agra: the city of monumental urban contradictions - ghn sites

Ashima Krishna Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites 1

Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship

Agra: The city of monumental urban contradictions

Project Report on JNNURM initiatives and how they have fared in Agra March, 2012

Contents List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

2 Agra: Contradictions in the City ............................................................................................................................................................. 12

2.1 Proximity to New Delhi and the Golden Triangle ........................................................................................................................... 14

2.2 The focus on Taj Mahal ................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Taj Mahotsav (Taj Festival) ............................................................................................................................................................... 25

2.3 Disconnected administration and management ............................................................................................................................ 27

3 Agra’s recent urban development initiatives amidst its historic landscape .......................................................................................... 32

3.1 Agra’s City Development Plan: Summary and Critique .................................................................................................................. 33

3.2 The reality of JNNURM in historic Agra .......................................................................................................................................... 40

3.2.1 Municipal Services: Water Supply, Sewerage and Solid Waste Management ........................................................................ 44

3.2.2 Transportation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 49



3.3 Other initiatives in Agra .................................................................................................................................................................. 51

4 In Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60

List of Figures

Figure 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 4 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 5 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Figure 6 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Figure 7 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 8 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 9 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 10 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 11 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 12 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 13 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

Figure 14 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Figure 15 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27



Figure 16 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 17 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50

Figure 18 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50

List of Tables

Table 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Table 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Table 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21

Table 4 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Table 5 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Table 6 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Table 7 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37

Table 8 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39

Table 9 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43

Table 10 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48



1 Introduction The city of Agra, located around 200 kms1 from the National Capital of New Delhi, is internationally known for its World Heritage

Sites of Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and the semi-urban site of Fatehpur Sikri (often in that order2), as the latter is located several

kilometers from the city’s urban periphery. As one of the most iconic and memorable historic and cultural sites in the world, the Taj

Mahal has been a mascot for the country’s rich architectural and

cultural heritage for many years, especially beyond its national

boundaries. It is no wonder then, that the site, and therefore by

extension the city, attracts millions3 of domestic and international

tourists every year. The Taj Mahal has been an object of fascination for

a long time, and has therefore managed to overshadow other historic

sites in the city, especially those that do not enjoy UNESCO’s World

Heritage Site status. This imbalance in administrative as well as public

attention has created distinct problems for the city of Agra.

Domestically, the city has an added appeal of its well-known pethas4,

especially of the Panchhi brand. The fame of Panchhi pethas is such

that the city is today dotted with shops that have borrowed the brand,

1 Agra Municipal Corporation website, http://www.nagarnigamagra.com/

2 Results of Tourist Survey conducted for Agra. (Refer Figure 12)

3 Tourism data; Department of Tourism, Uttar Pradesh

4 A kind of sweet roll made from pumpkin

Figure 1

Decadal population growth pattern for district of Agra Source: Census of India 2011 Report, Uttar Pradesh Series 10



often fooling buyers into thinking they are getting the original Pancchi petha. Despite the immense brand value of the World

Heritage Sites as well as the culinary delight of the pethas adding to the revenue, Agra has over the years struggled to keep up with

its developmental needs.

Within this unique mix of historic sites receiving extreme versus little attention was thrown the massive ‘urban renewal’ initiative of

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (henceforth JNNURM) by the Central Government in 2005. The flagship JNNURM

program for improving urban infrastructure has since its inception,

aimed at an integrated development of cities by providing basic

services including infrastructure projects related to water supply and

sanitation, sewerage, solid waste management, road networks, urban

transportation services, affordable housing and most importantly for

this research, the re-development of historic areas and precincts in the

pilot cities selected for funding. But did that really come to pass? As

the 7-year deadline for the Mission approaches in 2012, this report

looks at how JNNURM initiatives have worked (or not) in a historic city

like Agra that that struggled to catch up to its rapidly urbanizing

population while trying to grapple with the ever-increasing influx of

tourists to its well-known historic sites.

Figure 2

Traffic congestion on Agra streets Source: Author



3.50%7.82%

88.68%

2.87%8.69%

88.44%

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Comparative occupational structure 1971 - 2001

2001 1971

Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006

The three World Heritage Sites of Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri are together irrefutably major magnets for domestic and

international visitors to the city, contributing to a large part of the revenue that comes into Agra (Refer Table 1). As Table 1 shows,

the combined revenue for the 3 World Heritage Sites for 2012 up to January was well over Rs. 28 crore, with several months till the

financial year closed in March. Clearly, while the individual revenue contributions from each site vary, the cumulative contribution is

significant and has been for the past several years (Refer Table 1). Ideally, judging by the high tourist influx that brings in crores5 of

revenue and development

opportunities into the city, Agra

should have been a city setting

examples for its Indian

counterparts in terms of

infrastructural development

spurred on by large-scale heritage

tourism. Surprisingly, however,

the city and its various spectrum

of residents struggle with basic

urban problems of water supply,

sanitation and housing in their

daily existence; divorced from the tourist havens mentioned above, the city is found to be languishing in a vast landscape of

infrastructural underdevelopment and mismanagement6. Looking at the district’s decadal population growth patterns (Refer Figure

1), it is therefore unsurprising to see how in the new millennium Agra’s population has experienced a sharp dip, as compared to the

5 10 crores = 1 million (1 crore has seven zeros)

6 Mr.Manish Kumar, Program Manager, Center for Urban and Regional Excellence (CURE), Agra Office

Figure 3



previous decades. Apart from the 1930s-1950s when the country was recovering and rebuilding itself (immediately before, during

and after the Freedom Struggle7 and subsequent Partition8), the district’s population is seen to steadily grow (Refer Figure 1). This

report explores such issues that link problems related to Agra’s plethora of historic sites with its developmental deficit against the

backdrop of the JNNURM9 program.

Revenue collected from major ASI protected sites (ticketed)

Source: Archaeological Survey of India, Agra Circle Headquarters, Agra

Name of

monument

Source of revenue 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

in Rs. in Rs. in Rs. in Rs. in Rs. (up to January)

Taj Mahal Admission tkts 173,860,290 143,649,810 171,764,850 198,130,470 170,029,360

Videography fee 1,101,600 844,125 716,925 645,450 403,450

Filming Op. 250,000 295,000 175,000 330,000 65,000

TOTAL 175,211,890 144,788,935 172,656,775 199,105,920 170,497,810

Agra Fort Admission tkts 107,703,315 90,539,840 110,228,510 105,768,160 69,286,990

Videography fee 818,475 706,625 613,925 513,750 272,403

Filming Operation 85,000 150,000 55,000 110,000 25,000

Publications 216,859

TOTAL 108,823,649 91,396,465 110,897,435 106,391,910 69,584,393

Fatehpur Sikri Admission tkts 53,780,190 43,840,730 47,854,660 57,540,130 47,943,410

Videography fee 451,750 706,625 613,925 513,750 239,675


Publications - 30,775 192 2,060 16,913

TOTAL 54,306,940 44,663,130 48,508,777 58,130,940 48,214,998

7 India gained freedom from British Rule on August 15, 1947.

8 Pakistan was partitioned from India on August 14, 1947. It is also the day Pakistan celebrates its Independence Day, while India celebrates it a day after.

9 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission http://jnnurm.nic.in/



Sikandra Akbar's

Tomb

Admission tkts 5,762,369 5,441,275 5,543,490 14,334,540 6,806,970

Videography fee 163,775 138,925 84,575 93,275 67,425


Publications 93,400 - - - -

TOTAL 5,956,144 5,625,200 5,633,065 14,442,815 6,884,395

Myriam's Tomb Admission tkts 59,935 62,960 71,800 127,205 132,480

Videography fee 225 175 150 325 100

Filming Operation - - - - -

Publications - - - - -

TOTAL 60,160 63,135 71,950 127,530 132,580

Itmad ud Daula

tomb

Admission tkts 4,269,285 3,890,735 4,702,380 6,397,835 5,599,070

Videography fee 55,050 47,700 39,700 41,550 30,850


Publications 34,600 - - - -

TOTAL 4,358,935 3,938,435 4,742,080 6,439,385 5,629,920

Rambagh Garden Admission tkts 207,905 171,555 155,220 131,805 200,178

Videography fee 175 150 200 300 50

Filming Operation - - 10,000 - -

TOTAL 208,080 171,705 165,420 132,105 200,228

Mehtab Bagh

Garden

Admission tkts 575,906 563,510 842,210 1,784,540 2,233,560

Videography fee 4,375 3,200 4,175 7,700 9,800


TOTAL 680,281 590,710 906,385 1,857,240 2,288,360

GRAND TOTAL

PER YEAR

349,606,079 291,237,715 343,581,887 386,627,845 303,432,684

Table 1



The city of Agra’s regional economic significance and dire need for holistic development initiatives is often overshadowed by its

historical importance. Apart from being home to three World Heritage Sites and several other notable historic sites (Refer Table 4),

Agra is also the regional commercial and industrial hub for Western Uttar Pradesh, unlike the rest of the state where agriculture has

always played a big role in the economy. Agra, having infertile land and being prone to floods from the river Yamuna, has thus

received a strong industrial impetus over time. A majority of the city’s industrial commerce comprises small-scale and household

industries that are clustered primarily in the traditional localities of Lohamandi, Rakabganj, Kotwali and Tajganj, comprising of

marble in-lay work, leather, carpet, brassware, artistic rugs and jewelry production that are then sold at tourist shops across the city.

These industries have flourished over centuries, especially given their initial Mughal patronage. Official records state that the city

has 5263 small-scale industrial units with an investment of about Rs. 263.15 crore. Additionally, about 750 small-scale units in the

city produce the aforementioned petha, tucked in the winding lanes of the Noori Darwaza Market. The larger industrial areas are

located in the localities of Chatta and Hariparvat, comprising textile, leather and leather goods, foundry, diesel engines, generator

sets, electrical goods, steel rolling, packaging materials and so on. While the industrial patterns in the city subtly underwent a

change during the Colonial era, rail and road networks ensured that Agra remained the handicraft and cottage-industry hub of the

region (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).

Census data shows that there has hardly been any change in occupational distributions in the city between 1971 and 2001 (Refer

Figure 3). The primary sector, comprising of agriculture has consistently been the least popular occupation, with secondary sector

comprising of household industries faring only slightly higher. The tertiary sector, comprising a variety of occupations such as

manufacturing, electricity, gas and water supply, construction, transport, storage, communication, banking & insurance, trade and

business and other services (including tourism and hotel services) has enjoyed an overwhelming majority with 88.44% of the city’s

population undertaking tertiary occupations in 1971 and 88.68% in 2001 (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).



2%1%

8%

89%

Occupational Distribution, 2001

Cultivators

Agricultural labourers

Household industries

Others

Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006

Figure 4

From the latest data available on the distribution of occupation types, the category of ‘other’ forms the biggest group, encompassing

most importantly the service sector that caters to tourists in terms of hospitality, tourism operations and commerce from small-

scale and handicraft industries (Refer Figure 4). Apart from the dichotomy of occupations in Agra, its declining resident population is

also economically diverse. According to the 2001 census, 9.67% of the city’s population was living in officially recognized slums

within the urban periphery (CURE, 2007). Eleven years on, these figures are grimmer. In 2005, the Agra Nagar Nigam10 (henceforth

ANN) hired a consultant firm to prepare a City Development Plan11 (henceforth CDP) for Agra, a comprehensive development

document to rectify the urban stagnation

plaguing the city with a proposal for integrated

development and management of the city and

all its historic sites. This CDP was prepared to be

submitted to the Ministry of Urban

Development (henceforth MoUD) in the

Government of India (henceforth GOI). The

MoUD is the implementing and monitoring

agency for the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban

Renewal Mission (henceforth JNNURM). The

CDP for Agra, a visionary document at the

conception stage, promised to develop this

Category B, million-plus city in a way as to benefit its vast cross-section of residents and visitors. Moving forward to 2012, only a

small fraction of the initiatives promised in the CDP have been delivered. This report takes a look at how the JNNURM initiatives that

10

Also known as Agra Municipal Corporation 11

Required for JNNURM



were promised and proposed in the CDP have been actually implemented and impacted the historic sites in the city, now that the

seven-year deadline for the program (2005-2012) is fast approaching.

