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Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

DOI: 10.1177/0739986303262605 2004; 26; 230 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

Belinda Bustos Flores and Ellen Riojas Clark A Critical Examination of Normalistas’ Self-Conceptualization and Teacher-Efficacy

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10.1177/0739986303262605ARTICLEHispanic Journal of Behavioral SciencesFlores, Clark / Normalistas ’ Self-Concept

A Critical Examination ofNormalistas’ Self-Conceptualizationand Teacher-Efficacy

Belinda Bustos FloresEllen Riojas Clark

University of Texas at San Antonio

Prior to entering a U.S. bilingual teacher preparation program, Mexican teachers(normalistas) were assessed regarding their ethnic identity, self-conceptualization, andteaching efficacy. The findings indicated that normalistas’ethnic identity is tied to coun-try of origin, rather than their adopted country. Five salient conceptualization factorswere identified: personality (carácter), interests, occupational activity, interpersonalstyle, and moral worth. The multivariate regression analysis of self-concept and teacherefficacy constructs showed that the participants’view of self, specifically character, andmoral worth may affect their teacher efficacy (p < .05). Researchers suggest that teacherpreparation programs focus on the development and enhancement of normalistas’sociopolitical awareness to ensure understanding of U.S. language minority students’educational needs.

Keywords: teacher self-efficacy; ethnic identity; self-concept; foreign teachers(normalistas); bilingual education teachers

Teacher educators are being challenged by the realization that the UnitedStates’ school population ethnic makeup is neither monolingual nor mono-cultural. A pressing need is to increase the number of competent teacherswho are prepared to deal with the changing realities of the classroom of todayand tomorrow. Another formidable task for teacher preparation programs isto develop a systematic means of recruiting nontraditional candidates forteaching language minority students.

A multidimensional perspective is imperative to understand how theshortage of bilingual education teachers affects the schooling of languageminority students. On one hand, there continues to be a great disparity in thenumber of language minority students and the current number of teachers

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prepared to work with them (The Urban Teacher Challenge, 2000). On theother hand, the long-standing pedagogical incompatibilities have resulted inminorities often forced to deny their cultural heritage (Peña, 1997). Further-more, these pedagogical incompatibilities have contributed to the failure ofthe school system to provide equitable education as is evident by high drop-out rates and underachievement of language minority students (Valencia,2000; Valenzuela, 1999). To avoid disparity and endorse compatibility, a via-ble plan for increasing the number of prospective bilingual teachers includestapping into the natural resource of immigrants trained as teachers (Flores,2001b; Flores & Clark, 2002). The rationale for inclusion of foreign-trainedteachers is that they have invaluable experience as educators, and their abilityto deliver content in Spanish is definitely an asset (Petrovic, Orozco,González, & Díaz de Cossio, 1999). Although we concur that Mexicannormalistas (teachers) have been well prepared and have a great deal of expe-rience in educating Mexican children, we must also acknowledge that theywere prepared and have taught in another educational system that is distinctfrom the U.S. educational system. Molina Hernández (1997, 1999) identifiedtwo challenges faced by normalistas in a bilingual education teacher programat a California university. Primarily, they are immigrants with limitedEnglish; second, they enter into a university system different from Mexicannormal schools.

Rationale

In the case of university teacher preparation programs, a pressing initialconcern is the mechanisms for certifying foreign-trained teachers as bilin-gual educators. However, because these teachers were prepared in anothercountry, their views of self are also important considerations. Thus, it is cru-cial to critically examine these potential bilingual teachers’ views of self,including self-conceptualization and ethnic identity, and teaching efficacy.

This focus study at one of four universities implementing Project Alianza1

(alliance) will provide a psychological profile of the normalista applicants.This study can assist teacher preparation programs as to the important com-ponents to consider when recruiting and preparing foreign-trained teachersto become bilingual educators in U.S. urban settings. In this exploratorystudy, the questions to be addressed are the following:

1. How do normalistas identify themselves ethnically? What is their self-conceptualization?

2. What is the normalistas’ sense of teacher efficacy?3. What is the relationship between these normalistas’ self-conceptualizations

and teacher efficacy?

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Theoretical Framework

Because this study examines the intersection of three key attributes—ethnic identity, self-concept, and teacher self-efficacy—these constructsmust be clearly defined. Furthermore, to understand the relationship betweenself-concept and teacher efficacy, we must first examine the relationship ofethnic identity and self-concept. More important, this review draws from sev-eral disciplines in defining the constructs.

Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity has been defined as a “construct or set of self-ideas aboutone’s own ethnic group membership” (Bernal, Knight, Ocampo, Garza, &Cota, 1993, p. 33). Ethnic identity is seen as a complex and multidimensionalconstruct that encompasses ethnic identity formation, ethnic identification,language, self-esteem, degrees of ethnic consciousness, and ethnic uncon-sciousness (Devereux, 1980). Several researchers have established theimportance of ethnic identity for minority individuals (see Portes, 1996).Ethnic minority individuals with a strong sense of identity are seen as psy-chologically adjusted (Phinney, 1991). Having a bicultural identity reducedMexican Americans’ sense of isolation from both the majority and minoritygroup (Bautista de Domanico, Crawford, & De Wolfe, 1994).

An analysis of a study conducted with preservice bilingual educationteachers revealed that although the participants readily used an ethnic identi-fication label to identify themselves when prompted, ethnic identity was notmentioned spontaneously as one of the most salient conceptualizations in theWho Am I? (WAI) exercise (Clark & Flores, 2001). Their data also revealedthe individualistic nature of self-ethnic identification. Clark and Flores’s(2001) analysis of the preferred ethnic labels revealed that the stratifiedgroups depicted a continuum from a Mexican to American preference, simi-lar to Montgomery (1992) or as a continuance from Mexican to U.S. identity,resembling the findings of Bautista de Domanico et al. (1994). Therefore, forthese preservice bilingual education teachers, ethnic self-identification wasseen as an individualistic conceptualization reflective of the heterogeneityfound within the groups. Clark and Flores (2001) posited that for some indi-viduals, ethnic labels are not necessarily interchangeable but rather a meansin defining oneself.

Trueba (2002) suggested that the need for survival within a newsociopolitical context often determines how ethnic individuals define them-selves. Ethnic minorities often have multiple identities dependent on the lin-guistic, cultural, and socioeconomic context. Trueba further proposed that

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for recent immigrants, there are no internal conflicts of “retaining their ethnicidentities while they learn their host country’s culture and become proficientin their new home language” (p. 11).

