperience!past!episodes!from!their!lives!that!evoked!feelings!of!sadness,!happiness,!anger,!and!fear. BThe!investigators!found!that!recalling!these!emotions!activated!the!subjects’!somatosensory!cortex!and!upper!brain!stem!nuclei!involved!in!control!of!internal!organs!and!detection!of!sensations!received!from!them. These!responses!are!certainly!compatible!with!James’s!theory. BJames!stressed!the!importance!of!two!aspects!of!emotional!responses:!emotional!behaviors!and!autonomic!responses,!give!rise!to!the!third:!feelings.!!BSeveral!experiments!suggest!that!feedback!from!the!contraction!of!facial!muscles!can!affect!people’s!moods!and!even!alter!the!activity!of!the!autonomic!nervous!system.!!!

!Imitation!in!an!infant:!The!photographs!show!happy,!sad,!and!surprised!faces!by!an!adult!and!the!responses!made!by!the!infant.!!

!Summary(

! From!the!earliest!times,!people!recognized!that!emotions!were!accompanied!by!feelings!that!seemed!to!come!from!inside!the!body,!which!probably!provided!the!impetus!for!developing!physiological!theories!of!emotion.!!! James!and!Lange!suggested!that!emotions!were!primarily!responses!to!situations.!Feedback!from!the!physiological!and!behavioral!reactions!to!emotionBproducing!situations!gave!rise!to!the!feelings!of!emotion;!thus,!feeling!are!the!results,'not!the!causes,'of!emotional!reactions.!!! Hohman’s!study!of!people!with!spinal!cord!damage!supported!the!JamesBLange!theory;!people!who!could!no!longer!feel!the!reactions!from!most!of!their!body!reported!that!they!no!longer!experienced!intense!emotional!states.!! Ekman!and!his!colleagues!have!shown!that!even!stimulating!an!emotional!expression!causes!changes!in!the!activity!of!the!autonomic!nervous!system.!Perhaps!feedback!from!these!changes!explains!why!an!emotion!can!be!“contagious”:!We!see!someone!smile!with!pleasure,!we!ourselves!imitate!the!smile,!and!the!internal!feedback!makes!us!feel!at!least!somewhat!happier.!!!Key(Concepts:((

Emotions(as(response(patterns((1.!Emotional!responses!consist!of!three!components:!behavioral,!autonomic,!and!hormonal.!!2.!The!amygdala!plays!a!central!role!in!coordinating!all!three!components!in!response!to!threatening!or!aversive!stimuli.!In!particular,!the!lateral!nucleus!is!involved!in!acquisition!of!conditioned!emotional!responses.!!3.!SpeciesBtypical!aggressive!behaviors!are!controlled!by!neural!circuits!in!the!brain!stem,!which!are!modulated!by!the!circuits!in!the!hypothalamus!and!the!amygdala.!!4.!The!ventromedial!prefrontal!cortex!plays!a!special!role!in!the!inhibitory!control!of!emotional!responses!and!in!the!evaluation!of!situations!that!involve!moral!judgments.!!Communication(of(emotions(5.!Facial!expressions!of!emotions!appear!to!be!speciesBtypical!responses,!even!in!humans.!!6.!Recognition!of!facial!expressions!of!emotions!may!involve!imitation,!which!gives!rise!to!feedback!from!the!somatosensory!cortex.!!7.!The!amygdala!is!involved!in!visual!recognition!of!facial!expressions!of!emotion!but!not!in!their!production.!!8.!Difficulty!in!faking!true!expressions!of!emotion!and!the!existence!of!emotional!and!volitional!facial!paresis!indicate!that!special!neural!circuits!are!involved!in!expressions!of!emotion.!!9.!Expression!and!recognition!of!emotion!is!largely!accomplished!by!neural!mechanisms!located!in!the!right!hemisphere.!!Feelings(of(emotion(10.!The!JamesBLange!theory!suggests!that!we!experience!our!own!emotions!through!feedback!from!the!expression!of!the!physiological!and!behavioral!components.!Evidence!from!people!with!spinal!cord!injures!supports!this!theory.!!!!A!study:!Amphetamine!is!addicted!drug.!The!experimenter!make!some!of!them!drink!water,!make!some!of!them!drink!amphetamine.!Who!drink!water!(actually!experimenters!make!them!drink!amphetamine)!feel!anxious.!But!who!drink!amphetamine!and!know!that!they!are!actually!drink!amphetamine!feel!happiness.!

By:!

sbselman(