a comparative study of students performance in mathematics among students from wealthy home and poor...

A Comparative Study of Students Performance in Mathematics among Students from Wealthy Home and Poor Home Background in

Minna Metropolis

By

Abdullahi Idris

ABSTRACT

This research work was a comparative study of student’s performance in mathematics among students from wealthy home and poor home background. The primary objective of this research was to investigate the influence of home background on academic performance of Minna Metropolis students in mathematics. The research methodology utilizes Spearman Correlation coefficient in the analysis and synthesizing of primary sources of data collected via questionnaire and Academic records, as well as diverse literature on the area of study. To test the hypotheses (1 and 2), the Spearman Correlation was applied to test if financial status of parents is significantly correlated with students’ academic achievement in mathematics and if Parents educational background is significantly correlated with students’ academic achievement in mathematics. However, the findings revealed that there is a significant relationship between Parent’s financial status and students’ achievement in mathematics and that there is a significant relationship between Parents educational background is significantly correlated with students’ academic achievement in mathematics. It is therefore, recommended that, Schools should be provided with adequate books and facilities to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor in the society. This will give students from poor homes the opportunity to learn and improve on their performances; Parents should not allow their social status be a barrier to their children educational opportunities.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Academic achievement is undoubtedly a research after the heart of educational

psychologists. In their attempt to investigate what determines academic outcomes of learners, they 1

have come with more questions than answers. In recent time, literature has shown that learning

outcomes have been determined by such variables as; family, school, society, and motivation

factors (Aremu, 2000). Academic performance (most especially of secondary school students) has

been largely associated with many factors. Most students in secondary schools in Nigeria are daily

confronted with challenges of coping with their academics under serious emotional strains

occasioned by long walk to school, poor school environment, and been taught by unmotivated

teachers. Couples with this, most students encounter different problems in their academic

achievement but some may not face such problems because of their backgrounds. (Aremu, 2000).

Families with high socioeconomic status often have more success in preparing their young

children for school because they typically have access to a wide range of providing their young

children with high-quality child-care, books, and toys to encourage children in various learning

activities at home, they also have easy access to information regarding their children’s health, as

well as social, emotional, and cognitive development. Across all socioeconomic groups, parents

face major challenges when it comes to providing optimal care and education for their children. For

families in poverty, these challenges can be formidable. Sometimes, when basic necessities are

lacking, parents must place top priority on housing, food, clothing and health care. Educational

toys, games, and books may appear to be luxuries, and parents may not have the time, energy or

knowledge to find innovative and less-expensive ways to foster their children’s development.

Families with low socioeconomic status often lack the financial, social, and educational supports

that characterize families with higher socioeconomic status. Poor families also may have inadequate

or limited access to community resources that promote and support children’s development and

school readiness. (Ojo & Tsehaw, 2008).

Parents may have inadequate skills for such activities as reading to and with their children,

and they may lack information about childhood immunizations and nutrition. Having inadequate

resources and limited access to available resources can negatively affect families’ decisions

regarding their young children’s development and learning. As a result, children from families with

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low socioeconomic status are at a greater risk of entering kindergarten unprepared than their peers

from families with median or high socioeconomic status. (Ojo &Tsehaw, 2008).

According to Stone and Sarah, (1991) as cited in (Ojo &Tsehaw, 2008) various studies have

revealed that a relationship existed between parental involvement and academic achievement of

children in mathematics. It was found that the problem of achievement is not a simple thing rather it

needs considerable attention. It was also found that high and low achievers differ in their way of

motivation, interest, ability, etc. it was revealed that parents of higher Social Economic Status are

more involved in their children’s education than parents of lower Social Economic Status and that

greater involvement fosters more positive attitudes toward school, improves homework habits,

reduces absenteeism and dropping out, and enhances academic achievement. Thus, some of the

association between students’ outcomes and parents’ background is probably attributable to

different levels of parental involvement in school-related activities. If this is the case, then

strategies that increase parental involvement may be an effective means of improving schooling

outcomes and of reducing inequalities in achievement among students with different social-class

backgrounds especially in subjects like Mathematics.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Most students are at greater risk for poorer out comes in mathematics as a result of various

variables like home factors, their attitude towards learning mathematics, and teacher factors. (Ojo

(& Tsehaw, 2008). Academic performance in mathematics of students in schools in Minna

Metropolis is of great concern. Information obtained from the school administration indicates that

there is evidence to show that student’s performance in mathematics is influenced by different

factors in and out of school. Among the factors influencing performance in mathematics is the

home background of the children. Information obtained also indicates that children from wealthy

background usually perform in mathematics compared to those from poor home background.

(Nyamwange, 2012).

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In the same vein, the highly educated or parents in the higher social class send their children

to private schools where everything is provided for the children to learn. Relevant academic

materials such as internet services, textbooks and the like are made available. This category of

students have good learning environment and are often motivated to learn. A growing speculation

holds that some of these children from the highly placed homes do not perform well at schools.

This research is therefore geared towards examining and unravelling the fundamental

influence of home background on children’s academic performance in mathematics.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study was to investigate the influence of home background on

academic performance of Minna Metropolis students in mathematics. Other objectives include:

I. To find out if there is any significant difference in the performance of students, from high

income families and those from the low income families, in mathematics?

II. To determine whether parent’s/guardians educational level influences school student’s

academic performance in mathematics.

1.4 Research Questions

I. Is there any difference in the performance of students, from high income families and those

from the low income families, in mathematics?

II. Do parent’s/guardians educational level influences school Student’s academic performance

in mathematics?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H01: There is no significant difference in the performance of students, from high income

families and those from the low income families, in mathematics.

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H02: There is no significant difference in student’s academic performance in Mathematics as per

Parent’s/Guardian’s educational level.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study would provide adequate information on the influence of home background on

student‘s academic achievement in mathematics. The work will provide ways on how parents can

take care of their children and how they can provide the basic needs for their children. It will help

parent‘s to be supportive in their children‘s education and also offer educators, communities,

organizations and policy makers a source for understanding the meaning of the partnership between

the school, family and communities.

Educational administrators and policy makers would have a better insight with respect to

educational inequalities that exist between children of low, middle and high social class status. So

as to provide materials and motivation for both children from rich homes and especially poor

homes in their academic performance. They will also be aware of the facilities and materials that

will be of great importance to the students for improvement of performance in the school.

The research will also serve as reference point for those wishing to delve into similar

research of this magnitude.

1.7 Scope/Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study is based on comparative analysis of performance of student from

wealthy home background and those from poor home background in mathematics.

The research work is limited to the analysis based on the questionnaire administered, and

the relevant literature. Other limitation of the study is: inability of the researcher to cover the entire

population of the study, money, and time constrain.

1.8 Definition of Terms

I. Academic performance: The way in which one carries out an activity successfully

especially in academics.

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II. Environmental factors: The place in which people live including all the physical condition

that affect them. E.g. parents are responsible for providing the right environment for their

children to learn.

III. Home background: The type of place where one lives or feels he/she belongs.

IV. Influence: The power to change or control something or somebody. The power to control

or change academic performance of School children.

V. Educational Level: A standard of academic ability or level of learning

VI. Wealthy Home: Parents earning N500, 000 and above on Monthly basis.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

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The review of related literature was presented in this chapter under the following sub-title:

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Residential Area and School Children’s Academic Performance in Mathematics

2.4 Social Economic Status and Academic performance of Student in Mathematics

2.5 Factors contributing to Students’ Poor Performance

2.6 Family Attitude towards Attainment of School Children’s Academic Performance in

Mathematics

2.7 Learning Resources and Student Academic Performance in Mathematics

2.8 Parent/Guardian’s education/Occupation and children’s academic performance in mathematics

2.9 Access to Learning Materials at Home and Student Performance

2.10 Empirical Studies on Home Background of Student and Academic Performance of Student

in Mathematics.

Many researches to date on home background as an influence on children’s academic

performance tend to focus on either parents/guardians education level, residential area, family

attitude towards academic achievement, distance to and from school and size of household. The

input and output studies based on achievement of school children provided rich evidence that home

background has regular important influence on children’s academic performance. Such studies have

shown such factors to be apparently effective while others have shown the opposite and their total

outcome throws doubt on the importance of rich background in the progress and performance

Briggs (1992) as cited in Nyamwange (2012). Education research has been interested in finding out

whether or not home background has an influence on performance in academics and extent to

which students learn or reason.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The study was guided by the Need theory by Abraham Maslow. Abraham Maslow was born

in 1908. The theory postulates that behaviour is influenced by a person’s needs. If one need is not

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met, a person may do something evil or right to have his or her need fulfilled. As noted by Child

(1993) as cited in Ojo & Tsehaw, (2008), the needs follow a specific order or hierarchy. They begin

with physiological needs that include food, air, clothing and shelter. After the physiologic needs

come the safety needs that include desire for predictable safe environment with justice, for instance,

personal security, financial security, health, well being and general protection. Thereafter, the need

for love and belonging follows. This includes acceptance, having supportive classmates and having

a communicating class system. The fourth level is the esteem needs which consist of need to be

appreciated, valued, respected, recognised, prestige, status, attention, competence, mastery and

freedom. The last need on the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation. It includes desire to

achieve one’s dreams. The physiological needs have to be fulfilled before the safety and other

needs.

Concerning this research, the need theory helped to explain factors affecting academic

performance of students in mathematics. For instance, at physiological level of needs, students

concentrate on their academic endeavours only if most the physiological needs are met. These

include having a conducive learning environment, having adequate food and their families and

being able to pay for school fees and water bills so that the home has water supply among others.

Safety needs entail that students need to be protected from threats from fellow students and teachers

if they are to perform well academically. Students need to feel loved in whatever situations they

may find themselves in. This creates a sense of belonging which in turn gives them the motivation

and confidence to work hard regardless of how difficult the courses may be. Even in situations

where students face challenges in a subject, they get encouraged by family, friends, tutors and

teacher.

2.3 Residential Area and School Children’s Academic Performance in Mathematics

The positive link between the children’s residential area and their academic achievement is

well established by Sirin (2006). He points out that the relation of poverty and low socio-economic

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status exerts pressure on the child’s outcome. These include; low IQ, educational attainment and

achievement and socio-emotional problems. Influences on children’s educational outcomes can be

associated with geographic location and characteristics of residential neighbourhood among other

factors (Jacob, 2004; Sanborimatsu et al, 2005 as cited in Sirin, 2006).

Stanley, Comello, Edwards and Marquart (2008) compared the difference between urban

and rural school communities and noted significant differences in income and education of high

school students’ parents. The findings showed that parental education and social economic status

rather than on community/school characteristics of urban and rural settings has a role to play on

academic attainment (Stanley et al, 2008). AnsuDatta (1987) as cited in Nyamwange (2012) stated

that children from poor families are more likely to be born in crowded areas often lacking normal

amenities such as baths, electricity and running water or even a toilet. The homes are in most cases

poorly furnished and have very little to offer the children for imaginative play. The food available is

often insufficient and nutritionally imbalanced. The clothes worn may not offer adequate comfort or

protection against the extremes of weather. These could affective cognitive development of children

in mathematics and other subjects in general.

2.4 Home Background/Social Economic Status of Parent and Academic performance of

Student in Mathematics

Schulz (2005) in Nyamwange (2012) contended that socio-economic status (SES) is an

important explanatory factor in many different disciplines like health, child development and

educational research and other subjects like mathematics and science. Research has shown that

socioeconomic status is associated with health, cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes. In general,

educational outcomes have been shown to be influenced by family background in many different

and complex ways. For example, the socio-economic status of families has been consistently found

to be an important variable in explaining variance in student achievement in mathematics. Socio-

economic background may affect learning outcomes in numerous ways: From the outset, parents

with higher socio-economic status are able to provide their children with the (often necessary)

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financial support and home resources for individual learning. They are also more likely to provide a

more stimulating home environment to promote cognitive development. At the level of educational

providers, students from high-SES families are also more likely to attend better schools, in

particular in countries with differentiated (or "tracked") educational systems, strong segregation in

the school system according to neighbourhood factors and/or clear advantages of private over

public schooling.