Self-Concept

Although self-esteem was originally conceptualized as how one feelsabout self (James, 1920) and self-concept was defined as how one thinksabout self, terms such as self-concept, self-worth, self-esteem, and self-conceptualization have been used interchangeably in the literature. Jamessaw the self as being composed of “I, the knower” and the “me, the known.”There are three me’s: material me, social me, and spiritual me. Material me isevident when an individual uses worldly possessions to define and give statusto self, for example, beautiful, tall, wealthy, drive an SUV, and so on. Accord-ing to James, social me refers to the social roles one plays within society, forexample, friend, sister, business owner, and so on. Spiritual me was used byJames to refer to the individual’s beliefs. Individuals define selves in relationto the three me’s and operate out of one or more me’s; however, an individualwho operates totally out of the spiritual-me modality was seen as someonewho does not define self by others or materials. Rather, spiritual me is evidentin the individual’s motives, for example, an anonymous philanthropist,accepting of others without prejudice, volunteer of worldly causes, and so on.There is a fine line between social me and spiritual me. A spiritual personcould be characterized as giving if he or she gives to all regardless of gender,color, or ethnicity. Conversely, if an individual gives only to some groupsbecause the group’s cause concurs with own beliefs or mores, then that char-acteristic refers more to a social-me person. If the individual accepts otherslike self, then that is a social-me characteristic. James saw an individual whooperates out of the spiritual me at a higher plane, much like Maslow’s notionof self-actualization. The spiritual-me individual realizes that neither mate-rial goods nor social roles define who one is; rather, it is the very core of thenucleus of self that defines who he or she is.

The Interaction Between Ethnic Identity and Self-Concept

The role of ethnic identity as a facet of self-concept has been explored invarious studies. A component of self-concept is a sense of identity, both as anindividualistic and as a group membership characteristic (Bernal et al.,1993). While employing the WAI format with college students, Hurstfield(1978) surmised that ethnic membership and status determine an individual’sself-conceptualization. White majority group participants’ responses

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reflected universal categories, such as body image, possessions, and personalattributes. Conversely, minority participants were more likely to be con-scious of racial or ethnic identity. Hurstfield found that in comparison toWhites, Black and Mexican American students were more likely to mentionrace and ethnicity as self-conceptualization factors. Furthermore, Whitestended to be more individualistic in their characterization of themselveswhen compared with Black and Mexican American students.

Lay and Verkuyten’s (1999) study employing the WAI with foreign-bornChinese adolescents also had similar findings. The study revealed that they weremore likely to include references to their ethnicity as a self-conceptualizationfactor and ethnically identified themselves as Chinese, rather than ChineseCanadian. Their collective orientation was evident in their descriptions andwas positively related to personal self-esteem (Lay & Verkuyten, 1999).

As aforementioned, Clark and Flores’s (2001) study with preservice bilin-gual education teachers did not reveal ethnic identity as a salient factor intheir analysis of the WAI. These researchers suggested that unfortunately, toooften, successful minority students have had to shed their ethnic identity intheir quest for continued academic success in a society that subjugates thosewho are culturally different. Peña’s (1997) study clearly would support thisnotion; he found that high-achieving minority students were more compliantwith the majority norms of the school, whereas low-achieving students weremore resistant. Moreover, he further noted that this contrast was the result ofsubjugation rather than a symbiotic experience.

Nevertheless, Clark and Flores (2001) noted the significant associationbetween ethnic identity and self-conceptualization (p < .001) of preservicebilingual teachers. Thus, they emphasized the importance of a strong ethnicidentity in the development of a teacher identity. Similarly, other researchershave observed the important role that culture plays in the formation of bilin-gual education teacher identity and competence (Galindo, 1996; Galindo,Aragón, & Underhill, 1996; Galindo & Olguín, 1996). Moreover, other stud-ies have found ethnic identity to be significantly correlated to self-esteem(Phinney, Chavira, & Tate, 1993) and a significant predictor of self-esteemamong African Americans, Latino, and White adolescents (Phinney, Cantu,& Kurtz, 1997). Although for some individuals, ethnicity is central in defin-ing their identity and for judging their ethnic group’s vitality, ethnicity doesnot play this role for all minority individuals (Ethier & Deaux, 1990; Gao,Schmidt, & Gudykunst, 1994).

In an attempt to resolve these contradictory findings, Phinney (1991) sug-gested that the integration process of both cultures must be considered indetermining the impact of ethnic identity on self-esteem. Having a biculturalperspective assists ethnic minorities in having a positive psychological

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adjustment (Bautista de Domanico et al., 1994; Phinney, Williamson, andChavira as cited in Phinney, 1991). Specifically, a positive relationshipbetween self-esteem and bicultural identity was noted for both high schooland college students (Bautista de Domanic et al., 1994; Phinney, Chavira, &Williamson, 1992). However, how ethnic adolescents define bicultural iden-tity may be qualitatively different (Phinney & Devich-Navarro, 1997).

In exploring issues of bicultural or multiple identities, Trueba’s (2002)work also assists in understanding recent immigrants. He surmises that theyounger immigrant generation has realized that functioning within the main-stream does not require that they conceal their identity (Trueba, 2002).Rather, Trueba proposed that recent immigrants are proud of their duality—being able to function successfully in the mainstream society, while main-taining their ethnic ties through language and culture.

In sum, for Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants, these findingsappear to support the importance of ethnic identity and a bicultural perspec-tive in relation to psychological well-being (Bautista de Domanico et al.,1994; Phinney, Williamson, and Chavira, as cited in Phinney, 1991). The pro-cess toward positive self-concept development includes cultural understand-ing of self and own cultural group (Bernal et al., 1993). Analogously, ethnicminority teachers, as college students, are confronted with issues of ethnicidentity and self-concept within their preservice teacher development.

Moreover, teachers having a similar cultural framework as their studentsare more attuned to their students’ needs (Peña, 1997). Galguera (1998)observed that ethnic minority students had a preference for teachers whosebilinguality, cultural, and gender characteristics matched their own charac-teristics. Quiocho and Rios (2000) poignantly argued that minority groupteachers bring a unique critical perspective to schooling because of theirexperiences.

However, teachers must not only have similar cultural experiences; theymust also have a “conscious” ethnic identity (Flores, 2001a) and use thesecultural connections with their students (Flores, Strecker, & Pérez, 2002).Jiménez, Gersten, and Rivera’s (1996) case study revealed how a bilingualeducation teacher modulated her teaching practices to specifically meet theacademic needs of her language minority students and in doing so assuredtheir success. Moreover, several studies have shown that when children areprovided with teachers from their own language and cultural groups, theiracademic achievement improves.

Specifically, Meier, Wrinkle, and Polinard’s (1999) study demonstratesthe power of an ethnic match between teacher and student. Both minority andmajority students succeed academically when there is equitable ethnic distri-

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bution among teachers and students. Last, Zirkel’s (2002) longitudinal studyconfirmed the importance of race and gender match on students’ academicperformance, motivation, and future outlook.

Thus, for teachers, ethnic identity cannot simply be ignored, as their cul-tural experiences define how they will interact with students (Galindo, 1996;Galindo et al., 1996; Galindo & Olguin, 1996). Conceivably, teachers with astrong sense of ethnic identity likely have an enhanced self-concept, which inturn provides empowerment, that is, a sense of internal power, self-efficacy.They will likely see the group as possessing high vitality (Gao et al., 1994).Moreover, the degree of school success for ethnic students is affected by howteachers, as official members of the school, view and respond to cultural dif-ferences (Peña, 1997). The subsequent paragraphs will elaborate on theseissues.

