6. scansion-ben changes3 with folio - webcourses@ucf

Chapter 6

How to Scan

Poetry and Verse

Nay, then, God be wi' you, an you talk in blank verse. Jacques – As You Like It

CELIA: Didst thou hear these verses? ROSALIND: O, yes, I heard them all, and more too; for some of them had in them more feet than the verses would bear. CELIA: That's no matter: the feet might bear the verses. ROSALIND: Ay, but the feet were lame and could not bear themselves without the verse and therefore stood lamely in the verse.

-As You Like It “Life is tons of discipline. Your first discipline is your vocabulary; then your grammar and your punctuation. Then, in your exuberance and bounding energy you say you're going to add to that. Then you add rhyme and meter. And your delight is in that power.”

- Robert Frost

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Last printed 8/8/15 8:54 AM Jim Helsinger of 48

INTRODUCTION First of all, scansion won't either create or ruin your theatrical career. Lots of actors successfully speak and act Shakespeare their entire careers without knowing how to scan one line. Some professional singers never learn to read music either, yet they sing songs wonderfully. Such singers rely on their natural sense of rhythm and a recording, accompanist, or vocal coach to teach them the notes. Professional actors who can’t scan rely on their natural instincts and their directors and text coaches to teach them the rhythm. But knowing how to read music is still a powerful tool for a singer. You can stroll over to the piano and pluck out the right notes to play and read the rhythm from the score yourself. Individual interpretation may be easier for one who can read the rhythm, emphasis, length of note, and pitch from the score made by the composer rather than allowing others to teach it to them. Scansion in acting is the same as reading the score for a musician. You can learn it by rote, but reading the rhythms for yourself can help your interpretation and performance. Scansion is about rhythm and breath. The rhythm of verse is like an undulating snake creating a pattern and then breaking and punctuating it by use of breath and inflection.

SOME POEMS TO GET US STARTED Let’s start with a simple exercise.

Exercise : Making a Poem Write a poem of four lines expressing the strongest way you’ve ever felt personally about losing a love in your life. Make it mean something to you. After you have finished your poem, stand up and look at your fellow actors. Take them in one at a time and breathe deeply. Select one person as your partner and say, “This is how I felt,” and then say your poem. Remember to breathe. You can do it a couple times until you feel it was completely honest. Poetry is powerful. A distillation of human emotion.

Exercise : Making a Metered Poem All poetry contains meter, conscious thought is put into the rhythmic connection of stresses (even free verse still creates and breaks rhythm.) and is planned out. It is ART not NATURE. Let’s write another poem and create a bit of a rhythm. Write a poem of two lines that has 8 syllables in each line. Write it about the way you feel about ice cream. It’s OK if it’s silly. Just make one up. You can’t fail.

After you have finished your poem, stand up and look at your fellow actors. Take them in one at a time and breathe deeply. Select one person as your partner and say, “This is how I felt,” and then say your poem. Remember to breathe. You can do it a couple times until you feel it was completely honest. Poetry is powerful.

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SOME FAMOUS POEMS Now that we have created our own poems, let’s look at some famous ones.

Exercise: Performing a Poem Have each person in the class take a poem. Read it out loud and try to FEEL the overriding rhythm of each. Enjoy and feel the rhythm. Find and explore the stresses. How many main stresses do you feel in each line? What happens when you let the rhythm take control? Does the poem get easier to say after you try it a few times? What does it mean to you? Explore the words and metaphors in the NOW. Imagine that everything in the poem is happening to you right now. See the images, feel and smell the world in which the poem lives. When you really think you are ready to feel it and show that with your voice, perform it for the class. What actions and images are your trying to convey to us? Really act the poem, don’t recite it.

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening Robert Frost Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse here Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year. He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound’s the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.

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Annabel Lee Edgar Allen Poe

It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know

By the name of ANNABEL LEE:- And this maiden she lived with no other thought

Than to love and be loved by me. I was a child, and she was a child,

In this kingdom by the sea, But we loved with a love that was more than love –

I and my Annabel Lee – With a love that the winged seraphs of Heaven

Coveted her and me.

And this was the reason that, long ago, In this kingdom by the sea,

A wind blew out of a cloud, chilling My beautiful Annabel Lee;

So that her highborn kinsman came And bore her away from me,

To shut her up in a sepulchre In this kingdom by the sea.

The angels, not half so happy in heaven,

Went envying her and me- Yes!- that was the reason (as all men know,

In this kingdom by the sea) That the wind came out of the cloud by night,

Chilling and killing my Annabel Lee.

…. continued

Sonnet 98 (Iambic pentameter) William Shakespeare

98 FRom you haue I beene absent in the spring, When proud pide Aprill (drest in all his trim) Hath put a spirit of youth in euery thing: That heauie Saturne laught and leapt with him. Yet nor the laies of birds,_nor the sweet smell Of different flowers in odor and in hew, Could make me any summers story tell: Or from their proud lap pluck them where they grew: Nor did I wonder at the Lillies white, Nor praise the deepe vermillion in the Rose, They weare but sweet,_but figures of delight: Drawne after you, you patterne of all those. Yet seem'd it Winter still,_and you away, As with your shaddow I with these did play.

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So We’ll Go No More A-Roving Lord Byron So we’ll go nor more a-roving So late into the night, Though the heart be still as loving, And the moon be still as bright. For the sword outwears the sheath, And the soul outwears the breast, And the heart must pause to breathe, And love itself have rest. And though the night was made for loving, And the day returns so soon, Yet we’ll go no more a-roving, By the light of the moon.

Evangeline - A Tale of Arcadie Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. This is the forest primeval; but where are the hearts that beneath it Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman? Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian farmers -- Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the woodlands, Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven? Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed! Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October Seize them, and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean. Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pré. Ye who believe in affection that hopes, and endures, and is patient, Ye who believe in the beauty and strength of woman's devotion, List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the forest; List to a Tale of Love in Acadie, home of the happy.

A Visit from St. Nicholas – aka “The Night Before Christmas” Clement Clarke Moore

Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St Nicholas soon would be there. The children were nestled all snug in their beds,

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While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads. And mamma in her ‘kerchief, and I in my cap, Had just settled our brains for a long winter’s nap. When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter, I sprang from the bed to see what was the matter. Away to the window I flew like a flash, Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash. The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow Gave the lustre of mid-day to objects below. When, what to my wondering eyes should appear, But a miniature sleigh, and eight tinny reindeer.

. . . continued

Hiawatha Henry Wadsworth Longfellow "O my children! my poor children! Listen to the words of wisdom, Listen to the words of warning, From the lips of the Great Spirit, From the Master of Life, who made you! "I have given you lands to hunt in, I have given you streams to fish in, I have given you bear and bison, I have given you roe and reindeer, I have given you brant and beaver, Filled the marshes full of wild-fowl, Filled the rivers full of fishes: Why then are you not contented? Why then will you hunt each other? "I am weary of your quarrels, Weary of your wars and bloodshed, Weary of your prayers for vengeance, Of your wranglings and dissensions; All your strength is in your union, All your danger is in discord; Therefore be at peace henceforward, And as brothers live together. "I will send a Prophet to you, A Deliverer of the nations, Who shall guide you and shall teach you, Who shall toil and suffer with you. If you listen to his counsels, You will multiply and prosper; If his warnings pass unheeded, You will fade away and perish!

