an ice patch artifact and paleobiological specimen from the teton mountains, wyoming, usa

An Ice Patch Artifact and Paleobiological Specimen from the Teton Mountains, Wyoming, USA

Rebecca A. Sgouros and Matthew A. Stirn

Jackson Hole Historical Society and Museum

[email protected]; [email protected]

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JGA 2.1 (2015) 3–24 Journal of Glacial Archaeology ISSN (print) 2050-3393doi: 10.1558/jga.v2i1.27649 Journal of Glacial Archaeology ISSN (print) 2050-3407

Keywords: Wyoming, Teton Range, Ice Patch Archaeology, Alpine Archaeology, Douglas Fir, Whitebark pine

During the 2014 field season of the Teton Archaeological Project (TAP), twelve perma-nent snowfields and ice patches in the Teton Mountains were investigated for thaw-ing organic artifacts and paleobiological specimens. During this survey, the TAP team identified two ice patches that contained faunal remains, non-cultural Douglas Fir (c. 6,000 cal. BP), and a possibly modified fragment of Whitebark Pine (c. 2,700 cal. BP). The results of this project demonstrate that ice patches have remained preserved in the Teton Range for at least 6,000 years and that organic artifacts and paleobiologi-cal specimens are actively thawing due to increasing temperatures. Furthermore, the data acquired from the organic ice patch material offers fresh information regarding the prehistoric use of high elevations in northwestern Wyoming during harsh climatic periods, and provides an environmental context for interpreting middle Holocene oc-cupations above modern day tree line in the Teton Range.

Introduction

During the past fifty years, an increase in average seasonal temperatures has resulted in the melting of permanent snowfields, ice patches, and glaciers in polar and alpine regions across the world (Edmunds et al. 2012; Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012). This decrease in the mass (or even complete disappearance) of permanent snow and ice has caused organic artifacts, human remains, and paleobiological specimens to melt out and become exposed to deteriorative conditions (Dixon et al. 2014; Lee 2012; Lee et al. 2014; Reckin 2013; Andrews et al. 2012; Andrews, Mackay, and Andrew 2012; Andrews and MacKay 2012; Alix et al. 2012; Hare et al. 2012; Oeggl et al. 2007; Farnell et al. 2004; Hare et al. 2004; Kuzyk et al. 1999). While the release of previously frozen cultural material represents an unfortunate indicator of warming climate trends, the information obtained from the study of ice patch and glacial artifacts offer unique

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details regarding past alpine life ways that are not commonly encountered through traditional archaeological surveys and excavations. Bettinger (2012) notes that mountains and high elevations can act as a detailed barometer regarding paleoeco-nomic, cultural, and adaptive patterns at both a local and regional scale. However, problems related to a low time resolution of archaeological data (Thomas 2013b), poor preservation of environmental-archaeological proxies (Losey 2013; Morgan, Losey, and Adams 2012), an overall small North American alpine data pool (Stirn 2014), and a lack of paleoclimatic context has made it difficult to develop accurate models regarding prehistoric alpine life. The emergence of “ice patch” (Lee 2012) or “glacial” (Dixon et al. 2014) archaeology provides a useful avenue to approach several of the archaeological and environmental problems related to alpine archaeological research.

Ice patch archaeology in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE)

Since 2006, 11 prehistoric organic (e.g., wood, leather, bark) artifacts have been recovered from melting ice patches at nine archaeological sites in the Absaroka and Sawtooth Mountains of northwestern Wyoming and southern Montana (Table 1: Lee 2012; Lee 2014; Lee et al. 2014; Reckin 2013). Ranging from Paleoindian (c. 10,000 BP) atlatl shafts to Late Prehistoric digging sticks (c. 300 BP) (Lee 2012; see also Reckin 2013), this dense assemblage provides valuable information regarding past alpine hunting practices, resource acquisition, and paleoclimatic reconstruction. Reckin (2013) proposes that prehistoric human interactions (and the subsequent deposition

Lab Number Find Location Description Radiocarbon Date (years cal. BP, 1 sig.)

CURL-9656 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Stave cut shaft fragment 140–300

CURL-13524 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Sapling shaft fragment 4890–4970

CURL-13529 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Plaited leather and bark 1360–1420

CURL-9640 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Sapling, shaft fragment with ownership marks

7540–7510

NZA-32328 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Sapling, beveled shaft frag-ment

7430–7510

CURL-11683 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Burnt wood 4580–4780

CURL-11673 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Sapling, foreshaft fragment 4430–4510

NZA-32961 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Spirally fractured, cut marked bone

2180–2300

CURL-11664 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Stave cut , tapered shaft 1590–1690

NZA-32327 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Sapling, shaft fragment with ownership marks

1040–1160

CURL-9635 Absaroka/Beartooth Mountains Atlatl foreshaft 10488–10298

Table 1 Ice Patch Artifacts Previously Recovered in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (adapted from Lee 2012; Reckin 2013).


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of artifacts) with ice patches can be explained by general cross-country travel, large-mammal hunting, plant and rodent resource acquisition, and ice harvesting for food preservation or water. The artifacts discovered thus far in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) can best be explained by large mammal hunting and ice-harvesting activities.