Cities in Uttar Pradesh with over 4 million population

Source: Census of India, Government of India website, http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_up.html

1 Allahabad 5,959,798 8 Sitapur 4,474,446

2 Moradabad 4,773,138 9 Bareilly 4,464,344

3 Ghaziabad 4,661,452 10 Gorakhpur 4,436,275

4 Azamgarh 4,616,509 11 Agra 4,380,793

5 Lucknow 4,588,455 12 Muzaffarnagar 4,138,605

6 Kanpur 4,572,951 13 Hardoi 4,091,380

7 Jaunpur 4,476,072 14 Kheri 4,013,634

Table 2



Figure 5

View of the Taj from one of the many rooftop restaurants in Taj Ganj Source: Author

2 Agra: Contradictions in the City The bulbous beacon of Taj Mahal’s white-marbled grandeur; the majestic, fiery-red, imposing fortifications of Agra Fort; the chaotic,

loud and cantankerous streets laden with impatient traffic of man, animal and machine; the odoriferous, windingly narrow lanes of

traditional inner-city settlements (colloquially called katras, basties); the vast, arid banks of the rapidly drying and heavily polluted

Yamuna River. These and more make up the intricately woven and complicated urban contradictions that comprise the

contemporary city of Agra.

Most importantly, however, the city of Agra’s

Mughal-era architectural heritage consists not only

of the UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites of

Taj Mahal and Agra Fort, but other remarkable sites

such as Chini ka Rauza, Rambagh Gardens,

Sikandra, Mariyam’s Tomb, Mehtab Bagh, Itmad-

ud-daula’s Tomb, and Jama Masjid to name just a

few. Additionally, Mughal architecture is not the

only facet of Agra’s rich architectural and historical

past. Agra also boasts a wide variety of other

religious and secular structures such as medieval

and later Hindu temples (Mankameshwar Mandir, Rawali, Balkeshwar Mandir, Prithvinath Mandir, Rajeshwar Mandir , Kailash

Mandir, Renuka Dham, Sainath); a Buddhist monastery; Christian churches and cemeteries (Cathedral St. Peter's, St. Patricks,

Baptist Church, Sai Ka Takia, Catholic Church, Sadar Bazaar, St. Mary' s Pratapura, St. Paul's Khandari, Roman Catholic Cemetery);



and Jain temples (Digambar Jain temple, Taj Ganj, Tirthadham, Mangalayatan, Sasni, Aligarh, Chintamani Parshwanath, Roshan

Mohalla, Dadabari, Shahganj)12 to name a few.

This vast and varied architectural13 legacy, so clearly stamped across the Agra’s skyline for centuries is today slowly being swallowed

up by a sprawling, bloated and polluted industrial city’s desire to compete in India’s rapidly urbanizing landscape. Agra’s

contradictions are many and they manifest themselves in the experiences of residents and visitors alike. The city’s resident

population of over 4.38 million, according to the 2011 census

(Refer Table 2) plays host to millions of domestic and

international tourists every year. Out of these, nearly 4 million

tourists (both domestic and international) on an average14

arrive yearly at the Taj Mahal alone (Refer Table 3). In fact,

studies have shown than on an average nearly 55% of all foreign

visitors to India visit the Taj every year (Agra Nagar Nigam,

2006). The staggering amount of visitors to a single historic site

such as the Taj Mahal is unprecedented across the country,

rivaled perhaps only by religious and pilgrimage visits

undertaken to the Tirupati Balaji Temple in Andhra Pradesh

which gets an average of 60,000 devotees on a slow day and at

12

Uttar Pradesh State Department of Tourism official website, http://www.up-tourism.com/destination/agra/places_of_interest.htm 13

Agra also has a diverse and eclectic socio-cultural heritage that is beyond the scope of this report, but nevertheless forms an intrinsic part of the way in which the city functions: the community-

based traditional residential areas, the steep caste and religion divide that still exists in the city, and the unequal distribution of services amongst the newer residential areas versus the older, more

organic traditional settlements. 14

Average of the last 5 years

Figure 6

Roman Catholic Cemetery Source: Author



least 1 lakh during festivals15. In most cases, a high number of tourist visits to a particular city has an impact on its infrastructural

development (Srivastava, 2011) in such as way as to spur on the growth rate. In Agra’s case, however, this has not proven true due a

variety of reasons. Three of the most important of these include (but are not limited to) its close proximity to the national capital of

New Delhi, spatial/developmental urban restrictions from Supreme Court due to threats to the Taj Mahal, and gaps in the

institutional/administrative setup. All these have combined to create a distinct developmental dichotomy in Agra, one that the

various administrators in the city constantly strive to grapple with.

2.1 Proximity to New Delhi and the Golden Triangle

The close proximity that Agra enjoys with New Delhi has both been a boon and a bane for the city. With a distance of just over

200kms between them, the cities have been over the years connected by a variety of road and rail networks, many catering

especially to tourists. Nearly fifty trains16 connect New Delhi and Agra on an almost daily basis, in addition to eleven UPSRTC17 buses

that connect Delhi to Agra from the Inter State Bus Terminal (ISBT) in Sarai Kale Khan, New Delhi to Idgah Bus Station, Agra. In

addition to the State Transport buses, there are several private tour operators that also ply buses between the two destinations. In

all, the rail and/or road journey takes about 3-4 hours each way. This connectivity has been a boon for the local residents of each of

the two cities to undertake leisure or business trips more quickly and efficiently; however, the connectivity has proven to be a bane

for the tourism service providers in Agra who only get a small percentage of tourists actually staying in Agra thus affecting the

revenue that comes into the city. This fact is also illustrated by a sample tourist survey conducted on-site in Agra (Refer Figure 7). The

chart shows how the largest percentage of visits made to Agra are day-visits from New Delhi, followed by only overnight stays in

Agra.

15

Times of India, “21-hour wait for fleeting darshan of the Lord at Tirumala”, March 26, 2012. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/21-hour-wait-for-fleeting-darshan-of-the-Lord-at-

Tirumala/articleshow/12410243.cms 16

Indian Rail Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC) website, Govt of India, https://www.irctc.co.in/ 17

Uttar Pradesh State Tourism Corporation, http://www.upsrtc.com/online/query/run_origin_query.asp?D1=40++++dlh&D2=2++++agr&scn=168&scn1=75



30%

36%

30%

4%

Types of Agra visits

1 day with overnight

stay in Agra

1 day with day trip

from New Delhi

2-5 days

6 days or more

The large percentage of day-trips to Agra has historical precedent, and has led to a distinct gap in infrastructural development in the

city. Prior to 1988 the city of Agra did not have any hotels of international standards to cater to its burgeoning international tourist

base. In recent years, however, several large hotel brands such as the Taj Group, Oberoi Group, Welcome Group and Trident have

constructed large, multi-star hotels in the city that cater to a variety of clientele. They also attempt to attract corporate clients by

positioning their world-class hotel and banquet services amidst the added attraction of the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri

(Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). Despite, however, the existence of these well-known hotel brands, the State Tourism Bungalows run by

UP Tourism, and a large number of private hotels, economy lodges, and homestay facilities, the city has not developed its hospitality

potential in proportion to the number of its visitors. Agra’s facilities amount to 175 rooms for every 1 lakh18 tourists. This figure,

when compared to the national average of 423 rooms/lakh tourist, and the state average of 404 rooms/lakh tourist is rather pitiful

(Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).

Agra’s lack of developmental opportunities due to its proximity to

New Delhi is further compounded by its equal proximity to the

Rajasthani capital, Jaipur, thus creating a tourist zone known as

The Golden Triangle19. Each city is roughly 200 – 250 kms away

from each other (Refer Figure 9), thus making the triangle a

profitable destination for tour operators. This tourist zone,

encompassing the architectural and historical experience of

Mughal, Rajput and Colonial periods of India’s history respectively,

is widely packaged as a quick way to view the variety of cultural

18

1 lakh is equivalent to 1 hundred thousand; 1,00,000 = 100,000 19

Ministry of Tourism, Government of India Annual Report 2010, http://tourism.gov.in/writereaddata/uploaded/tender/053120110313488.pdf

Figure 7 Source: On-site survey, March 2012



experiences that the country has to offer. New Delhi, however being the national capital, and often a port-of-entry for international

visitors as well as domestic visitors due to its rail and road connectivity, is often the primary place of stay for tourists, with day-trips

or overnight packages to Jaipur and Agra. In fact, the Triangle is popularly offered as an option by the Government of India’s

Incredible India! campaign20.

The proximity to New Delhi was also a factor in the Agra playing a role in the controversial Commonwealth Games held in October

2010. In addition to the various initiatives in New Delhi to

prepare the city for international athletes, Agra also benefited

in terms of day-tours organized for the athletes to visit the city’s

World Heritage Sites21. In preparation for visitors during the

Commonwealth Games, the ASI implemented several up-

gradation projects at Agra’ historic sites that included

construction of wooden ramps at all major ASI sites to facilitate

universal access, in addition to construction of public toilets and

drinking water at all major historic sites22. While visitors during

the Commonwealth Games may not have been as many as

originally envisaged, up-gradation initiatives at Agra’s historic

sites during the Games nevertheless have benefited the millions

of subsequent tourists and visitors to the sites, primarily

because of Agra’s close proximity to New Delhi.

20

Incredible India! website, Govt of India, Ministry of Tourism. www.incredibleindia.org 21

Zee news, “Tourism industry asked to cash in on Commonwealth Games’, Aug 19, 2009, http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/tourism-industry-asked-to-cash-on-c-wealth-games_556500.html 22

Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle

Figure 8

Construction of a universal access ramp at the Itmad-ud-daula

Tomb occurred during the Commonwealth Games in 2010 Source: Author



Figure 9

The Golden Triangle Source: Google Maps



Figure 10

Panoramic view of the Taj Mahal Source: Author

2.2 The focus on Taj Mahal

As mentioned previously, the city of Agra is best known for hosting the World Heritage Site of Taj Mahal (Figure 10), a well-known

historic landmark within and outside the country. The historic site has for a long time captured the imagination and attention of

visitors, scholars, residents and especially the erstwhile Colonial rulers. This is attested by the scores of publications available in

relation to the Taj Mahal (Arnold, 2007; Begley, 1989; Cag̲h̲tāʼī, 1955; Koch, 2006; Kumar, 1993; Lakshmi, 2006; Lancaster, 1956;

Lane-Smith, 1999; Nath, 1972; Sen Gupta, 2006; Sinha, 2009; Tillotson, 2008), to name just a few. While this is by no means an

exhaustive list, it gives a fairly clear picture of the attention that the Taj Mahal has received for several centuries.

This focus on a single (albeit eminently worthy) historic site in the city has over the years led to an imbalance of administrative

actions and programs; only recently have the Agra authorities begun to implement programs to draw attention to the other worthy

sites in Agra in an effort to attract tourists to stay in city hotels and spend a few days exploring the city and its treasure trove of



Mughal and Colonial-era sites. An on-site survey done in Agra showed that 99% tourist/visitor to Agra visited the Taj Mahal, while

78% of them visited Agra Fort and 64% visited Fatehpur Sikri as well. Other sites within Agra’s urban limits such as Akbar’s Tomb in

Sikandra (40%), Itmad-ud-daula Tomb (21%), Jama Masjid (19%), Ram Bagh (14%), Mehtab Bagh (11%) and Myriam’s Tomb in

Sikandra (11%) clearly do not enjoy as much tourist focus as the other three World Heritage Sites (Refer Figure 12).

With such immaculate visitor attendance at the Taj, is no wonder that the site alone draws revenue of several crores per year. While

the site has in recent years been shrouded in an extra layer of security in the form of CISF23 forces monitoring all entry and exits

from the site and performing security checks24, the actual cleaning, maintenance and preservation of the Taj is done on a regular

basis by the ASI staff. There is, in fact evidence of the first conservation efforts being carried out at the Taj during the Mughal period

in a farman (order) stored at the Taj Museum, sent by Aurangzeb to Emperor Shah Jahan requesting for the repair of cracks that had

appeared in the dome. Since then, of course the Taj has undergone several administrative changes and over 320 major conservation

23

Central Industrial Security Force http://cisf.nic.in/ 24

The Taj Mahal and the Red Fort, and by extension ASI ran into fiscal controvery in 2010 when they incurred heavy debts to non-payment of fees for the services of CISF. Economic Times, “Taj Mahal,

Red Fort owe CISF Rs.6.5crore for security”, Apr 27, 2010. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-04-27/news/27586618_1_red-fort-dues-psus

Figure 11

Approach road (left fork) to East Gate of the Taj, leading from the Shilp Gram complex Source: Author



initiatives have taken place at the site alone. More recently, in addition to conservation initiatives, a contract for laser scanning of

the entire structure has also been given to the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) at Kanpur, also in response to the Supreme Court

directives mentioned below25. Apart from this academic and scholarly attention, the Taj Mahal has in fact enjoyed immense

administrative attention over time; more than perhaps any other site in India. In the past few years, the Ministry of Tourism in New

Delhi has given the Department of Tourism, UP Government over Rs.50 crore for the development of the Taj area leading to the

development of the approach road to the East Gate (Refer Figure 11), improvements at Shah Jahan gardens and the creation of a

cultural complex called Shilp Gram as mentioned later. At present, the area around the Western Gate of the Taj is undergoing

improvement and up-gradation, including the creation of a better parking lot to serve the other end of the historic complex26.

