articles and their usage

UNIVERSITY OF PRISHTINA - KOSOVO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION - ENGLISH LANGUAGE

ADVANCING THE TEACHER CUALIFICATION

BACHELOR THESIS

ARTICLES AND THEIR USAGE

Venera BARALIU

(Prizren – KOSOVO)

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Education at the University of Prishtina, in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Languages.

DECEMBER 2013

Venera©All rights reserved

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C O N T E N T

The Basic Use of The Articles

Indefinite Article a/an

A/AN OR ONE?

Definite Article the

Articles with First and Subsequent Mention

Articles with Generic Noun Phrases

The Abstract Generic Article: the + singular

The Concrete Generic Article

The Singular Concrete Generic Article: a/an

When the “notion” rather than the actual noun is meant

The Plural and Noncount Concrete Generic Article: 0

Articles with Modified Generic Noun Phrases

The Article in Premodified Generic Noun Phrases

The Article in Postmodified Generic Noun Phrases

Articles With Proper Nouns,in Titles and Labels, and in Idiomatic Structures

Articles in Titles and Labels


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1. The Basic Use of the Articles

There are four articles in English: a/an, the, 0 (the invisible zero article)

The articles are divided into two major categories: the indefinite articles (a, an, and 0) for

indefinite nouns and the definite article (the) for definite nouns. Every indefinite noun in

English requires a, an or 0 (or a small group of other determiners) to indicate whether the noun

is count on noncount.

It helps to remember that a/an is related (but not identical) to one in deciding whether to use

the article a/an or 0. Every definite noun requires the.


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2. Indefinite Article a/an

It is said that a/an means any single item. It is therefore impossible to use a/an with a

noncount noun because a noncount noun is a quantity, not a single item. It is also impossible to

use a/an with a plural count noun because “plural” means “more than one”. For plural and

noncount nouns, we must therefore use the article 0, the zero article. The rule for the use of

the indefinite articles may be summarized as follows:

Article Type of nun Example

a/an singular count a book

0 noncount (0) air

0 plural count (0) books

Therefore, the rule must be as follows:

a + consonant sound a teacher, a book, a student, etc.

an + vowel sound an umbrella, an orange, an egg, etc.

The rule is more specific than a + consonant and an + vowel. A phonetic transcription of these

examples shows that the sound of the following word controls the choice of a and an:

CONSONANT CONSONANT

a human shale a one hour movie

/ә hyumәn skel/ /ә wәn-awәr muvi/

VOWEL VOWEL

an hour an object of measurment

/әn a wәr/ /әn әbjԑkt әv mԑʒәmәnt/

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If the item that follows is an acronym (a name consisting entirely of letters), the sound of the

first letter controls the choice of a or an:

CONSONANT VOWEL

a BTU (British thermal unit) an LED (light-emitting diode)

/ә bi ti yu/ /әn ԑl i di/

With some words we can either pronounce h or not, e.g.a hotel /ә/ + /h/ or an hotel/n/ + /әʊ/.

Also: a/an historic moment, a/an horrific accident.

An article is always placed before an adjective if one is present. The choice of a or an is actually

controlled by the first sound of any word that comes after the article.

Noun Adjective + Noun Adverb + Adjective + Noun

a bosk an outstanding bosk a truly outstanding book

an element a rare element an exceedingly rare element

A/AN OR ONE?

In some cases, the article a/an appears to be the same as the word one. One puts more

emphasis on the number.

Examples:

He lost a hundred dollars ( one hundred dollars).

Our class meets five times a week ( in one week).

She earns €25.000 a year ( for one week).

However, in English a/an is not identical to one as it is in many other languages.

The resercher used a pipette. = He used an instrument that is called a pipette.

The researcher used one pipette. = He used one pipette; he didn’t use two or three.

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3. Definite article the

The only definite article in English is the word the, denoting person(s) or thing(s) already

mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to the listener or reader.

The is the most commonly used word in the English language.

It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely

specified. The definite article in English, for both singular and plural nouns, is the.

The book is on the table. The books are on the table.

We often use the when a phrase or clause comes after the noun and defines which one is

meant.