. . . continued

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The Charge of the Light Brigade Alfred, Lord Tennyson

1.

Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! "Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred.

2. "Forward, the Light Brigade!" Was there a man dismay'd? Not tho' the soldier knew Someone had blunder'd: Their's not to make reply, Their's not to reason why, Their's but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred.

3. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred.

4. Flash'd all their sabres bare, Flash'd as they turn'd in air, Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wonder'd: Plunged in the battery-smoke Right thro' the line they broke; Cossack and Russian Reel'd from the sabre stroke Shatter'd and sunder'd. Then they rode back, but not Not the six hundred.

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The Raven Edgar Allen Poe Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. `'Tis some visitor,' I muttered, `tapping at my chamber door - Only this, and nothing more.' Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December, And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore - Nameless here for evermore. And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me - filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating `'Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door - Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; - This it is, and nothing more,' Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer, `Sir,' said I, `or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore; But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, That I scarce was sure I heard you' - here I opened wide the door; - Darkness there, and nothing more. Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before But the silence was unbroken, and the darkness gave no token, And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, `Lenore!' This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, `Lenore!' Merely this and nothing more.

…. continued

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Beowulf Translation by Frances B. Grummere Then fashioned for him the folk of Geats firm on the earth a funeral-pile, and hung it with helmets and harness of war and breastplates bright, as the boon he asked; and they laid amid it the mighty chieftain, heroes mourning their master dear. Then on the hill that hugest of balefires the warriors wakened. Wood-smoke rose black over blaze, and blent was the roar of flame with weeping (the wind was still), till the fire had broken the frame of bones, hot at the heart. In heavy mood their misery moaned they, their master's death. Wailing her woe, the widow [footnote 1] old, her hair upbound, for Beowulf's death sung in her sorrow, and said full oft she dreaded the doleful days to come, deaths enow, and doom of battle, and shame. -- The smoke by the sky was devoured.

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Xanadu or A Vision In A Dream. A Fragment. Samuel Taylor Coleridge In Xanadu did Kubla Kahn A stately pleasure-dome decree: Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round : And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree ; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.

But oh ! that deep romantic chasm which slanted Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover ! A savage place ! as holy and enchanted As e'er beneath a waning moon was haunted By woman wailing for her demon-lover ! And from this chasm, with ceaseless turmoil seething, As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing, A mighty fountain momently was forced : Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail, Or chaffy grain beneath the thresher's flail : And 'mid these dancing rocks at once and ever It flung up momently the sacred river. Five miles meandering with a mazy motion Through wood and dale the sacred river ran, Then reached the caverns measureless to man, And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean : And 'mid this tumult Kubla heard from far Ancestral voices prophesying war !

….. continued

Sonnet 145 William Shakespeare

I45 Those lips that Loues owne hand did make, Breath'd forth the sound that said I hate, To me that languisht for her sake: But when she saw my wofull state, Straight in her heart did mercie come, Chiding that tongue that euer sweet, Was vsde in giuing gentle dome: And tought it thus a new to greete: I hate she alterd with an end, That follow'd it as gentle day, Doth follow night who like a fiend From heauen to hell is flowne away. I hate,_from hate away she threw, And sau'd my life saying not you.

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Exercise: Working More on Your Poem Now find out more about the poem and then let’s do it again.

When you have more time, find out: What is the poem about? Why did the poet write this? How did s/he feel about the subject? Look up any words you don’t know. Try to feel the rhythm as part of the basic form of the expression of the emotions and thoughts of the poem. How would you describe the rhythm? Besides rhythm, what other poetic conceits does the poem use? Work on one of the poems a few times over the next few days, and after you have done some research, discovered more about the meter and rhythm, and worked on actions, beats and imagery, perform it again. For the next class, do some internet research on the poet and why he wrote the poem. After reading the next section, see if you can figure out the name of the meter your poem is in. How does the rhythm help the poem? Use the rhythm and the words to get closer to the feeling of the poem. Put yourself in the moment of the poem. Don’t recite it. Live it. Bring us the audience into the moment of creation. Perform your poem for the class and get some feedback about where and when your audience “clicked in” and was engaged by what you said. How can you get more in the moment?

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RELATING MUSICAL TIME SIGNATURES TO SCANSION

If you know anything about music, the following paragraphs may be helpful in thinking about scansion. If you don’t know anything about time signatures or music, just skip this part and go to “Terms for Scansion.” The rhythm of verse is structured very much like music. For instance, many popular songs are created in the following time signature "4/4". For instance: Rock Around the Clock by Bill Haley and the Comets Moondance by Van Morrison Thriller by Michael Jackson Crash – Dave Matthews The top number (4) says how many beats are in each measure of the music. The bottom number (a quarter note=4) indicates what type of note will be measured as a beat. Waltz music is written in "3/4" which has a different more sweeping feel to it. In the case of waltz music there are only 3 beats in each measure. Examples The Blue Danube The Minute Waltz Tennessee Waltz Imagine dancing to a waltz and a rock song. Does dancing to each type of music make you feel a different way? The time signature and rhythm for Shakespeare's verse can make you feel certain ways too. Other time signatures create other moods 5 / 4 Mission Impossible 7 / 8 Lots of Sting Songs, 12 / 8 Minute by Minute, Some Kind of Wonderful

POETIC TIME SIGNATURES

Poetry is also written in many different time signatures. If poetry were expressed like musical time signatures, it might look something like this: 5 / Iamb 3 / Anapest 4 / Trochee The top number in musical time signatures indicates how many beats per measure. In poetry, the top number would indicate how many “feet” are in each line of verse. The bottom would indicate what type of foot is dominant, or what ‘gets a beat.’ A poetic foot may consist of one, two, or three syllables.

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TERMS FOR SCANSION

MARKING SYMBOLS FOR TYPES OF STRESS Syllables (one block of sound with only one vowel sound or diphthong) can be divided in two categories. Stressed and unstressed, or emphasized and not emphasized, or strong and weak.

Stressed or Strong Syllable Think of the stronger syllables (from a little stronger to a lot stronger) as being expressed

with a strong slash like this: /

/ / example: blood or God

Unstressed or Weak Syllable

And think of unstressed syllables as this: ˇ ˇ ˇ example: the or a

These two symbols represent every degree of emphasis and non-emphasis. It is a limitation of this system that you can’t mark the differences in any greater degree, differentiating very-stressed, from semi-stressed and super-stressed. This system only uses these two marks to indicate all stress. You are only comparing each syllable to the one that precedes or follows it in the same foot. So a stressed syllable / is more stressed than the unstressed syllable ˇ that follows it, but may or may not be more or less stressed than the other stressed syllables / / / / in the same line. So to think of it like drumbeats, a stressed syllable is like the downbeat, without saying how hard that downbeat is, and an unstressed syllable is like of upbeat, without saying how light the upbeat is. They are only down and up in relation to each other.