The majority (seven of 11) of ice patch artifacts recovered in the Greater Yellow-stone Ecosystem are remnants of Paleoindian and Archaic era atlatl shafts or late and proto historic projectile shafts (Lee 2012; Reckin 2013). The occurrence of these projectiles from snowfields has been attributed to a prehistoric hunting strategy that likely targeted large herbivores (e.g., bighorn sheep, elk) seeking refuge from bugs and summer heat (Ion and Kershaw 1989; Ryd 2010; see also Lee 2012; Lee et al. 2014). In addition to being used for hunting, stave-cut wood pieces are interpreted as possi-ble tools for harvesting ice for either water or food preservation (Reckin 2013). Based on these recovered organic artifacts it appears that prehistoric alpine groups utilized glacial/snowy landscapes for a variety of economic purposes. As a more detailed pic-ture of prehistoric GYE ice patch use emerges, several questions remain regarding the climatic context surrounding the deposition of organic artifacts and the implica-tions of organic artifacts on our understanding of broader alpine life ways.

Reckin suggests that a correlation between the quantity of ice patch artifacts de-posited during a cooling or warming climatic event might provide a model for ice patch use, general alpine occupation patterns, and the level of impact that climate had on prehistoric groups in mountainous landscapes (2013, 327). For example, a low quantity of ice patch artifacts deposited during a cooling period might indicate that either people did not target ice patches because animals did not seek refuge on them (lowland temperatures did not force animals into the high country) or, a high level of summer snow prevented access to the high-country. Alternatively, a high quantity of ice patch artifacts deposited during an interstadial might indicate that prehistoric groups targeted ice patches when the alpine zone was more accessible from a lack of summer snow, or, when warmer temperatures pushed animals onto snowy terrain. It is interesting to note that only one ice patch artifact found thus far in the GYE dates to within a stadial event (a butchered bone dated to c. 2,200 BP: Reckin 2013). The remaining ten artifacts were deposited during interstadial periods that likely expe-rienced warmer summers and less snow deposition (Reckin 2013). It is tempting to suggest that the deposition of most GYE ice patch artifacts during interstadials indi-cates preferential use of the mountains during warmer climate trends. However, this model is preliminary and requires additional archaeological data and environmental proxies in order to be verified.

To date, the GYE has provided the highest quantity of ice patch artifacts in the con-tiguous United States and the oldest ice patch artifact found anywhere in the world (Lee 2012). However, as research has been published regarding only two of six major mountain ranges in the GYE (the Absarokas and Sawtooths: Lee 2012; Lee et al. 2014; Reckin 2013), the current dataset is minimal. Considering that this geographic region holds approximately 6% of the United States’ glaciers (Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012) and nearly 500 permanent (remaining present for the entire year) ice patches


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(Lee 2014), it is likely that the mountains of northwestern Wyoming and southern Montana will continue to serve as an important focal point for archaeological ice patch and climate studies.

The Teton Mountains

The Teton Range is located in Northwest Wyoming (Figure 1) and extends approxi-mately 50 miles north to south along the Jackson Hole, Wyoming and Teton Val-ley, and Idaho border (Figure 2). The range is almost entirely located in federally managed lands and wilderness areas with Caribou-Targhee National Forest/Jeded-iah Smith Wilderness on the Western slope and Grand Teton National Park on the Eastern slope. While the central Tetons are characterized by technically demanding peaks up to 4,197 meters in elevation, the majority of the range is composed of com-paratively gentle alpine basins, meadows, and passes that reach an average elevation of 3,000–3,350 meters.

The Wyoming (East) slope of the Tetons extending from the base of Jackson Hole to the Teton Crest ascends from the valley floor at an average slope of 32 degrees. The Idaho slope of the Tetons provides a less severe approach with a series of gently slop-

Figure 1 The Teton Range and Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in relation to the western United States, North America. Dotted line indicates the approximate boundary of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.


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Figure 2 The Teton Range separated by Jackson Hole, Wyoming and Teton Valley, Idaho. DEM Acquired from Caltopo.com. Note: As the recreational looting of archaeologi-cal sites is a common practice in the Teton Range, the specific location of the study area has not been included.


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ing finger ridges that extend west into Teton Valley and portions of the Snake River Plain. These ridges, along with a series of canyons, ascend towards the divide but stop short in large alpine basins that are mostly unique to the Western slope. Unlike the steep canyons of the eastern slope, the basins in the western Tetons offer more suitable locations for extended living and rich subsistence opportunities. A series of limestone and granite plateaus and open meadows are found along the entirety of the Teton Crest and provide low-angled basins where alpine lakes and springs attract summer animals.

The plant and animal ecology of the high Tetons offer seasonal, yet ample, subsistence opportunities. Bender (1981) notes that over 69 edible plant species can be found above 2,743 meters in the range. Plentiful large mammals (bighorn sheep, deer, elk, pronghorn, bear, etc.), rodents (pika, marmot, red squirrel, etc.) and fish (trout) frequent the high-country and offer a variety of hunting opportunities (Wright 1984). Finally, fatty-nut producing Whitebark Pine are found at tree line throughout the range and offer a food resource that was likely a staple of prehistoric mountain communities (Adams 2010). In its totality, the alpine ecotone of the Teton Range likely would have offered ample and accessible subsistence resources to prehistoric groups.