Administrative and legislative programs and schemes thus far have also reflected the imbalance mentioned above. Agra has for

many years been a commercial and industrial hub of the western part of the state. The commercial and industrial pull of Agra,

attributing to its steadily increasing population growth post-Independence, has seen a decline in the last decade (Refer Figure 1). One

of the major reasons for this can be explained as a legislative shift in Agra in the mid-1990s. This shift in the way the Taj was

administered mandated the removal of industries within a certain perimeter of the Taj Mahal that has over the years suffered

several material and structural setbacks due to what experts have ascertained were repercussions brought on by atmospheric

pollutants in the immediate vicinity of the structure emitted by a variety of industries27.

25

Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle 26

Interview with Mr.DK Burman, Retired Managing Director, Uttar Pradesh Tourism Corporation 27

Outlook, “The Taj Mahal Man”, May 22, 1996. http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?201409; Youth ki Awaaz, “Grand symbol of Love faces Environmental Test”, January 20, 2011.

http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/taj-mahal-environment-pollution/



Number of Tourist arrivals at Taj Mahal, Agra

Source: Uttar Pradesh Tourism Office, Govt of Uttar Pradesh, Agra

Month 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Indian Foreign Total Indian Foreign Total Indian Foreign Total Indian Foreign Total Indian Foreign Total

JAN 144,774 60,944 205,718 163,825 66,970 230,795 190,841 41,585 232,426 240,757 67,435 308,192 306,636 72,614 379,250

FEB 131,429 66,740 198,169 148,641 73,713 222,354 161,438 47,493 208,931 306,604 80,380 386,984 325,006 83,830 408,836

MAR 151,686 64,141 215,827 233,379 78,739 312,118 181,239 48,465 229,704 370,818 79,592 450,410 386,340 81,218 467,558

APR 132,378 40,125 172,503 165,473 40,536 206,009 173,847 33,532 207,379 369,013 45,579 414,592 349,520 51,696 401,216

MAY 276,777 24,702 301,479 220,383 24,699 245,082 204,954 20,997 225,951 394,301 30,226 424,527 395,994 30,711 426,705

JUN 226,695 17,926 244,621 286,816 19,358 306,174 226,990 16,914 243,904 351,095 21,915 373,010 419,371 19,813 439,184

JUL 303,290 32,401 335,691 255,680 31,079 286,759 178,374 26,515 204,889 293,777 32,192 325,969 371,495 33,985 405,480

AUG 236,372 44,697 281,069 191,465 46,122 237,587 197,973 43,939 241,912 322,741 52,607 375,348 367,195 49,657 416,852

SEP 217,569 40,661 258,230 131,804 36,843 168,647 181,274 34,536 215,810 305,758 40,088 345,846 368,390 48,875 417,265

OCT 271,389 57,012 328,401 260,173 56,549 316,722 247,047 50,862 297,909 347,276 59,292 406,568 480,875 74,623 555,498

NOV 176,615 63,096 239,711 289,698 74,435 364,133 295,845 70,972 366,817 404,311 76,470 480,781 440,445 77,565 518,010

DEC 180,535 55,258 235,793 241,937 62,321 304,258 281,800 45,930 327,730 374,975 61,652 436,627 393,336 67,745 461,081

TOTAL 2,449,509 567,703 3,017,212 2,589,274 611,364 3,200,638 2,521,622 481,740 3,003,362 4,081,426 647,428 4,728,854 4,604,603 692,332 5,296,935

Table 3

Several documented litigations (Supreme Court of India, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2000, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c,

2007, 2010) attest to the sustained fight that environmentalists have undertaken over the past several decades, invoking the Air

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 and Environment Protection

Act 1986 (henceforth EPA) to facilitate the relocation of industries to prevent emissions generated by coke or coal consumption that

were in turn damaging the white marble of the Taj. The inhabitants of the areas in the immediate vicinity of the Taj were directed to

change over to natural gas as industrial fuel. The main sources of pollution were found to be the foundries at Mathura, emitting

sulphur dioxide that combined with atmospheric oxygen to form sulphuric acid (acid rain). In addition, refineries, brick-kilns,

vehicular traffic and generator-sets were found to be the primary sources of polluting agents within the immediate vicinity of the Taj



Mahal28. The Court, treating the Taj as an industry in itself (owing to the vast number of visitors to the site every year), deliberated

over several reports for over three years before passing judgment. Finally, in 1998, due to litigation efforts by Mr. Mahesh Chander

Mehta and other environmentalists lasting many decades as noted previously, the Supreme Court took steps to protect the Taj

Mahal29. A Gazette of India notification dated 1998 announced the creation of an authority known as the Taj Trapezium Zone

Pollution Authority (henceforth TTZPA) consisting of the Commissioner of Agra as its Chairman. Since its creation, the TTZPA has

been under the overall supervision of the Central Government and is authorized to exercise powers under Section 19 of the

Environment Protection Act of 1986. The geographical limits of the Taj Trapezium Zone (henceforth TTZ) have been defined in the

shape of a trapezoid between 26 45 N & 77 15'E to 27 45 N & 77 15 E in the West of the Taj Mahal and in the East of Taj Mahal

between 27 00' N & 78 30 E to 27 30' N & 78 30 E. This covers an area of approximately 10,400 sq.km30 surrounding the Taj Mahal.

Headquartered in Agra, the TTZPA has as part of its powers and duties to:

1. “monitor progress of the implementation of various schemes for protection of the Taj Mahal and programmes for protection

and improvement of the environment in the above said area;

2. exercise powers under section 5 of the EPA;

3. take all necessary steps to ensure Compliance of specified emission-standards by motor vehicles and ensuring compliance of

fuel quality standards;

4. deal with any environmental issue which may be referred to it by the Central Government or the State Government of Uttar

Pradesh relating to the above said area;

5. co-opt experts for facilitating the work assigned to it

28

Environmental Information System Center, Madras School of Economics Report, “Taj Pollution Matter” http://envis.mse.ac.in/problems%20pdf/TAJ%20POLLUTION%20MATTER.pdf 29

Outlook, “The Taj Mahal Man”, May 22, 1996. http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?201409; Youth ki Awaaz, “Grand symbol of Love faces Environmental Test”, January 20, 2011.

http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/taj-mahal-environment-pollution/ 30

Indian Express, “Taj Trapezium Zone set to get eight new projects”, March 21, 2011. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/taj-trapezium-zone-set-to-get-eight-new-projects/765068/0



6. furnish a report about its activities at least once in two months to the Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and

Forests.”31

Figure 12

31

Gazette of India notification, Ministry of Environment and Forests, http://moef.gov.in/legis/ecozone/taj-aut.html

Most frequented historic sites in Agra

Source: On-site survey, March 2012



The creation of TTZ thus dates back to the mid-90’s, when concerns about the discoloration of Taj Mahal’s façade began to be

discussed at the administrative and academic levels, spurred

on by a distinctly aggressive civil society. The Supreme Court,

taking cognizance of the massive environmental impact of

Agra’s industrial base to the Taj Mahal’s aging marble, thus put

into effect large-scale restrictions within the regulated TTZ

around the historic structure. The restrictions were not limited

to the vicinity of the Taj Mahal alone; while conventional

vehicles were banned within a 500 meter radius of the

structure, the Supreme Court also ordered 292 coal-based,

highly polluting factories to switch to natural gas or move

outside the impacting area of the Taj Mahal. Their limits were

set to April 30, 199732. Although the State Pollution Control

Board had placed on record list of 510 industries which were responsible for air pollution, the Court confined its order only to 292

industries located and operating in Agra33. The primary objective of the entire litigation by Mr.Mehta and other members of civil

society was to stop the pollution in and around the site without discouraging industry – in fact to encourage a more sustained

development of the area.

In addition to efforts in the TTZ, the ASI also contributed to the Supreme Court directives by increasing plantations at the Mehtab

Bagh gardens located across the river from the Taj to improve its ambient air quality34. On the other side of the bank, a direct result

32

Mid-Day, “Taj is safe: experts”, October 08, 2011. http://www.mid-day.com/news/2011/oct/081011-Agra-Taj-is-safe-experts.htm 33

Environmental Information System Center, Madras School of Economics Report, “Taj Pollution Matter” http://envis.mse.ac.in/problems%20pdf/TAJ%20POLLUTION%20MATTER.pdf 34

Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle

Figure 13

Battery-operated Bus Source: Author



of these legislative efforts was also seen in the creation of a regulated zone around the Taj Mahal comprising of the construction and

creation of the previously-mentioned 12 acre complex called Shilp Gram (Handicrafts Village) beyond the East Gate of the Taj Mahal

by the Uttar Pradesh State Department of Tourism. This multi-use

complex hosts a variety of activities such as ticketing, shopping,

restaurants, tourist information and parking. The complex is also

the drop-off point for all motorized vehicles. All visitors traverse

the roughly one kilometer distance to the Taj Mahal in battery-

operated buses (Figure 13) or golf carts (Figure 14) from the

complex, paying a minimum fee35 for their use. These vehicles are

operated by the Agra Development Authority (henceforth ADA)

and revenue generated from ticket sales goes towards their

maintenance and upkeep. These vehicles (24 golf carts: 6 and 8

seaters; 12 buses: 15 seaters) were primarily implemented

because of the aforementioned Supreme Court order to stop

vehicles from parking close to the monument to stop atmospheric pollution from damaging the white marble. As part of the tax and

ticket collections, ADA provides all foreign visitors with ‘foreigner’ tickets with bottles of water, shoe covers and a carry bag at Shilp

Gram prior to their departure for Taj Mahal36.

Taj Mahotsav (Taj Festival)

The Taj Mahotsav, first organized in 1992 by the State Department of Tourism, is held at the Shilp Gram every year for a ten-day

period37 from February 18th to 27th. Contrary to the name, apart from its proximity to the Taj Mahal, the festival has little to do with

35

Fee for the battery operated vehicles is Rs.5 for buses and Rs.10 for golf carts for Indians. All Taj Mahal entry ‘foreign’ ticket holders travel for free. 36

Interview with Mr. Sanjay Singh, ADA Electrical Engineer

Figure 14

Battery-operated golf carts Source: Author



the actual site, apart from drawing thousands of visitors to its vicinity and thus encouraging them to visit the historic site. The large

Shilp Gram complex hosts a variety of stalls that house craftsman, food vendors and commercial vendors for local, domestic and

international visitors. The complex also handles and manages all the parking for the event with nearly Rs.2 crore being collected in

revenue from parking alone every year. Nearly 200 stalls are reserved every year for handicraft artisans for free to encourage the

industry. About 150 stalls are used for commercial purposes by various vendors for a fee. Every evening, the Mahotsav hosts cultural

events at various sites across Agra in order to draw a variety of crowds. Special buses connect the venue from various parts of the

city as well be outlined in the next section. Sur Sadan (Music Hall) hosts the Kavi sammelan (Poets conclave) every year with special

cultural performances spread throughout the ten-day period. Often the cultural events are attempted to be held at historic sites to

draw attention to them. These however, often prove difficult not only because ASI does not give permission easily, but also because

crowd control becomes a problem and the cultural events at sensitive historic sites end up becoming exclusive, pass-only events that

host only a select few. To counter this problem, this year a new component was added to the festival with a car rally being organized

at the Chambal forest; contracted to Indian Motor Racing Federation, the race finished in front of Agra Fort and passed through the

historic town of Bateshwar in an effort to spread awareness and draw crowds to seldom visited areas in and around Agra38.

The Taj Mahotsav was always envisioned to be an equal opportunity event to bring culture to the masses. Apart from the Rs.20

entry fee to enter the Shilp Gram complex there is no other fee for any other event apart from the charges for the merchandise

offered at the stalls. The Taj Mahotsav, a popular regional event is widely publicized and draws an average of 40,000 visitors per day.

Special staff canteens are run for the hundreds of staff and stall owners at the expense of UP Tourism. The entire festival is

organized by the Taj Mahotsav Committee every year, headed by the District Commissioner as its Chairman39.

37

This year, due to the state elections, the festival was postponed to mid-March (16th

-26th

) 38

Interview with Mr.Satish Srivastava, Director, UP Tourism in Agra 39

Interview with Mr.Satish Srivastava, Director, UP Tourism in Agra



2.3 Disconnected administration and management

While administrative agencies have put in tremendous effort and money in developing the World Heritage sites of Taj Mahal, Agra

Fort and the outlying site of Fatehpur Sikri as tourist attractions, the other, less well-known albeit important historic sites have been

left as islands in a sea of urban chaos, congestion and filth. Within their own boundary walls, each of the historic sites, irrespective of

their stature, have been maintained, preserved and administered by central and/or state agencies such as Archaeological Survey of

India (henceforth ASI) and State Department of Archaeology

(henceforth State Archaeology). Beyond the boundaries of each

site, however, is a city that is almost completely disconnected

from what lies within the walls (Refer Figure 15). In each case,

administration, implementation and management of the sites,

their environs and the city beyond occur in distinct silos,

independent of each other. This disconnect has led to a

haphazard development in the city, with selected pockets of

developmental activity. This is also one of the major reasons

why most JNNURM proposals mentioned in the Agra CDP never

came to fruition.

In terms of heritage management, Agra has historically and

contemporarily enjoyed a rather important status within the

national-level management agency of Archaeological Survey of India, which has its own circle at Agra. Up until a few decades ago,

the Agra circle was the only jurisdictional authority in the entire state, until its bifurcation into Lucknow and Agra Circles to

administer West and East UP respectively. Current perusal of ASI’s records show heightened archaeological and conservation

Figure 15

Open park area immediately abutting the Agra Fort entrance with

the entrance gate in the background Source: Author



activities in Agra from the 1870s, around the same time that the ASI was formed. The Agra Circle administers 264 monuments, out

of which 32 are within the urban limits of the city of Agra. While signage maintenance and landscaping are regularly taken care of,

major conservation projects are only taken on priority.

There are several state and central government departments that co-exist and function in the city; however most do not collaborate

while implementing projects. This has very important bearing on the way in which the historic sites and zones in the city function,

and how projects are implemented there. Within each historic site designated by the ASI, the maintenance, ticketing, security and

administration falls within the purview of ASI. In the case of the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra and

Itmad-ud-daula’s Tomb, the ASI has sub-circles administered by Conservation Assistants (henceforth CA) who manage each site’s

day-to-day affairs. The rest of the centrally protected sites are administered through the Superintendent Archaeologist’s office at

the Agra Circle headquarters in Agra on Mall Road. Interviews with the Conservation Assistants (often holding only diplomas and not

professional degrees) at each of the sub-circles in Agra elicited some surprising facts. Three out of the five CAs were not aware of the

UP Tourism/UPSRTC guided tour buses that bring tourists to their sites. All five were unaware of any JNNURM initiatives, and

categorically stated that they had never been consulted nor spoken to with regard to the creation or implementation of the various

JNNURM schemes outlined in the Agra CDP. All the CAs were in agreement that almost all the visitors to their respective sites made

use of private vehicles, taxis, autos and tangas because none of the public transportation buses (funded by JNNURM since 2010)

dropped off passengers at a walking distance to their historic sites. Only local residents used the public transportation buses for their

daily commute. At the Agra Fort, the CA was aware and appreciative of the Light and Sound Show organized by UP Tourism. While

UP Tourism sells tickets and collects revenue from the event, the ASI Sub-circle gets a percentage of that revenue as part of a MoU

signed by the heads of UP Tourism and ASI.

Another area where some inter-departmental cooperation is seen is in ticket sales at the various ASI sites. Most of the ticketed

historic sites in Agra have an additional Toll tax imposed by the Agra Development Authority; the percentage of the toll varies from



one site to another. Table 4 gives a detailed account of the way in which the ticket and toll prices are distributed at various historic

sites across Agra. Several Engineers at the Agra Development Authority were interviewed in an effort to understand the way in

which this taxation is levied; however, not a single interviewee could explain the logic behind the toll levied. A curious aspect of the

toll imposed is that if a ‘foreigner’ buys a ticket for Rs.750 for the Taj Mahal, he/she is then exempted from paying toll tax at other

monuments for the rest of that particular day – however only that day. If he/she wishes to visit other historic sites on other days,

he/she would need to pay the toll on other sites again. I have yet to ascertain the methodology in the toll tax process implemented

at the historic sites by ADA.

List of historic sites administered by ASI within Agra’s urban limits # - World Heritage Site

Source: Personal visits

Name of Site Ticket Prices (in INR)

Indian Non-Indian

ASI fee ADA fee TOTAL ASI fee ADA fee TOTAL

Taj Mahal # 10 10 20 250 500 750

Agra Fort # 10 10 20 250 50 300

Fatehpur Sikri # 10 10 20 250 10 260

Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandra 5 5 10 100 10 110

Mariam’s Tomb, Sikandra 5 - 5 100 - 100

Itmad-ud-daula’s Tomb 5 5 10 100 10 110

Mehtab Bagh 5 - 5 100 - 100

Ram Bagh 5 - 5 100 - 100

Taj Museum 5 - 5 5 - 5

Chini ka Rauza Free Free

Roman Catholic Cemetery Free Free

Itibari Khan’s Mosque Free Free

Jaswant Singh ki Chhatri Free Free

Statue of Akbar’s Horse Free Free

Barah Khamba Free Free

Chattries on Yamuna bank Free Free



Chauburji Free Free

Kans Gate Free Free

Jhun jhun Katora Free Free

Gateway at Pul Changa Modi Free Free

Khan-i-Alam Bagh Free Free

Well and steps in Charbagh Free Free

Humayun Masjid of Kachhpura Free Free

Sikandra mosque Free Free

Table 4

The Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.), headquartered in the state capital of Lucknow, has its Regional Office in Agra, administered

by a Regional Archaeological Officer. The sites designated by the Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.) in Agra are administered through

this office. The Department has been involved with some management of World Heritage Sites in the State, however the 3 sites in

Agra are administered by ASI. The department works according to the 11th and 12th Finance Commission, involved in Archaeological

surveys, Conservation and Publication. The executing agency for the Directorate at all its Regional offices is CNDS.

Interestingly, while there is no interference between the sites administered by ASI and the Directorate of Archaeology, the State

Department of Tourism and the State Department of Culture (parent department for the Directorate of Archaeology) are often

involved in coordination of tourism and cultural activities. One example of this coordination is the Light and Sound Show at Agra

Fort, started by State Department of Culture in April 2011. Staffing, ticketing, funding, designing and organization for the event are

all done by the Department of Culture, while ASI acts as the host, and its staff take care of security at the site.

Beyond the walls of the historic sites protected by ASI and/or Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.) the administrations falls to Agra

Development Authority40 or Agra Nagar Nigam41, as the case may be. The Agra Development Authority was constituted by the state

government to provide housing and manage the way in which land was developed in the city. The agency administers several

40

Official website, Agra Development Authority, http://www.ada-agra.com/ 41

Official website, Agra Nagar Nigam, http://www.nagarnigamagra.com/



residential and commercial schemes, and comprises primarily of engineers (with one town planner and one architect in its employ).

As part of its many duties, the ADA not only earns revenue from toll collection, but runs the battery-operated buses at Shilp Gram to

take tourists to the Taj Mahal East Gate. The agency also manages and runs several parks and parking lots across the city, especially

in and around historic sites such as the Agra Fort and Taj Mahal. They however, have no say in what happens within the boundary

walls of the historic sites. The Agra Nagar Nigam, one of the largest municipal bodies in the state, provides civic amenities to the

city’s population. While its municipal jurisdiction covers the historic

sites mentioned in this report, the ANN does not actually have any role

or say in the working of historic sites. Interviews with several ANN

engineers showed that over the years, the primary role of ANN has

been in providing sanitation services across the city, including garbage

collection, sewerage, solid waste management and to some extent,

water supply (Refer Table 8). ANN also shares responsibility for street

lighting, roads and parks with other agencies such as ADA but beyond

these functions, ANN has neither the expertise nor the manpower to

implement or be involved in any other kind of projects. This has been

brought out very clearly in the execution of the JNNURM programs in

the city where ANN was made the nodal agency by the MoUD.

Figure 16

Garbage and refuse collection trucks within the ANN office

complex Source: Author



3 Agra’s recent urban development initiatives amidst its

historic landscape Agra has had a rather sketchy urban development history (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). The various problems of implementation and

management of urban development programs and schemes that occurred up until the CDP was prepared for Agra in 2006 were a

positive step in identifying and subsequently rectifying problems of local governance. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal

Mission (henceforth JNNURM), one of the most prominent initiatives in recent times had sought to bring forth wide-spread urban

sector reforms through better local governance programs, monitored by the central government. The program was introduced by

GOI (administered through the MoUD) in 2005 to promote planned and sustainable development in various urban sectors across the

country in partnership with Urban Local Bodies (henceforth ULBs). The inclusion of development of historic urban cores and their

decongestion has been one of the eligible sectors for funding from the Directorate of Urban Infrastructure and Governance42, an

unprecedented feat. Of the sixty-three ‘mission’ cities eligible for funding assistance from JNNURM, seven were megacities43,

twenty-eight were ordinary cities with between four and one million population44, and twenty-eight had less than a million

population45. The city of Agra fell in Category B with a population of 1.1 million as of 200446; a city with rapidly urbanizing population

and a growing industrial and commercial presence at the local and regional level.

The City of Agra (represented by the Agra Municipal Corporation or Agra Nagar Nigam), through private consultants prepared a

detailed CDP (City Development Plan)47 dated August 2006 to be considered for approval by JNNURM in New Delhi; a report that

detailed the strengths and weaknesses of the city, and outlined a systematic approach that could lead to sustained development in a

42

JNNURM Overview, JNNURM website http://jnnurm.nic.in/ 43

Category A with a population of over 4 million 44

Category B with a population of between 1 and 4 million 45

Category C with a population of less than 1 million; JNNURM Overview, JNNURM website http://jnnurm.nic.in/ 46

Official website of the City of Agra, http://agra.nic.in/popurb.htm 47

JNNURM Website, http://jnnurm.nic.in/cdp-of-agra.html



historic city like Agra. The architectural and historic significance of the city and its continued tourist potential formed an integral part

of this report (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). While going into the details of the CDP are beyond the scope of this report, an attempt is

made to summarize the key points brought out in the CDP.

3.1 Agra’s City Development Plan: Summary and Critique

The vision prepared for the Agra CDP involved “Utilization of Agra’s potential for improving the economy of the City by providing

equal access to best quality physical and social infrastructure to all residents.” Unfortunately, as this report will continue to show,

the vision did not come to fruition. This vision was based on an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses in the city identified as:

Opportunities

• Abundance of historic sites to encourage tourism

• Long stretch of the Yamuna river front

• Advantageous location with respect to New Delhi and Jaipur to enhance the existing tourism sector around the

Golden Triangle

• Well entrenched local economy in terms of : (a) Petha (b) Leather (c) Handicrafts

• Willingness of local and state administrations to reform

• Presence of several developmental stakeholders including NGOs

Constraints

• Fragile and environmentally sensitive heritage and ecology

• Haphazard spatial development and mushrooming of unauthorized settlements across the city

• Weak Infrastructure – lack of basic services such as water supply, sewage and solid waste disposal and drainage

• Congested roads due to disorganized and mixed nature of traffic

• Lack of a modern public transportation system

• Lax implementation of urban programs

• Substantial urban poverty and rapidly increasing slum areas

• Existing reformatory programs yet to be implemented



Based on these identified strengths and weaknesses, a development strategy was devised for the city, formulated on the basis of

periodic city assessments and stakeholder consultations. Aimed at achieving the CDP’s vision the development goals targeted for

Agra to emerge as an aesthetic, safe, tolerant, creative, connected, clean and sustainable city that provides the highest quality of life

to its citizens including access and opportunities to work, education, health, development and recreation. The entire CDP, divided

into urban sectors, thus formulated separate strategies for each.

The tourism sector proposed the creation of world-class tourism infrastructure including an international airport, a golf course, Light

& Sound programs at Agra Fort; restoration and preservation of the historic structures in the city, and not just the three World

Heritage Sites; positioning and maintaining tourism development in Agra as a state/national priority; enhancing and maintaining the

competitiveness of Agra as a tourism destination; and improving existing tourism products and expanding these to meet new market

requirements. The infrastructure sector called for the enhancement and up-gradation of city infrastructure in terms of provision and

delivery of municipal services (water supply, sewerage, surface water drainage, solid waste management, roads, bridges,

streetlights, community facilities and other civic urban infrastructure and services); improving and achieving the maximum benefits

of tourism economy by creating additional infrastructure and additional facilities for increasing number of tourists; adopting GIS

mapping for utility planning and management for various sectors in the city. The sector aimed at assisting the urban poor proposed

for the provision of basic services in slum areas in a more systematic and methodical way; improving slums and implementing

rehabilitation programs to cover the whole cross-section of the urban poor living in slums; empowering communities to establish

linkages between community and bankers so as to facilitate assistance to beneficiaries; identifying institutions for imparting

specialized training to the community for improving their skills and talents and improving housing conditions across the city. The

sector dealing with inner city issues proposed the augmentation of existing water and sewer lines, maintenance and laying of new

drains, efficient disposal of solid waste to maintain the hygiene of the area, shifting of non-conforming household/small industrial

units to planned new areas, strengthening the road surface and traffic management plan for smooth flow of traffic and identifying



and revitalizing the historic structures within the urban limits. During the process of formulating the CDP, several stakeholder

meetings were conducted and projects were accordingly prioritized keeping in mind the views, aspirations and needs of local

officials, residents, experts, NGOs, elected representatives and others. Decisions about designating priorities for each sector were

done on the basis of various consultations and discussions held with the government departments that were to be involved in the

implementation of CDP. As per the scope of the mission outlined by MoUD, the project costs proposed under Sub- Mission I in Agra’s

City Development Plan were approximately Rs. 7373.79 crores and under Sub Mission II were Rs. 480.85 crores (Refer Table 5).

Sector-wise Investment Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006 S.No Sector Cost (in crores)

Sub-Mission I

1 Water Supply 900.04

2 Sewerage 763.13

3 Storm Water Drainage 168.44

4 Solid Waste Management 87.51

5 Roads & Transportation 4950.35

6 Heritage & Tourism 52.5

7 Industry 4.83

8 Environment 254.78

9 Urban Renewal Projects: Inner city 180.61

10 Capacity Building 11.6

Sub Total 7373.79

Sub-Mission II

11 Urban Poverty and Slum 480.85

Sub Total 480.85

Grand Total 7854.64

Table 5



Schedule of Expenditure (Rs. in crores) Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006 Name of the Sector 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Heritage & Tourism 12.34 12.95 27.2 0 0 0

Industry 0 0.66 0.93 1.46 1.79 0

Environment 12.34 52.64 61.93 43.75 45.94 38.18

Water Supply 17.06 174.47 164.38 172.6 181.23 190.29

Sewerage 122.43 99.72 140.33 179.56 107.85 113.24

Storm Water Drainage 34.55 40.02 50.47 17.5 12.64 13.27

Solid Waste Management 30.98 38.59 17.94 0 0 0

Roads & Transportation 334.15 368.5 949.08 990.7 1130.06 1177.85

Urban Renewal Projects 12.08 29.04 35.57 56.31 23.23 24.39

Capacity Building 2.1 2.21 2.32 2.43 2.55 0

Sub-Total 578.03 818.8 1450.15 1464.31 1505.29 1557.22

Urban Poverty & Slum 63 66.15 69.46 72.93 102.1 107.21

Sub-Total 63 66.15 69.46 72.93 102.1 107.21

Grand Total 641.03 884.95 1519.61 1537.24 1607.39 1664.43

Table 6

Analysis of the Agra CDP brings up several critiques. The proposed, phased sectors for expenditure under JNNURM funding as

indicated in Table 6 included provisions for development of heritage and tourism related projects; however, these were proposed for

comparatively low funding, second only to ‘capacity building’. This aspect can be said to be one of the most problematic issues for

the entire CDP and brings us to the first critique of the CDP. Proposals in the CDP instead of promoting holistic development,

illustrate a disconnect between the various departments in the city. Looked at holistically, ‘heritage and tourism’ involve and are

affected by every other sector listed in Table 6; the CDP should have therefore accordingly created a proposal catering to the

immense historic nature of the city, its burgeoning industrial capacity, its delicate environmental character and its current milieu of

residents by cementing the relationships between each. However, as we will continue to see below, each sector in JNNURM was

proposed to be funded by, dealt with and executed by different agencies (Refer Table 8).



Cost Structuring (Rs. in crores) Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006

Name of sector Total project

cost (Rs. In

crores)

GoI

(50%) GoUP

(20%) Other agencies (Total 30%)

ANN ADA NHAI UP Bridge Corp FI Pvt

Sector

UP Jal

Nigam

Irrigation

Dept

RTO

Sub-Mission I

Heritage & Tourism 52.5 26.25 10.5 8.94 6.81

Industry 4.83 2.42 0.97 1.45

Environment 254.78 127.39 50.96 54.5 21.93

Water Supply 900.04 450.02 180.01 270.01

Sewerage 763.13 381.56 152.63 228.94

Storm Water Drainage 168.44 84.22 33.69 50.53

Solid Waste Management 87.51 43.75 17.5 26.25

Roads and Transportation 4950.35 2475.17 990.07 734.1 422.88 124.54 165.6 37.99

Urban Renewal Projects 180.61 90.3 36.12 54.18

Capacity Building 11.6 5.8 2.32 3.48

Sub Total 7373.79 3686.88 1474.77 4.93 734.1 422.88 124.54 8.94 523.17 333.65 21.93 37.99

Sub-Mission II

Urban Poverty and Slum 480.85 240.42 240.42

Sub Total 480.85 240.42 240.42

Grand Total 7854.64 3927.3 1715.19 4.93 734.1 422.88 124.54 8.94 523.17 333.65 21.93 37.99

Table 7

One of the most essential goals of JNNURM has also been to facilitate good (and improved) governance among urban local bodies.

Good Governance is defined differently in terms of the context. ‘Good urban governance’ is characterized by its efficiency,

transparency, accountability, and civic engagement. The CDP claims that good urban governance, based on the principle of urban

citizenship, affirms that no man, woman or child can be denied access to the necessities of urban life, including adequate shelter,

security of tenure, safe water, sanitation, a clean environment, health, education and nutrition, employment and public safety and



mobility. However, good governance is very difficult to achieve without a greater degree of inter-departmental dialogue. Ways to

facilitate this interaction have unfortunately been missing from the Agra CDP, also highlighting the previous critique regarding

departmental disconnections. While individual departments may perform their tasks (often quite successfully) problems related to

heritage and its management will always crop up because heritage-related agencies and professionals are never brought into the

city governance dialogue except on a project-to-project basis, even in a historic city like Agra.

The second critique of the AGRA CDP is the uneven distribution of the way in which different agencies and the private sector have

been proposed to be involved in different urban sectors, with the ill-equipped ANN acting as the nodal agency. Prior to JNNURM

implementation, the role of the private sector in municipal service delivery was negligible. A small stretch of street light

maintenance on MG Road was contracted out, albeit running unsuccessfully. A small area around the Taj Mahal was also given out

for private sweepers for cleaning, also running unsuccessfully. Table 7 above shows how the percentage of funding contributions

would be spread across different agencies, delineating their involvement. Total private sector contribution for various projects (like

water supply, solid waste management, roads and transportation, heritage & tourism and environment) is proposed to be Rs. 523.17

crores, which is only approximately 7.6 percent of the total cost of the projects. The private sector participation for selected

JNNURM sectors (Refer Table 7) in Agra was envisaged for maintenance of compost plants, improvement and beautification of

existing parks, maintenance of new parks, restoration and beautification of water bodies, multi storied parking lots, maintenance of

foot over bridges /pedestrian underpasses and infrastructure improvement in various historic sites. However, with such a small

percentage and limited involvement, JNNURM projects do not have a hope of being implemented properly because the public sector

problems that have existed over time still persist and have the upper hand.

Table 8 below illustrates the distribution of functions across various state departments as they existed prior to the implementation of

JNNURM. It is important to note that these functions and their distribution among agencies has not changed till date. Taking the

first sector as an example, it is seen that there is a fragmentation of functional activity between the Jal Nigam and the Jal Sansthan in



just dealing with water supply. Furthermore, when it comes to the provision of this very basic service to the slum dwellers, another

state agency called the State Urban Development Authority (SUDA) comes into the picture when according to the Municipal Act,

ANN is responsible for this function. Fragmentation and functional overlap therefore have occurred at the same time. In a similar

vein, city roads are divided amongst PWD, ADA and ANN and so goes the story with various urban sectors in the city (Agra Nagar

Nigam, 2006). This fragmentation of service provision in the city can be said to be one of the primary reasons why urban service

provision in Agra has had such a dismal record. There is no coherence and cooperation.

Existing Institutional Role and Responsibilities Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006 Infrastructure component Planning and design Construction Operation and Maintenance

Water supply UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Sansthan

Sewerage UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Sansthan

Storm Water Drainage UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Nigam UP Jal Sansthan

Solid Waste Management ANN ANN ANN

Roads PWD, ADA, ANN PWD, ADA, ANN PWD, ADA, ANN

Street lighting ADA, ANN ADA, ANN ADA, ANN

Parks ANN ANN ANN

Table 8

The municipal reforms proposed in the Agra CDP were the first of their kind in the city in several decades. Until 2005, no municipal

reforms had been undertaken by the Agra Municipal Corporation. There was also no system of e-governance in the Agra Municipal

Corporation especially with respect to property tax collection. Recommendations from the Agra CDP strongly suggested that the

Government of Uttar Pradesh needed to play the role of a facilitator of urban development activities in the city of Agra. For this,

Agra CDP recommended that the Govt. of UP had to fully implement the 74th Constitution Amendment Act (CAA) by completely

devolving all functions and powers, state level reforms, repealing ULC, Rent Act, rationalizing stamp duty and bringing it down to 5

percent and facilitating municipal-parastatal coordination. The Agra Nagar Nigam as the principal organization carrying out various



civic functions in the city had to ensure rationalization of property tax and implementation of IT and GIS based system, full

implementation of double entry accounting system and introduction of e-governance, coordination between all concerned

parastatal agencies for smooth functioning of all civic activities / works / projects ( such as those under JNNURM ) in the city,

coordination with all concerned parastatal agencies as well as surrounding municipalities / cantonment so that inter - jurisdictional

issues as well as functional overlap can be sorted out once and for all, implementation of Ward Committee byelaws so that the ward

committees can start functioning properly, facilitation of capacity building exercises for its staff so that they can be made aware of

the latest developments in the urban / municipal sector in India, development of a data base for all properties owned by the

Corporation so that property portfolio management can be done, creation of a data base and MIS so that all data is readily available

for not only the concerned Govt agencies but the citizens as well.

Despite the critique mentioned earlier, the Agra CDP perhaps more than any other document did portray the potential to bring

about private sector participation in the provision of civic services in order to bring about better and more efficient delivery of

services. The document needed ANN to involve NGOs and CBOs at various levels including at the planning stage, budget preparation

stage, selection of contractors / private service providers, monitoring various projects, provision and maintenance of various civic

services and mobilizing all the stakeholders together so that the city could be taken forward to its destination. In summary, the Agra

CDP did optimistically entrust ANN to bring about a remarkable improvement in the state of governance and urban infrastructure in

the city of Agra. But did it really work? To some degree it did, as the next section will show.

3.2 The reality of JNNURM in historic Agra

Contrary to the promising proposals outlined in the Agra CDP as mentioned in the previous section, the actual implementation of

JNNURM initiatives in Agra, (as with other cities across the country) has rather been a disappointment where holistic development

of historic sites and areas is concerned. With a flawed premise of making ANN the nodal agency especially in relation to historic



precincts in the CDP, it is not surprising that not a single project in and around historic sites was implemented with JNNURM money,

apart from the few infrastructural ones detailed below. There are two basic areas in which projects have been implemented in both

historic and non-historic precincts in Agra with JNNURM funding: municipal services and transportation. Interviews conducted at

Agra’s various government agencies corroborated the project information available through JNNURM’s website detailing out all the

projects accepted and completed as well as those under consideration by the MoUD.

Apart from carrying out the drainage, solid waste management and water supply projects via JNNURM funding, ANN also carried out

institutional reforms in the form of better e-governance for the corporation to incorporate better and more efficient tax collection,

certification and accounting48. However, several other initiatives are currently in process:

Formulation and adoption of comprehensive policy and services to poor: Over the past few years, programs have been launched

by Govt. of U.P. for providing basic services to urban poor which include security of tenure and improved housing at affordable

prices. The programs are currently being implemented. Schemes include Sarv Jan Hitay Gareeb Avas (Slum Area) Malikana Haq

Yojna, Manywar Shri Kanshi Ram Ji Shahri Avas Yojna. Interview with Mr.PK Jain, Executive Engineer with the Uttar Pradesh Rajkiya

Nirman Nigam (henceforth UPRNN) indicated that their office has been undertaking projects under the Integrated Housing & Slum

Development Programme (IHSDP)49 of JNNURM by breaking down the informal housing (kutcha makaans) and constructing low-

income housing. Their office also has the responsibility for the selection of beneficiaries of JNNURM’s funding schemes for the low

cost housing based on quotas for general and SC/ST50 categories. However, because of several administrative reasons, he was

unable to provide project details.

48

These are beyond the scope of this report. 49

JNNURM, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, https://jnnurmmis.nic.in/jnnurm_hupa/index.html 50

SC/ST are Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes of India that have special quotas reserved under various government schemes



Conducting household level surveys covering all poor settlements in the city: Surveys are being conducted by District Urban

Development Authority of Agra; they are currently in process under the responsibility of DUDA. This project also has USAID funding

to complete household surveys and create slum profiles for about 370 slums in 2007.

Household level surveys to cover infrastructure deficiency indicators: Surveys are being done by DUDA Agra for identification of

those falling within the poverty bracket for allotment of houses constructed under Manyavar Sh. Kanshiram Avas Yojna.

Creation of database for the identification of households for priority targeting: This project is currently in process therefore details

were not available.

Revision of Building Byelaws to streamline the approval process: Building Byelaws were revised in 2009 to simplify the process of

construction; the time period for approval was reduced from 90 to 30 days. This function is performed by all Urban Local Bodies

except for 106 (74 in regulated areas, 27 under development authority and 5 under special area development). The Development

authorities modified the existing building byelaws in order to streamline the process approval. The dissemination of the revised

building byelaws was made available through the websites of various concerned Authorities and Awas Bandhu.

Revision of building byelaws to make rainwater harvesting (RWH) mandatory in all sectors: This target was achieved by revising

the byelaws to make it mandatory for RWH to be a part of the plans at the time of approvals. However, this project needs better

implementation; for a start it has been implemented in government buildings under JNNURM funding.

Timeline to improve the percentage of reservation for EWS/LIG51

in housing projects: Reforms were implemented in the Housing

Policy Statement for integrated townships and high tech townships allowing for 10% plots to be reserved for EWS and 10% for LIG

housing.

Byelaws on Reuse of Recycled Water: Agra has been chosen as a pilot city to initiate and implement the reuse of recycled water and

directions were issued to Agra Nagar Nigam to carry out the necessary changes

51

Economically Weaker Sections/Low Income Group



Encouraging PPPs: This target has been slowly achieved through the construction of public toilets, bus shelters, traffic signals and

public parks (Gandhi Park, Shivaji Park, Ashok Nagar Park, Vaibhav Nagar Park, Shalimar Park, Green Park) under Public Private

Partnerships52.

Fund allocation for the state of Uttar Pradesh Source: JNNURM Website, https://jnnurm.nic.in

Sr no. Component Total

Projects

Approved

Total

Approved

Cost

No. of /Projects for which

ACA Released

Approved Cost of

projects for which

ACA Released

ACA released PC to total approved

cost of projects for

which ACA released 1st

installment

2nd

installment

1st

installment

2nd

installment

Total

Release

1 Water Supply 524 1047833.07 418 189 786711.36 319759.65 133044.57 452804.22 60.89

2 Sewerage 161 614856.35 96 18 286228.62 111935.67 20375.29 132310.96 22.15

3

Strom Water

Drains 79 144075.94 65 17 76150.99 32723.01 9285.73 42008.74 5.89

4

preservation of

Water body 9 3003.16 9 3 3003.16 1237.80 278.39 1516.19 0.23

5

Solid Waste

Management 70 40897.81 56 1 34202.04 14265.31

143.30 14408.61 2.65

6

Urban Renewal/

Heritage 12 6662.90

10 3 4246.35 1808.68 90.82 1899.50 0.33

7

Prevention of

Soil Erosion 1 188.52 1 1 188.52 75.41 75.41 150.82 0.01

8 Parking 1 37.00 1 37.00 14.80 14.80 0.00

9 Road 122 136099.48 107 58 101282.06 42317.50 10031.80 52349.30 7.84

Total 979 1993654.23 763 290 1292050.10 524137.83 173325.31 697463.14 100.00

Table 9

52

Interviews with several ANN engineers on condition of anonymity



3.2.1 Municipal Services: Water Supply, Sewerage and Solid Waste Management

The city of Agra has an area of over 141 sq.km that falls under the jurisdiction of the Agra Nagar Nigam, divided into 90 election

wards; these are further subdivided into 19 sanitary wards for solid waste management. In 2009, ANN in partnership with RCUES53

prepared a Detailed Project Report (DPR) for tackling the problem of solid waste management in the city of Agra (Regional Centre

for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009). The wards that come under the jurisdiction of ANN have a wide spectrum of population

living in them. Out of these, nearly 17,760 households were identified as living below the poverty line in 2009. While the percentage

of the slum population in the city (9.75%) is lower than the state percentage (12.7%), it is still a sizeable population for the city to

grapple with. The District Urban Development Authority (DUDA) has estimated slum pockets of upwards of 252, with a population of

at least 5.5 lakh people (44% of the total population as per 2001 census). Out of the 90 wards in the city, 44 have at least 1 slum

within their boundary with their percentages varying from one ward to another (about 2.66% to 91.85%) (Regional Centre for Urban

& Environmental Studies, 2009).

Storm Drains: One of the biggest urban challenges faced by the city over time has been the problem of filthy drains that traverse

the entire spread of the city leading to unhygienic, unsanitary conditions. Over time, the drains have been encroached, leading to

problems of cleaning and maintenance causing floods during monsoons. The city is divided into two major zones: CIS Yamuna and

Trans Yamuna (river). These are further divided into 11 drainage zones covering an area of about 96.85 sq.km serviced by about 62

drains. Out of these, twenty-five are major drains that flow directly into the Yamuna river, and thirty-eight secondary ones. Apart

from sanitation problems, the drains are of mixed variety, comprising of materials such as brick masonry, stone, and often only mud.

Tertiary drains, though few in number have also been plagued with similar problems over time, especially as people have built their

houses right over them. Therefore it is very difficult for ANN to control what goes into the drains, and often effluent of industries,

waste water of sewer, etc. all fall in these drains without any treatment (Regional Centre for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009) .

53

Regional Center for Urban and Environmental Studies, Lucknow; governed by the Ministry of Urban Development in New Delhi



Sewage drains: The city of Agra has underground sewerage system, which is operated and maintained by the Agra Jal Sansthan

(Refer Table 8). The city is divided into 25 sewerage zones, grouped into 8 sewerage districts on the basis of topography and physical

barriers like railway lines, river, highway etc. The zones54 are:

a. Tajganj Sewerage district consisting Tajganj I, II and III zones.

b. Northern sewerage district covering Dayalbagh and parts of Sikandara I, Sikandara II, Khandari, Ghatwasan II zones.

c. Eastern sewerage district covering Trans Yamuna-I and Trans Yamuna-II.

d. Western Sewerage District covering Bodla-I, Bodla-II, Bodla-III, Shahganj-III and parts of Lohamandi, Sikandara-I, Sikandara-II,

Shahganj-I and Shahganj-II

e. Southern-I sewerage district covering Bundukatra and part of Shahganj-I

f. Southern-II sewerage district covering part of Shahganj-II.

g. Central sewerage district covering Ghatwasan-I, Kotwali, Maithan, Hariparbat, Chhata, Rakabganj and parts of old Khandari,

Ghatwasan-II and Lohamandi.

This area however comprises only about 17% of the city. Nearly 50% of the sewerage system in the city is inoperable. The area

covered by sewerage system is only 17%. About 50% of the sewerage system in the city was inoperable before 2009. While 3 sewage

treatment plants were built under the Yamuna Action Plan Phase 1, two of them were performing beyond capacity, leading to

sewage ending up in open drains in major parts of the city. The system was badly choked and damaged, leading to ecological,

environmental and severe health problems in the city (Regional Centre for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009).

Water Supply: Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam (henceforth UPJN) has been the nodal agency for developing water infrastructure in Agra for

several years. UPJN then transfers the facilities to the Agra Jal Sansthan (henceforth AJS) for operation and maintenance (Refer Table

54

Those marked in red indicate wards and zones having historic/traditional neighborhoods



8). The mission of AJS has been to supply potable water in adequate quantity to the consumers and maintain the sewerage system of

the city efficiently. While Agra’s primary source of water supply is from river Yamuna, the city also receives about 115 MLD of raw

water from Gokul Barrage during the lean summer period. The total storage capacity available within Agra is about 48200 KL

comprising of 12 reservoirs. A distribution network of pipes measuring 1100 KM supply the water to various parts of the city, whose

total water requirement is about 300-350 MLD.

Water supply in Agra has been uneven to say the least; an estimated only 70% gets water supply, rather sporadically. Based on

topography and operational convenience, the city was divided into 25 zones to service the entire area indicated in the Master Plan.

While water supply is available in most areas, it still proves problematic, especially in historic neighborhoods and wards like

Sikandra-II, Bodla-II, Shahganj-III, Tanjganj-II, III, Trans Yamuna-II and Ghatwasan-II where mostly no water supply network is

available. Water requirement in these has for years been met by tube wells and hand pumps.

To counter such problems, the government of Uttar Pradesh introduced JNNURM funded, metered55 water supply schemes in seven

pilot cities of the state: Lucknow, Kanpur, Agra, Varanasi, Allahabad, Meerut and Mathura for the financial year 2010-11 to check

and put a stop to water wastage in the state. Therefore, metered water supply was made mandatory in the infrastructure

development schemes approved by MoUD for JNNURM. The project is wholly JNNURM funded, with no financial burden on the state

treasury; the cost of meters was included in the financial allocation by the Centre for the implementation of JNNURM projects in the

State. Under this scheme, the user charges are determined by the quantum of water used by consumers56. In order to get funding

from JNNURM for these projects, the state government rejected the State Finance Commission recommendations57 for panchayats

and urban local bodies which had called for exemption of metered water supply to domestic households58.

55

Metered water supply is one of the pre-conditions imposed by the Centre for funding the water supply schemes from the JNNURM. 56

The Hindu, “Metered water supply for 7 cities in UP”, Dec 9, 2009. http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/other-states/article62640.ece 57

The state government had accepted these recommendations in April 1997. 58

Indian Express, “7 cities to get metered water supply”, Dec 10, 2009. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/seven-cities-to-get-metered-water-supply/552329/



Interviews with several Engineers at ANN elicited information that apart from the above, sewage and water supply development

work has also been going on in 6 basties (shantytowns) in Agra: Naraich, Bodla, Sarai Khwaja, Gowa Chowki, Bhuminagri, Dorotha.

The relative reluctance of engineers to talk about the status of projects going on is not surprising, given the pressure the state has

been under to finish the projects on time. Table 10 shows the status of JNNURM projects in Agra, and it is not surprising to see that

only one out of all the approved projects has been implemented fully so far. However, JNNURM projects across the country have

been lagging behind their timeline, thus leading to the Cabinet in March 2012 extending the deadline for JNNURM funding to be

utilized by 2014, adding two years to the original 7 year time period59. A follow-up study in 2014 to examine the overall progress of

JNNURM projects in Agra would be worthwhile and more fruitful to determine the relative success or failure of JNNURM initiatives

in Agra. 2014 is also the year when the Central Government will be facing elections, and it would be interesting to see how they

enact more stringent accountability on city municipalities like ANN about timely completion of JNNURM projects before the 2014

deadline.

59

Firstpost, “Cabinet extends projects by two years”, March 23, 2012. http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/cabinet-extends-jnnurm-projects-by-two-years-254165.html



The JNNURM website lists the following details for projects in Agra:

Detail of Sanctioned Projects for Agra Sector-Wise Source: List of approved projects, JNNURM Website, www.jnnurm.nic.in S.No Sector Name of

State

City Project Name Year of

sanction

Date of

approval by

CSMC

Approved

Cost (Rs. in

Lakhs)

Additional Central

Assistance (ACA)

committed (Rs. In

Lakhs)

ACA

Released

(Rs. In

Lakhs)

306 Sewerage Uttar Pradesh Agra Yamuna Action Plan Phase

II for Branch and Lateral

Sewer Lines in Northern

Zone and Western Zone in

Agra

2007-08 26-Oct-07 2162.00 1081.00 1081.00

315 Sewerage Uttar Pradesh Agra Agra Sewerage scheme

phase-1(part-1)

2009-10 24-Jul-09 19592.00 9000.00 3600.00

358 Solid Waste

Management

Uttar Pradesh Agra Municipal Solid Waste

Management in Agra

2006-07 5-Mar-07 3083.99 1542.00 1002.30

493 Water Supply Uttar Pradesh Agra Agra Water Supply 2007-08 22-Feb-08 8270.50 4135.25 3721.72

Detail of Completed Projects for Agra Sector-Wise as of April 2012 Source: List of completed projects, JNNURM Website, www.jnnurm.nic.in

S.No Sector Name of

State

City Project Name Year of

sanction

Date of

approval by

CSMC

Approved

Cost (Rs. in

Lakhs)

Additional Central

Assistance (ACA)

committed (Rs. In

Lakhs)

ACA

Released

(Rs. In

Lakhs)

114 Sewerage Uttar Pradesh Agra Yamuna Action Plan Phase

II for Branch and Lateral

Sewer Lines in Northern

Zone and Western Zone in

Agra

2007-08 26-Oct-07 2162.00 1081.00 1081.00

Table 10



3.2.2 Transportation

The transportation sector in the state, helmed by Uttar Pradesh State Transport Corporation (henceforth UPSRTC), is perhaps the

only other sector in Uttar Pradesh and Agra that has made use of JNNURM funding and impacted historic sites to some extent. This

impact, however, is marginal at best as this section will illustrate. An interview with Mr. Anil Kumar, the Managing Director of

JNNURM programs in Agra illustrated how JNNURM funding has only recently impacted historic sites in some way with the

introduction of JNNURM tour buses that are run in a partnership between UPSTRC and UP Tourism. One bus tour, known as the

World Heritage Sites tour is a full-day one comprising of visits to Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort and culminating at the Taj Mahal. Starting

at the Agra Cantt Railway Station, this tour is especially popular with the day-tourists from New Delhi who come to Agra aboard the

Taj Express train alighting at Agra Cantt railway station. There is a helpful, multilingual UP Tourism office located within the train

station where all visitors can get information and purchase tickets for the bus tour and other UP Tourism services. That the bus only

starts once the train has arrived is a clear indication of the clientele it primarily caters to. The bus is then back in time in the evening

for the visitors to catch the Taj Express train back to New Delhi. A single JNNURM AC bus is used for this endeavor60.

More recently, UP Tourism began a new tour bus, taking cognizance of the lack of tourist interest in the other historic structures

across the city (as has already been outlined in this report). The tour bus was inaugurated on March 14, 2012 (fortunately while I

was in residence in Agra) from the Shilp Gram complex located at Taj Mahal’s East Gate. This pilot tour AC bus with A/V facilities has

been planned to ply from Taj Mahal’s West Gate, charging Rs. 150 for Indians and Rs.200 for Foreigners. According to Mr.Kumar,

children under 5 years of age will go free and over 5 years of age will have to pay Rs.100. This tour bus is planned to last 3 hours,

touring from the West Gate of the Taj Mahal to then head to Mehtab Bagh, followed by Itmad ud daula’s tomb, then Chini ka Rauza,

and Rambagh gardens and before dropping off its passengers at Agra Cantt Railway Station. The tour guides provided within both

60

Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra



kinds of bus tours are trained and employed by UP Tourism, while the bus is funded and maintained by UPSRTC. The revenue and

facilities maintenance are shared equally between the two government departments involved61.

Today there are about 17062 UPSRTC buses plying on Agra roads under JNNURM funding, a mix of AC and non-AC low-floor models.

These buses connect various parts of the city and form the primary mode of public transportation, in addition to auto rickshaws,

cycle rickshaws and horse tangas (carriages). In May 200963, the then government of the state was the first state in the country to

finalize the purchase of buses for basic transport service for seven cities. This was made possible through a grant of Rs.4000 crore

made to the state by the MoUD for the

purchase of buses. A deal for 1,310 buses

of varied combinations: air-conditioned

(AC) low floor, non-AC low floor, semi-low

floor and mini-buses was made with Tata

Motors, with the first batch of new buses

starting on the roads in June 2009. As per

the agreement, Lucknow and Kanpur got

300 buses each, Allahabad, Varanasi and

Agra got 200 each, Meerut got 150 and

Mathura got 60 buses. Each city formed a

shell company for maintenance and

61

Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra 62

Several buses out of the allotted 200 are being used for other initiatives in the city, while some have been taken off the roads for various reasons not divulged during the interview 63

A Detailed Project Report (DPR) for transportation initiatives in Agra was unavailable for Agra at the time of preparing this report.

Figure 17

3%

47%42%

8%

Most frequent modes of transport for visitors

Public transportation

Personal vehicle

Autorickshaw / Taxi / Hired car

Other

Source: On-site survey, March 2012

Figure 18



management of these buses (eg. Lucknow City Transport Company Limited for Lucknow) in order to better execute the projects,

headed by the respective Divisional Commissioners and assisted by various directors. Initially, though UPSRTC planned to only run

the buses for the first year before handing them over to private agencies, this has not taken place and UPSRTC still runs the buses64.

Another special air-conditioned bus under JNNURM funding is slated to be put into use to connect Agra Cantt Railway Station to the

Taj Mahal West Gate all year round for Rs.20 per person, especially for those who do not wish to take the guided World Heritage

Site tour. During the annual Taj Mahotsav (festival) that occurs in February each year, special JNNURM buses connect various parts

of the city to Shilp Gram, the site for the festival. Apart from the above, UPSRTC also has plans to start a multi-use bus system where

the JNNURM buses plying in the morning will drop workers to the various shoe factories located in the city; the buses will then

resume their public transportation duties during the day and in the evening, will pick up the workers from the factories. This project

is still in the planning stage, and therefore more information is still awaited65.

3.3 Other initiatives in Agra

The descriptions above have clearly shown the vastly uphill task that the Agra administration has faced and still faces in not only

implementing basic urban infrastructural reforms within the city, but also in managing its vast and varied architectural heritage. The

administration, through its various agencies has been neither enthusiastic nor competent to implement any kind of holistic

development in the city. There have been, however, several other initiatives that have attempted to look at Agra holistically within

the backdrop of its various historic sites. One of these was highlighted in a report prepared by students of the National Institute of

Design at Ahmedabad for the Department of Tourism, Govt of Uttar Pradesh in 2011, attempting to make the Taj Ganj area more

accessible to enable tourists to enter Taj Mahal from the South Gate, where today only East and West Gates are accessible. While

most of the initiatives in the report have been officially implemented, some of them overlap with the JNNURM initiatives in the field

64

Indian Express, “7 cities to get new bus fleets next month”, May 22, 2009. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/7-cities-to-get-new-bus-fleets-next-month/464142/0 65

Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra



of sanitation and water supply. The report’s recommendations are nevertheless a good starting point for the city administration to

begin implementing holistic development at the smaller scale of the Taj Ganj locality and then to expand to other areas of the city.

NID Report: The report comprehensively looked at various aspects of the historic precinct of Taj Ganj (adjacent to the Southern Gate

of Taj Mahal) and formulated several proposals:

• “Improved municipal water supply system and water conservation measures are required.

• Provision for improved sewerage system is necessary, including properly lined drains for sullage and storm water drainage so as to avoid leakage into municipal water supply system.

• Local initiatives to develop alternative water management initiatives like rain-water harvesting, and bio-purification can be encouraged.

• An Infrastructure master plan needs to be proposed for streamlining and rehauling the water supply, storm water and drainage systems.

• Public toilets, drinking fountains and basic facilities to be planned at convenient locations for local community and visitors.

• Provision of underground cabling for electric supply to the Taj Ganj area and relocation of transformers must be undertaken to improve the visual and physical qualities of public spaces.

• Ensuring 100% electric supply to the Taj Ganj area and ban on diesel generators is required to minimize environmental threat to the Taj Mahal.

• Provision for adequate Street lighting needs to be made to improve the quality of public spaces. This can be an opportunity to promote the use of renewable energy sources by using Solar LED

streetlights in public spaces.

• PCO’s and internet cafes must be integrated with other public utilities for maximum benefit to visitors in Taj Ganj area.

• Street light design must keep in mind the heritage character of the Taj Ganj area

• Provision of traffic management system/ accessibility planning.

• Solid waste management system that takes care of garbage build-up in streets and open-spaces.

• Provision of adequate visitor rest areas with washrooms and amenities.

• Promote invisible security through community partnership for providing inviting public spaces.

• Preserve elements that display heritage characteristics in public space.

• All the above must be synchronized with a master plan level study and strategy.

• Listing and documentation of all houses which include heritage structures or are of architectural heritage value. Establish Regulatory Protection for Heritage Features

• Develop and establish heritage guidelines and special building design guidelines - bylaws which shall govern the precinct and help protect the existing built heritage and act as a sensitive

regulator for future modifications and development of the remaining built fabric within Taj Ganj.

• Economic incentives and concessions for heritage conservation to those living in historic structures. Education and sensitization of these residents to protect further damage to the heritage.

• Basic services and necessary amenities need to be upgraded and provided to all residents.

• It is proposed to encourage the formation of a Taj Ganj Public initiative through an association or body that is democratically elected. This body shall be the voice and shall help communicate and

negotiate issues problems suggestions with the authorities.

• As Taj Ganj has become a highly dense habited area there are serious issues related to its quality of life, light and ventilation, health and hygiene and basic amenities. A special committee action

group needs to be formulated which shall comprise of expert representatives from relevant domains and government departments to evaluate options on the way ahead.

• Community advocacy is a powerful weapon to bring about change.

• Community consultation is extremely important to tackle problems of pressures related to family expansions and upgraded quality of living.

• A financial and economic resurrection plan for the communities could be explored which is tourism oriented and sensitive to the nature of existing livelihoods and does not interfere or change the

overall cultural significance of the area. This has to be done by experts and in collaboration with local support.

• Tourism based livelihood is a cultural heritage of Taj Ganj residents and this should be recognized as such so as to provide maximum benefit to stakeholders as opposed to lobbies.

• Local community participation in planning process is a must for sustainable development.

• Promote heritage based sustainable livelihood to supplement family incomes and generate more jobs

• Management Plan for Traffic using one-way system and enforcement of traffic rules can ease the current situation.

• Public information systems, way finding and signage can improve accessibility to the South Gate area.

• Provision of emergency services within the area is essential and a system can be evolved with community participation.



• All plans and schemes to be integrated as a part of a macro level master plan for heritage management strategy.

• Community consultation and liaison at all stages of planning.

• Provision of emergency services within the area is essential and a system can be evolved with community participation.

• Public information systems for easy access and wide dissemination of accurate public information.

• Improving basic infrastructure and taking care of safety hazards in public spaces.

• Management Plan for Traffic – vehicular and human

• Public information systems – tourism interface providing authentic visitor information

• Better national/international connectivity

• Develop Heritage Communication delivery through interpretation centers, Museums

• Promote invisible security through community partnership

• Digitization of the ticketing system at the Taj Mahal

• Generate awareness about the value of cultural heritage to the tourism economy and the role that community needs to play

• Greater local participation and involvement through promotion of city identity and a sense of citizenship for all, public meetings, participatory planning and budgeting.

• Efficient urban management through taking account of all interests in promoting efficiency and better services. Efficient investment in infrastructure and environmental planning and

management carried out in co-operation with the citizens.

• Accountability/ transparency through monitoring of government activities by coalitions of outside organisations, disclosure of information, and fair and predictable regulatory frameworks.

• Accessibility through regular and structured consultation with representative bodies from all sectors of society.

• To declare Taj Ganj as a Heritage Precinct and establish a special area development authority, through a special action group which shall comprise of expert representatives working with local

community.

• This shall develop a mechanism to streamline issues and have effective implementation.

• A heritage management master plan needs to be put together. This shall serve as an integrated incremental development plan for this precinct which shall include conservation strategy for the

built heritage, planning framework, holistic infrastructure for the existing populace and also the inherent cultural heritage.

• A detail study required to identify, list and document the built heritage of the Taj Ganj area. This should be done by professional consultants in collaboration with the locals and as per

international guidelines for conservation.

• To develop and establish heritage guidelines and special building design guidelines and bylaws which shall govern the precinct and help protect the existing built heritage and act as a sensitive

regulator for future modifications and development of the remaining built fabric within Taj Ganj.

• Community consultation and involvement is essential to the ugradation of Taj Ganj. The process of research, planning, implementation and monitoring must be an inclusive process making the

local people stakeholders and induce feeling of ownership and pride. Heritage and conservation based strategy is preferable.

• The Taj Ganj area along with its built and cultural heritage must be infused into the larger Taj Mahal experience. Local community education and awareness programs along with tourist outreach

programs and interpretation tools need to be established. This includes seminars, workshops, visitor trails and publications among others. As most of the katra walls – sarais are part of residential

units this is very important to find ways of containing further modifications to the original built heritage and preserve them.

• To identify and carry out few pilot conservation project. Adaptive reuse and regeneration to try and make the built heritage more accessible to tourist where possible and develop opportunities

for Heritage experience through community museums, exhibition, heritage trails, and interpretation centre. Option of specialized home stays within the heritage residential units of the Katras

could be evaluated.

• The Built heritage and architectural value should be promoted and used as economic driver as heritage tourism for the local community. To create a heritage value system where the local

community has incentive to maintain and conserve the built heritage environment.

• It is essential to entail effective legislative protection and implementation to the built heritage and Taj Ganj precinct at large once the built heritage is identified and a management master plan

and conservation strategy is approved.

• Educating and sensitization of Government officials on issues related to built heritage, conservation, heritage tourism is a very essential component for the success of any initiative.

• Since social aspirations are diverse and often at odds with each other, the conservation team must include social workers to facilitate dialogue and decision-making.”

(National Institute of Design, 2011)

CURE, Agra: The Center for Urban and Regional Excellence, an NGO based in New Delhi opened a ‘Heritage Cell’ at the ANN offices in

Agra to facilitate a dialog between the government and civil society with respect to holistic JNNURM development programs keeping



in mind the historic aspect of the city. However, this Heritage Cell was found to be nearly out of commission at the time of my site

visit in March 2012, with only the staff of CURE remaining to implement their USAID funded programs in Agra especially related to

community development and slum eradication. One of their main programs in Agra in recent years has been CAP (Crosscutting Agra

Program), a pilot project aimed at demonstrating processes of community inclusion in planning for improved sanitation and urban

livelihoods. CURE initially conducted a tourism assessment (also funded by USAID) to determine the project feasibility (CURE, 2006).

The project’s goal was to develop a livelihood and slum upgrading pilot program around a heritage trail of lesser-known monuments

in Agra linked to the Taj Mahal and the Agra Fort on the other side of River Yamuna and five nearby slum communities: Katra Wazir

Khan, Marwari Bastee, Kucchpura, Nagladevjeet and Yamuna Bridge. Thus the Mughal Heritage Walk was born; conceived as a 1km

walking loop that linked a traditional Rajasthani settlement through agricultural dikes, fields and riverbank to the historic village of

Kucchpura and the heritage sites/structures of Mehtab Bagh, the Mughal aqueduct system, the Humayun Mosque and the Gyarah

Sidi (Eleven Steps). The cornerstone of all CAP livelihood and sanitation initiatives has been related to the tourism-based economy.

The target groups for CAP projects have included both women and young people. Specifically, CAP aimed to:

• “Mobilize and organize low -income communities, in particular women and young people, to participate in the planning and implementation of

sanitation services and livelihoods;

• Develop a Mughal Heritage Trail around a cluster of lesser -known monuments to enhance tourism-based livelihood opportunities, skills and access to

credit; and

• Improve environmental conditions in communities through better practices for solid waste management in partnership with local agencies” (CURE,

2007)

Apart from CAP and its pilot Mughal Heritage Walk, CURE has also implemented a wastewater treatment system at the historic

settlement of Kacchpura, the location for the Mughal Heritage Walk and a historic settlement of Agra located across the Taj mahal

along the river Yamuna. The settlement borders Mehtab bagh and is home to the lesser known Humayun Mosque, which by most

historical accounts predated the Taj Mahal. Kachhpura is located by the side of a large city drain that cuts across the northern part of



the settlement carrying wastewater from Kachhpura and 5 other settlements upstream of the drain, creating highly unsanitary

conditions, putting its residents at risk. Cognizant of this, CURE designed and implemented a Decentralized Wastewater Treatment

(DEWAT) system on the Kachhpura drain in partnership with ANN, USAID and Cities Alliance with financial assistance from Water

Trust, United Kingdom and London Metropolitan University. This project found mention amongst the best practices compiled by

Peer Experience And Reflective Learning (PEARL) under JNNURM (NIUA, 2011).

The other CURE project that is currently being implemented in Agra, also in partnership with ANN with financial assistance from

Cities Alliance is the Citywide Slum Upgrading Project (CSUP) closely related to the CAP project mentioned above. This vast project

has included mapping of all city slums with spatial boundaries as well as up-gradation of toilets in slums – at homes, communities

and in schools. Communities participated in the design, construction and operations management of toilets. A Toilet Savings Group

enabled women to save-up for home toilets with matching/upfront contribution from project funds for a functional unit (pan,

plumbing, septic tank). This project has had an impact at both the slum and city levels. At the slum level besides improving access to

basic services, the settlements are now mainstreamed with city systems and the local economy. Improved access to basic services

has resulted in cleaner living environments due to a greater willingness among residents to maintain community

infrastructure/resources. Livelihood interventions have ensured sustainable and enhanced incomes for women and youth. At the

city level, the project has helped generate a spatial database with analysis that is contributing to the development of a Slum Free

Agra Plan. CAP has successfully forged multi-stakeholder partnerships between government agencies, private sector and civil

society. Critical capacity was built within ANN and DUDA to facilitate pro-poor urban development (NIUA, 2011).



4 In Conclusion The site perhaps most synonymous with Agra, and indeed with India outside of the country is The Taj Mahal. Statistical figures from

the Indian financial year (ending on March 31,2011) indicate that Agra was the most popular tourist destination in India, with The Taj

Mahal alone earning Rs.20 crore ($4.5 million). The Taj Mahal, administered and ticketed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

recorded 4.18 million Indian and 624,000 foreign tourists in that year. These figures spurred on efforts by the city and state Tourism

offices to introduce several programs geared toward tourist facilities and safety at the well-known historic site66. However, as is the

tendency of most World Heritage Sites to garner maximum attention, other historic sites in the city have not received as much

administrative or tourist attention. Agra, however is unique in not only having one but three World Heritage Sites and yet the city

languishes in the most basic of urban ways.

Agra’s vast and varied heritage, both tangible and intangible has a variety of administrators and stakeholders, as is the case with

most Indian cities dating back several centuries. In the case of Agra, however, owing to the presence of the Taj Mahal, all other kinds

of heritage have taken a back seat over the past few decades. Admittedly, the grace and beauty of the Taj Mahal cannot be denied.

However, many of the other historic structures in the city, apart from the three well-known World Heritage Sites have their own

architectural and cultural significance, important in the larger historical narrative of the Mughal dynasty that gave India the Taj

Mahal. In addition, the city of Agra also boasts several historic neighborhoods that have been existence for almost as many years as

the Taj, if not more. They also have a history and a story that can give a visitor a holistic view of Agra’s historical narrative. These

neighborhoods, clustered around the Taj Mahal, Mehtab Bagh and Agra Fort have tremendous potential waiting to be explored; and

they have been largely ignored thus far by the government agencies that govern other historic sites. This has been one of the most

problematic aspects of Agra that has come of out of my fieldwork. As is the nature of cities, urban processes are all interconnected,

66

Times of India, “Agra promises a better deal for tourists“, Aug 7, 2011



and an imbalance in a certain aspect of the urban fabric necessarily affects the others as this report has shown in the case of Agra.

Agra urgently needs a policy change at the city level to implement a local heritage ordinance creating a local competent authority

devoted solely to the preservation, administration and collaboration of historic sites across the city. Administratively, the presence

of ASI and State Directorate of Archaeology creates a problem in the pecking order; this ordinance needs to facilitate a connection

between these agencies and the city administration to allow for better implementation of projects in collaboration so as to not only

benefit the historic sites but the people who live in and around them as well. Agra has several precedents that it can follow:

Mumbai, Hyderbad and Hampi all have local legislation that is attempting to streamline the historic preservation and urban

development processes within their jurisdictional areas.

Bringing in JNNURM within this urban cauldron of haphazard development may have begun with good intentions; however it has not

ended that way. As the single largest central government initiative in urban development in recent times, JNNURM sought to adjust

the existing rules and regulations to what contemporary urban India needed. With large-scale investments, population coverage and

broad-spectrum reforms that it sought to put in place, JNNURM indeed seemed like an urban development boon when it first began

in 2005. Today, in hindsight, the program has left a lot to be desired. JNNURM has over the years garnered several theories; many

sinister, some promising. While those are easily available online, it would be prudent to point out that JNNURM did indeed seek to

bring in private players into the provision, production and management of local public goods and services like water supply,

sewerage and sanitation, solid waste management and city roads — a sphere that has remained historically protected from any

private intrusion. This has its own critics, and has led to JNNURM being criticized as ‘anti-poor’ in many quarters. However, security

of tenure and the universalization of services to the urban poor has been the centerpiece of the JNNURM program and have been

some of the few sectors that have actually been implemented in most of the pilot cities.

Most Indian cities, like Agra today face huge infrastructural and service deficits; many are in fact at a breaking point. It is a known

fact that many residents of urban India only receive water on alternate days, others have a two-four hour water trickle of



questionable quality. Some have storm water and wastewater disposal networks, and suffer from water stagnation with huge

negative health impacts. City road systems can barely take on any additional load that has risen at exponential rates in the post-1991

period. And the urban population living in slums in sub-human conditions has only risen with every passing year. With such an urban

backdrop, it is not surprising that JNNURM was heralded by many as the solution to urban India’s myriad problems. But the creators

of the program overlooked three key points that have eventually led to a partial failure of the Mission in most India cities.

Urban reforms cannot be implemented if obsolete laws, rules and procedures that impinge on cities and urban development are

still in force: Cities, not only in India but world over continue to rely on laws, rules and procedures that have no place in

contemporary urban context. The ratio of the area occupied by urban India versus the population in that urban area is rather

startling. It is a known fact amongst urbanists that the developing world’s urban population is consistently on the rise; but several

dated laws, rules and procedures do not allow for cities to expand correspondingly. Additionally, existing municipal government

system in India dates back to the turn of the twentieth century; it has not changed according to the extraordinary changes that have

occurred in the demographic, social-economic and physical profiles of Indian cities. Cities and towns in India also have a dated

accounting system that has led to large-scale gaps in the revenue and funding received and the amount expended in projects leaving

grey areas that funding often disappears into; it also renders accountability null and void. No clarity in functional

responsibilities: One of the most highly criticized features of the Indian administrative system is its overlapped, often fragmented

and unclear assignment of responsibilities pertaining to municipal services like water supply, sewerage systems, solid waste

management, city-wide roads and street lightning as has was seen in Table 8. All this does is create innumerable government

agencies that stay afloat like rudderless boats in a sea of urban chaos, unable to shed light on why old, new and existing assets are

created by one agency, managed by another and billed by yet another. This is perhaps most poignantly seen in urban poverty

alleviation. Which is why ANN has been able to successfully implement slum upgradation projects with the help of NGOs like CURE

but not on its own (Refer section 3.3 Other initiatives in Agra).



Heritage needs heritage professionals: One of the biggest mistakes of the JNNURM program has been a misplaced sense of

guidance. In its attempt to save the entire city in one clean sweep, creators of the JNNURM program included the redevelopment of

historic areas and sites in its “urban renewal” mandate, little realizing that without the implementation of local heritage ordinances

that can govern, liaise, coordinate, oversee and administer the redevelopment of historic areas and sites, their mandate is not

possible. Central and state level agencies like ASI and state Directorates are neither equipped nor interested in a holistic approach to

historic preservation planning and management. Indeed, with the sad exception of the Ancient Monument and Archaeological Site

and Remains Act Amendment of 2010, most legislation across the country dealing with historic sites and areas dates back either to

the period immediately after Independence, or worse, before it.

As the case of Agra has shown, urban India is not simple. It is a complex mix of equally complex problems and JNNURM was needed

as a response to address those problems. As a partnership between the centre, states and cities, the program had the potential to

slowly but surely change the ways in which Indian cities dysfunction. But simply by tweaking and adjusting the existing system of

laws, rules and procedures to the requirements of the contemporary urban needs, JNNURM did itself and urban India a disservice

and Agra is a prime example of unsatisfactory implementation of the scheme. The inclusiveness that MoUD through JNNURM sought

to bring to urban development was sporadic at best and non-existent at worst. While the program did bring in some municipal

reforms in the form of augmenting the revenue system in Agra and ushering in e-governance, its mandate to bring basic services to

every household, did not reach its full potential – at least in a complex and contradictory city like Agra where policy and legislative

changes needed to be first put in place before pumping in crores of money for projects that have not realized their potential.

Perhaps the reprieve given by GOI for the 2 year extension can change the picture to some extent; but without a compelte overhaul

of antiquated policies there is little chance of things drastically improving.



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agra: the city of monumental urban contradictions - ghn sites

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