Teacher Efficacy

Positive teacher efficacy has been defined as the belief of one’s ability toteach and motivate students regardless of students’ abilities and familialbackground (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Bandura, 1993; DiBella-McCarthy,McDaniel, & Miller, 1995). Ashton and Webb (1986) described teacher self-efficacy as being composed of two constructs, (general) teaching efficacyand personal teaching efficacy. They present two contrasting scenarios:

Teachers with a low sense of efficacy doubt their ability to influence studentlearning; consequently, they tend to avoid activities they believe to be beyondtheir capabilities. These teachers reduce their efforts or give up when presentedwith difficulties. In contrast, teachers with a strong sense of efficacy believethat they are capable of having a positive effect on student performance. Theychoose challenging activities and are motivated to try harder. (p. 3)

A close relationship appears to exist between the teacher’s sense of control(general teaching efficacy) and the teacher’s sense of competence (personalteaching efficacy). Yet each of these is seen as a separate construct (Ashton &Webb, 1986; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). For teachers, a sense of control is hav-ing the outcome expectation that they can influence student learning regard-less of impeding factors. On the other hand, a sense of competencedetermines personal teaching efficacy. Essentially, teachers with a positiveteacher efficacy believe that they have personal influence, power, and canaffect student learning (Guskey, 1998). The connection between curriculumand the student is thereby the teacher—how he or she views the feasibility ofthe task, how he or she approaches teaching, and what he or she thinks thestudents can do.

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In a study conducted with bilingual and mainstream teachers at two differ-ent schools, Johnson (1996) included the two original RAND2 statements(Armor et al., 1976) used to measure teacher efficacy in his survey. A sup-portive bilingual and developmentally appropriate environment was evidentin one school, whereas the other school was categorized as having an envi-ronment in which standardized testing and the quick acquisition of Englishwere the foci. Compared with their counterparts, bilingual and monolingualteachers in the supportive environment were less likely to believe that the out-side factors were significant determinants of students’motivation and perfor-mance. Furthermore, the supportive-environment teachers, both bilingualand monolingual, felt that they had the ability to teach even the most difficultor unmotivated student.

Another finding demonstrated that in comparison to mainstream teachers,the bilingual education teachers were more likely to feel they did not need towater down English instruction and believed that their students would learn.Johnson (1996) concluded that the efficacy of teachers, who work with lowersocioeconomic status language minority students, is reduced if they thinkthat external factors are the primary sources for their students’motivation andperformance. If teachers sense that they can influence their students, then ittranslates to power. When teachers view mastery as an achievement of inde-pendence in learning rather than mastering a set of skills, then likely theteachers’ teaching efficacy is linked to having an expectation that theirstudents will be successful (Johnson, 1996).

Self-Concept and Teacher Efficacy

Bandura (1993) clearly distinguished the difference between self-conceptand self-efficacy; whereas self-concept is an evaluation of self-worth, self-efficacy is a judgment about one’s capabilities. Pajares (1996) contended thatself-concept is a question of being—Who am I? Conversely, self-efficacy is aquestion of doing—Can I do this? However, “Because confidence is consid-ered an integral component of an individual’s self-concept, self-efficacybeliefs are often viewed as requisite judgments necessary to the creation ofself-concept beliefs” (Pajares & Schunk, 2001, p. 6). Research comparingthese two constructs has been inconclusive (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Thus,within social cognitive theory, self-concept and self-efficacy are seen asdistinct constructs.

In the case of teachers, efficacy is reflected within the interception of theteacher and student relationship. In examining self-concept and attitudes ofelementary school teachers, Okech (1987) found that a strong self-conceptand a positive attitude were, in essence, predictors of effective teachers. In

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this particular study, a significant positive correlation was also foundbetween the teachers’self-concept and their attitude toward teaching (Okech,1987). In a similar study employing the Personal Attribute Inventory as ameasure of self-concept, Necessary and Parish (1993) found a significantrelationship between teachers’ self-descriptions, their behavior toward stu-dents, and their students’ behavior toward them. In their investigation,Thompson and Handley (1990) reported a positive relationship betweenteacher efficacy and self-concept. However, the researchers also noted thatother factors are likely involved in teacher efficacy. They suggested thatteacher efficacy was a value that needed to be cultivated in preservice teach-ers. In fostering teacher efficacy, teachers will accept personal responsibilityof students’ learning outcomes (Thompson & Handley, 1990).

As a result of their ethnographic study with 1st-year teachers, Bullough,Knowles, and Crow (1989) concluded that teacher preparation programsmust help potential teachers answer the question of Who Am I? An under-standing of self was seen as a critical aspect in teacher development. Meyer,Linnville, and Reef’s (1993) conclusions, drawn from their study, also justi-fied the great need to develop a positive self-concept in preservice teachers.In essence, the development of self-concept and self-efficacy were seen as aresponse to the teachers’ questions of “Who am I?” and “What can I do?”Meyer et al.’s study further supported the notion that self-concept enhancesteacher effectiveness and develops empowerment.

According to Coleman (1996), internal power is important to developbecause the development of a stronger sense of self does affect achievement.Burke and Gottesfield’s (1986) study, which employed the WAI format,demonstrated a relationship between individuality and internal power.Teacher achievement is intricately reflected by teacher efficacy and studentsuccess.

Teacher efficacy, hence internal power, is also mediated by experiences.When comparing the teaching efficacy of two groups of general educationteachers, Brownell and Pajares (1999) found differences based on teacherpreparation. General education teachers who had in-service and preservicepreparation on instructing and managing special populations were morelikely to perceive being successful with this population when compared withtheir counterparts who did not receive this training. Similarly, Newman(1999) found that preservice teachers’ competency increased when theyprepared for individualized interventions.

Zielinksi and Hoy (1983) noted a significant negative correlation betweenteacher efficacy and teacher powerlessness. Thus, teachers, like all individu-als, need to develop an internal sense of power. When teachers as a groupwithin a school feel powerless, the outcome on school success is likely to be

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detrimental (Zielinksi & Hoy, 1983). Conversely, Goddard, Hoy, and Hoy’s(2000) study in urban schools demonstrated how collective teacher efficacywithin a school affects both math and reading achievement (p < .01). Hence,not only is it important for an individual to have a positive teacher efficacy,but the school as a collective agency can affect student outcome.

In sum, this review of literature provides a conceptual framework estab-lishing the importance of exploring the constructs of self-concept, ethnicidentity, and teacher efficacy of prospective teachers. Perceivably, a sharedethnic identity is an advantage that a bilingual education teacher brings intothe dynamics of the classroom (Flores, 2001a; Flores et al., 2002; Valencia &Aburto, 1991). Second, how teachers view themselves and their ability toteach are other factors affecting student success (Ashton & Webb, 1986;DiBella-McCarthy et al., 1995; Goddard et al., 2000). This development ofself assists teachers in having a better understanding of others, enhancingtheir communication and social relationships with students. If this, then, isthe role of an efficacious teacher in a linguistically and culturally diverse set-ting, it is necessary to ascertain the psychological profile of potential bilin-gual education teachers. Moreover, to capitalize on the strengths thatnormalistas possess, Clark and Flores (2001) suggested that there is a contin-ued need to investigate their notions of ethnicity, self-concept, and teacherefficacy.