The Straight Down Slash

To individualize each foot in a line of verse, a straight down mark is used, so that you can visualize each

foot in a line of verse, like this: | So, the rhythmic marking for a simple line showing the strong and weak stresses and indicating where each foot ends in the verse line would look like this: ˇ / | ˇ / |ˇ / |ˇ / |ˇ /

Two housholds both alike in dignitie,

Elision An elision is the deletion of a syllable to make the rhythm sound better. Today, we call it a ‘contraction’ as in, “couldn’t, shouldn’t, won’t, I’m, you’re, etc.” Shakespearean elisions will often be marked just like we do with contractions with an apostrophe to mark the elision, such as -'Tis, or Th'Earth. They are also longer ones like i’th’earth. They are also words that may not have the elision mark, but are commonly pronounces with an elision in Shakespeare like: Heaven, and Devil as Heav’n, and Dev’l.

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The mark to indicate an elision looks like this:

/ ˇ | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ ˇ | / / Stood on th' extremest verge of the swift brook, There are three different types of elisions,

• Word to Word Elision – When one word ends a vowel, and the following word starts with a vowel, one of the two vowels can elide. Basically, the two vowels blur together to become one syllable. Example: th’earth

• Synaeresis – When two vowels occur side-by-side, you have the option of reading them as either one or two syllables. For instance, the word tedious can be pronounced two ways. Example tedious, becomes - TEE-dyus.

• Syncope -- Syncope occurs when a vowel flanked by two consonants is not pronounced. The vowel drops away. Example: staggering becomes stag’ring

Missing Syllables Sometimes a syllable is missing and the actor take a slight pause or “poise” before going on.

This is marked with this symbol: ^ In the example below, the ^ indicates a missing syllable in the line.

- lame foot

|ˇ / |ˇ / |^ / | ˇ / | / / | (Only nine syllables) I know a banke where the wilde time blowes, – A Midsummer Night’s Dream 2:1

WHAT’S A FOOT? When scanning a line of verse, a poet looks at feet as the basic rhythmic unit rather than words. A foot can consist of multiple words and a single word can contain many feet; furthermore, a foot can and often does bridge multiple words, containing, for example, the last two syllables of one word and the first of the next. To scan for feet, one should focus on the stream of sound alone and forget that words exist at all. When you first start scanning, this can be tricky, as we are used to looking at word groups, not rhythm groups. So remember, when you are scanning don’t look at words or word groups, look for the rhythm pattern.

WHAT IS METER? The meter determines how many strong stresses will be in an average line. The first part of the word comes from the Latin prefixes for one through eight. Therefore, trimeter poems have three strong stresses per line and hexameter poems have six strong stresses. The meters or poetic names that determine the length of the line to be used as the basis for a poem or play are listed below.

Monometer One foot

Dimeter Two feet

Trimeter Three feet

Tetrameter Four feet

Pentameter Five feet

Hexameter six feet

Heptameter Seven feet

Octameter Eight feet

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Some examples of different meters:

The Shortest Meter – Iambic Monometer

Thus I Passe by, And die: As One, Unknown, And gone: I'm made A shade, And laid I'th grave, There have My Cave. Where tell I dwell, Farewell. Robert Herrick - Upon His Departure Hence

A Short Meter - Iambic Dimeter ˇ / ˇ / Here is the Wish ˇ / ˇ / Of one that died ˇ ˇ / / Like a Beached Fish ˇ ˇ / ˇ ˇ / On the ebb of the tide

A Long Meter - Trochaic Octameter / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ Once upon a midnight dreary, as I pondered weak and weary Edgar Allen Poe – The Raven

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ABOUT IAMBIC PENTAMETER Of all the meters used in poetry the one that fits the easiest into long, expressive thought is pentameter. The length of a line determines how often breath is created in the poem. Actors and readers tend to breathe either in reality or psychologically, at the end of each verse line. There are no more words in the line and the eye and the breath adjust for the next line. The shorter the line, the shorter the breath. Monometer creates breath after only two to three syllables, long before a person “needs” to breathe. Short meters make great short poems but are seldom used for very long poems. The rhythm is too strong and controlling, demanding of the reader/speaker. A speaker is affected in a different way by octameter, a long line of up to 24 syllables which may go past the normal amount of time a reader pauses for breath and thought. (Although the Raven above is written in octameter, there is a mid-line break in each line, allowing the reader/speaker to say two tetrameter lines) Pentameter hits a nice average for the reader/speaker. It is neither so short that the speaker breathes before he is ready, nor so long that that we are in need of breath. We have plenty of breath and “thought time” to support the line. Many, many long poems and plays are written in pentameter. Although people don’t speak in meter when we converse, if we did, pentameter would be the closest to our everyday speech. We do, in fact, use verse more than we know. So, Shakespeare chose the most common meter to write his canon of thirty-six plays and many sonnets. Following our examples above, iambic pentameter looks like this "5 / Iamb". "penta" means five and the "meter" refers to the measure, so together that means that there are five beats (in verse we call them "feet." I don’t really know why. Because they are the method by which we walk the verse?) in each lines of verse. "Iambic" refers to the type of rhythm that is in a "beat" or "foot."

In general, verse emphasizes the essential words - nouns and verbs and descriptors (adjectives and adverbs). Nouns Verbs Descriptors House walk green Blood kill dry arm think old In general, verse de-emphasizes articles, personal pronouns, prepositions, transitive verbs and conjunctions. Articles Prepositions personal pronouns intransitive verbs conjunctions a in she is and the to you has but an of your was or his does for All these words are important links to other words, but they do not require special emphasis to be understood unless it is in comparison to another thing, state or idea or for other odd or special emphasis. It has, however, in the late 20th and beginning 21st century in America, become common in speech to emphasize prepositions and conjunctions. Therefore, American verse speakers need to be careful not to let this common speech habit creep too far into verse speaking lest it destroy the carefully constructed rhythms created by the poet and make the words more difficult for the listener to understand.

Emphasizing Pronouns, Conjunctions and the Beginning Words of a Verse Line Three very destructive habits to Shakespearean verse (and the English language in general) is emphasizing any of the above when they are in weak positions. All too often, the most important words in a speech that I hear as an audience member are I, but, and, the, and you (which are generally meant to be linking words), instead of blood, love, death or time.

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Pronouns 21st century speakers have a very strong habit of emphasizing pronouns, particularly “I, me, my, you and your.” Perhaps this is because of these generations (from Baby boomers to Millenials) obsession with themselves and seeing the world from that perspective. In any case, personal pronouns generally exist to create a de-emphasized syllable (when we already know or have identified the person previously by their full names) before getting to an emphasized one. Whenever you emphasize a personal pronoun, it creates a comparison to someone or something else. That’s great if it is intentional. For example, in The Comedy of Errors, Antipholus says: I to the world am like a drop of water. The actor can emphasize I to set up a contrast with the world. You don’t have to do it that way, but there is a good reason for it that the audience can follow. It is a strong use of a pronoun as it enhances the contrast with something else. Another example is from Cymbeline: Pisanio. Madam, here is a letter from my lord. Imogen. Who? thy lord? that is my lord, Leonatus! In this case, Imogen is comparing the two pronouns thy and my, so the emphasis can work. Again, it doesn’t have to be that way, but it might be a good comparison for the audience. But in most other cases, emphasizing a pronoun actually de-emphasizes a strong syllable that is right next to it. So, if you are emphasizing a pronoun, make sure you are making a comparison that you want to make. The comparison can be inherent, but you should know that you are making one whether you want to or not. It can be confusing to an audience to make comparisons that are never resolved.