Ours is the house on the corner.

I’d like to get hold of the idiot who left this broken glass here.

We often use the when an of - phrase follows the noun.

We came to the edge of a lake.

The roof of a house was blown off in the storm.

Steve heard the sound of an aircraft overhead.

We also use the, with some groups of people described in economic terms (the small

businessman, the taxpayer, the costumer), with inventions (the wheel, the word processor) and

with musical instruments.

The definite article is sometimes also used with place names, which are already specified by

definition (there is just one of them).

For example:

The Amazon, The Hebrides.

In these cases, the definite article is strictly speaking superfluous.

Most place names are without the. Two things affect whether a place name has the or not.

They are the kind of place it is (e.g. a lake or a sea), and the grammatical pattern of the name.

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Of-phrase: the Isle of Wight, the Palace of Congresses

Adjectives: the Royal Opera House, the International School

Plural: the West Indies.

But we do not use the before possessive: Cleo’s needle.

Look at these uses of a/an and the before a name which normally has no article.

There's a Plymouth in the USA. (= a place called Plymouth)

The Plymouth of today is very different from the Plymouth I once knew.

Amsterdam is the Venice of the North.(= the place like Venice)

Even when a name has the (on the Isle of Wight ) the article can still be left out in some

contexts such as on signs and labels. On a map the island is marked Isle of Wight.

Here are some details about different kinds of place names.

Continent, islands, countries, states and counties

Most are without the.

a trip to Europe on Bermuda a holiday in France through Texas

in Hampshire New South Wales

Exceptions are names ending with words like republic or kingdom.

the Dominican Republic the UK

Plural names also have the.

the Netherlands the Bahamas the USA

Other exceptions are: the Gambia and the Ukraine.

Regions

When the name of a country or continent (America) is modified by another word (Central), we

do not use the.

central America to North Wales South-East Asia in New England

Most other regions have the.

the South the Mid-West the Baltic the Midlands the Riviera

Mountains and hills


climbing (Mount) Kilimanjaro up (Mount) Everest

But hill ranges and mountain ranges have the.

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in the Cotswolds across the Alps

Two exceptions are the Matterhorn and the Eiger.

Lakes, rivers, canals and seas

Lakes are without the.

beside Lake Ontario

Rivers, canals and seas have the.

on the (River) Aire the Missouri(river) the Panama Canal

the Black Sea in the Pacific (Ocean)

Cities, towns, suburbs and villages


in Sydney Kingswood, a suburb of Bristol at Nether Stowey

Exceptions are: the Hague and the Bronx.

Roads, streets and parks


Station Road in Baker Street on Madison Avenue

along Broadway in Regent's Park around Kew Gardens

But some road names with adjectives have the.

the High Street the Great West Road

We use the in this pattern.

the Birmingham road (= the road to Birmingham)

We also use the with some main roads in cities.

the Edgware Road

We use the with by-passes and motorways.

the York by-pass the M6 (motorway)

Other exceptions are: the Malland the Strand.

Bridges

Most bridges are without the.

Over Brooklyn Bridge Westminster Bridge

But there are many exceptions.

the Humber Bridge ( = the bridge over the River Humber)

Transport facilities; religious, educational and official buildings, palaces and houses

Most are without the

To Paddington (Station) at Gatwick (Airport) St Paul's (Cathedral) At KingEdward's

(School) from Aston (University) Norwich Museum Leeds Town Hall

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behind Buckingham Palace to Hanover House.

Exceptions are names with of-phrases or with an adjective or noun modifier.

the Chapel of Our Lady the American School

the Open University the Science Museum

Theatres, cinemas, hotels, galleries and centres

Most have the.

at the Apollo (Theatre) the Odeon (Cinema) to the Empire (Hotel)

in the Tate(Gallery) near the Arndale Centre the Chrysler Building

Possessive forms are an exception.

Her Majesty's Theatre at Bertram's Hotel

In the US names with center are without the. Near Rockefeller Center

Shops and restaurants


next to W.H. Smiths shopping at Harrods just outside Boots eating at Matilda's (Restaurant)

Exceptions are those without the name of a person.

the Kitchen Shop at the Bombay Restaurant

Most pub names have the.

at the Red Lion (Inn)

We use the in a rather general sense with some institutions, means of transport and

communication, and with some jobs.

This decade has seen a revival in the cinema.

I go to work on the train.

Here the cinema does not mean a specific cinema but the cinema as an institution. The train

means the train as a means of transport.

The + adjective

We can use the before some adjectives of nationality and before some other adjectives to make

generalizations.

The French love eating in restaurants.

What is the World Bank doing to help the poor?

We use an uncountable or plural noun on its own for a generalization and we use the when the

meaning is more specific.

Sugar is bad for your teeth.

Pass the sugar, please.

Children don’t like long walks.

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Children don’t like long walks.

Without oil, our industry would come to a halt.

The oil I got on my trousers won’t wash out.

Here sugar means all sugar, sugar in general, and the sugar means the sugar on the table where

we are sitting.

We often use abstract nouns on their own: life, happiness, love, progress, justice.

Life just isn’t fair.

But a phrase or clause after the noun often defines, for example, what life we are talking about,

so we use the.

The life of a factory worker isn’t easy.

Compare these two patterns with an abstract noun.

I’m not an expert on Chinese history.

I’m not an expert on the history of China.

The meaning is the same. Other examples: European architecture/the architecture of Europe,

American literature/the literature of America. Also: town planning/the planning of towns,

Mozart’s music/the music of Mozart.

A phrase with of usually takes the, but with other phrases and clauses we can use a noun

without an article.

Life in those days wasn’t easy.

Silk from Japan was used to make the wedding dress.

Life in those days is still a general idea: silk from Japan means a type of material rather than a

specific piece of material.

A title + of-phrase takes the, e.g. the Prince of Wales.

We use the to refer to a family, e.g. the Johnson family/the Johnsons.

But sometimes we can use a name with an article.

There’s a Laura who works in our office. (= a person called Laura)

A Mr Wilson called to see you. (= someone called Mr Wilson)

The Laura I know has dark hair. (= the person called Laura)

Stressed the (ði:) before the name of a person can mean “the famous person”

I know a Brad Pitt but he isn’t the Brad Pitt.

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4. Articles with First and Subsequent Mention

The first time a noun is mentioned in a paragraph is called a “first mention” of that noun. We

usually use the indefinite article for the first mention according to the following rule:

a/an + a singular count noun (e.g.,a book)

0 + a plural count noun (e.g.,books)

0 + a noncount noun (e.g.,air)

The second or subsequent time a noun with the same reference is mentioned in a paragraph is

called “subsequent mention”. Subsequent mention includes any subsequent use of a noun

with the same referent (i.e., that refers to the same noun). We use the definite article the for

subsequent mention according to the following rule:

the + a singular count noun

the + a pluaral count noun

the + a noncount noun

First mention and subsequent mention show different views of a noun in English. The first time

we encounter a noun in a new passage,that noun is simply classified as belonging to a class of

similar nouns with an indefinite article. A/an tells us the class is count; 0 tells us the class is

noncount. In every subsequent mention, that same noun is identified referring only to the noun

that was first mentioned with the definite article the. If you change the article back to first

mention, the reader or listener will understand that you mean a different example of the noun

(i.e., a different reference). Look at this example:

An old man is walking with a small boy. (2) The man is tired, but the boy is hungry and needs

some food. (3) The boy has not eaten for several days. (4) He looks thin and unhealthy. (5)

Suddennly, the old man stops. (6) A man calls out, “Would you like some bread?”(7) The man

smiles.

Notice how we first see an old man (first mention) in sentence (1) and repeat the man in

sentence (2) and sentence (5), understanding that it is the same man each time. When we see a

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man in sentence (6), we immediately understand that a different man has appeared. The last

sentence is not a good sentence because we do not know which man is meant, the old man or

the bread man. How would you correct the last sentence to make it clear?

Sometimes, subsequent mention occurs with not exactly the same noun but a synonym or a

defining phrase. Look at these examples:

Dr. Lee bought a new Mercedes. The car is silver with a black interior.

The nurse ordered a sleeping pill for the insomniac patient. The medication was very effective.

The first subsequent mention article is not required in English if a noun is preceded by a ranking

adjective. There are three types of ranking adjectives: superlative, sequential and unique. They

all identify the noun and thus require the.

Classification: Use a/an or 0

For first mention

For general characteristic

In definitions.

Identification: Use the

For subsequent mention

For nouns with ranking adjectives

For shared knowledge.

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5. Articles with Generic Noun Phrases

The generic articles occur in generic as opposed specific phrases. Specific noun phrases refer to

actual objects, people, quantities or ideas, expressing such concepts as first and subsequent

mention and shared knowledge. Generic noun phrases refer to symbolic or representative

objects, people, quantities, and ideas.Their purpose is not to show a specific example but rather

what is nomal or typical for the members of a class. For this reason, a definition always uses the

generic article, as it is never concerned with specific examples.

Classification SPECIFIC (first mention) GENERIC

Singular count John bought a calculator yesterday A calculator is a useful instrument.

Plural count John bought (some)books yesterday. Books are valuable things.

Noncount Add (some) water if necessary. Water is composed of hydrogen and

oxygen.

5.1 The Abstract Generic Article: the + singular

The abstract generic article the refers to the class itself and never to the representatives of that

class. For this reason, it only occurs with a singular noun (the name of the class), which must be

countable. Look at this example:

The class itself Representatives of the class

The lion preys on zebra.

(The lion = the entire class

of animals called “lions.”)

A lion preys on zebra.

Lions prey on zebra.

(A lion/lions=examples of the class of animals called “lions”.)

Abstract generic noun phrases occur in two contexts: 1) in sentences that imply cause and

effect and 2) in definitions.

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Agents of change:

The herpes virus has affected 20 million Americans. (diagnosis)

The stethoscope improved the diagnosis of heart problems. (purpose)

The cyclotron opened the new field of particle physics. (results)

The smallpox vaccine has practically eradicated the disease throughout the world. (solution)

The world seems smaller because of the telephone. (invention)

Definitions:

The coyote (is an animal that) is a useful predator. (classification)

The neutron bomb (is a weapon that) destroys people but not a property. (attribute)

The abacus is sometimes as fast as the computer. (comparison)

Abstract generic nouns is discourse are different from specific nouns in that, since they are

symbolic rather than actual, they do not follow the first and subsequent mention rule.

5.2 The Concrete Generic Article

Concrete generic noun phrases refer to the general representatives of a class and never to the

class itself (which requires generic the) . The concrete generic article occurs with a) singular

count nouns and b) plural count nouns and noncount nouns.

This paragraph contains some generalizations about animals.

ANIMAL NOSES

As with other parts of its equipment, an animal evolves the kind of nose it needs.The hippo has

grown its ears and eyes on the top of its head, and its nostrils on top of its nose, for lying in

water. Camels and seals can close their noses; they do it in the same way but for different

reasons. The camel closes its nose against the blowing sand of the desert, and the seal against

the water in which it spends most of its time. (from F. E. Newing and R. Bowood Animals And

How They Live)

For generalizations we can use a plural or an uncountable noun on its own,or a

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Singular noun with a/an or the.

Camels can close their noses.

A camel can close its nose.

The camel can close its nose.

These statements are about all camels, camels in general, not a specific camel or

Group of camels. We do not use the camels for a generalization.

5.3 The Singular Concrete Generic Article: a/an

The sigular concrete generic article is a/an. Like the abstract generic, which can be singular, the

singular concrete generic also occurs in two contexts: 1) when the “notion” rather than the

actual noun is meant, and 2) in definitions.

5.4 When the “notion” rather than the actual noun is meant

The word “notion” means the idea, archetype, or form of an object. It thus refers to a

generalization based on individual class members.

Example:

Concrete generic:

A physics student needs a calculator.

The underlined words above both indicate notions: any person who studies physics has

particular needs which include devices for rapid calculation. Notice how this sentence is

different from specific first mention.

Example:

Specific first mention:

A physics student was trying out a calculator in the bookstore when the robbery took place.

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The bold words above indicate an actual student, not just the idea of a student, and an actual

calculator, not just the idea of a calculator. Here are some other examples of concrete generic

noun phrases with notions:

Examples:

An airplane can seed a cloud without silver iodide.

A satellite photograph helps a scientist to understand the geological structure of earth.

Definitions, belong to both the abstract and the concrete generic because we can define either

the class (abstract generic) or the representatives of the class (concrete generic).

Examples:

The elephant is an animal that has a trunk. (class)

An elephant is an animal that has a trunk. (representative)

Singular count concrete generic nouns cannot be used with agents of change.

Examples:

Incorrect:

The world has become smaller because of a telephone.

A computer is changing our society.

These sentences are incorrect because they suggest that a single telephone or a single

computer (a representative of the class) has caused a change when in fact it is the overall of the

entire class that has produced the effect (e.g., the world has become smaller not because of a

single telephone but because of the entire network of telephones). Agents of change therefore

require abstract generic the.

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5.5 The Plural and Noncount Concrete Generic Article: 0

The plural count and noncount generic article is 0. Noncount nouns and indefinite plural count

nouns already have a generic quality because they refer to a general mass or quantity and thus

make distinction between class and representative less clear. For this reason, they are not

limited to certain contexts of cause and effect, notion and definition. The only difference

between the specific and generic forms for plural count and noncount nouns is the implied or

stated use of unstressed some. Unstressed some means “ a portion or small quantity.” (

Stressed some means “ a particular group or part that is different from the others, e.g., Some

elements are metallic; others are not.) Look at these examples:

Specific: Concrete Generic:

Drink some milk. Milk is good for you. (notion)

Some steam was leaking from the pipe. This engine runs on steam.(cause and effect)

They dropped some nails. Nails are metal spikes for holding things together.

(definition)

The rule of unstressed some can help you to determine if a plural count or noncount noun is

specific or generic.

Sometimes it is necessary to change a concrete generic noun phrase into an abstract generic

one (e.g., if it is to serve as an agent of change). In this case, the noun phrase is required to be

singular and countable, because it must refer to the class alone and not to representatives of

that class.

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6. Articles with Modified Generic Noun Phrases

Noun phrase modification comes in two forms: premodification and postmodification.

6.1 The Article in Premodified Generic Noun Phrases

Premodified generic noun phrases are similar to premodified specific noun phrases: the

addition of an adjective does not affect the choice of article.

Examples:

Abstract generic:

The chip allowed the miniaturization of computers.

The silicon chip allowed the miniaturization of computers.

Concrete generic:

Chips are used in calculators and computers.

Silicon chips are used in calculators and computers.

6.2 The Article in Postmodified Generic Noun Phrases

Postmodified generic noun phrases almost always occur in their noun compound forms in

modern scientific English. However, those that do occur (both the abstract and concrete

generic forms), can be divided into two cases: 1) descriptive and 2) partitive.

Abstract Descriptive

Abstract descriptive postmodified noun phrases occur only occasionally in scientific English.

Examples:

The drug that will cure cancer is the hope of both patients and researchers.(adj.clause)

The reactor out of control is symbolized by Three Mile Island.(preppositional phrase)

Concrete Descriptive. Count

Count concrete descriptive noun phrases make use of the articles a/an and 0.

Examples:

A display unit which uses a cathode ray tube may cause eyestrain.(adjective clause/singular)

Display units which use cathode ray tubes may cause eyestrain(adjective clause/plural)

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A system for the purification of water removes dangerous microorganisms. (prepositional

phrase/singular)

Systems for the purification of water remove dangerous microorganisms.(prepositional

phrase/plural).

Noncount

Noncount generic descriptive noun phrases postmodified with of-phrases usually sound old-

fashioned. For example, mercurous oxide used to be called oxide of mercury. Here are some

other examples:

Old term Modern term

Oil of vitriol sulfuric acid

Oil of cinnamon cinnamon oil

However, some of these old-fashioned terms are still used to refer to specific substances:

plaster of Paris mother of pearl essence of musk

6.3 Articles With Proper Nouns,in Titles and Labels, and in Idiomatic Structures

6.3.1 Articles with Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are names or titles that refer to distinct people, places or things. Since they are

distinct, proper nouns only ocur with the articles the and 0, never with a/an. As a rule, names

require the null article whereas titles require the, as shown in the following examples ( 0 with

proper nouns is called the null article):

Category Name Title

People

President Obama

Mr. Cameroon

Secretary Karry

the President of the U.S.

the Prime Minister of England

the Secretary of State

Countries

Kosova

America

the Republic of Kosova

the United States of America

States Maine the state of Maine

Cities Tokyo the city of Tokyo

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The difficulty with articles and proper nouns is that the rules concerning proper nouns other

than people and political divisions (e.g. countries, states, cities ) are often arbitrary.

7. Articles in Titles and Labels

Titles and labels, like many newspaper and magazine headlines, often use “telegraphic speech”.

Telegraphic speech, the limited language used when sending a telegram (because you must pay

for each word), regularly deletes any words that are not absolutely necessary for understanding

(i,e.,most of the function words, including the articles, prepositions and conjunctions). In titles

and labels, however, only the articles are affected. Look at these examples:

Figure titles:

Solubility of carbon disulfide with methyl alcohol

Longitudunal section of hair follicle

Map title:

Average rainfall and temperature (in degrees F.) of South America.

Photo label:

Shedding of skin by red-bellied water snake

If we replace the deleted articles, these titles and labels become complete noun phrases:

The solubility of carbon disulfide with methyl alcohol.

A longitudinal section of a hair follicle.

The average annual rainfall and temperature (in degrees F.) of South America

The shedding of the skin by the red-bellied water snake

Unfortunately, there are no precise rules for article deletion in titles and labels. It is usually a

matter of space. In most cases the first article is deleted. In many cases, all articles are deleted

(see examples above), but there are also many cases where a subsequent article is retained:

Valley on Tethys may be a crack caused by impact on opposite side (photo label)

Right pectoral girdle and fin of an extinct crossopterygian fish (figure title)

Range in the Andes, central Chile (photo label)

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FORMATING TEXT

Emërtimi i fajllit: ARTICLES AND THEIR USAGE (*.docx)

Emri dhe Mbiemri i kandidatit: Venera Baraliu

Titulli i Punimit: “ARTICLES AND THEIR USAGE”

Për Institucionin: Faculty of Education

Madhësia e letrës: A4

Shtrirja: Portret

Margjinat: (Majtas 3.00cm, Djathtas 2.00 cm); Lart 2.5cm, Poshtë 2.00cm

Tipi i shkronjave: “Calibry”, me madhësi 13 pt

Hapësira e rreshtave: 1.15 pt

Numërimi i faqeve në mes të pjesës së fundme të faqes:(center–bootom)

Kapitujt dhe nënkapitujt me veçori të stilit; (default)

Fjalët e rëndësishme të shkruara në italik (italic);

Fusnotat janë të shkruara sipas stilit të referimit “APA”;

Faqja e parë (ballinën), e punuar sipas rregullave të standardit APA

Ndarja e kapitujve është bërë në tri nivele; 1, 1.1, 1.1.1

Nivelin e parë në kursiv; (Bold) Calibri, me madhësi 16pt

Nivelin e dytë në kursiv; (Bold) Calibri, me madhësi 14p

Nivelin e tretë në normal; Calibri, me madhësi 13p , italic

Teksti i trungut të punimit; Calibri, në normal me madhësi 13p

Teksti i rrafshuar nga të dyja anët; (Justify) në të dy anët

Fjala e parë e çdo paragrafi të ri, e rrafshuar nga margjina e majtë (stili amerikan)!

Numri i faqeve të punimit, djathtas, poshtë dhe në cep të faqes me stil të veçantë.

Punimin do të shtypet në formatin kolor; (pasi të përfundohet!)

Lidhja e punimit duhet bërë në cepin e majtë të sipërm, ose masive majtas;

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