Design of Study

Method

Study design. This static survey study examined a prospective bilingualeducation teacher pool, specifically, normalistas’ psychological profile asdetermined by self-concept and teacher efficacy. The first two descriptivequestions provided a profile of these important psychological constructs.The third research question determined whether the normalistas’ view ofthemselves modulated their teacher efficacy. A native Spanish-speakingMexican occupational psychologist was hired as a research assistant.

Sample. The normalistas were recruited from a convenient sample of theproject’s applicants. The research assistant contacted applicants to schedule aconvenient date for group administration of the instruments. Participantswere assured that their identity would remain anonymous and that their par-ticipation would not affect their status during the project selection process. A

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total of 44 normalistas from a pool of 55 qualified applicants (80%) agreed toparticipate in this study.

Sample characteristics. These normalistas are currently residing in thesouthwestern region of the United States as either legal residents or U.S. citi-zens. The participating normalistas’(N = 44) level of education ranged from ahigh school diploma to a bachelor’s degree. Approximately 22 had an equiv-alent to a U.S. bachelor’s degree; the other half either had 1 to 2 years ofpostsecondary studies or had an equivalent to a U.S. high school diploma.The normalistas’ years of teaching experience ranged from 1 to 32 years,with a mean of 13 years. Most had immigrated from the northern part of Mex-ico. The majority had lived in the United States for approximately 6 or moreyears; however, a few (n = 3) had recently immigrated. Most were Spanishdominant with relatively few English skills and had been employed asmenial, blue-collar workers. A few (n = 3), who were bilingual, wereemployed as school paraprofessionals. Most of the participants were female;only 3 were male.

Measures. Two standardized instruments were used to measure the con-structs of self-conceptualization and teacher efficacy. The WAI is an open-ended survey that asks the respondents to answer in 20 words or phrases theesoteric question: Who am I? The WAI format has been used in several stud-ies to examine sense of self (Clark & Flores, 2001; Hurstfield, 1978) and cen-trality (Rentsch & Heffner, 1992). Other researchers have suggested thatethnic identity is part and parcel of the question “Who am I?” (Bernal, Saenz,& Knight, 1991). The employment of the WAI in Spanish (WAI-S) is uniquein this study in that few studies have used a Spanish format.

The Teacher Self-efficacy Quiz (TSQ) (DiBella-McCarthy et al., 1995)consists of 32 Likert-type items with a 5-point scale ranging from 5 =strongly agree and 1 = strongly disagree. The TSQ was grounded in theteacher self-efficacy research (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Bandura, 1993) anddesigned for teachers to examine their efficacy. The Teacher Self-Efficacy–Spanish (TSQ-S) items were translated by the second researcher and thenback translated by the first researcher to ensure consistency of meaning.Bilingual colleagues familiar with the construct of teacher efficacy alsoexamined the items.

The instrument measures two teacher self-efficacy constructs: (a) generalteaching efficacy (GTE) and personal teaching efficacy (PTE). GTE is mea-sured by a total of 16 items. Eight items on the positive GTE subscale(Subscale A: 2, 6, 8, 12, 19, 23, 25, and 27) specifically measure high teach-

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ing efficacy—teacher influenced by internal sense of control whereby all stu-dents can learn. Eight items on the opposing GTE subscale (Subscale C: 4,10, 14, 16, 18, 21, 29, and 31) tap into low teaching efficacy—wherebyteaching ability is influenced by external factors. PTE is likewise measuredby a total of 16 items. The PTE positive subscale consists of 8 items (Sub-scale D: 1, 7, 9, 13, 17, 20, 22, and 28) measuring high personal efficacy—confident in teaching ability to make a difference. The 8 opposing PTEsubscale items (Subscale B: 3, 5, 11, 15, 24, 26, 30, and 32) gauge low per-sonal teaching efficacy—a general lack of confidence in teaching ability tomake a difference. Individuals are categorized on the basis of their higherscore; for example, a total score of 25 points on items corresponding to theGTE positive subscale indicates a strong sense of teaching efficacy. How-ever, to get a complete profile, an individual must examine both the positiveand the opposing subscale item scores. To get a mean score for eachconstruct, the negative items must be recoded.

Although other scales are available for measuring teacher efficacy, thisscale was chosen because at the time of the study there was debate about thepopularized teacher efficacy scales (Deemer & Minke, 1999; Henson, 2001).They suggested that two teacher self-efficacy constructs reflect the nature ofthe scales. According to Deemer and Minke (1999), since the inception ofteacher efficacy, PTE has been mostly measured with items having a positiveorientation, and GTE has been mostly measured with items having a negativeorientation. Deemer and Minke reconstructed the original Teacher EfficacyScale to reflect both positive and negative orientations for both constructs;however, their analysis only revealed one dimension.

Since the TSQ was originally designed with both positive- and negative-oriented items for both constructs, the current researchers felt it would servefor further exploration of the teacher efficacy constructs. For the currentstudy, the TSQ-S demonstrated an overall strong significant alpha reliabilityof .70, F(31, 1333) = 14.18, p < .0001. The GTE construct had a significantmoderate internal consistency (α = .44), F(15, 645) = 14.58, p < .0001. ThePTE construct also resulted in significant moderate internal consistency (α =.63), F(15, 645) = 14.90, p < .0001. Another study (Flores, Desjean-Perrotta,& Steinmetz, 2004) using the original TSQ instrument with alternative certi-fied teachers (N =163) also revealed the same trends with an overall signifi-cant, very high alpha reliability of .85, F(31, 4836) = 45.60, p < .0001, and astrong, significant internal consistency for each of the constructs, with GTE(α = .750), F (15, 2400) = 69.74, p < .0001, and PTE internal consistency (α =.80), F(15, 2340) = 24.58, p < .0001. Therefore, the TSQ-S instrument wasconsidered a reliable measurement of the constructs under consideration.

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Procedures. To minimize response set or experimenter bias, the researchassistant administered the two instruments, WAI-S and TSQ-S, to thenormalistas in a standardized group-setting format. After greeting the partic-ipants, the research assistant conveyed the purpose of the study to the respon-dents, and participants were reassured that responses would be keptconfidential.

WAI-S. First, the normalistas were given a sheet, numbered from 1 to 20,that at the top of the page showed the following prompt: ¿Quien soy yo?(Who am I?). Respondents were told in Spanish to reflect on this questionand to quickly write their responses in the order that came to mind and not todiscard any thought based on preconceived notions. After completing thefirst section of the WAI-S, the participants were also asked to list their pre-ferred ethnic label on the bottom of the page (Clark & Flores, 2001). Then thepapers were collected.

TSQ-S. Following a short break, the participants were given the TSQ-Sand were asked to complete the survey within a given time frame. The partici-pants were allowed to clarify any questions prior to beginning. Clarificationswere only given to the group if an item appeared too awkwardly written to theparticipants. Participants were instructed to select the best answer thatreflected their beliefs about their teaching ability. The subsequent paragraphswill provide the data analysis and results of the findings of this study. Thethree research questions, analysis, results, and discussion are presented andaddressed accordingly.