Family background can be analytically separated into at least three distinct components as

raised by Coleman (2008). These are: financial (physical) capital (family income or wealth), human

capital (parent education), and social capital (relationship among actors). With respect to children's

educational achievement, Kim (2002) maintained that, there is a direct relationship between

parental financial and human capital and the successful learning experience of their children.

However, he stressed that while both of these factors are important determinants of children

educational success, there remains a substantial proportion of variation in educational success,

which was unaccounted for by these variables alone. Kim (2002) explained that this variance by

what he called the “social capital” which mediates the relationship between parents' financial and

human capital, on the one hand, and the development of the human capital of their children on the

other. A research conducted using a sample of low-income minority families, found that mothers

with higher education had higher expectations for their children’s academic achievement and that

these expectations were related to their children’s subsequent achievement in mathematics and

reading (Kim, 2002). The economic deprivation perspective has been given enormous attention by

researchers of African family processes, specifically with regard to single-mother homes

(McLanahan, and Wilson, 2009 as cited in Kim, 2002).

The proponents of the economic deprivation perspective argued that the potential effects of

single parents is not due to the physical absence of one parent but to the absence of the economic

resources generated by the absent parent. Therefore, the effects of marital status on child well-being

will be reduced when income is statistically controlled or when families are matched on income

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level. For instance, McLeod et al. (2004) as cited in Kim (2002) argued that parents who

experienced income loss became more rejecting of their children and that their children were at risk

for developing feelings of inadequacy associated with parental rejection. However, the empirical

research on the effects of income has not been adequately tested (Amato & Keith, 2001) nor has it

consistently supported these assumptions for African children. Considine and Zappala (2002)

noticed the same that parent’s income or social status positively affects the student test score in

examination especially subject like mathematics.

2.5 Factors contributing to Students’ Poor Performance in Mathematics

Factors contributing to student poor performance in mathematics include the followings:

Social Economic Status

Social economic status is most commonly determined by combining parents’ educational

level, occupational status and income (Jeynes, 2002). Jeynes, (2002) further noted that in most of

the studies done on academic performance of students, it is not surprising that social economic

status is one of the major factors studied while predicting academic performance. According to

Graetz (1995) as cited in Justice, Osei and Daniel (2015), ones educational success depends very

strongly on the social economic status of the parents. Considene and Zappala (2002) argue that

families where the parents are advantaged socially, educationally and economically foster a high

level of achievement in their children.

Teacher Quality and Performance

Teachers play important role in the realization of the high standards which are increasingly

emphasized in schools and school systems across the world. Despite the general agreement about

the importance of high quality teachers, researchers, practitioners, policy makers and the public

have been unable to reach a consensus about what specific qualities and characteristics makes a

good teacher. The profession of teaching is becoming more and more complex and the demands

placed upon teachers are increasing with the ever changing world. Hanushek (1997) as cited in

Justice, Osei and Daniel (2015) estimated that the difference between having a good teacher and

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having a bad teacher did exceed one grade level equivalent in annual achievement growth. It is

therefore important that both pre-service and in-service training are essential for the quality

professional development of the teacher. Bridges (1986) contends that the inefficiency and low

quality of secondary school education as was often reflected in the mathematics achievement scores

posed a question on the competence and training of the mathematics teachers. Students and parents

were not the only ones who were being short changed by incompetent teachers.

Motivation

A highly motivated person puts in the maximum effort in his or her job. According to

Farrant (1968) as cited in Justice, Osei and Daniel (2015)“ Today the relationship between teachers

and pupils is often up-side down; pupils come because they must and teachers teach because they

are paid to. Teachers mourn that their profession is not respected and complain that they are

inadequately paid for the duties they are required to do. They look over their shoulders at others

professions and conditions of services for a better life’’. This assertion by Farrant (1968) exhibited

lack of motivation on the part of both teachers and students. More so, it may contribute to

ineffectiveness and inefficiency in academic work and its effects- poor performance. Studies by

Lockheed (1991) revealed that lack of motivation and professional commitment produce poor

attendance and unprofessional attributes towards students which in turn affect the performance of

students academically.

Students Attitudes towards Mathematics

Students’ attitude towards mathematics influences the efforts they put in understanding and

practising mathematical concepts and skills. According to the National Research Council (2000) as

cited in Akey (2006), Students’ beliefs about their competence and their expectations for success in

school have been directly linked to their levels of engagement, as well as to emotional states that

promote or interfere with their ability to be academically successful. Thus attitudes determine the

effort a student is likely to put in his/her learning of the subject (mathematics).It is therefore

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necessary for mathematics teachers to strive and sustain positive attitudes towards mathematics for

good performance in the upper classes (Benson, 1999 in Justice, Osei and Daniel, 2015).

2.6 Family/Parental Involvements in Student’s Academic Performance in Mathematics

Students’ achievement and adjustment are influenced by many people, processes and

institutions. Parents, the broader family, peer groups, neighbourhood influences, schools and

other bodies (e.g. churches, clubs) are all implicated in shaping children’s progress towards

their self fulfilment and citizenship. The children themselves, of course, with their unique

abilities, temperaments and propensities play a central role in forming and reforming their

behaviour, aspirations and achievements. (Charles & Alberto, 2003).

According to Harvard Family Research Project (2006) Substantial research supports the

importance of family involvement in the Secondary school years, and a growing body of

intervention evaluations demonstrates that family involvement can be strengthened with positive

results for children and their school success. To achieve these results, it is necessary to match the

child’s developmental needs, the parent’s attitudes and practices, and the school’s expectations and

support of family involvement. Three family involvement processes for creating this match emerge

from the evidence base: Parenting consists of the attitudes, values, and practices of parents in

raising young children. Home–school relationships are the formal and informal connections

between the family and educational setting. Responsibility for learning is the aspect of parenting

that places emphasis on activities in the home and community that promote learning skills in the

young child. While the three processes described above provide a framework in which to organize

the research, readers must keep in mind that family involvement includes other processes beyond

those described in this series of briefs.(According to Harvard Family Research Project, 2006).

Research has shown a clear link between parent involvement and children’s success in

school. (Centre on Education Policy, 2012). Further, studies have also demonstrated a correlation

between parent involvement and children’s educational development and subsequent intrinsic

academic motivation (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994 as cited in Centre on Education Policy,

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2012). Even if parents are unable to assist their children with a specific subject area or skill, they

can still play a vital role by encouraging students’ feelings of competence and control and positive

attitudes towards academics.

However, Grolnick, Friendly, & Bellas, (2009) emphasized, that many factors can hinder

parents from providing these kinds of supports. Some parents may be grappling with outside

stressors, time and resources constraints, or unfamiliarity with what role they might play.

Therefore, parents’ involvement and capabilities differ based on their unique contexts. But while

resources can limit parents’ ability to become involved, that should not be taken to mean that their

desire to do so is also limited; research has found that although parents with scarcer resources may

be less active in school activities, they can still be entirely aware and supportive of their children’s

academic progress (Grolnick, Friendly, & Bellas, 2009).

2.7 Learning Resources and Student’s Academic Performance in Mathematics

Faisal and Annutte (2001), Patrick et al (2001), in their studies observed that decline in the

performance of students in mathematics is due to inadequate facilities. Maitarfsir (2003) states that

lack of instructional materials to serve as teaching aids that facilitate quick understand of the

subject matter in the classroom is a great impediment to conducive learning environment for STM

education. He went further to put it that for effective STM learning relevant materials such as

equipment in the laboratories, charts, diagrams, chemical, models, specimen, and for technology,

technological device like computer, tape recorder and video cassette recorder must be made

available in the classroom so as to assist students to have a design of what is taught in their mind.

Maicibi (2003) as cited in Maitafsiri (2003) opined that all institutions or organization are

made up of human beings (workers) and other non-human resources. He further asserts that when

the right quantity and quality of human resources is brought together, it can manipulate other

resources towards realizing institutional goals and objectives. Consequently, every institution

should strive to attract and retain the best of human resource. The implication of these opinions is

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that well trained teachers in mathematics if well deployed to the secondary schools will bring about

well rounded students who will perform academically well in mathematics.

Yadar (2007) opines that no course in Science and Mathematics can be considered as

complete without including some practical work. The practical work ought to be carried out by

individuals either in Science laboratories or in classes. At school level, practical work is even more

important because of the fact that we learn by doing. Scientific practices and applications are thus

rendered more meaningful. It is an established truth that an object handled impresses itself more

firmly on the mind than the object merely seen from a distance or in an illustration. Thus practical

work forms an important feature in any Science and Mathematics Course (UNESCO,

2008).Mathematics as a subject can be made practical and enjoyable if there are mathematics

laboratories where some of the theories and theorems in the subject can be made practical. This can

be done with the help of the government and parents/guardians who can financially support the

schools in realizing this.

2.8 Parent/Guardian’s Educational/Occupation and Children’s Academic Performance in

Mathematics

Parental education level is an important predictor of children’s educational and behavioural

outcomes (Davis-Kean, 2005, McCartney & Taylor, 2002). The family social economic status

including parent education level, would predict the quality of family interactions and child

behaviour. Pamela and Kean (2010) states those that students whose parents have a tertiary

level of education perform, on average, significantly better in tests of science, reading and

mathematical ability than do those whose parents have only basic schooling. Thus, across these

three disciplines, the average grades achieved by students with well-educated parents ranged from

7% higher than those achieved by students with poorly educated parents in developing countries to

45% higher in most developed countries.

Parents of different occupation classes often have different styles of child rearing, different

ways of disciplining their children and different ways of reacting to their children. These

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differences do not express themselves consistently as expected in the case of every family; rather

they influence the average tendencies of families for different occupational classes (Rothestein,

2004). Lueptow (1975) as cited in Suresh, (2012) in his study found that students who achieve high

performance in education at school were from urban areas, who had educated parents with a higher

occupation status and a higher income home.

Guerra and Huesmann, (2004) point out that the quality of family interactions and child

behaviour would shape by the late adolescence, educational achievement and aspirations for future

educational and occupational success. Late adolescent aspirations for future success would affect

actual educational and occupational success in adulthood (Slegers & Miller, 2002 in Eric, Paul, and

Rowell, 2009). Parent’s level of education has been said to have an influence on students’ need to

achieve.

Parental education level is an important predictor of children’s educational and behavioural

outcomes (Dans-Kean, 2005; Dearing, McCartney, Taylor 2002; Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, and

Klebanor, 1997).Research on parenting also has shown that parent education/occupation is related

to a warm, social climate in the home. Gottfried et al. (2004) found that both mothers’ education

and family income were important predictors of the physical environment and learning experiences

in the home but that mothers’ education alone was predictive of parental warmth. Likewise, Smith

et al. (2007) found that the association of family income and parents’ education with children’s

academic achievement was mediated by the home environment

There is evidence that parents’ education will affect students’ academic achievement in

Mathematics. According to Grissmer (2003), parents’ level of education is the most important

factor affecting students’ academic achievement. Taiwo (1993) submits that parents’ educational

background influence the academic achievement of students. This, according to him, is because the

parents would be in a good position to be second teachers to the child; and even guide and counsel

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the child on the best way to perform well in education and provide the necessary materials needed

by him/her. This was supported by Musgrave (2000) who said that a child that comes from an

educated home would like to follow the steps of his/her family and by this, work actively in his/her

studies. He said further that parents who have more than a minimum level of education are expected

to have a favoured attitude to the child’s education and to encourage and help him/her with school

work. They provide library facilities to encourage the child to show examples in activities of

intellectual type such as reading of newspapers, magazines and journals. They are likely to have

wider vocabulary by which the children can benefit and develop language fluency. Onocha (1985)

as cited in Ahmad, Najeemah and Mohammad, (2013) concludes that a child from a well educated

family with high socioeconomic status is more likely to perform better than a child from an

illiterate family. This is because the child from an educated family has a lot of support such as a

decent and good environment for academic work, parental support and guidance, enough textual

and academic materials and decent feeding. He or she is likely to be sent to good schools where

well seasoned teachers will handle his/her subjects. Children’s academic achievement was found to

be affected by varying family processes. Campbell and Wu (1994) in Ahmad, Najeemahand

Mohammad (2013). said that the home environment and family processes provide a network of

physical, social and intellectual forces and factors which affect the students’ learning. According to

them, the family’s level of encouragement, expectations, and educational activities in the home are

related to socio - economic status, while Song and Hattie (2004) as cited in Ahmad, etal (2013)

agreed that families from different socio-economic groups create different learning environments

that affect the child’s academic achievement. There is no doubt that parents’ attitudes help to

condition their children’s attitudes. A parent who shows complete disregard for education might

have some effect upon his/her children’s educational progress.