Conjunctions Another strong habit in the 21st century American speaker is to emphasize conjunctions, particularly those at the beginning of a verse line like and or but. For example if an actor emphasizes like this:

All the world's a stage, And all the men and women, meerely Players; They haue their Exits and their Entrances, And one man in his time playes many parts, His Acts being seuen ages.

This is opposite to the strength of the verse line, which builds to the end. The most important words are usually at the end of the line, and the first words in the line are usually de-emphasized. Like this:

All the world's a stage, And all the men and women, meerely Players; They haue their Exits and their Entrances, And one man in his time playes many parts, His Acts being seuen ages.

There are exceptions to every rule and you may find a great place to hit an AND, but in general, conjunctions will take care of themselves.

The Beginning Words of a Sentence or Verse Line

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The structure of English sentences builds toward a climax, so when actors punch the first word, they usually go down or trail off as the sentence goes on, since they already used their emphasis in the first word. Trailing off a sentence usually means “I don’t care” or “the rest of this is not important.” By trailing off as the sentence goes on, an actor generally tells the audience, “you don’t have to listen to this, I already said the important word.” This can be confusing when all the important words are actually still to come. This is particularly frustrating when one emphasizes the first word in a verse line. I think that we do it partially because the word is capitalized and we have been taught to emphasize capital words. But capitalizing the first word in a verse line only indicates that you are in verse, NOT that the word should be emphasized. Since Shakespeare is written in iambic pentameter, the first syllable is usually de-emphasized. The exception to this is a trochaic or spondaic foot, which we will learn about in this chapter. Trochee feet and spondaic feet at the beginning of the verse line (a place Shakespeare particularly likes to put them) are powerful tools for breaking rhythm. We will be learning about them in the next couple pages. But even when using those tools, since you have emphasized the first word in the verse line, you need to find a reason to emphasize the big words at the end, or again, you will be in the “trailing off” trap.

WHY DOES SHAKESPEARE WRITE IN IAMBS? All languages have a general rhythm that underlies their speech. Stressed and unstressed syllables assist us in understanding language, just like the shape of letters helps us to understand words. IF ALL WORDS WERE WRITTEN IN CAPITAL LETTERS EVENTUALLY IT WOULD BECOME DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND THE TEXT, THE EYE BECOMES STRAINED AND CAN'T DISTINGUISH THE WORDS AS EASILY. EVERYTHING SEEMS TO HAVE EQUAL WEIGHT AND IMPORTANCE. BY EMPHASIZING EVERYTHING, NOTHING BECOMES EMPHASIZED. Speech can be the same. The rhythm of accented and unaccented syllables helps us to understand the communication the speaker is trying to get across to us. In general, the English language follows a pattern of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Our speech is structured that way, in articles, prepositions, noun/verb agreement and modifiers: Subject and verb - she walks Verb and adjective - is loud Adjective and noun - red brick Preposition and noun - in here He saw the house was dark and cold and ran. Next week the girl up town will go away. Goodbye I said and gave them all a hug. The Tuft of Flowers Robert Frost I went to turn the grass one after noon Who mowed it in the dew before the sun. The dew was gone that made his blade so keen Before I came to view the lev- led scene. It's not a strict rule, but the rhythm of stressed and unstressed syllables does help create understanding. Even in words and phrases that don't follow the iambic pattern, there is still a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that helps create meaning. The most common foot, therefore, in the English language is an Iamb. It fits most easily into the structure of the way we link our word groups. So, Shakespeare used the most common type of poetic foot for his verse, the one that most resembles common speech.

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TYPES OF FEET

There are ten types of feet - the units used to create meter. (Actually, there are other types of feet too, but the standard types of feet in English are iambic, trochaic, dactylic, anapestic, spondaic, and pyrrhic.) The phrase, foot, corresponds to the bottom number in a time signature. Ex: 5 / Iamb.

Double Sounds Iamb da dum basis of Shakespeare, the most common foot Trochee dum da used very often Spondee dum dum used often Pyhrric da da used medium

Triple Sounds Anapest da da dum used for accents - medium Dactylic dum da da used for accents – seldom Amphibrachys da dum da not in Shakespeare very much – except in the “epic caesura” Amphimacer dum da dum not in Shakespeare very much, if at all

Single Sounds Feminine da used often Masculine dum used very seldom

THE DOUBLE SOUNDS Iamb (Iambic) da DUM The natural rhythm of speaking English -- I am I am I am I am I guess Originally the term referred to one of the feet of the meter of classical Greek poetry: a short syllable followed by a long syllable. This terminology was then adopted in the description of English, where it refers to a foot comprising of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used measures in English and German poetry. A line of iambic pentameter comprises five consecutive iambs. Iambic trimeter is the meter of the spoken verses in Greek tragedy and comedy.

Now entertaine coniecture of a time, When creeping Murmure and the poring Darke - Henry V: 4:0 A Horse, a Horse, my Kingdome for a Horse. - Richard III: 5:4

Shall I compare thee to a Summers day? - Sonnet XVIII

Home Exercise : Scanning Iambs These lines are Warick’s, who is dying on the field of battle in Henry VI, Part 3. He was known as “The King Maker” because he was so powerful, but now all that doesn’t matter and he will be the same as all dead men. Act 5, scene 2:

The Wrinckles in my Browes, now fill'd with blood,

6. Scansion


Were lik'ned oft to Kingly Sepulchers: For who liu'd King, but I could digge his Graue? And who durst smile, when Warwicke bent his Brow? Loe, now my Glory smear'd in dust and blood. My Parkes, my Walkes, my Mannors that I had, E’en now forsake me; and of all my Lands, Is nothing left me, but my bodies length.

This makes the general rhythm of Shakespearean verse. But Shakespeare used other rhythms as well, to create variety and emphasis.

Trochee (Trochaic) / ˇ Dum – da Like an elephant tromping – King Lear: 5: 3 Neuer, neuer, neuer, neuer, neuer. A trochee is a metrical foot used in formal poetry. It consists of a long syllable followed by a short one. Apart from the famous case of Longfellow's Hiawatha, this metre is rare in English verse. By the shores of Gitche Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, Stood the wigwam of Nokomis, Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis. Dark behind it rose the forest, Perhaps owing to its simplicity, though, trochaic meter is fairly common in children's rhymes: Peter, Peter pumpkin-eater Had a wife and couldn't keep her. Twinkle, twinkle, little star How I wonder what you are. Often a few trochees will be interspersed among iambs in the same lines to develop a more complex or syncopated rhythm. Many Shakespeare lines begin with a trochaic foot to give a bit of emphasis to the start of the line:

Fills the wide Vessell of the Vniuerse. - Henry V 4:0 Plucking the grasse to know where sits the winde, - Merchant of Venice 1:1 Ielous in honor, sodaine, and quicke in quarrell, - As You Like It 2:7

Home Exercise : Scanning Trochees Double, double, toile and trouble; Fire burne, and Cauldron bubble. - Macbeth 4:1

Stiffen the sinewes, summon vp the blood, - H e n r y V 3 : 1

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(Note: I changed “commune” above from the Folio to “summon” as it is in most contemporary texts.) Straying vpon the Start. The Game's afoot: Follow your Spirit; and vpon this Charge, - H e n r y V 3 : 1 Iambic pentameter is not the only meter that Shakespeare uses. Many of Shakespeare’s magic spells and songs are written in trochaic tetrameter. At the end of this chapter, I’ve listed a number of examples of Shakespeare’s other meters.

Spondee (Spondaic) / / Strong Strong Often used when a group of strong monosyllabic words are in a line. Or words that are combinations of two words or sounds where both have stress. / / | ˇ / | ˇ / |ˇ / | ˇ / Rough windes do shake the darling buds of Maie, - Sonnet 18 / / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / Hold hard the Breath, and bend vp euery Spirit (spirit is one syllable) ˇ ˇ | / / | / /| ˇ / | ˇ / ˇ To his full height. On, on, you Noblish English, (fem) - Henry V 3:1

Exercise: Scanning Spondees Often, you will find pyrrhics and spondees in the same line, and in particular right next to each other. The two weak syllables in the pyrrhic create a build up to the spondee and allow the verse line to retain five stressed syllables. See if you find them in both the spondee and pyrrhic examples below. Let it pry through the portage of the Head, Like the Brasse Cannon: let the Brow o'rewhelme it, - Henry V 3:1

Pyrrhic ˇ ˇ Da - da A foot containing no stresses (two weak syllables), a pyrrhic foot is often before or after a spondee. Anytime two little unimportant words or sounds are together, it might be a pyrrhic. Combinations like “and the,” “with a,” “that the,” or “in their” can easily be counted as pyrrhic feet. I’ve found that with little words like that, some people prefer to mark them as pyrrhic, since they don’t tend to emphasize them, and some people often mark them as iamb, since one syllable does usually get a little more stress (particularly if it is not a pyrrhic/spondee combination). Either way is fine with me.

Home Exercise: Scanning Pyrrhics From Camp to Camp, through the foule Womb of Night The Humme of eyther Army stilly sounds;

6. Scansion


That the fixt Centinels almost receiue The secret Whispers of each others Watch. - Henry V 4:0

TRIPLE SOUNDS The triple sounds are used to create emphasis and even out a line that has too many syllables, but they are not used by Shakespeare as a regular rhythm. He uses Anapests the most, Dactylics rarely, Amphibrachys in special cases, and Amphimacer not at all in iambic pentameter.

Anapest – the running horse (Anapestic) In classical quantitative meters (Greek and Latin) it consists of two short syllables followed by a long one (as in a-na-paest); in accentual stress meters (English) it consists of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable. It may be seen as a reversed dactyl. ˇ ˇ / Ta da dump, ta da dump Because of its length and the fact that it ends with a stressed syllable and so allows for strong rhymes, anapaest can produce a very rolling, galloping feeling verse, and allows for long lines with a great deal of internal complexity. The following is from Byron's The Destruction of Sennacherib. It is based on an event described in the Bible (2nd Kings) during the campaign by Assyrian king Sennacherib to capture Jerusalem. The rhythm of the poem has a feel of the beat of a galloping horse's hooves, as the Assyrian rides into battle.

ˇ ˇ /| ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold ˇ ˇ /| ˇ ˇ / |ˇ ˇ /| ˇ ˇ / And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / | ˇ ˇ / When the blue wave rolls brightly on deep galilee. – Lord Byron

Home Exercise : Scanning anapests Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St Nicholas soon would be there.

- By Clement Clark Moore But you haue done more Miracles then I: You made in a day, my Lord, whole Townes to flye.

- Gloster - Henry VI Act II Scene 1

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A poore Physitians daughter my wife? Disdaine

- All’s Well that Ends Well

Dactyl - punching bag (Dactyllic) / ˇ ˇ DUM – da – da A dactyl (Greek dáktulos, “finger”) in quantitative verse, such as Greek or Latin, is a long syllable followed by two short syllables. Epic poetry from Homer on was recited in a particular meter called the dactylic hexameter. In accentual verse, such as English, it is a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. An example of dactylic meter is the first line of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem Evangeline, which is in dactylic hexameter:

This is the / forest prim- / eval. The / murmuring / pines and the / hemlocks,

The first five feet of the line are dactyls; the sixth a trochee. A modern example is the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds":

Picture your self in a boat on a river with tangerine tree-ees and marmalade skii-ii-es.

Written in dactylic tetrameter, the song has the rhythm of a waltz. The word "skies" takes up a full three beats.

The word "poetry" is itself a dactyl.

Amphibrach (Amphibrachys) ˇ / ˇ da DUM da An amphibrach is a metrical foot used in Latin and Greek prosody. It consists of a long syllable between two short syllables. Amphibrachs are seldom used to construct an entire poem. They mainly occur as variants within, for instance, an anapaestic structure. It can form the basis for a poem though; it is the main foot used in the construction of the beginning of a limerick: "There was a | young lady | of Wantage"

Exercise : Amphibrach

There was an Old Man with a beard,

Who said, 'It is just as I feared!

Two Owls and a Hen,

Four Larks and a Wren,

Have all built their nests in my beard!' -Edward Lear

Note that since an amphibrach ends with an unstressed syllable, the limerick adds an iamb or an anapest to the end of the line to give it closure. Here is an example of a song Shakespeare wrote in amphibrachs. The poore Soule sat singing, by a Sicamour tree.

6. Scansion


- Othello Feminine Ending Amphibrachys or lame foot?

Shakespeare uses amphibrachys mainly in two different ways, both revolving around the end of the sentence or line. The first is the feminine ending. In iambic pentameter, we call the type an iamb with a weak feminine ending (an extra weak half foot). You could call it an amphibrach foot instead, but since we are in iambic pentameter, it is easier to describe it the first way (although the stresses are exactly the same). For example, you could argue that every feminine ending is an amphibrach: ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / ˇ (amphibrach) To be, or not to be, that is the Question: or you could argue that it is an iambic foot, followed by a short monosyllabic feminine foot: ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ / | ˇ (amphibrach) To be, or not to be, that is the Question: In either case, the stresses are the same, the only difference is where you choose to separate the feet. (This is, in general, a debate for scholars, not actors.) What we are looking for is what syllables to stress to make the best rhythm for the words, where to break up the feet is something you will never hear (just as in a song, the listener isn’t paying attention to how you broke up the measures). So, for this book, I am going to say that this circumstance is an iamb with an extra half foot (since Shakespeare’s verse is in iambic pentameter, it works better). It will simplify the number of choices and make scanning the text quicker.

Epic Caesura The other style of amphibrach that Shakespeare uses in his plays is referred to as the epic caesura. It is similar to the feminine ending, only it happens in the middle of the line. When a clause ends with a weak syllable and is followed by punctuation at the caesura, it creates a natural amphibrach, assuming the line has eleven syllables. For example: / ˇ | ˇ / | ˇ / ˇ | ˇ / | ˇ / Stealing and giv | ing odour. | Enough, no more

- Twelfth Night, 1.1.7

In the 15th-century poets used this pattern as a standard variation, but most 16th-century poets seem to have avoided it. Shakespeare, too, avoids it in his poems usually, but he begins to uses it fairly frequently in his middle and later plays, particularly as he experiments with enjambed lines (where the punctuation is in the middle, rather than the end of the verse line).

Exercise : Scan for the Epic Caesura His Acts being seuen ages. At first the Infant,

- As You Like It By Sinells death, I know I am Thane of Glamis,

But how, of Cawdor? the Thane of Cawdor liues

- Macbeth

A TRIPLE SOUND RARELY USED BY SHAKESPEARE IN IAMBIC PENTAMETER Whether or not Shakespeare used the following triple sound in his iambic verse is up to scholarly debate. We do have examples it used by Shakespeare, but not when he was writing in iambic pentameter. Since Shakespeare mostly wrote in iambic pentameter, a verse that indicates five strong beats, it makes sense that it would not include amphimacer types of feet, since that would put too many stresses in the line, since each foot has two strong beats, not one.

6. Scansion


Amphimacer (Also known as Cretic)

/ ˇ / DUM – da –DUM (Greek, 'long at each end') An amphimacer is a metrical foot with an unstressed syllable between two stressed syllables. With this met rical foot I must fiddle.

Here is a short poem that has been, in recent years, controversially attributed to Shakespeare (but not in iambic pentameter): A song (Amphimacer dimeter) / - / / - / Shall I die? Shall I fly Lovers' baits and deceits, sorrow breeding? Shall I tend? Shall I send? Shall I sue, and not rue my proceeding? In all duty her beauty Binds me her servant for ever. If she scorn, I mourn, I retire to despair, joining never. -Shakespeare? . . . continued

Exercise : Amphimacer Here is an example of Shakespeare’s verse using amphimacer: Ouer hill, ouer dale, thorough bush, thorough brier, Ouer parke, ouer pale, thorough flood, thorough fire:

- Midsummer Night’s Dream What meter is Shakespeare using for this speech of the First Fairy’s?

THE SINGLE SOUNDS Feminine Endings

Extra weak syllable - pushes you into the next line, indicating not to take a pause at the end of the line. This was discussed earlier in the single sounds, with the following example: ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ (Fem) To be, or not to be, that is the Question: / ˇ ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ Whether 'tis Nobler in the minde to suffer (Fem) ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ The Slings and Arrowes of outragious Fortune, (Fem) ˇ ˇ / / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ Or to take Armes against a Sea of troubles, (Fem) ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ ˇ / ˇ / And by opposing end them: to dye, to sleepe -Hamlet 3:1

6. Scansion


Note from our earlier discussion you can call this an amphibrach or an iamb with a weak extra half foot at the end of the line. For this book, we are going with the latter.

Masculine A single strong syllable with a missing weak syllable used for silence, pause for thought, or break in the rhythm - lame foot

|ˇ / |ˇ / |^ / | ˇ / | / / | (Only nine syllables) I know a banke where the wilde time blowes, – A Midsummer Night’s Dream 2:1 Sempronius: Has Ventidius and Lucullus deny'de him, And does he send to me? ^ Three? ^ Humh? It shewes but little loue, or iudgement in him. -Timon of Athens 3:3

HOW DO I SEPARATE THE FEET? As we said before, to individualize each foot in a line of verse, a straight down mark is used, so that you can visualize each foot in a line of verse, like this: |

Ultimately, we don’t “hear” the divisions of feet in rhythm, we just listen to the rhythm itself, just as we don’t “hear” the breaking of measures in music, we just listen to the melody and rhythm. And technically, measures and feet can be divided in different ways, but that doesn’t necessarily change the rhythm. This can be a bit confusing when you are getting started with scanning. So, here are some trends that can help.

1. If the line has 10 syllables, it will be a foot for every two syllables. The feet may be any of the double beat sounds – iamb, trochee, spondee of pyrrhic – but double sounds are the only kind of feet that can be there. There cannot be a triple sound – anapest, dactylic, amphibrach, or amphimacer. The math just doesn’t work. 10/2 = 5. Example:

| ˇ / | ˇ / |ˇ /|ˇ / | ˇ / | The Humme of eyther Army stilly sounds;

2. Don’t let your eyes fool you. Just because it looks a certain way, doesn’t mean the feet break up

that way. This is about sound, not visuals. If two strong beats are next to each other, for example, it usually looks like a spondee, but might be an iamb/trochee combo. Two unstressed syllables next to each other also look like a pyrrhic foot, but might be a trochee/iamb. If you mark the feet, you can see it. Look at this line:

/ ˇ ˇ / / ˇ ˇ / ˇ / Doth with their death burie their Parents strife. Without the feet marked, it’s easy to think the “with their” is a pyrrhic foot and death bur is a spondee, but they are not. If you follow the rule I just said above, there must be a break every two syllables. So really, the feet break like this: / ˇ | ˇ / | / ˇ | ˇ / |ˇ / Doth with their death burie their Parents strife. The first foot is a trochee, the second foot is an iamb, and the third foot is a trochee, followed by iambs for the rest of the line.

3. If it has 11 feet and the last syllable is weak, the last syllable is a feminine ending and the rest

follows rule 1 above.

4. If it has 11 feet and the last syllable is strong, there is an elision or a triple sound somewhere in the line. Now lets’ go find it! It is probably an anapest, or an epic caesura, since Shakespeare doesn’t

6. Scansion


use dactylics or amphimacer very much. “Jim’s Handy Dandy Scansion Breakdown” in the next section should help you figure the rest out.

6. Scansion


OTHER STUFF

Elision Deleting a sound to make the line easier to say and alternate the unstress/stress pattern. Today, we do this with contractions like can’t, won’t, shouldn’t, I’ll, could’ve, etc. This is usually indicated in the text by an apostrophe. – ‘Tis, Th’Earth, etc. There are also a number of two syllable words that easily scan as one syllable if you don’t say that second vowel but just move quickly to the next consonant, as in -- fire, spirit, and being.

éd and i-on endings These ending appear when there are only 9 syllables in the line and you need to add one more to make ten. It also helps to make the end of the verse line a little strong, rather than ending with a feminine line. They should not be overpronounced, so that the audience doesn’t know what you are saying, but rather “played” so that the word has resonance and importance. Or like to men prowd of destruction, - Henry V 3:3 But we in it shall be remembred; - Henry V 4:3

Alexandrine lines A 6 foot verse line (12 syllables, I’ve counted them for you below). Usually indicates that the character is trying to cram too much into the line. Alexandrine lines are usually said quickly and indicate that the character is thinking fast and is not completely in balance.

Of valiant Sherly, Stafford, Blunt, are in my Armes; - Henry IV, p. 1 5:3

Short Lines A short line indicates that a “pause” for thought or action is inserted into the verse. If you are wondering where to pause in Shakespeare, this is the place. Play the short lines for all they are worth. A short line seems to indicate that although the character has stopped speaking, their thought process is moving intensely on. Here is Hamlet, from the “rogue and peasant slave” speech, Act 2, scene 2. The Player King has just given a passionate speech and Hamlet (now alone) bemoans his lack of action and should have already killed Claudius and left his body as food for vultures. HAMLET: I should haue fatted all the Region Kites

With this Slaues Offall, bloudy: a Bawdy villaine,

Remorselesse, Treacherous, Letcherous, kindles villaine!

Oh Vengeance!

Why what an Asse am I, this is most braue, … Notice the short line “Oh, vengeance!” It has four missing feet following it, almost the longest pause possible in a line with any verse at all. So what does Hamlet do during that time? He makes a big transition here to the new thought “Boy, do I look stupid, screaming out a bunch of curse words but not doing anything about it.” As the actor, you can fill the pause with Hamlet’s active thoughts that change his mind after his big cry of “Oh vengeance!” into “Why, what an ass am I.” It’s up to you to FILL that pause with thought and action; all actors will probably fill it with different thoughts and choices, but playing this pause should help you – and the audience – make the transition to the new thought.

6. Scansion


Shared Lines Shared lines happen when two (or more) characters “share” a line of verse, where one characters takes up the line midway and finishes it. Here, as opposed to short lines, Shakespeare is indicating to “Pick it up” to cut your fellow actor off, or pick up on their thought, to think fast and pick up the thought immediately with words. Here is an example of a short line followed by an extreme shared line from King John, Act 3, scene 3. Every other word gets tossed back and forth between Hubert and King John. John wants the young boy dead and instructs Hubert, who is his keeper, to do it. John’s line “Death” has only one syllable, followed by a quick succession of lines – “My Lord. A grave. He shall not live. Enough.” Iohn. Good Hubert, Hubert, Hubert throw thine eye

On yon young boy : Ile tell thee what my friend, He is a very serpent in my way, And wheresoere this foot of mine doth tread, He lies before me : dost thou vnderstand me ? Thou art his keeper.

Hub. And Ile keepe him so, That he shall not offend your Maiesty.

Iohn. Death. Hub. My Lord. Iohn. A Graue. Hub. He shall not liue. Iohn. Enough.

I could be merry now, Hubert, I loue thee.

The long pause after death (where presumably Hubert is considering the order just given him) is then followed by a very quick and to the point discussion of monosyllabic words. This can come across as a very “modern” line reading, if you play the verse as written.

THE STRUCTURE OF PENTAMETER VERSE LINES The end of the pentameter Line

Usually the strongest word is at the end of the verse line. The structure of pentameter naturally builds and grows during the course of the verse line. Usually, the first word in an iambic pentameter line is an unstressed syllable and therefore it’s weak – an article, preposition or personal pronoun. On the opposite end of the line, the final syllable is usually stressed and is a powerful syllable – a noun or verb. There would haue beene a time for such a word: To morrow, and to morrow, and to morrow, Creepes in this petty pace from day to day, To the last Syllable of Recorded time: And all our yesterdayes, haue lighted Fooles The way to dusty death. Out, out, breefe Candle, - Macbeth 5:5

Let’s compare the two. As an exercise, try to get the sense of the entire line using only one word in the line. First let’s try the first words in the line only: There, To, Creeps, To, And, The Now let’s try the same thing using only the last words in the verse line. Word, Morrow, Today, Time, Fools, Candle

End-stopped Verse Lines (We’ve already studied end-stopped and enjambed lines in the previous chapter, but here is a refresher.)

6. Scansion


A verse line ending at a grammatical boundary or break, such as a dash, a closing parenthesis, or punctuation such as a colon, a semi-colon, or a period. In the following example, the end of the verse line is in concert with the grammatical marks and no final punctuation appears in the middle of the line. In Peace, there's nothing so becomes a man, As modest stillnesse, and humilitie: But when the blast of Warre blowes in our eares, Then imitate the action of the Tyger: Stiffen the sinewes, commune vp the blood, Disguise faire Nature with hard-fauour'd Rage: Then lend the Eye a terrible aspect: - Henry V 3:1

Enjambed Verse Lines (Enjambment)

The running over of a sentence or phrase from one verse to the next, without terminal punctuation, hence not end-stopped. Such verses can be called run-on lines. In the following example, the ends of the verse lines contain no punctuation, and the final punctuation marks in lines 5 and 7 appear in the middle of the verse line. Since what I am to say, must be but that Which contradicts my Accusation, and The testimonie on my part, no other But what comes from my selfe, it shall scarce boot me To say, Not guiltie: mine Integritie Being counted Falsehood, shall (as I expresse it) Be so receiu'd. But thus, if Powres Diuine - The Winter’s Tale 3:2 The final punctuation in the middle of the verse line is called a caesura.

Caesura (mid-line break) A caesura is a break in rhythm, thought, or syntax that occurs anywhere between the beginning and end of a line. It’s like an end-stopped line except that the “end-stopping” occurs in the middle of the line. They aren’t associated with the end of a line and they aren’t always matched by punctuation. The break usually occurs at a piece of punctuation at the beginning or end of the third foot. It’s very natural for people to make an emphasis and poise midway through the line. We do it fairly naturally. Any verse longer than iambic pentameter, like hexameter or octamater, almost demands it. Example: Once upon a midnight dreary, | while I pondered weak and weary, But since iambic pentameter is a touch shorter, you don’t have to pause at a midline break and plenty of lines don’t have them at all. Shakespeare explores them much more in his later plays when he ends more lines with enjambment. Some directors and actors believe strongly in pausing at the mid-line break (followers of grammatical breathing would think this), while others fight strongly against this, playing the punctuation, but not pausing or breathing until the natural break at the end of the verse line (verse line breathers would fall in this category). In any case, the most important words in the line tend to fall in the middle and the end (excepting when the line begins with a trochaic foot). As long as you play the punctuation in a line with a caesura, you will naturally play the caesura as well. When I poise at the caesura, I don’t take very long, since if Shakespeare wanted a full pause, he could have easily end-stopped the line. Since he didn’t, I believe that indicates that the character has his next thought immediately or during the current thought, which causes him to keep going. The caesura comes in three flavors:

Strong caesura with punctuation Vpon what meate doth this our Cæsar feede, That he is growne so great? Age, thou art sham'd.

6. Scansion


Weak or epic caesura with punctuation Also, see epic caesura previously mentioned with amphibrachys.

Caesura with no punctuation This is caused by placing a trochee in the middle of the line, essentially creating the effect of punctuation where there is none.

Whose misaduentur'd pittious ouerthrowes,

Doth with their death burie their Parents strife.

Varying pronunciation for scansion In general, words should be pronounced the way you usually pronounce them. That's true over 95% of the time. But there are a few words that may be pronounced a bit differently so that the scansion runs smoothly. I suggest that you let a director or teacher point them out to you (rather than guessing), since there are so few of them.

I've started a short list of words that are sometimes pronounced differently to even out the scansion, or because in Shakepeare's time, they were pronounced a bit differently:

Milan/Milan, (used throughout Tempest)

Thy father was the Duke of Millaine and - The Tempest 1:2

I feare for euer: Millaine and Naples haue - The Tempest 2:1

Revenue/Revenue, - this word is pronounced used both ways in different lines for instance:

The Reuennew whereof shall furnish vs - Richard II 1:4 Of great reuennew, and she hath no childe, - A Midsummer Night’s Dream 1:1

aspect And for our eyes do hate the dire aspect - Richard II 1:3

persevere (when used as a verb) I, doe, perseuer, counterfeit sad lookes, - A Midsummer Night’s Dream 3:2

chastisement, To me for iustice, and rough chasticement: - Richard II 1:1

importune Haue you importun'd him by any meanes? - Romeo and Juliet 1:1

More to be added

6. Scansion


Frequently mispronounced words (* denotes disagreement of pronunciation) Thanks to Philip Sneed (former Artistic Director of Colorado Shakespeare) for the bulk of these following words.

*adversary ague albiet arbitrement arras bade camomile *chastisement choler cozen divers dolor doth *exchequer extempore forbade gives gripe *hospitable jocund liege life loath miscreant presages preserver prophesy proviso recreant sanguine servile sirrah succor suppliant thither troth trow *usurp visage wan whet zounds

Words with more than one pronunciation

(depends on meter and/or director’s whim and/or context)

Advertisement ay/aye Bankrout (bankrupt) Betid (betide) Caitive (caitiff) Callice (Calais) chaunts (chants) Confine enfranchisement extant Falcon frequent handkersher (handkerchief) lamentable Moe (more) murther (murder) parle (parley) Postern Rase (erase) Regreet (regret) Revenue thorough (through) valure (valor) vild (vile)

6. Scansion


Separations The creation of a silence between two syllables that sound the same. This has debated Shakespearean existence. Some people love them, some people don’t. A separation means creating a pause between two syllables that sound the same as the ending of one word and the beginning of the next. Proponents say that Shakespeare put them together for the purpose of emphasis that a separation creates. With his surcease, Successe: - Macbeth 1:7 from France set foot – Henry IV, part 1 3:2 at that time - Henry V 2:1

Are they always 5 stresses in a line? Some schools of thought (the one that I was taught under) state that there must always be 5 stresses in a line, so if you have a spondee in the line, you MUST have a pyrrhic foot too, or there will be too many stresses in the line. I now disagree with that school of thought (and so does John Barton, former Artistic Director of the Royal Shakespeare Company). You can have as many (or as few) stresses in a line as you can support vocally. But remember that stresses are like shouting, do too much of it, and I may stop listening.

Pausing versus Poising It’s typical for a director or teacher to say “you should pause at the end of the verse line.” But to me, the word “pause” indicates that nothing happens. And something is always happening at the end of the verse line, that’s where the inspiration and thought comes from. A wonderful colleague of mine, Kate Ingram, says that the end of the line is where you should POISE for the next line, not PAUSE. I think that’s a great way to think about it. I’m poising, preparing, thinking and acting… not pausing.

6. Scansion


JIM’S HANDY DANDY SCANSION BREAKDOWN 1. Is it simple iambic?

• YES: You’re done!

Go back one quick time and see if there is an important stress (trochee or spondee) on a verb or

noun that would make the line stronger.

• NO: go to 2.

2. Count the syllables. Is it 10?

• YES: You’ve only got trochees, spondees and pyrrhics as possibilities. (no 3 syllable feet) go to step

3.

• 8 or less – look for shared or short line

• 9: Look for an ion or an ed to make it 10 syllables, or possibly a multisyllabic word that you are

eliding that could be said with more syllables to even out the verse.

• 11 with a Weak Ending: - (unstress) – it’s feminine – a regular line with a fem ending.

• 11 with a Strong Ending – there is an elision, anapest, dactylic or amphibrach (epic

caesura) somewhere. Work from the two ends of the line to the triple sound in the middle.

Elision - Look for two vowel sounds next to each other that can be elided or said quickly.

Anapest – look for a run of three syllables, two weak followed by a strong. Amphibrach –

does the line have a weak foot followed by punctuation in the middle of the line?

• 12 with a weak ending: it’s feminine with an elision, anapest, dactylic or amphibrach (epic caesura)

somewhere (see above).

• 12 with a strong ending: – Alexandrine line (or possibly a line with two triple feet in it).

• More than 12 – this could take some time…

3. 10 syllables but not straight Iambs?

• This wont’ be too hard as there are only 4 choices. Work from the beginning of the line. Does it start

iambic, or is the first foot a trochee? Stop where you are unsure.

• Work from the end of the line. Does it end iambic? Again, stop where you are unsure.

• Are there any two or three syllable words that MUST be pronounced a particular way to make sense?

Go ahead and put their stresses in.

• This leaves the “problem section” in the middle.

• Can it be solved by a simple trochee?

• Are there two strong mono-syllabic words next to each other? Might be a spondee.

4. Try saying the line with the new scansion.

• Start two lines before the new scansion you are trying so you can “get into it.” If it feels good, move

on. If not, play with the scansion until it sounds like a strong rhythmic choice that sounds “natural.”

6. Scansion


Trends Here’s a list of general things to think about when scanning

• Find Action verbs and noun – those are usually stressed and important.

• If you have a problem, scan from the beginning of the line, then from the end, and find the

problem in the middle.

• Articles ,conjunctions and personal pronouns are usually unstressed.

• Look for big monosyllabic words that are big modifiers of verbs and nouns. They are usually

stressed. You’ll find a lot of spondee’s this way.

• In later plays, look for the epic caesura in the middle of a line with eleven syllables but a strong

ending.

• You can find all the trochees in the first foot just by glancing straight down the first words. Look

for strong verbs and nouns, as opposed to all the articles, prepositions and pronouns.

6. Scansion


COLERIDGE VERSE POEM This verse was written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge for his son, to help him remember the different types of verse feet. Practice saying the following poem so that you can say the rhythm easily and quickly.

Home Exercise : Learn the poem and perform it for the class.

LESSON FOR A BOY | / ˘ | / ˘ | / ˘ | / ˘ | / ˘ | / ˘ | / ˘ | / TROCHEE trips from long to short; from long to long in solemn sort

| / / |˘ / | / / | / / | / ˘ Slow SPONDEE stalks, strong foot, yet ill able

|/˘ ˘| / ˘ ˘|/ ˘ ˘ | / ˘ ˘ Ever to run with the DACTYL trisyllable.

|˘/| ