anthropologists at work in advertising and marketing

A Handbook of Practicing Anthropology. First Edition. Edited by Riall W. Nolan.© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chapter 22

Anthropologists at Work in Advertising and Marketing

Timothy de Waal Malefyt

Timothy Malefyt brings his years of professional experience with advertising into this chapter, beginning with a thoughtful and insightful discussion of what advertising is today, and how it differs from the past. He then goes into detail about how and why anthropological training is an advantage in this environment, while at the same time highlighting the signifi cant differences between the work of practitioners in advertising and the work of their academic colleagues. Malefyt then spends some time looking at how practitioners can get started in the fi eld, and concludes with some thoughts on where advertising and marketing are likely to go in the future.

As an anthropologist who has worked in advertising for over 15 years, I share my experience and observations of working in the trade in hopes of encouraging inter-ested anthropological practitioners and students to pursue a satisfying career. In this chapter I will discuss the vast changes underway in marketing and advertising that increasingly call for a more consumer - centric understanding of consumption, which is well suited to an anthropological approach. I will also discuss how anthro-pologists might likely break into this fi eld, what everyday work in advertising is like, what one might expect on the job, as well as compare and contrast the similarities and differences between academic colleagues and anthropologist practitioners and other non - academic professionals. Finally, I will discuss the future direction of a burgeoning new fi eld called business anthropology, which calls for more anthropo-logical input into marketing and advertising practices that help focus corporate responsibilities on fair and equitable marketing practices toward consumers, as well

248 Timothy de Waal Malefyt

as the ethical issues anthropologists may face and the ways they can increasingly shape corporate discourses to achieve better practices for consumers today.

Vast Changes in the Marketplace

Advertising and marketing are intrinsically related, but there are marked differences. Advertising is the communications component of the broader mix in marketing, which includes brand and product pricing, packaging, brand innovation, and pro-motions. Both advertising and marketing have become more important in the age of branding, writes Naomi Klein, where their role has changed from delivering simple product information to building an image around a particular brand - name version of a product ( 2000 : 6). Indeed, even in the last decade, since Klein noted the rise of the brand, marketing and advertising have experienced vast sea changes. With the advent of the Internet, online blogs, Twitter, Facebook, and mobile apps, information about products and brands circulates in record time, and consumers who purchase products and brands have greater awareness of social issues. Conse-quently they can exercise greater control by turning off or tuning out advertised brands and marketed messages they don ’ t like.

The old ways of advertising and marketing, such as fi xating on messages that push products to consumers, are no longer sustainable. Rather, new approaches call for building lasting relationships with consumers. The focus in marketing is on providing people with products and brands that add value to their lives, rather than just selling goods. This means that for marketers the emphasis has shifted from one - way terminal interactions, to establishing ongoing “ dialogues ” that extend and continue relationships with consumers (Lury 2004 ; Arvidsson 2006 ; Malefyt 2009 ).

Advertising is also more effective when it doesn ’ t “ preach ” to the consumer, but rather includes them in a relationship of mutual meaning - making. Advertising account planner Jon Steel writes that the best and most effective advertising involves consumers, both in the communication of advertised messages and in the subse-quent development of marketing campaigns. He asserts that

Advertising works better when it does not tell people what to think, but rather allows them to make up their own minds about its meaning. They participate by fi guring it out for themselves. (Steel 1998 : 6)

In other words, advertising is stronger when it does not arbitrarily “ push ” the manu-facturer ’ s intended “ meaning ” of products and human situations that an advertiser or marketer prefers, but rather builds on and expresses both consumer - derived and manufacturer - intended meaning.

This kind of interaction develops relationships with consumers by accurately representing target users or a relevant situation that consumers can identify with, in concert with the communication of a brand benefi t. Without accurate consumer representation, advertising can miss an opportunity to build relationships with consumers. In ethnographic work I conducted on the Cadillac automobile brand, we found that iconic Led Zeppelin music, along with dramatic driving scenes,

Anthropologists at Work in Advertising and Marketing 249

matched to a tagline of “ Break through, ” resonated more with boomer consumers in the United States, rather than the calm, tranquil scenario of the new Infi niti luxury automobile. This comparison is illustrated in an article comparing the suc-cessful Cadillac automobile advertising campaign in the early 2000s with a failed Infi niti automobile advertising campaign in the 1980s (McCabe and Malefyt 2010 ).

Increased emphasis on building relationships with consumers means that corpora-tions also have to be more transparent with their advertising, product effectiveness, and quality. Marketing experts Philip Kotler and John Castilone argue that transpar-ency in business is no longer an option, but a necessity to maintain integrity: “ honest and authentic behavior in a company ’ s business dealings are now one of the most important factors in gaining and maintaining customer and stakeholder loyalty ” (Craven 2009 : 2). Companies cannot get away with coercive business prac-tices or poor product quality and survive. For instance, most recently, the esteemed Apple corporation has come under scrutiny following reports that its suppliers in China employ sweatshop conditions, forcing Apple to respond by revealing its long guarded manufacturers ’ identities and calling for investigations into fair working conditions (Porter 2012 ).

With changes in increased corporate transparency and consumers seeking more information to confi rm their choices, the post - purchase cycle of consumption is far more valuable today. What consumers feel and say about a brand to their friends and colleagues after buying something is much more likely to affect a brand than per-suasive advertising alone. For instance, more than 60 percent of consumers of facial skin care products conduct online research about the products they buy, and discuss with others their feelings after they purchase them (Edelman 2010 : 67). Advertising and marketing seek to pique the interest of interested buyers so that they pursue addi-tional ways to invest in a brand or product, and perhaps persuade others to do the same.

The Anthropologist ’ s Advantage

How might an anthropologist fi t within this environment and how do they add particular value? As mentioned, corporations produce the products or services that, it is hoped, consumers desire and buy. Much of what anthropologists do in advertis-ing and marketing is develop research that gives shape, voice, and image to how consumers use brands in their lives. Anthropologists conducting ethnographic research for marketing fi rms or in advertising agencies are particularly adept at understanding the multiple ways in which consumers derive unspoken satisfaction from the brands and products they use. Anthropologists employ a holistic approach to understanding culture that is especially useful in this regard. When corporate anthropologists take a broader view of consumers and apply this to the network of cultural systems and relations in people ’ s lives, they help make sense of seemingly disparate actions by consumers in terms of a larger whole. For instance, in a study we conducted on cooking for a soup company, we discovered that when consumers, such as mothers in families, express creativity by making daily decisions of what to feed their families for dinner, we noted the interconnections between the ways they


rely on their cell phones, Internet, and mobile devices to keep track of family wishes, changes in individuals ’ schedules, coupon offers, and last - minute recipe searches. While brand categories in an advertising agency or a marketing fi rm may keep brand and client categories distinct – in this case, a food company and a telecom-munications company – the integration of these experiences into a seamless whole is how consumers naturally live their lives. This is why an anthropological perspec-tive, which cuts across arbitrary marketing categories and reveals the way people normally behave, is such an advantage in business.

Furthermore, because of their holistic perspective, anthropologists in business can explain the meaning behind consumer behavior that often appears contrary or paradoxical. Consumer insights are not always easy to discover, since consumers cannot always articulate what they want and need. But anthropologists, by training, have learned to observe and to listen closely for broader patterns of behavior, and to look for a unifying logic between apparent contradictions in what people say. For instance, during another project conducted for a packaged goods client, I inter-viewed a staunch environmental supporter in her home. She discussed her passion for “ green ” products which she was keen for others to share. Yet I was surprised to observe that she also drove a large, gas - guzzling sport utility vehicle, which was apparently at odds with her environmental concerns. Probing further, I tried to discern a unifying logic. The respondent said that she used her vehicle to car - pool her own and other children, and admitted that she felt most “ protected ” in a large vehicle. Her passion for the environment was also expressed in generalized concerns of “ protection for the planet ” as well as for her family. Anthropologists notice such apparent contradictions and look for the internal logic that connects two separate domains into a unifi ed whole.

As cultural experts in a business organization, anthropologists also bring together broader cultural perspectives within specifi c ethnographic assignments from clients. There is great value in anthropologists conducting research that connects current cultural trends with specifi c client goals in ethnography. This leads to what Grant McCracken (2009) proposes as greater integration of cultural leadership in corpora-tions. This is a critical advantage that corporate anthropologists can offer advertis-ing and marketing enterprises. Anthropologists can help investigate and interpret trends and consumer perspectives to better inform corporations, for example, about consumers ’ attitudes to and beliefs about health and wellness, in order to improve the marketing of a corporate food product.

For instance, the slow food movement today is a trend that arose in reaction to the growing propensity for eating fast food mindlessly. It is also a movement about slowing down in general, raising social awareness, and encouraging consumer activ-ism to keep traditional food ways intact outside the control of multinational agri-business (Hamilton 2009 ). Health and wellness is a consumer trend that converges with other cultural movements, such as concern over global warming, diet and obesity, fair trade, energy consumption, fair labor practices, and so on. These move-ments spread rapidly through social networking on the Internet and politicize the call for better food practices from manufacturers. Anthropologists attuned to these


cultural movements can better inform corporate agendas and business practices, so as to align the marketing of food with consumer trends. Thus, in conducting con-sumer research on eating habits anthropologists may incorporate how food choices in restaurants and home cooking are shaped by larger trends, even as respondents may not explicitly mention these trends or even be aware of the choices they are making.

As companies seek to develop closer interactive relationships with consumers in order to achieve product improvements, anthropologists in advertising agencies and market research fi rms have greater infl uence in shaping corporate discourses and marketing practices to meet consumer expectations. Thus, recognizing the value of anthropological fi eldwork in identifying and explaining culturally signifi cant domains and trends is a vital fi rst step toward improving the knowledge practices within advertising agencies and corporations, now and in the future. Anthropolo-gists can have a greater impact in shaping corporate marketing plans when they work alongside corporate clients within advertising agencies than they do when working externally , as consultants or hired vendors. Anthropologists working as insiders have substantial responsibility for shaping corporate ideologies and con-sumption agendas toward more benefi cial ends.

Everyday Work in Advertising Is Different from Academia

Everyday work for anthropologists in advertising means focusing on the client ’ s brand and the business of the companies. Anthropologists may conduct ethno-graphic research for various clients on what motivates consumers to use these brands; they may investigate current trends, such as food movements or social activ-ism among different populations such as among teens or boomer couples; they may contribute to strategic thinking in an advertising pitch; they may help manage staff and develop client relationships. Since the marketplace is always in fl ux with new consumer trends, the launch of competitive products, and changes within a particu-lar corporation, each day brings new challenges.

Corporate anthropologists carry out their daily assignments by working closely with other members in an agency, such as account planners (the research part of agencies), account supervisors (the client relations side of agencies), and occasion-ally writers themselves (the talent who develop advertisements). As such, a corporate anthropologist ’ s day - to - day responsibilities are distinct from those of their coun-terparts in academia.

University professors often occupy specialized domains of expertise. Academic anthropologists typically work on their own. They choose a topic of interest, inves-tigate their people, and write a report (book, paper, or article), which they then present to a mainly academic audience. In addition, academic anthropologists in colleges and universities conduct ethnographic research through observations, interviews, and taking fi eld notes, which are later formulated into narrative docu-ments that provide a testament to their work. George Marcus explains the academic


process: “ Textualization is the heart of the ethnographic enterprise, both in the fi eld and in the university setting ” (Marcus and Fischer 1986 : 264). Even when academics gather collectively at conferences, they read papers to one another. The text is the primary means of communication and representation of others and of ideas in academia.

In contrast, most communication and representation for corporate anthropolo-gists in advertising and marketing takes place discursively in meetings. Anthropolo-gists working in advertising and marketing frequently attend workshops and meetings where they listen to, or present to, others (Malefyt 2003 ). They work on new business, as in crafting and delivering a pitch, and maintain current client rela-tions, for example by preparing research reports, debriefs, and briefi ngs (Moeran 2006 ). While meetings may function to disseminate information, they also present a frame for strategic interaction and performance. For instance, ad agencies continually try to impress other corporations (new and current) by managing impressions in presentations (Goffman 1959 ). As Brian Moeran states, frequent presentations are not so much like theatrical performances, but rather more of an organizational behavior ( 2006 : 70). Performance in presentations helps to manage and deliver the two most important elements of the relationship that agencies have with clients: handling the everyday concerns of a corporate account and delivering new creativity. These two vital aspects of agency life often require special internal rituals in meetings that help resolve confl icts and maintain the status quo (Malefyt and Morais 2012 : 35 – 46).

Another area where corporate anthropologists in advertising and marketing differ from their academic counterparts is where diffi cult, even ethical, issues arise in their daily work. For instance, working on a lemon - lime soft drink project for a global beverage company, we developed a marketing and advertising strategy based on associating the benefi ts of the soft drink with fulfi lling the longing for connec-tion and security. 1 We conducted ethnographic interviews with young men and women in their twenties who were heavy users of the brand, to better understand their emotional connection to the lemon - lime soft drink category and this brand in particular. We focused on the transitory life stage of this audience. Our research hypotheses suggested that humor and laughter played an important role in young people ’ s lives, easing their anxieties about transitioning to adulthood. We then used these insights about the importance of “ stress relief ” in humor and laughter to develop an advertising campaign for the brand. We formulated a marketing strategy that aligned the brand ’ s “ light - hearted ” lemon - lime features – bubbly, clear, and sweet – with imagery associated with overcoming diffi cult situations, using humor as a suggested means for consumers to lighten up, feel de - stressed, and move forward in life.

As an anthropologist I questioned the ethics of using people ’ s insecurities and ambivalences in facing life transitions for the purpose of a marketing campaign. American consumers are free to choose; they can accept or reject marketing mes-sages based upon their evaluation of the advertising promises made (Beeman 1986 ). Nevertheless, is it ethical when marketers and researchers draw on people ’ s emo-


tional sensitivities in clever, light - hearted ads to promote their product, which in truth cannot replace real human relations? Advertising increasingly seeks to position brands using emotional imagery rather than by providing rational information, to make messages more personal and less subject to popular criticism (Malefyt 2007 ). Ethical issues such as this are common in marketing and advertising, and never present themselves in simple black - and - white choices. And for this very reason anthropologists can make a difference by working within these structures of power to help shape and mold discourses that affect consumers in their daily purchases.

How to Start a Career in Advertising or Marketing

Interested anthropologists and students of anthropology can break into this fi eld without marketing or advertising experience. They can promote themselves in r é sum é s and through executive recruiters as qualifi ed to study various dimensions of people in culture. While actual fi eld experience in conducting ethnography is helpful, it is no longer the catchword in marketing that it once was. This is because ethnography has become a standard practice in market research today, conducted broadly by many marketers in the fi eld. 2

The idea of “ decoding ” brands for their symbolic and emotional meaning to consumers is very attractive for many advertisers and marketers. Marketers are continually seeking to explain why people do the things they do, especially in ways that may help to clarify contradictory behavior, as mentioned before. An anthro-pologist ’ s understanding of the symbolic functions of rituals in culture, and of the various uses of language, systems of exchange such as gift exchange, and performance in culture, can offer a different view of consumer behavior. Such anthropological insights are what advertising and marketing fi rms are looking for today.

Furthermore, anthropological studies that can help explain the rise in social marketing will be most vital for advertising agencies and market research fi rms. Anthropological and sociological perspectives on the ways people connect through social media (Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, etc.) are especially valuable (Turkle 2011 ). In the last fi ve years, we ’ ve seen what is referred to as Web 2.0, or the rise of social media. Since the mid - 2000s, applications for social network patents and mentions of social media in books have grown exponentially. New models of social media show that our thoughts, tweets, and inside jokes texted to others are themselves the raw material that have become monetized as social mate-rial. It ’ s not that Facebook and Twitter fi nally allow people to be social, but that these new media are wholly dependent on others for sociability (Childress 2012 ). People rely on technology to discuss with friends and family fi rst - hand what happens in their lives, and this is of interest to marketers and advertisers.

Nevertheless, anthropologists seeking work in advertising agencies and market-ing fi rms should not limit themselves only to anthropological or cultural analysis. Anthropologists entering the advertising and marketing industries need to educate themselves in the manners, customs, and especially the particular language of business.


They should actively seek to understand the roles and responsibilities of their busi-ness subordinates, peers, and superiors in other domains. They need to grasp cor-porate marketplace agendas and fi nancial goals, know the competition, and become profi cient in the language of business. They should be cognizant of corporate phi-losophies and comprehend how their particular assignments impact and are impacted by the larger business enterprise.

Anthropologists who work in advertising, for example, should not only know the components of a creative brief, the one - page document or blueprint that provides consumer insights and strategic brand direction for creative talent to work from (Steel 1998 ). They should also be skilled in crafting one and be aware of where the brand they advocate stands in the marketplace relative to other brands and how their client plans to build market share (Malefyt and Morais 2012 ). Through these efforts anthropologists will connect their research and insights more effectively with the aims of their advertising and marketing partners. And, equally importantly, they will maximize their value to a corporation or advertising agency.

Future Directions

The rise of anthropology as a valued discipline in the corporate world is spreading and there is growing demand for cultural experts. This news is encouraging and, hopefully, will inspire more anthropologists to seek employment in the marketing and advertising industry. Still, problems arise from working in the corporate world as a result of misconceptions over what anthropology is as a discipline and what it can offer business practices. For one, many marketers continue to confl ate ethnog-raphy with anthropology. Both are assumed to be interchangeable as approaches, where anthropology should be seen, more broadly and analytically, as a means of recognizing larger patterns in human behavior.

Second, business often perceives ethnography to be more valuable than other research methods for zeroing in on consumers ’ unarticulated desires, and assumes that what is said in the context of home, work, or while shopping is unquestionably true. However, much of the analytical thinking that accompanies anthropologists ’ use of ethnography is still underutilized or misunderstood in marketing and adver-tising. This is because anthropology asks a set of questions that are different from those specifi c to a brand or a marketing strategy (Sunderland and Denny 2007 ). Anthropologists often step back to look for the larger pattern in explaining the inconsistencies of consumer behavior.

Anthropology in the corporate setting still needs to move beyond the singular and limited use of ethnography as a methodology. This will lead to richer contribu-tions by anthropologists in corporations, particularly those anthropologists who are skilled at understanding the larger impact of culture on a range of business prac-tices. McCracken (2009) has strongly advocated anthropologists taking on greater roles within corporations as chief culture offi cers (CCO). While this ideal for high - level executives is admirable, more industry jobs are available to professionally trained anthropologists and others with an anthropological sensibility at middle


levels of management. Responsibilities could entail gaining a deeper understanding of a company ’ s target consumers, and of emerging cultural trends and their impact on brands and targets, and linking these trends to societal beliefs and values that affect consumption. Internal corporate anthropologists, such as Elizabeth Briody (in her work for General Motors), would also contribute to a better understanding of internal corporate operations and tensions between groups. Anthropologists employed as corporate insiders are better suited to understanding the business goals of an organization from within, and can contribute actively to the crafting and managing of business strategies. In this role, anthropologists become integrated into the corporate fabric and ultimately have more direct management responsibility, as opposed to the supportive research and advisory roles that anthropologists employed as outside vendors typically have.

In the future, more anthropologists will traverse back and forth across what now exists as a divide between those who practice anthropology in advertising and mar-keting research (and other businesses) and academics who study consumers and consumption (Malefyt and Morais 2012 ). Now is the moment to bring together a range of mutual interests and understandings of the same subject matter. This conversation will be aided by a greater attention to theory in business anthropology studies, as advocated by Maryann McCabe (2011) . Even as academic literature in recent years has shifted to include discussions on the nature of capitalism, consump-tion, and globalizing forces – topical to both anthropological practitioners and academics – too often academic anthropology stands apart, failing to acknowledge the work and ideas of practicing anthropologists, and vice versa. More anthropolo-gists are needed in business, including advertising and marketing, to fi ll the ranks in conference meetings and thus increase cross - channel discussions.

The rise of the Ethnographic Practice in Industry Conference (EPIC), the continuing efforts of the Society for Applied Anthropology (SfAA), and other conference pro-ceedings, as well as two new business anthropology journals ( Journal of Business Anthropology and International Journal of Business Anthropology ) show greater receptivity to anthropology in business settings. There is still a need for a higher level of mutual intelligibility and for greater communication and acceptance between academic and practice discussions on anthropology, consumption, and consumer research. This will increase knowledge exchange between academic and practice vocations and lead to career advancement for new MAs and PhDs. Careers that cross - pollinate academia and business are desirable; they need not be mutually exclusive professions.

Finally, anthropology as an interdisciplinary endeavor will likely continue to adapt to business formats and economic models to gain further acceptance in advertising and marketing. Feinberg anticipates that the future of anthropology will continue its “ cross - disciplinary hybridization, ” a tendency, he notes, which already marks the history of some of anthropology ’ s greatest contributors: Boas trained in physics and geography; Malinowski studied math and physics; Firth earned an MA in economics; Mead majored as an undergraduate in English and psychology; Geertz studied philosophy (Feinberg 2009 : 4). Anthropology is adaptable as a social science, as an expression of humanism, and as a form of social critique. It will be


equally important for anthropology to adapt to advertising and marketing in ways that will demonstrate its potentially greater usefulness as a global business model and as a way of mediating culture between producers and consumers (Malefyt and Morais 2012 ). This will require those working as anthropologists in marketing and advertising also to adapt to new situations, to incorporate new learnings, and to be more fl exible in their outlook.

Conclusion

Anthropologists working in advertising agencies and marketing research fi rms can and should infl uence corporate ideologies and the perceptions of consumers by encouraging ethnographic fi eldwork and other research that directly impacts corporate practices in the production of products and services. The fi eldwork expe-rience of anthropologists among consumers of a brand or service can often enlist those corporate clients themselves to join in the process of observing and interacting with users of its brands. When the anthropologist involves corporate clients in becoming participant observers in research, the latter will grow in their understand-ing of the impact of their brand in consumers ’ lives. This mode of mediation with clients through guided ethnography can lead to better ways to manufacture and market a wide range of brands and services. In this regard, the task and responsibil-ity of anthropologists working in advertising and marketing research is not only to gather more compelling research of consumers ’ lives for their clients ’ brands, but also to foster and build strong relationships between corporate clients and their consumers. Better - informed clients in corporations are then compelled to make better products for their consumers. Greater interaction, contestation, and integra-tion of ideas give rise to more ways to infl uence one another ’ s perspective. This results in more positive outcomes for all.

Working as an anthropologist in advertising and marketing can be rewarding when one sees how ideas become manifest in marketing plans and communication efforts. This can improve corporations ’ understanding of their potential clients and how they represent them in their advertising messages. The desire in advertising and in corporations for new ideas that resonate with consumers makes the work more interesting and valuable to both marketers and consumers. And this is the part that is so fulfi lling about working as an anthropologist in advertising. Helping to create advertisements and marketing plans that tap into some consumer truth can be quite inspiring. These are the moments when it is very fulfi lling to be part of something that makes a difference.

Notes

1 See the chapter on ethics in Malefyt and Morais ( 2012 : 121 – 135). 2 See Malefyt (2009) for a discussion on the rise of corporate ethnography.


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