Climate and glacial history of the TetonsThe modern day Tetons currently hold ten named glaciers (Edmunds et al. 2012; Fryxell 1935) and approximately fifty permanent ice patches and snowfields. Modern day tree line rests at approximately 2,743 m. and weather patterns are consistent and seasonal with cold-wet winters and hot-dry summers that allow access to high-elevations by mid-summer (July). While the modern seasonal climate and precipita-tion patterns in the Tetons are generally consistent, several microclimates exist in the range that affect snowmelt patterns and accessibility. Because of the topogra-phy and angle of solar radiation (i.e. isolation), south facing slopes and basins typi-cally receive more sunlight than north facing areas. Similarly, the western slope of the Tetons receives more daytime sunlight and are generally warmer, and melt off quicker, than the eastern slope. Given this differentiation in temperature and sun exposure, adjacent basins, passes, and plateaus in the Tetons often have unique sum-mer snow conditions and plant communities that favor warmer or cooler tempera-tures. In addition to topography and solar radiation, microclimates in the Tetons are affected by the convergence of two regional climate patterns that intersect in the middle of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012; Ter-cek, Gray, and Nicholson 2012; Whitlock 1993). The western slope of the Tetons fall into an area classified by comparatively wetter summers and drier winters, whereas the eastern Tetons and adjacent Jackson Hole Valley experience the opposite (Ter-cek, Gray, and Nicholson 2012). The boundary between these two climate zones is not sharp and because it falls on top of the Teton Range, different areas along the crest might experience either weather trend during a given season. However, the general-ized wet-summer, dry-winter trend of the Tetons is important for considering ice patch preservation and will be discussed later in this article.


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The paleoclimate and glacial history of the Tetons, has fluctuated substantially since the end of the Pleistocene. The early Holocene (c. 10,000–8,000 BP) in north-western Wyoming is characterized by cold-wet conditions that slowly transitioned into exceptionally warm and dry conditions by 8,000 BP (Whitlock and Bartlein 1993). Ecologically, during this period the Tetons saw the emergence of a high-elevation pine forest with a maximum tree line of approximately 2,700 meters and an abun-dance of lowland forests, herbs, and brushes (Whitlock 1993). At around 9,500 BP, the two regional weather patterns (discussed above) emerged and remained mostly consistent through modern day (Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012). Glacially, the ear-ly Holocene in the Tetons experienced an abundance of high elevation glaciers and permanent ice fields that slowly shrank in mass into the middle Holocene (c. 5,500 BP). It is likely that ice buildup during the early Holocene would have decreased in comparison to the Pleistocene, but would have been considerably larger than the remainder of the Holocene.

The middle Holocene (c. 8,000–3,000 BP) in northwestern Wyoming is character-ized by warm and dry conditions with the most extreme lasting from 5,400 to 3,000 BP (Fall, Davis, and Zielinski 1995; Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012; Whitlock et al. 2012). Treeline continued to rise during this period to 3,000 meters in some portions of the Tetons and the modern forest species-structure became established around 5,750 BP (Mensing et al. 2012; Whitlock 1993). The vertical extent of high elevation Fir reached a maximum during the beginning of the warming climate trend (Gugger and Sugita 2010; Whitlock 1993). It is possible that this interstadial event would have caused the melting of several previously permanent ice patches in the Tetons and also would have decreased the mass of larger glaciers within the range. Moreover, the decrease in summer snow may have greatly increased accessibility to high eleva-tions in comparison to the early Holocene and Pleistocene.

After the warm and dry conditions of the middle Holocene, the late Holocene (c. 3,000 BP - present day) experienced cooler and wetter conditions and ultimately, the establishment of the modern climate around 3,000 BP (Whitlock 1993; Whitlock et al. 2012). During this period, the vertical extent of tree line decreased slightly to its modern elevation (c. 2,700 meters) and Pine became established at high elevations while a mixture of pine and fir dominated middle elevations (c. 2,300 − 2,400 meters) (Whitlock 1993). In comparison to the early Holocene, temperature and precipitation during the late Holocene became more variable with interspersed periods of warm-dry and cool-wet events. Reckin (2013) notes that the most significant stadial and glacial advance during the late Holocene occurred between c. 2,900 and 2,100 BP. It is probable that during this time, glaciers and ice patches in the Tetons experienced considerable growth in comparison to the middle Holocene and summer accessibility to high elevations would have been less ideal.

Since the end of the Pleistocene, the climate of the Teton Range has fluctuated between hot-dry, and cold-wet conditions. The influence of these episodes on local climate, ecology, and glacial variability was likely significant, however, it is not well understood how these changes influenced prehistoric people and their utilization of high altitude environments.


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Archaeological research in the high Teton mountains

High elevation archaeological research in the Teton Mountains has occurred periodi-cally throughout the past 40 years (Adams 2003; Adams 2004; Bender 1978; Bender 1983; Bender and Wright 1988; Peterson 2015; Wright, Bender, and Reeve 1980). Evi-dence of prehistoric groups in the high Tetons extends to at least 10,000 BP (Page and Peterson 2015). During their early years of alpine research, Bender (Bender 1983; Bender and Wright 1988) and Wright (Wright, Bender, and Reeve 1980; Wright 1984) developed a Broad Spectrum subsistence model which argued that high-altitudes were not used marginally by prehistoric groups but were incorporated smoothly within seasonal rounds. Under this perspective, Bender and Wright painted the high Tetons as a subsistence rich zone that did not present a physiological or economic hindrance to hunter gatherers, but instead, offered an opportune location to live during the late summer and early fall. While Bender and Wright’s model was instru-mental in conceptualizing the prehistoric use of high elevations, they did not focus on issues such as the occupational chronology of the high Tetons, or, the cultural/complex affiliation of alpine archaeological sites (c.f. Cannon, Bringelson, and Can-non 2004). As such, it is difficult to know whether the prehistoric occupation of the Tetons was consistent through time, or if variables such as climate change, resource availability, or population pressure affected the intensity of alpine use. In 2013 (see Peterson 2015) and 2014 (Stirn and Sgouros 2015),two alpine archaeological projects were launched in the Tetons with the goals of answering these questions.

The Teton archaeological project

In the summer of 2014, the Teton Archaeological Project conducted two high eleva-tion surveys in the central and northern Teton Range. The team, directed by Sgouros and Stirn and the Jackson Hole Archaeological Initiative, surveyed 12 ice patches and recorded twenty-eight new archaeological sites ranging from the mid-Paleoindian era (c. 10,000–9,500 BP) to the Late-Prehistoric period (c. 2,000–250 BP). The results of the 2014 field season identified a prehistoric occupation of the Tetons that is similar to other mountain ranges in northwestern Wyoming (Adams, Schroeder, and Koenig 2009; Adams 2010; Morgan, Losey, and Adams 2012; Scheiber and Finley 2010) and the western United States (Bettinger 1991; Morgan, Losey, and Adams 2012; Morgan, Bet-tinger, and Giambastiani 2014; Thomas 2013a; Thomas 2013b). Many questions still remain regarding prehistoric site use and economic strategies in the high Teton Range.

2014 Ice Patch Survey—MethodsDuring the 2014 field season, the TAP team conducted a survey of semi-permanent snowfields and permanent ice patches in the high Tetons. The survey methods were guided by a predictive model developed by Lee (2014) that identified ice patches throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem likely to contain frozen cultural and/or paleobiological material. Using a priori inferences gathered from the distribution of previously discovered ice patch archaeological sites in the GYE, Lee’s model uti-lized a combination of aerial imagery, satellite imagery, and a set of four criteria that included: 1) relative isolation (more isolated ice patches rank higher than ice


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patches near one another), 2) proximity to lower elevation ice patch-free country (lower elevation ranks higher), 3) relative ease of access, such as proximity to human and animal travel corridors, and 4) the angle of the forefield downslope of an ice patch where materials can be deposited (a flat forefield ranks higher than a steep forefield) (Lee 2012; Lee 2014; see also Lee et al. 2014). Ice patches were ranked by Lee using the above criteria in combination with their survival during recent hot summers (e.g., 1932, 1987, and 1994; Lee 2012). Ice patches that met the four criteria and have remained permanent were ranked highest (A), while those that met fewer criteria were ranked lower (Lee 2014). The predictive model was polythetic in its approach (see Thomas and Bettinger 1976; Stirn 2014b) and did not require a single weighted scale for all variables but instead, allowed for multiple independent cul-tural and noncultural variables to simultaneously, but at varying degrees, influence the final ranking of a given icepatch. Guided by Lee’s model, the TAP team investi-gated a total of eight high-priority (A and B ranked) ice patches in the central and northern Teton Range. Four lower-ranked ice patches were also investigated so as not to introduce a sampling bias into the survey, however, no cultural or biological material was discovered at these locations.

Once an ice patch was encountered, the forefield and downslope drainage were surveyed for artifacts and paleobiological material. The level of unmelted snow in comparison to permanent ice was also observed to help determine the extent of thawing during the 2014 summer season. If an artifact or paleobiological specimen was encountered, it was photographed and mapped in place before being packaged and transported to cold storage at the Jackson Hole Historical Society and Museum. Once out of the field, organic specimens were AMS radiocarbon dated and submitted for species identification by Kathryn Puseman with Paleoscapes Archaeobotanical Services (Puseman 2015).

In order to differentiate artifacts from non-cultural wood and bone fragments (ecofacts), objects were analyzed for human modifications and/or transport to its depositional location. Objects with obvious modifications (i.e., cutmarks, heavily carved/polished items, or complete tools) can often be identified as artifacts with lit-tle doubt. Unfortunately, many organic ice patch artifacts discovered in the GYE (Lee 2012) are more ambiguous and require additional scrutiny. In some cases it is neces-sary to collect the artifact and conduct further analysis in the lab. Several additional questions must be asked in order to support the identification of a possible artifact: 1) Is the material locally occurring or an exotic manuport? 2) What is the ice patch’s proximity to other known archaeological sites (terrestrial or ice patch)? 3) Based on available paleoenvironmental data, was the ice patch above, at, or below treeline at the time of the artifact’s deposition? The answers from these questions might not definitively identify an object as an artifact but they can collectively lend support to a positive identification.

2014 Ice Patch Survey—ResultsOf the twelve ice patches that were investigated in the Teton Range during the 2014 season, two contained paleobiological specimens and/or organic artifacts.


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Icepatch PL4_A: PL4_A is an “A” rated transverse ice patch located above tree line at 2,950 meters in the central Tetons on an exposed north-facing limestone plateau. It is located on a steep slope and amongst a limestone talus field that did not have a low-inclined forefield. However, the ease of accessibility to this ice patch and its isolation from other ice patches resulted in a higher rating. This ice patch is approximately 151 x 46 meters in size and was estimated to have a maximum depth of 4 meters. When the ice patch was investigated in mid-September 2014, approximately 20 cm of the 2014 winter’s snow was recorded on top of permanent ice.

The TAP team recorded two mammal long bones, a calcaneus and a partially fused metatarsal (indet. species), approximately one meter away from the extent of the ice at PL4_A. Both bones were highly fractured and sun bleached, which suggests that they had been exposed to solar radiation for considerable time either upon deposition or after melting. No cut marks or other anthropogenic alterations were noted on either bone. Due to permitting restrictions, the bones from PL4_A were not collected, fur-ther identified, or radiocarbon dated. No animal dung was recorded at this ice patch.

Icepatch 48TE1956:Ice patch 48TE1956 (originally identified as PL1_A: Lee 2014) is a transverse, “A” rated, ice patch located above modern day tree line at 3,048 meters on an exposed northeast-facing limestone plateau. A low inclined forefield extends approximately 40 meters north before turning into a steeper drainage. This ice patch is approxi-

Figure 3 Ice Patch 48TE1956 as viewed from the west. The two recovered samples were col-lected from the forefield on the lower left side of the ice patch. Note: The tree line observed in the background is lower than the ice patch but appears higher due to the perspective of the photograph.


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mately 142 x 66 meters in size and is located on a low inclined slope beneath a small, sloped ridge (Figure 3). The maximum depth of the ice patch was estimated to be 2 meters. When 48TE1956 was investigated in mid-September, 2014 almost all of the previous season’s snow had melted leaving exposed ice covered by a thin layer of organic residue and approximately 1–2 centimeters of snow. The location of the ice patch is in close proximity to several Paleoindian, Archaic, and Late Prehistoric sites and is also near a mountain pass that, prehistorically, likely acted as a human and animal travel corridor between Jackson Hole, Wyoming and Teton Valley, Idaho (Stirn and Sgouros 2015). A Late Prehistoric site recorded within one kilometer of the ice patch contained the first recorded pottery in the high Tetons, suggesting that the environment and resources of the limestone plateau were sufficient enough to support prehistoric groups for extended periods of time (Stirn and Sgouros 2015; see also Adams 2010 for a discussion regarding the occurrence of ceramics and site use longevity). 48TE1956 is currently the lowest elevation ice patch with organic artifacts to be recorded in the GYE (the second lowest ice patch is 24CB2247 recorded at 3,090 meters: Lee 2012).

At 48TE1956, the TAP team recorded one piece of modified wood and one piece of naturally occurring wood in the forefield of the ice patch approximately 10 centim-eters away from the ice. The organic artifact is a stave-cut segment of wood that has a single, large cutmark on its proximal end which was identified using microscopic analysis at the Jackson Hole Historical Society and Museum, and independently by Paleoscapes Archaeobotanical Services (Puseman 2015) (Figures 4,5). The dimensions of the artifact measure 12.8 cm x 3 cm with a uniform thickness of .04 cm. This arti-fact was dated to 2749 ± 25 cal. BP (D-AMS 008938: Table 2) and was identified by Puse-man (2015) as Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis). Whitlock (1993) asserts that modern day treeline was established in the Teton Range at approximately 3,000 BP, which places the ice patch above tree line during the time of the object’s deposition. The combination of the cutmark and the artifact’s depositional location above the Late

Lab Number Find Location

Description Conventional Radiocarbon

Date (C14 yr BP)

Radiocarbon Date (years cal.

BP, 1 sig.)

Mean Cali-brated Age BP

N/A PL4_A Large mammal (indet. species) metacarpal and cal-caneus

N/A N/A N/A

D-AMS 008938 48TE1956 Stave cut whitebark Whitebark Pine arti-fact, fragmented

2617 ± 29 2724–2774 2749 ± 25

D-AMS 008937 48TE1956 Unmodified douglas Douglas Fir frag-ment

5219 ± 29 5913–6167 6040 ± 127

Table 2 Paleobiological Specimens and an Ice Patch Artifact from the Teton Range, 2014 TAP Field Season. Radiocarbon Dates Calibrated using CALIB 7.1.


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Figure 4 A Stave Cut Whitebark pine Artifact (c. 2,700 cal. BP) Recovered from Ice Patch 48TE1956.

Figure 5 The Stave- Cut Whitebark pine Artifact in situ at Ice Patch 48TE1956.


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Prehistoric tree line offers supporting evidence that the object is cultural and not naturally-occurring. The shape and modification of the fragment is consistent with other stave-cut artifacts recovered in the GYE by Lee (2012). While those objects have been interpreted as possible walking sticks or ice-digging tools (Lee 2012; also Reckin 2013), the use and function of the artifact from 48TE1956 remains ambiguous. Pos-sible uses of this artifact will be explored in the discussion of this article.

The paleobiological specimen recovered from 48TE1956 is a piece of unmodified Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii: Puseman 2015) that was dated to 6040 ± 127 cal. BP (D-AMS 008937: Table 2, Figure 6). This wood fragment measures 7.5 cm x 3.7 cm x .09 cm and does not display many signs of decomposition or weathering that suggests it had not been exposed for a long period of time.

Discussion

The discovery of a possible Late Archaic artifact and a non-cultural wood fragment dating to the Middle Archaic from 48TE1956 demonstrate that at least one ice patch in the Teton Range has remained preserved for at least 6,000 years and was likely utilized by prehistoric groups. The data acquired from the two specimens not only affirms the presence of preserved paleobiological materials in Teton ice patches but can provide interesting data regarding the prehistoric use of the Teton Mountains.

A late archaic artifact from Ice Patch 48TE1956The stave-cut fragment of Whitebark Pine recovered from 48TE1956 offers prelimi-nary information regarding the prehistoric use of ice patches and alpine landscapes of

Figure 6 A Non-Cultural Fragment of Douglas Fir Recovered From Ice Patch 48TE1956.


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the Teton Mountains. While the exact function of the artifact remains undetermined, its probable use can be hypothesized based upon its morphology and the location of the ice patch within the local landscape. Returning to Reckin’s (2013) explanations for human-ice patch interactions, the artifact from 48TE1956 could be explained by loss of items during travel, prehistoric hunting, or direct harvesting of ice.

The prehistoric hunting of large mammals has been documented on several occa-sions in the mountains of northwestern Wyoming (Adams 2010; Eakin 2005; Frison 1991; Stirn et al. 2015; Finley and Finley 2004). In the Tetons, elk, moose, deer, prong-horn, and bighorn sheep routinely frequent the high country to escape mid-summer heat and insect swarms. Lee (2012) predicts that in a similar fashion to arctic and sub-arctic caribou and reindeer, elk and bighorn sheep likely utilized alpine ice patches to cool down and escape insects. This behavior by certain mammals could have pro-vided an opportunity to prehistoric hunters who maximized gain by targeting a large group of animals clustered within a tight geographic area (Lee 2012). While this type of hunting has not been recorded in the GYE ethnographic record (Lee 2012), the au-thors of this article have personally observed bighorn sheep using ice patches in the Wind River Range, and elk similarly using ice patches in the southern Tetons. While it is possible that the artifact from 48TE1956 might represent an item lost during a Late Archaic hunting excursion, there is no obvious evidence to support this function.

Several ancient assemblages from ice patches in the European Alps have been in-terpreted to be the result of past travelers who simply lost items en-route between two locations (Rogers et al. 2014). Modern day observations made by the authors along popular hiking routes in the Wind River and Teton Range have identified high quantities of trash and lost items that have either been purposefully discarded or accidentally lost by hikers and campers. If this pattern has remained consistent through time, an analogy can be made which suggests that the occurrence of arti-facts and items along popular travel corridors can be attributed to a combination of intentional and non-intentional depositional processes that relate more so to travel than to paleoeconomic activities. Such a process might explain the occurrence of a broken and ambiguous artifact such as the one recovered from 48TE1956. In order for this assumption to hold true, however, the location of a given ice patch should fall directly onto a travel corridor. Because 48TE1956 is located two kilometers from the nearest least-cost path (LCP) attributed corridor, and, is located near several Late Prehistoric terrestrial sites (Stirn and Sgouros 2014) this hypothesis is plausible but requires additional supporting evidence.

The only ice patch artifacts found in the GYE constructed from locally occurring high-elevation species are two ambiguous fragments of stave-cut wood that have been interpreted as possible remnants of walking sticks or ice-harvesting tools (Lee 2012; Reckin 2013). Given the similarity in shape between Lee’s stave-cut fragments and the artifact from 48TE1956, and upon considering all three are made of White-bark pine (an alpine species), it is possible that this artifact represents the proximal end of an ice-harvesting tool. While a walking stick could also offer another possible explanation (as was suggested by Lee 2012 and Reckin 2013 to explain the two stave-cut artifacts from the Absaroka Mountains), the thin cross section of the 48TE1956


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artifact would not have been weight bearing and is instead more typical of a bladed implement. Again, however, more supporting evidence is necessary to determine the specific function of this item.

While the discovery of this possible cut wood artifact does not answer many ques-tions regarding the prehistoric utilization of the Tetons, it does, however, demon-strate a use of high-elevation arboreal resources. It is also interesting to note that this artifact marks only the second in the GYE to be dated to within the 2,900–2,100 BP stadial period (see Reckin 2013). The deposition of a wooden artifact within a par-ticularly wet and cold climatic period suggests that prehistoric people, on at least a few occasions, utilized high altitude environments when conditions were not favora-ble (e.g., low accessibility, short growing season for plant resources, fewer mammals migrating into the high country). This conclusion, which observes a non-discrimina-tory use of high altitudes in regards to climate, supports other research that suggests that climate may not have been a significant determining factor for the prehistoric use of high elevation landscapes (Macfarlane 2004; Walsh 2005; Walsh, Richer, and de Beaulieu 2006). As additional ice patch artifacts are uncovered in the Tetons and surrounding mountains, a more detailed understanding of their functions and their significance to prehistoric alpine life will be better understood.

Middle Holocene Douglas Fir in the Tetons The fragment of Douglas fir recovered from 48TE1956 offers paleoclimatic data on the central Tetons and helps provide an environmental context for high elevation sites from the Early Archaic period. Because Rocky Mountain Douglas fir (P. menziesii var. glauca) favors drier and warmer environments, it can act as an environmental indicator for changing climatic conditions (Gugger and Sugita 2010). Several paleocli-matic studies have hypothesized that due to warm-dry conditions, tree line during the Early Archaic (c. 8,000 − 5,500 BP) in the central Rocky Mountains increased to a minimum of 3,000 meters (Brunelle et al. 2013; Mensing et al. 2012; Rice, Treden-nick, and Joyce 2012; Whitlock and Bartlein 1993; Whitlock 1993; Whitlock et al. 2012). Additionally, palynological studies conducted by Whitlock and Bartlein (1993) and Gugger and Sugita (2010) suggest that in addition to an increase in tree elevation, Early Archaic sub-alpine forests experienced an increase in the ratio of Douglas fir to pine. Given the higher density of Douglas fir during the Archaic interstadial fol-lowed by an abrupt cooler-wetter period after 3,000 BP (Whitlock and Bartlein 1993), it is not particularly surprising that a wood fragment from 6,000 BP remained pre-served on ice during a dry period, and later became buried and preserved during a wetter period (see Morgan, Losey, and Trout 2014 for a discussion regarding the preservation of high elevation wood). This discovery does, however, compliment the palynological and dendrochronological record that suggests a warmer-drier climatic trend that resulted in the change of the sub-alpine forest ecology across the mid-dle Rocky Mountains during the Early and Middle Holocene. Furthermore, the data acquired from the 48TE1956 Douglas fir fragment provides an environmental context for interpreting Archaic era archaeological sites found in the modern day alpine eco-tone.


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48TE1956 sits approximately 200m above modern treeline (2,900 meters). Moreo-ver, twelve of the archaeological sites recorded in 2014 are currently situated at or just above tree line (Stirn and Sgouros 2015). Given the evidence for a higher- eleva-tion tree line during the Early and Middle Archaic periods, it is important to remem-ber that sites recorded in what appear to be barren alpine plateaus and passes in the Tetons were once previously forested. Therefore it is necessary to interpret resource acquisition strategies within the context of a sub-alpine and montane forest ecotone. Without considering available paleoenvironmental evidence, we risk misinterpret-ing Archaic era archaeological sites. The detailed environmental information gath-ered from 48TE1956 will help our interpretation of future archaeological sites and alpine use patterns in the Teton Range.

A differential melting pattern of modern day ice patches in northwestern WyomingDuring the 2013-2014 winter and early-spring season, the mountains of northwest-ern Wyoming experienced a heavy snowpack that was 30% above average, and a cooler than average spring and summer (Bridger Teton Avalanche Center 2015). The combination of high snow accumulation and low temperatures stunted the summer melting of snow in the mountains of northwestern Wyoming and likely represented a growing season for local glaciers and ice patches. Due to these insulated condi-tions, some ice patch archaeological surveys in the Wind River and Absaroka Ranges were not conducted because the exposure of permanent ice and organic material was deemed unlikely due to a high coverage of unmelted snow (Craig Lee and Robert Kelly, Personal Communication). It was surprising then, that during this same time in the Teton Range (only 100 km. away from the Absaroka and Wind River Ranges) the ice patches that were encountered by the TAP were at an advanced melting stage. While the difference in snow melting across northwestern Wyoming could have been a seasonal anomaly, a more likely explanation lies at the contact of the two climatic zones that Whitlock and Bartlein (1993) suggest bisects the GYE.

During a study of the paleo and modern climate of Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks, Whitlock and Bartlein (1993) observed two different climate trends that have occurred routinely since 9,500 BP. The first, summer-dry/winter-wet, is formed from the Eastern Pacific subtropical high-pressure system that suppresses summer precipitation and results in extended drought conditions (Whitlock and Bartlein 233). During the winter season, the dry climate pattern is replaced by an increase in lower temperatures and heavier precipitation from the jet stream that moves south during the cool season (233). Rice et al. (2012) note that winter-wet areas can commonly receive twice to ten times more winter precipitation than winter-dry areas. The second climate trend, summer-wet/winter-dry, is typified by higher-sum-mer precipitation formed by the onshore flow of moist air from the Gulfs of Califor-nia and Mexico and in the winter, a decrease in winter precipitation caused by the Cordilleran rain shadow (Whitlock and Bartlein 233). The exact position of the two climate groups, however, remains less understood.

Whitlock and Bartlein (1993) originally noted that while the boundary between the summer-dry/winter-wet, and summer-wet/winter-dry regimes generally bisected


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the GYE diagonally, local topography and orography influenced the amount of sea-sonal precipitation that different regions received (Whitlock and Bartlein 233). As such, it was possible that the distribution of the two climate regimes at their inter-section was more diffuse and clustered than abrupt. This observation was further confirmed by Tercek et al. (2012) who, after analyzing precipitation normals amongst modern day weather stations in the GYE, observed that the two climate regimes are longitudinally distributed with occasional outlying islands on either side of the di-vide. In terms of the geographic areas covered in this article, the western slope of the Tetons fall within the summer-wet/winter-dry zone while the Absaroka and Wind River Ranges fall within the summer-dry/winter-wet zones (Tercek, Gray, and Ni-cholson 2012). This distribution means that the northern and southeastern GYE (Ab-sarokas and Wind River Range, respectively) receive high amounts of winter snow while the southwestern GYE (e.g., Tetons range) receives comparatively less (Rice, Tredennick, and Joyce 2012). Because of the differentiation in summer/winter pre-cipitation trends across the GYE, it is not surprising that during the summer of 2014 the Tetons had significantly less snow than the Wind River and Absaroka ranges.

An understanding of paleo and modern climate trends is crucial in order to accu-rately predict the preservation of ice patches and exposure of organic artifacts and paleobiological specimens. Because the GYE is relatively similar in topography, ecol-ogy, and elevation distributions (as are most mountainous regions in North Ameri-ca), it is tempting to clump the entire region into a single climatic regime. However, due to the contact of two large weather patterns and a pocket-distribution of locally occurring climate trends, it is necessary to interpret the melting patterns of GYE mountain ranges in isolation from one another. This consideration becomes impor-tant when attempting to examine regional patterns and/or models of prehistoric ice patch utilization and modern identification criteria (Lee 2014; Rogers, Fischer, and Huss 2014). Because a comprehensive ice patch study requires a mutual understand-ing of an object’s depositional process (cultural or paleobiological) and the historic growth/shrinking and inevitable death of an ice patch, it is important to equally take into consideration the paleoclimatic history and modern day weather patterns of the study area. By incorporating high-resolution and locally relevant climatic data into ice patch research, it will be possible to more accurately understand the life-cycle of high elevation ice patches, how they were utilized by prehistoric people, and to predict where and when organic artifacts and paleobiological specimens may be exposed by warming temperatures.

Conclusions and considerations for future research

During the summer of 2014, the Teton Archaeological Project conducted the first ice patch archaeological survey in the Teton Range, Wyoming, and identified one pos-sible cut-wood artifact and three paleobiological specimens. The stave-cut wooden artifact (2749 ± 25 cal. BP) made of Whitebark pine remains ambiguous in terms of function but contributes to our understanding of the prehistoric use of high-eleva-tion landscapes. There currently does not exist a standard method for identifying ambiguous and possibly cultural wood and bone fragments from ice patches. While


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the existing approach may be subjective and situational, it stresses multiple lines of evidence and increases the data pool which, with further discussion across the disci-pline, will slowly help to generate a more systematic approach.

The paleobiological specimens included two large mammal bones, and a non-cultural fragment of Douglas fir (6040 ± 127 cal. BP) that provided complimentary evidence towards an increase in temperature and aridity in the GYE during the transition between the middle and late Holocene (Whitlock 1993). The recovery of organic material melting out of an ice patch in the Teton Range provides evidence that permanent ice patches and their contents have remained preserved in the Tetons for at least 6,000 years. These discoveries also demonstrate that historically preserved ice patches are no longer growing, but are quickly melting due to an increase in the average summer temperature of the Teton and Greater Yellowstone Region. The data acquired in 2014 only offers preliminary conclusions, but provides a foundation for future ice patch and glacial archaeological studies in the Teton Range.

As more ice patches are investigated and artifacts and paleobiological specimens are recovered, it will be possible to address more complex questions regarding the prehistoric utilization of high elevation resources, patterns of ice patch/snowfield utilization, and the climatic/environmental context of alpine archaeological sites. Bettinger suggests that, “…in whatever range, in whatever state on whatever conti-nent, alpine archaeology provides a uniquely clean picture of the regional relation-ships between population and resources that is much more confused and harder to read in [lower elevation] settings” (Bettinger 2012, 7).

Ice patch archaeology represents a unique niche in prehistoric alpine studies be-cause the information gathered has the potential to generate information that is ap-plicable on a regional scale, and illustrate aspects of prehistoric cultural not tradi-tionally encountered in archaeological research. Such a pool of data, once compared on a regional or even global level, will offer a powerful resource for understanding topics such as cross-cultural trends/differences to mountain use, social and tech-nological adaptations to living at high-elevations, and the implications of climate change on past mountain environments.

Acknowledgments

The Teton Archaeological Project would like to thank Caribou-Targhee National For-est and Grand Teton National Park for supporting the goals and objectives of this pro-ject. Many thanks also to Craig Lee, Robert Kelly, and Katheryn Puseman for advice and guidance regarding the identification and interpretation of the ice patch remains. We also bear much gratitude to Ed and Shirley Cheramy, the Frison Institute, Caribou-Targhee National Forest, and the University of Wyoming - National Park Research Station for providing financial and logistical support. Finally, many thanks to the Linn Family and Teton Outfitters for transporting our heavy equipment and keeping our morale high. Poached salmon and pork loin in the wilderness has never tasted so good.


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an ice patch artifact and paleobiological specimen from the teton mountains, wyoming, usa

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