Data Analysis and Results for Ethnic Identity

The researchers conducted a frequency count of the labels used for ethnicidentity. The majority of the respondents initially questioned the notion ofethnic identity during the administration of the WAI-S. They asked theresearch assistant to explain preferred ethnic label. Interestingly, thesenormalistas did not see themselves as having a preferred ethnic label toidentify themselves, nor did they see themselves as ethnic minorities. Simplysaid, they were Mexicanos now living in the United States. A minority num-ber (10%) of the respondents did indicate “Hispanic” or “Latina” as theirpreferred ethnic label.

Thus, the notion of ethnic identity may not be an issue with whichnormalistas struggle or consider, because they know they are Mexicanos.After all, they come from a country in which their identity is continuallyaffirmed. The use of Hispanic or Latino/a may simply reflect the usual homo-geneous label given to a Spanish-speaking group in the United States orreflect the acculturation level of these individuals. Ethnic identity often con-

242 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

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stitutes a minority’s sociopolitical awareness as a result of living in theUnited States (Clark & Flores, 2001). Perhaps because these normalistasmay have not experienced denial of their language and cultural heritage, theyhave not developed a sociopolitical awareness of what it means to identifyethnically. Rather, their identity is one aligned with their country of origin.Thus, the notion of enhancing ethnic identity, especially as it related to lan-guage minority children’s self-concept may be crucial issues needing to beexplored and developed by normalistas as they prepare to become bilingualeducation teachers.

Preliminary Data Analysis and Results forSelf-Conceptualization Factors

On the WAI-S, the majority of the 45 respondents provided 20 items withthe minimum and maximum responses ranging from 19 to 25, respectively.Thus, the researchers felt that the high response rate assured the trustworthi-ness of the findings. Employing peer review, initial categories were identifiedand compared with the findings of previous studies (Clark & Flores, 2000,2001; Hurstfield, 1978). Generated categories reflected those originallydetermined by the previous aforementioned studies, for example, personal-ity, tastes, occupation, education, body image, moral worth, interpersonalstyle, and so on. However, other descriptors initially appeared to be distinctcategories: abstract thoughts, competitiveness, present status, values, reli-gion, future state, occupation, and educator activity. Employing peer reviewto recode the descriptors allowed for clearer distinction and assured consis-tency of the categories. Thus, competitiveness, abstract thoughts, presentstate, and interpersonal categories were collapsed into interpersonal styles.In addition, values, religion, and future state were added to the moral-worthcategory. The descriptors for occupation were collapsed with the educationdescriptors into the occupational activity category because the responsesmentioned were mostly reflective of teacher occupational descriptors. Usingthe same procedures as Clark and Flores (2001), categories mentioned by thenormalistas more than 50% of the time were determined as being most salientfor the group. The relative frequencies determined the prominence of thesefive categories: personality (100%), interpersonal style (97.3%),occupational activity (73%), moral worth (60%), and tastes (57.8%).

A further critical analysis of the Spanish to English translation process forthe descriptors indicated that a literal translation did not convey the underly-ing meaning of some terms. Because the existing categories of tastes and per-sonality did not capture the essence of the normalistas’ responses in Spanish,

Flores, Clark / Normalistas’ Self-Concept 243

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the researchers renamed these categories as interests and carácter (charac-ter), respectively. Interestingly, although family was frequently mentionedby a number of the normalistas, this category was mentioned by slightly lessthan half of the group. This initial finding is in contrast to the widely heldbelief that family is an overriding factor in the formation of the Mexican iden-tity. However, family was also not found to be a salient factor in a prior studywith Mexican American preservice bilingual teachers (Clark & Flores, 2001)or in the Hurstfield (1978) study. Evidently, the majority of these normalistasconceptualize themselves based on their carácter, interpersonal style,occupational activity, moral worth, and interests.

To better understand each of these categories, examples of those most fre-quently mentioned descriptors were organized in Table 1. Descriptors withinthe carácter category make reference to personality attributes. The interper-sonal-styles category refers to descriptors of self in relation to others, work,and life. Occupational activity descriptors reflect teacher actions. The moral-worth category included descriptors reflective of one’s self in relation to soci-etal mores and values. Interests included those descriptors in which individu-als expressed a pleasure or joy for people, food, and events.

Discussion

In general, a positive tone was evident in the descriptors; therefore, thegroup demonstrated an overall healthy profile. An interesting finding was thelarge number (73%) of normalistas who alluded to their competitive naturewithin the interpersonal-style category and a futuristic outlook within themoral category. Mexicans are not often described in this manner in the litera-ture. Often Mexicans and Mexican Americans are thought of as being presentoriented and having a cooperative versus a competitive nature (Lucas &Stone, 1994).

As revealed by the data, a number of the normalistas’ descriptors do notfollow general stereotypes. However, this type of orientation may be reflect-ing these normalistas’ departure from traditional mores or present accultura-tion level, especially because they have been living here in the United States(Lucas & Stone, 1994). Cultural values often differ between immigrant andnonimmigrant families (Phinney, Ong, & Madden, 2000). Therefore, it isalso important to consider whether the groups’ characteristics will influencehow they perceive language minority students, who may be more traditionaloriented regarding future state and competitiveness. As previously noted, it isimportant to not only know Who am I? but also What can I do? Therefore, tofurther discern these normalistas’psychological profiles as teachers, we must

244 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

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245

Tab

le 1

.S

elf-

Co

nce

ptu

aliz

atio

n C

ateg

ory

Des

crip

tors

Car

ácte

r(P

erso

nalit

y)In

terp

erso

nal S

tyle

Occ

upat

iona

l Act

ivity

Mor

al W

orth

Inte

rest

s

Affa

ble

Com

petit

ive

Teac

h C

hild

ren

Hon

est

Enj

oy r

eadi

ngC

haris

mat

icG

et a

long

wel

l with

oth

ers

Wor

k in

coo

pera

tive

grou

psG

ood

pers

onE

njoy

list

enin

g to

oth

ers

Imag

inat

ive

Ded

icat

ed, h

ard

wor

ker

Com

mun

icat

orB

elie

f in

supr

eme

bein

gE

njoy

art

Dep

enda

ble

Pro

fess

iona

l, le

ader

Teac

her

Cor

dial

Enj

oy b

eing

ent

erta

ined

Pat

ient

Fea

r th

e un

know

nO

ngoi

ng le

arne

rC

once

rn fo

r F

utur

eE

njoy

dea

ling

with

peo

ple/

child

ren

For

titud

eF

utur

e de

pend

ent o

n pa

stD

isci

plin

eW

ell m

anne

red

Enj

oy li

sten

ing

to o

ther

sH

appy

Hig

h pe

rson

al a

spira

tions

Teac

hing

:wel

l sui

ted

for

me

Nob

leE

njoy

food

Ana

lytic

Love

life

Sto

ryte

ller

Prid

eE

njoy

Mex

ican

food

Sen

sitiv

eIn

telli

gent

Exc

elle

nt p

rofe

ssio

nal t

each

erG

ener

ous

Enj

oy w

atch

ing

tele

visi

onTe

naci

ous

Cap

able

, com

pete

ntM

athe

mat

ics

is im

port

ant

Bot

here

d by

inju

stic

esE

njoy

cul

tura

l pro

gram

sS

ince

reD

eman

ding

Det

aile

d in

my

wor

kH

ope

for

futu

reE

njoy

cle

anlin

ess

Hyp

erac

tive

Org

aniz

edC

apab

le te

ache

rS

pirit

ual

Enj

oy c

hoco

late

Per

fect

ioni

stC

ontr

ollin

gTe

ach

spec

ial n

eeds

chi

ldre

nM

ystic

alE

njoy

goi

ng to

the

park

© 2004 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at UNIV OF TEXAS on April 15, 2008 http://hjb.sagepub.comDownloaded from

also understand their sense of teacher efficacy. In the second phase of thestudy, we examine this notion.

Preliminary Data Analysis for Teaching Efficacy

The TSQ-S scale data were coded and entered into an SPSS (2002) datafile. The four variables were determined by summing the appropriate itemsas indicated by DiBella-McCarthy et al. (1995). Thus, each participant hadan individual score for each variable. Frequencies and descriptive statisticsfor the group (see Table 2) were also calculated.

GTE. The TSQ authors suggested that a score of 25 or above on SubscaleA indicates that an individual had a strong, healthy sense of teaching. As agroup (n = 44), the normalistas had a strong, healthy sense of general teach-ing efficacy (M = 34.1, SD = 3.75). Interestingly, only 2.3% of thenormalistas had a score below 25. A one-sample two-tailed t test revealed asignificant difference between these normalistas’ mean and the predeter-mined score (t = 16.12, p < .001). Thus, the group’s overriding predilectiontoward an internal sense of control appears to be a general belief that all chil-dren can learn regardless of external factors.

In general, this notion is supported by the findings on Subscale C. Asspecified by the TSQ, a score above 20 on this third subscale indicates thatteachers have a belief that their ability to teach was influenced by externalfactors beyond their control. In examining the normalistas’ scores on thissubscale, we note a mean that is well below the cutoff score of 20 (M = 17.3,SD = 3.73). The one-sample t test resulted in a significant normalistas’ meandifference and the predetermined score (t = –4.73, p < .001). However, using20 as the original cutoff score, nearly 20% of the normalistas would be classi-fied as having the belief that external factors impede their teaching ability,therefore suggesting that these high-scoring participants may have a propen-sity to perceive that their teaching ability is affected by external factorsbeyond their control.

PTE. On Subscale D, participants scoring 25 points or above were classi-fied as having high personal efficacy and feeling confident in their compe-tence as a teacher. As a group, the normalistas had high personal teachingefficacy and felt confident that their teaching ability made a difference intheir students’lives (M = 35, SD = 3.93). The one-sample t test signified a sig-nificant mean difference between the normalistas’ mean and the predeter-

246 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

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247

Tab

le 2

.Te

ach

er S

elf-

Eff

icac

y Q

uiz

aD

escr

ipti

ve S

tati

stic

s

MS

DS

ubsc

ale

Sca

le

1.I a

m c

onfid

ent i

n m

y ab

ilitie

s as

a te

ache

r.4.

681.

07D

PT

E2.

With

the

right

tech

niqu

es a

nd m

ater

ials

, all

stud

ents

can

lear

n.4.

770.

42A

GT

E3.

Whe

n a

colle

ague

boa

sts

abou

t stu

dent

pro

gres

s, I

feel

inad

equa

te.

1.75

1.12

BP

TE

b

4.N

ew r

esea

rch

in e

duca

tion

is ju

st “

old

win

e in

new

bot

tles.

”1.

971.

06C

GT

Eb

5.S

ome

stud

ents

are

bey

ond

my

reac

h.2.

341.

19B

PT

Eb

6.T

he s

ocio

econ

omic

sta

tus

of a

stu

dent

is n

ot a

crit

ical

var

iabl

e of

effe

ctiv

e te

achi

ng.

3.09

1.58

AG

TE

7.I a

m a

dept

at b

ehav

ior

man

agem

ent a

nd h

andl

ing

disc

iplin

e.4.

570.

73D

PT

E8.

Eve

n th

e w

orst

hom

e si

tuat

ions

sho

uld

not i

nter

fere

with

a te

ache

r’s a

bilit

y to

teac

h st

uden

ts.

3.86

1.51

AG

TE

9.M

y en

thus

iasm

for

teac

hing

mak

es m

e an

effe

ctiv

e te

ache

r.4.

560.

97D

PT

E10

.In

a g

iven

cla

ss, s

tude

nts

from

low

-inco

me

back

grou

nds

will

pro

babl

y no

t do

as w

ell

10.

acad

emic

ally

as

stud

ents

from

mid

dle-

or

uppe

r-cl

ass

hom

es.

1.89

1.01

CG

TE

b

11.

The

re is

littl

e I c

an d

o to

pre

vent

the

failu

re o

f my

low

-ach

ievi

ng s

tude

nts.

1.39

0.89

BP

TE

b

12.

Stu

dent

s’di

sabi

litie

s ar

e ch

alle

nges

, not

obs

tacl

es, w

hich

mot

ivat

e te

ache

rs to

do

a be

tter

job.

4.59

0.76

AG

TE

13.

I am

mak

ing

a di

ffere

nce

in th

e liv

es o

f my

stud

ents

.4.

320.

80D

PT

E14

.T

here

is li

ttle

I can

do

to in

fluen

ce c

hang

e in

a s

tude

nt fr

om a

dys

func

tiona

l or

brok

en h

ome.

1.75

1.04

CG

TE

b

15.

If st

uden

ts d

id n

ot a

ct o

ut in

cla

ss, I

cou

ld d

o w

hat I

am

trai

ned

to d

o—te

ach.

3.13

1.42

BP

TE

b

16.

Som

etim

es, t

he o

ut-o

f-sc

hool

pro

blem

s ov

erw

helm

teac

hers

;it i

s no

won

der

teac

hers

can

not t

each

.2.

841.

24C

GT

Eb

17.

I hav

e ne

ver

met

a s

tude

nt I

coul

d no

t tea

ch.

3.50

1.32

DP

TE

18.

A te

ache

r is

onl

y on

e pe

rson

;onl

y a

mira

cle

can

help

som

e ki

ds.

1.77

0.86

CG

TE

b

19.

If te

ache

rs p

rovi

de a

pos

itive

rol

e m

odel

for

stud

ents

, eve

n th

ose

expe

rienc

ing

nega

tive

10.

influ

ence

s at

hom

e ca

n su

ccee

d.4.

380.

99A

GT

E

(con

tinue

d)

© 2004 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at UNIV OF TEXAS on April 15, 2008 http://hjb.sagepub.comDownloaded from

248

20.

My

stud

ents

’pro

gres

s is

a r

efle

ctio

n of

my

teac

hing

.4.

430.

90D

PT

E21

.Te

ache

rs h

ave

little

effe

ct o

n st

uden

t mot

ivat

ion

to le

arn.

1.84

1.16

CG

TE

b

22.

My

stud

ents

kno

w th

at I

care

abo

ut th

em, a

nd th

ey tr

y to

o ha

rd to

mee

t my

expe

ctat

ions

.4.

360.

69D

PT

E23

.E

ffect

ive

teac

hers

are

pow

erfu

l inf

luen

ces

in th

e liv

es o

f the

ir st

uden

ts.

4.64

0.72

AG

TE

24.

Mos

t of m

y co

lleag

ues

seem

to b

e m

ore

inno

vativ

e an

d re

sour

cefu

l tha

n I a

m.

2.70

1.19

BP

TE

b

25.

Pow

erfu

l tea

chin

g ca

n ov

erco

me

man

y ne

gativ

e ho

me

envi

ronm

enta

l fac

tors

.3.

981.

19A

GT

E26

.T

here

is li

ttle

I can

do

to h

elp

a st

uden

t who

just

doe

sn’t

care

abo

ut le

arni

ng.

2.09

1.15

BP

TE

b

27.

Goo

d te

ache

rs c

ontin

ually

sea

rch

for

new

idea

s fo

r re

sear

ch a

nd in

-ser

vice

trai

ning

to e

nhan

ce10

.te

achi

ng.

4.80

0.67

AG

TE

28.

I am

con

fiden

t in

my

subj

ect m

atte

r an

d ca

n an

swer

stu

dent

s’qu

estio

ns in

dep

th.

4.59

0.76

DP

TE

29.

A te

ache

r’s in

fluen

ce o

n st

uden

t ach

ieve

men

t is

limite

d co

mpa

red

to th

e in

fluen

ce o

f the

hom

e10

.en

viro

nmen

t.3.

111.

20C

GT

Eb

30.

In s

ome

subj

ects

I fe

el I

am ju

st a

pag

e or

two

ahea

d of

my

stud

ents

.2.

591.

20B

PT

Eb

31.

Cer

tain

dis

abili

ties

of m

y st

uden

ts in

terfe

re w

ith m

y ab

ility

to te

ach

them

.2.

221.

10C

GT

Eb

32.

Whe

n m

y st

uden

ts fa

il to

mak

e th

e ex

pect

ed p

rogr

ess,

I ge

t dis

cour

aged

.2.

0227

1.15

BP

TE

b

Val

idN

(list

wis

e) =

44

NO

TE

: S

ubsc

ale

A=

Hig

hG

ener

alTe

achi

ngE

ffica

cy(in

tern

alse

nse

ofco

ntro

l);S

ubsc

ale

B=

Low

Per

sona

lTea

chin

gE

ffica

cy(la

ckof

conf

i-de

nce)

;Sub

scal

eC

=Lo

wG

ener

alTe

achi

ngE

ffica

cyfa

ctor

s(e

xter

nals

ense

ofco

ntro

l);S

ubsc

ale

D=

Hig

hP

erso

nalT

each

ing

Effi

cacy

(con

fi-de

nce)

;GT

E =

Gen

eral

Tea

chin

g E

ffica

cy S

cale

;PT

E =

Per

sona

l Tea

chin

g E

ffica

cy S

cale

.a.

Orig

inal

Eng

lish

item

s;th

ese

wer

e tr

ansl

ated

into

Spa

nish

by

auth

ors.

b. R

ever

se c

oded

1 =

5 to

com

pute

GT

E o

r P

TE

mea

ns.

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

MS

DS

ubsc

ale

Sca

le

© 2004 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at UNIV OF TEXAS on April 15, 2008 http://hjb.sagepub.comDownloaded from

mined score (t = 16.93, p < .001). On this subscale, only 4.6% of theparticipants had a score below the predetermined cutoff point. This findingwas supported by the data on Subscale B.

Examining the scores and the significant two-tailed t test (t = –2.918, p =.006) on this second subscale also revealed that the normalistas’ group meanwas well below the predetermined cutoff point of 20 (M = 18, SD = 4.5).However, taking the predetermined cutoff into account, approximately 30%of the normalistas had a low personal teaching efficacy or lacked confidencein their ability to teach. This suggests that nearly one third of thesenormalistas have an inclination to doubt their confidence as teachers.

In sum, these data reveal that although the group may have a strong,healthy sense of GTE and PTE, some normalistas had a belief that what hap-pens in their classroom is affected by factors beyond their control. In addi-tion, some question their competence as teachers. Unequivocally, the issuesof external sense of control and lack of confidence are important in the inte-gration of normalistas as bilingual education teachers and, ultimately, to lan-guage minority student outcome. However, to determine if there is anyrelationship between how normalistas conceptualize themselves as teachersand their teacher efficacy leads to the next research question.

Secondary Data Analysis for WAI-S

Since a secondary purpose of this study was to determine the relationshipbetween the participants’self-concept and self-efficacy, in the interest of par-simony, the researchers recoded the WAI-S salient factors (personality, inter-personal style, occupational activity, moral worth, and interests) usingJames’s (1920) constructs of social me and spiritual me. Carácter (character)and moral worth were classified as James’s notion of spiritual me. Interper-sonal style, interests, and occupational activity were categorized as reflectingJames’s concept of social me. From the summative results, a median wascomputed for each of the constructs, that is, spiritual me (Mdn = 11) andsocial me (Mdn = 5). Using median split, spiritual me and social me were thendummy coded to distinguish between high and low propensity toward each ofthe constructs.

Secondary Analysis for TSQ-S and Results

In the interest of increasing power, achieving parsimony, and understand-ing of the constructs, the number of TSQ-S variables was also reduced. Toreflect the same directionality as the positive GTE and PTE subscales, theitems measuring low GTE and low PTE were reverse coded, that is, 1 = 5 and

Flores, Clark / Normalistas’ Self-Concept 249

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5 = 1. An overall cumulative score was computed to measure the constructs ofGTE and PTE.

Once the secondary data analyses were completed, the researchers con-ducted a regression analysis. A multivariate regression analysis wasemployed because we wanted to examine the relationship of two self-conceptconstructs as predictor variables on the teacher efficacy constructs as crite-rion variables simultaneously while minimizing multicollinearity and reduc-ing error. Inasmuch as this study was seeking to inform, the liberal level of p <.05 was selected to determine significance. Nevertheless, because this studywas conducted with a small convenient sample, we acknowledge the lack ofgeneralization of the findings. However, we suggest that these findings beconsidered in light of the limitations.

The Box M verified the multivariate homogeneity of the dependent vari-ables; thus, the null hypothesis was accepted. The multivariate test resultsindicated that spiritual me as a construct of self-concept modulated GTE andPTE variables, F(2) = 3.408, η2 = .14, p < .043. The observed effect is large,and the observed power of .60 for these tests was adequate (see Stevens,1996).

Discussion

By and large, although the majority of the normalistas had an internalsense for control and believed all children can learn, some normalistas dolack the confidence in their ability to teach. We note the positive main effectsof spiritual me (carácter and moral worth) on GTE and PTE. Thus, we sur-mise that self-concept, specifically carácter and moral worth, may influencehow these teachers perceive their ability to teach and ability to affectstudents.

Although Sparks and Rye (1990) indicated that self-esteem and personal-ity are major ingredients in the teacher-student relationship, personal self-conceptualizations such as carácter and moral worth are reflective of strongeffective teachers. These are the characteristics we want teachers to possess.As educators with carácter and moral worth, there is a sense of dignity thatwill likely be reflected in their approach to teaching and their commitment tostudents. Another study revealed that rather than simply viewing teaching asa profession, the normalistas’perspective was one of moral commitment andvocation (García & González, 2001). Moreover, in Mexico, the normalistahas had a history of leading literacy campaigns in rural communities and,thus, is afforded much respect and reverence (García & González, 2001). Asmoral individuals with carácter, these normalistas likely see their role as

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teachers as being the epitome of conduct and behavior. Perhaps, for somenormalistas, this archetype is too great an expectation. This may explain whysome normalistas felt a lack of confidence in their ability to teach or felt thattheir ability to teach is due to external factors.

This current study extends our understanding of teacher self-concept andteacher efficacy. In addition, this study is unique in several areas. Our samplewas drawn from a potential pool of bilingual education teachers who wereforeign-born and had foreign teaching credentials. The participants wereadministered the WAI and the TSQ in Spanish. Commonly held stereotypesabout Latinos and, in particular, about Mexican populations with regard toindividualism versus collectivism and present versus future state orientationwere not supported in the findings. The normalistas’competitive nature for acollective whole was an aspect also observed by the teaching faculty andadministrators (R. Milk, personal communication, June 10, 1999). Thenormalistas view their ethnic identity as closely rooted in the Mexican iden-tity. Their strong national identity exhibited may be attributed to their lack ofsociopolitical awareness and experience in the United States.

In general, the normalistas’self-concept profile was healthy as was teach-ing efficacy, and they had confidence in their ability to teach. The findingsdemonstrate a significant main effect. Thus, we posit that a healthy sense ofself may affect their GTE and confidence in teaching ability—PTE.

Because we know the relationship between teacher efficacy and studentachievement as presented in the review of literature, the implications areimportant to discuss. The results suggest that if normalistas as bilingual edu-cation docents do not develop or have an internal sense of control, then theymay be likely to believe that their efficacy is affected by the external factorsof their students, such as home life, culture, community, and institutional reg-ulations. Normalistas with an external sense for control may simply reaffirmhegemonic discourse in the form of deficit thinking. As a collective group,we want to develop a positive and healthy teacher efficacy so that they can gointo the field with the ability to have a positive effect on student outcome.

Furthermore, it is imperative that teacher preparation programs focus onthe development and enhancement of sociopolitical ethnic identity innormalistas to ensure school success for language minority students. Ameans to accomplish this goal is through metamorphosis; this requiresteacher candidates to evolve through stages of exploration, questioning,struggle, defining, salience, and revitalization (Clark, 2002). Also, teacherpreparation programs should provide teachers with the skills necessary toenhance ethnic identity of their future students, thereby enhancing theirstudents’ internal power.

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Insights gained from this current study may assist in creating appropriateinnovations and enhancements in bilingual teacher education programs. Weposit that constructs such as self-concept and ethnic identity likely play animportant part in the efficacy of successful teachers. Similar to otherresearchers, our perspective follows one of cultural compatibility as animportant process for both teaching and learning. If successful teachingwithin a cross-cultural classroom is seen as dependent on a positive self-esteem of the teacher (Wood, 1991), then critical reflection of self is vital.Critical self-reflection allows normalistas as potential bilingual teachers toexamine ethnic identity and their experiences as immigrants within the U.S.sociopolitical context (Molina-Hernández, 1999). Similarly, other research-ers have used autobiographies to explore and validate the cultural experi-ences of ethnic minority teachers. These researchers demonstrated thatbilingual teachers’ competence is dependent on exploring, validating, andemploying these cultural experiences within their occupational role(Galindo, 1996; Galindo et al., 1996; Galindo & Olguín, 1996). Whatremains unanswered is whether specific self-concept variables mightcorrelate to high or low levels of teacher efficacy. This is a possible area forfuture study.

The implication for U.S. institutions is to move beyond a simplistic,monolithic view of foreign-trained teachers. This is an important consider-ation in the integration of normalistas into U.S. teacher preparation pro-grams. We encourage further exploration of normalistas as prospectivebilingual education teachers. This line of study can assist in identifying suc-cessful recruitment, induction, retention, and integration of nontraditionalpools, for example, foreign-trained teachers. Last, by providing well-trained,highly qualified, and committed bilingual education teachers, linguisticallyand culturally diverse children will then have true access to equal educationalopportunity.

Notes

1. Project Alianza is funded by the W. R. Kellogg Foundation and is a collaboration of theIntercultural and Developmental Research Association and the Mexican and American Solidar-ity Foundation. The views presented here are those of the authors and not of these organizations.To certify the normalistas (Mexican teachers) as bilingual education teachers, Project Alianza’sspecific objectives are to (a) develop a systematic means to evaluate course work from Mexico;(b) create a certification program that recognizes prior completed course work; and (c) providestructural support in the form of advising, seminars, and financial assistance to ensure the suc-cessful completion of the teacher credential course work (Cantu, 1999; Supik, 1999).

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2. Rand statements: (a) When it comes right down to it, a teacher can’t do much becausemost of a student’s motivation and performance depend on his or her environment, and (b) If Ireally try hard, I can get through to even the most difficult or unmotivated student.

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Belinda Bustos Flores is an assistant professor in the Department of InterdisciplinaryStudies and Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education and Human Developmentat the University of Texas at San Antonio. Formerly, she was the Title VII bilingual coor-dinator in the Division of Bicultural Bilingual and was the coordinator during the firstyear of Project Alianza. She completed her Ph.D. at the University of Texas at Austin incurriculum and instruction with specializations in multilingual studies and educationalpsychology. Her research interests within the field of teacher education include teacherself-concept and ethnic identity, teacher efficacy, teacher beliefs, teacher preparation,teacher testing, and effective teaching practices. She and her spouse enjoy tailgating atall Longhorn games and driving to Nuevo Laredo to eat the best cabrito ever at El Rincóndel Viejo! She may be contacted at bflores@utsa.edu.

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Ellen Riojas Clark is an associate professor in the Division of Bicultural Bilingual Stud-ies, College of Education and Human Development at the University of Texas at SanAntonio. She has coordinated Title VII and National Endowment of Humanities under-graduate and teacher training projects. She received her B.A. from Trinity University,San Antonio, her M.A. in bicultural bilingual studies from the University of Texas at SanAntonio, and her Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin. In addition to assessment,another area of research is studying the relationship between the constructs of self-con-cept, ethnic identity, self-efficacy, and good teaching. As one of Las Dos Abuelas, literarycritics, her latest book review was on ¡Caliente!: The Best Erotic Writing in Latin Ameri-can Fiction. She may be contacted at eclark@utsa.edu.

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