2.9 Access to Learning Materials at Home and Student Performance

The primary environment of a student is the home and it stands to exert tremendous impact

on the students’ achievements (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005)

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Researchers argue that nonmonetary factors such as parenting (measured by parents’

educational expectations for their children and the attention parents give to their children’s

education) and home environment (measured by the presence of books, newspapers, computer and

other learning materials at home) can be more important for children’s academic achievement than

money.(Jerome, 2015).

Graetz (1995), in their study on the influence of social and economic disadvantage in the

academic performance of school students noticed, where the parents or guardians have social,

educational and economical advantage definitely strengthen the higher level success in future. But

it is also noted that these parents make available sufficient psychological and emotional shore up to

their children by providing good educational and learning materials like: computer, text books

educational videos and conducive home environment that produce confidence and the improvement

of skills needed for success in school.

2.10 Empirical Studies on Home Background of Student and Academic Performance of

Student in Mathematics

Literature relating to the effect of home resources on academic achievement has highlighted

a number of factors including parental education, parental income, and parental occupation (Sirin,

2005).Thus, parental socio-economic status plays a significant role in influencing mathematics

performance. The findings of Okpala, Okpala and Smith (2001) support the results of Sirin’s (2005)

meta-analysis, which indicates that home socioeconomic status is associated with achievement. A

study that seems to challenge these findings explores the relationship between learners’ home

socio-economic background and their mathematics performance in Nigeria. It reveals that,

regardless of socio-economic background, the majority of the students were of average academic

ability in mathematics (Olatunde, 2010).

Considine & Zappala (2002) conducted a study on socio-economic status of the parents of

students and concluded that the socio economic background has a great impact on student’s

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academic performance, main source of educational imbalance among students and student’s

academic success contingent very strongly on parent’s socio economic standard.

On other hand, Pedrosa et.al (2006) in their study on social and educational background

pointed out those students who mostly come from poor socio-economic and educational

background performed relatively better than others coming from higher socio-economic and

educational area. Considine & Zappala (2002) observed that children comes from those families

having low income make known more subsequent models in terms of learning outcomes; low

literacy level, low retention rate, problems in school behaviour and more difficulty in their studies

and mostly display negative attitude towards studies and school. The view point of Considine and

Zappala is more strengthen by this statement of Eamon. According to Eamon (2005) “Those

students usually come out from low socio-economic status or area show low performance in studies

and obtained low scores as compared to the other students or their counter parts”.

A study conducted by Rouse and Barrow (2006) revealed that years of schooling completed

and educational achievement of students, varied widely by family backgrounds. Rouse and Barrow

(2006) found out that students who came from less disadvantaged families had higher average test

scores and were more likely to have never been held back a grade as compared to students from the

more disadvantaged families. However they highlighted that it was not clear to reflect the causal

effect of family backgrounds on the child’s educational achievement which creates a gap that this

study sought to fill by finding out the influence of family backgrounds on the students’ academic

performance.

This was supported by another study on Children and Youth in Canada that was carried out

by Ryan (2000) who reported that there was a significant effect of family background variables,

parental support, and teacher support on a child’s educational achievement.

19

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the procedure for data collection, the research design adopted in

the study, research instrument and sampling techniques as well as method of data collection and

analysis.

20

3.2 Research Design

This study made use of the survey research design which enabled relevant information to be

collected from the respondents through the use of a structured questionnaire.

3.3 Population of the Study

According to Orodho, (2008) specifying the population that is targeted for study is

important as it helps researcher to make decisions on sampling and resources to use. The population

of this study is the entire Secondary Schools Students in Minna Metropolis.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The random sampling technique was used to select one hundred males and females students

from five schools in Minna Metropolis. Twenty student comprising of Ten (10) male and Ten (10)

female students were sampled from each of the school under study. The selected Secondary Schools

are as follows:

i. Day Secondary School Chanchaga A.

ii. Government Day Secondary School Minna.

iii. Government Secondary School Minna.

iv. Hill-Top Model School Minna.

v. Army Day Secondary School Minna.

3.5 Research Instrument

The instrument used in this research work is the questionnaire on “Students Home

Background on mathematics Achievement Rating Scale” which will be completed by the students

and their parents. The questionnaire consists of series of question design and expected to be

answered by the respondents (i.e. the students and their parents). Academic records of 2014/2015

of the students were also be used to compare the performance of students from poor and rich home

background.

3.5 Validity of the Instruments

21

Validity is the extent to which the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure

according to the researcher’s subjective assessment (Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007).Validity deals

with the adequacy of the instrument for example, the researcher needs to have adequate questions in

the written task in order to collect the required data for analysis that can be used to draw

conclusions. To ensure validity of the instrument used, the designed questionnaire for this study

was given to Lecturers in Department of Mathematics College of Education Minna, to determine

their suitability.

The instrument was amended according to the experts’ comments and recommendations

before being administered. Frenekel (1993) as cited in Nachmias, (2007) suggested that the

individual who is supposed to render an intelligent judgment about the adequacy of the instruments

should be given the instruments before the actual research is carried out.

3.6 Reliability of the instruments

The Split-half reliability method was used to establish the reliability, and Pearson moment

Correlation was use to calculate the reliability, and 0.78 was obtained, which was consider high

enough for the use of the instrument.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

The researcher after seeking permission from the various school authorities under study to

administer the questionnaire. The researcher also seeks the assistance of the Teachers in

administering the questionnaire to the sampled students. Larger Percentage of the questionnaires

was administered directly by the researcher. 200 questionnaires were administered to student to

enable the researcher randomly select 10 students from wealthy and 10 students from poor home

background in each of the selected school.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

The Spearman Correlation coefficient method would be used to compare the academic

performance of students from wealthy and poor home background in Mathematics.

22

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is concern with analysis and interpretation of the data collected via

questionnaires.

4.2 Data presentation

23

Table 4.2.1: Table Showing Gender of Parents and Students

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percent

Parent (%) Students (%)

Male 80 (80%) 50 (60%)

Female 20 (20%) 50 (40%)

Total 100 100 100 (100%)

Table 4.2.1 shows that 80% of the parents are Males, 20% of the parent are female, while

50% of the students are males and 50% are females.

Table 4.2.2: Table showing school performance trend in Mathematics examination in

the last 2 years (for both wealthy and poor home)

Frequency Percent (%)

Increasing 10 10.0

Constant 19 19.0

Decreasing 28 28.0

Irregular 32 32.0

No idea 11 11.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.2 shows that (10%) of the respondents said their performance in mathematics is

increasing for the past 2years, (19%) constant, (28%) decreasing, (32%) irregular, while the remaining (11%)

have no idea.

24

Table 4.2.3: Table Showing grade scores in last mathematics Examination

(2014/2015)


Excellent 19 19.0

Very Good 18 18.0

Good 19 19.0

Average 10 10.0

Poor 34 34.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.3 revealed that (19%) of the respondents scored A in their last mathematics

examination, (18%) of the respondents scored B, (19%) of the respondents scored C, (10%) scored

D, and the remaining (34%) of the respondents scored F.

Table 4.2.4: Table Showing level of improvement over the previous year


Yes 79 79.0

No 21 21.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.4 revealed that 79% of the respondents believed that there is improvement from their

performance from previous year, 21% of the respondent said there was no improvement on their previous

year’s performance.

25

Table 4.2.5: Table Showing Level of Family Structure (whether single parent or two parent

family) on a Students’ motivation to study


Yes 90 90.0

No 10 10.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.5 shows that 90% believe that family structure whether single or two parents affect the

students’ motivation to study, and 10% of the respondents disagreed to the assertion that family structure

whether single or two parents affect the students’ motivation to study.

Table 4.2.6: Table Showing Parents’ main source of income


Monthly salary 41 41.0

Selling farm

products34 34.0

Small business 25 25.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.6 shows that 41% of the respondents said their parents’ main source of income is

monthly salary, 34% of the respondents said their parents’ main source income is sales of farm products,

and the remaining 25% of the respondents said is through small business earnings.

26

Table 4.2.7: Table Showing Family Economic/Financial Status


Rich 50 50

Poor 50 50

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.7 shows that 50% of the respondents described their family status as rich, and the

remaining 50% described their family as poor.

Table 4.2.8: Table Showing Level of Assistance by Parents with necessary learning Materials in

Mathematics


Provide all 31 31.0

Provide a great deal 28 28.0

Provide few 19 19.0

Provide none 22 22.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.8 shows that 31% of the respondents said their parents provide them with all learning

materials in mathematics, (28%) of them said their parents provide a great deal of material for learning,

(19%) of them said their parents provide few, and the remaining 22 said their parents do not provide them

with any learning materials.

27

Table 4.2.9: Table Showing Students reasons on how their Parents Financial Status affect them


It prevent me from attending

school regularly because I

had to help my parent sell

pure water

22 22.0

It prevent me from having

access to learning materials

like my classmates

10 10.0

It prevent me from scoring

high grade in Mathematics

due to lack of adequate

learning materials

33 33.0

I had to go farm to help my

father 14 14.0

Those that said parent’s

financial status does not

affect their academic

performance in mathematics21 21.0

Total100 100.0

Table 4.2.9 revealed that 22% of the respondent who respond with an affirmation yes is

because they had to help their parent sell pure water. Another (10%) said it prevented them from having

28

access to learning materials as compared to their other classmates. Also (33%) said it prevented them from

scoring high grades in mathematics due to lack of adequate learning materials, 14% said they had to go

farm to help their father and the remaining 21% said their parent’s financial status does not affect their

academic performance in mathematics.

Table 4.2.10: Table Showing Education Level of Parents


Educated 50 50

Non Educated 50 50

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.10 shows that (50%) of the respondent said the parents are Educated and

remaining 50% said their father are not educated.

Table 4.2.11: Table showing frequency of help from father in mathematics homework


Yes 32 32.0

No 68 68.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.11 shows that (32%) of the respondents said that their father often do their

mathematics homework for them any time they ask him to help them, and the remaining 68% of the

respondents said their father do not help.

Table 4.2.12: Table Showing the frequency of Parents who think that Mathematics is important


Yes 38 38.0

No 62 62.0

Total 100 100.0

29

Table 4.2.12 revealed that (38%) of the respondents said their father think that learning

mathematics is very important for them, and the remaining (62%) of the respondents disagreed with the

assertion.

Table 4.2.13: Table Showing Children Performance trend in Mathematics

Examination for a period of two years as perceived by the Parents


Increasing 10 10.0

Constant 19 19.0

Decreasing 28 28.0

Irregular 32 32.0

No idea 11 11.0

Total 100 100.0

Table 4.2.13 shows that 10% of the respondents said the trend of their children academic

performance in mathematics is increasing, 19% said their children performance is constant, 28%

said is decreasing, another 32% said their children performance is irregular, and the remaining 11%

said they have no idea on the trends of their children performance in mathematics.

.

4.3 Hypothesis Testing

H01: There is no significant difference in the performance of students, from high income

families and those from the low income families, in mathematics.

H02: There is no significant difference in student’s academic performance in Mathematics as per

Parent’s/Guardian’s educational level?.

30

Table 4.2.15: Correlation between the Performance of Students, from High income Families

and those from the low income Families, in Mathematics.

Variables N SD r-value df P Decision

High income Family

Low income Family

50

50

57.45

48.38

20.69

19.64

0.62 98 0.003 Reject

HO1

Table 4.2.15 above revealed that financial status of parents is significantly correlated with

students’ academic achievement. This indicated in the table with an observed correlation coefficient

of 0.62 The critical value at the same degree of freedom (98) is 0.113 and the observed level of

significance for the test is 0.003 (P <0.05). Therefore the hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.2.16: Correlation between Educational Backgrounds of Parents of Students on Student

Academic Performance in Mathematics

Variables N SD r-value df P Decision

Educated family

Non Educated family

50

50

51.5

49.14

19.92

21.14

0.85 98 0.002 Reject

HO2

Table 4.2.16 above revealed that Parents educational background is significantly correlated with

students’ academic achievement. This is indicated in the table with an observed correlation

coefficient of 0.85. The critical value at the same degree of freedom (98) is 0.113 and the observed

level of significance for the test is 0.002 (P <0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected.

4.4 Discussion of Findings

In table 4.2.15 it was observed that there was significant relationship between student’s academic

performance in mathematics and parent’s financial status.

This indeed is true as the socioeconomic status of the parents in terms of income, education, nature

of occupation and position in the society determine the type of attention and involvement they have with

31

their children. Parents that earn big salaries can effectively take responsibilities of their children’s

education compared to parents that earn meagre salaries. This is indeed evidence as the financial and

moral support a child gets from his/her parents influence him/her psychologically, which is reflected in

his/her performance in school.

The second hypothesis further revealed that there is a significant relationship between

Parent’s/guardian’s education level and Student’s academic performance in mathematics. Thus,

according to this study the parent’s educational background is a predictor of students’ performance in

mathematics.

Based on this evidence one can say that the families socioeconomic status is the basis for the

academic performance of students. This finding is supported by Joshi (1996) when he concluded that

parents who are educated and have high Socioeconomic Status (SES) can offer academic follow up

support which is necessary when learning mathematics because of the sequential nature of the subject.

This study is also in agreement with the findings of Okpala and Smith (2001) and Sirin’s (2005) meta-

analysis, which indicates that home socioeconomic status is associated with achievement.

The research conducted by Evans (1978) when he reported Comparative Study of the Influence of

the Home Background that there is a positive relationship between involvement of parents and

children’s academic performance is also in support of this research finding.

Hence, the above observations signify that there is significant relationship between parents’

financial status or parent’s educational background and students’ academic performance in

mathematics, and that there is a significant relationship between student’s performance in mathematics

and home support for mathematics.

32

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of home background on academic

performance of Minna Metropolis students in mathematics. The instrument used in collecting data

33

was questionnaire and academic records of students. The data collected was analyzed in the

previous chapter.

5.2 Conclusion

From the analysis of data and the discussion of findings, it is therefore, concluded that there

is a significant relationship between Parent’s financial status and students’ achievement in

mathematics in Minna Metropolis. Also that there is a significant relationship between parents

educational background and students’ achievement in mathematics at the senior secondary in

Minna Metropolis,

The study indicates that student’s academic performance is influenced by the socioeconomic

background of their parents; as parents that are rich and earn high income and can take absolute

responsibilities of their children’s education compared to parents that are poor and earn meagre

salaries. The financial and moral support a child receives from his/her parents’ affects his/her

psychology, which is reflected in his performance in school. Also, students whose parents have

better jobs and higher levels of educational attainment and who are exposed to more educational

and cultural resources at home tend to perform better than their counterparts without such

opportunities.

5.3 Recommendations

The following recommendations based on the findings were made:

i. In order to solve the recurrent issue of poor academic performance in our secondary

schools, government and corporate institutions should increase salaries of parents in line

with economic situation and cost of educational materials to enable parents meet the

educational needs of their children.

ii. Schools should be provided with adequate books and facilities to breach the gap

between the rich and the poor in the society. This will give students from poor homes

the opportunity to learn and improve on their performances.

34

iii. Parents should not allow their social status be a barrier to their children educational

opportunities.

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APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA. COE MINNA CAMPUS

Dear Respondents,

39

I am a student of the above named institution carrying out research on the topic “The influence of home background on academic performance of Minna Metropolis students in mathematics” as part of the requirement for the award of the B. Ed. in Mathematics. The information provided to enable me accomplish this task shall be treated confidentially.

Thanks for your cooperation.INSTRUCTION

Please, kindly indicate your answer by ticking like ( ) on the appropriate box that contains the option suitable to you. Tick only one of the options SECTION A PERSONAL INFORMATION (FOR STUDENTS) 1. Gender Female [ ] Male [ ] 2. Category of your school.

Boys Boarding [ ] Girls Boarding [ ] Mixed Day School [ ] Single Day School [ ]

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCES 3. How has your school performance trend in Mathematics examination like in the last 2 years?

Increasing [ ] Constant [ ] Decreasing [ ] Irregular [ ] No idea [ ]

4. What was your score in last Mathematics Examination? ( ) 5. What was your grade score in last mathematics examination?

Excellent A ( ) Very Good B ( ) Good C ( ) Average D ( ) Poor F ( )

6. Do you think family structure (whether single parent or two parent family) affects the students’ motivation to study?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

7. What is your parents’ main source of income? Monthly salary [ ] Selling farm outputs [ ] Small business [ ] Other Specify _______________________________________

8. How will you describe your family Economic/Financial Status? Rich [ ] Average [ ] Poor [ ] Prefer not answer this question [ ]

9. Do your parent provide you with necessary learning materials in mathematics? Provide all [ ] Provide a great deal [ ] Provide few [ ] Provide none

10. Do you think your parent’s financial status affect your academic performance especially in Mathematics?

40

Yes [ ] No [ ]

11. If yes, please state how……………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………12. What is the average education level of your parents?

Primary school [ ] Secondary school [ ] Tertiary level [ ] None [ ]

13. Does your Parent often do your mathematics homework for you any time you ask him for help?

Yes ( ) No ( )

14. Does your Parents think that learning mathematics is very important to you? Yes ( ) No ( )

15. To what extent do your parents encourage you to learn mathematics at home? To a greater extent ( ) To a some extent ( ) Average extent ( ) To a less extent ( )

16. To what extent do your parents provide you with learning materials in mathematics at home? To a greater extent ( ) To a some extent ( ) Average extent ( ) To a less extent ( )

17. To what extent does your general home environment support the teaching and learning of mathematics?

To a greater extent ( ) To a some extent ( ) Average extent ( ) To a less extent ( )

Thank you for your assistance.

INSTRUCTIONPlease, kindly indicate your answer by ticking like ( ) on the appropriate box that

contains the option suitable to you. Tick only one of the options SECTION B PERSONAL INFORMATION (FOR PARENTS) 1. Gender Female [ ] Male [ ] 2. How has your child school performance trend in Mathematics examination like in the last 5 years? (a) Increasing [ ] (b) Constant [ ] (c) Decreasing [ ] (d) Irregular [ ] (e) No idea [ ]3. What is the score mark of your child in last mathematics examination? ( )

41

4. What grade did your child get in last mathematics examination? (a) Excellent A ( ) (b) Very Good B ( ) (b) Good C ( ) (c) Average D ( ) (d) Poor F ( ) 5. Please kindly indicate your marital status

Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Separated [ ] Widowed [ ]

6. How would you rate your family? Cohesive family [ ] Conflictive family [ ] 7. Do you think family structure (whether single parent or two parent family) affects the students’ motivation to study? Yes [ ] No [ ] 8. What is your main source of income?

Monthly salary [ ] Loan [ ] Selling farm outputs [ ] Small business [ ] If other, please specify ___________________________________

9. How is your child fees financed? Parents finance full fee [ ] Some of the fee is financed by sponsors/well wishers [ ] All the fee is financed by well wishers/sponsors [ ]

Others (specify) ……………………………………………………………. 10. What mode of learning does your child undertake?Boarders [ ]Day scholars [ ]11 If day school, what has contributed to the status?

Lack of finances [ ] His own choice [ ] Others reasons (specify) …………………………………………………………

12. Do you think your financial status affect your child academic performance especially in Mathematics? Yes [ ] No [ ] 13. If yes, please state how? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………14. What is your average education level?

Primary school [ ] Secondary school [ ] Tertiary level [ ] None [ ]

15. Do you think that parents’ education level have any influence on performance of Children at school? Yes [ ] No [ ]16. Do you often do your child mathematics homework any time he/she ask you for help? Yes ( ) No ( )17. Do you think that learning mathematics is very important for your child? Yes ( ) No ( )18. Are you able to provide your child with learning materials in mathematics at home? Yes ( ) No ( )19. If no, please provide reasons

42

..................................................................................................20. To what extent does your general home environment support the teaching and learning of mathematics?

To a greater extent ( ) To some extent ( ) Average extent ( ) To a less extent ( )

Thank you for your assistance.

APPENDIX II

Correlation for Wealthy and Poor family Background

Class intervalScores Fx Fy Rx Ry d d2

1-10 1 0 9.5 10 +0.5 0.2511-20 5 4 4 4.5 0.5 0.2521-30 3 2 6 8 2 431-40 7 1 3 9 6 36

43

41-50 18 13 1 1 0 051-60 8 12 2 2 0 061-70 2 4 7.5 4.5 -3 971-80 4 8 5 3 2 481-90 2 3 7.5 6.5 1 1

91-100 1 3 9.5 6.5 3 963.5

r = 1- 6∑ d2 = 1 6x 63.5 = 381 =1 – 381 = r = 1 – 0.3484848 r = 1- 0.38 n(n2-1 10(102 -1) 10(99) 990

= 0.62 r = 0.62

Correlation for Parent/Guardian Educational Background

Class intervalScores Fx Fy Rx Ry d d2

1-10 1 1 9.5 9.5 0 011-20 3 3 7.5 6 -1.5 2.2521-30 5 2 5 7.5 2.5 6.2531-40 11 9 1 2 1 141-50 9 12 2 1 -1 151-60 7 8 3 3 0 061-70 4 7 6 4 -2 471-80 6 5 4 5 1 181-90 3 1 7.5 9.5 2 4

91-100 1 2 9.5 7.5 -2 423.5

r = 1- 6∑ d2 = 1 6x 23.5 = 1- 141 = 1-0.14 r = 0.85 n(n2-1 10(102 -1) 990

To determine the Mean ) & Poor Family Background of Students

Mid point (x) Fx Fx(x) F(x- )2

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5.5 1 5.5 1756.45

15.5 5 77.5 5091.24

25.5 3 76.5 1440.14

35.5 7 248.5 992.94

45.5 18 819 65.67

55.5 8 444 523.58

65.5 2 131 654.50

75.5 4 302 3156.19

85.5 2 171 2901.70

95.5 1 95.5 2312.65

50 2370.5 18895.0581

Mean (X) = ∑F(x) = 2370.5 = 47.41 ∑Fx 50

Standard deviation SD = 18895.0581 = 377.90 = 19.44 50

To determine the Mean ) & SD of Wealthy Family

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Mean (X) = ∑F(x) = 2815 = 56.3 ∑Fx 50

Standard deviation SD = 20968 = 419.36 = 20.48 50

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5.5 0 0 0

15.5 4 62 6658.56

25.5 2 51 1897.28

35.5 1 35.5 432.64

45.5 13 591.5 1516.32

55.5 12 666 7.68

65.5 4 262 338.56

75.5 8 604 2949.12

85.5 3 256.5 2557.92

95.5 3 286.5 4609.92

50 2815 20968

To determine the Mean ) & SD of Non Educated Background


5.5 1 5.5 1866.24

15.5 3 46.5 3306.72

25.5 5 127.5 2691.2

35.5 11 390.5 191.64

45.5 9 409.5 92.16

55.5 7 388.5 323.68

65.5 4 262 1128.96

75.5 6 453 4309.44

85.5 3 256.5 4062.72

95.5 1 95.5 2190.72

50 2435 21888

Mean (X) = ∑F(x) = 2435 = 48.7 ∑Fx 50

Standard deviation SD = 21888 = 437.76 = 20.92 SD = 20.92 50

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To determine the Mean ) & SD of Educated Background


5.5 1 5.5 2025

15.5 3 46.5 3675

25.5 2 51 1250

35.5 9 319.5 2025

45.5 12 546 300

55.5 8 444 200

65.5 7 458.5 1575

75.5 5 377.5 3125

85.5 1 85.5 1225

95.5 2 191 4050

50 2525 19450

Mean (X) = ∑F(x) = 2525 = 50.5 ∑Fx 50

Standard deviation SD = 19450 = 389 = 19.72 = SD = 19.72 50

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a comparative study of students performance in mathematics among students from wealthy home and poor...

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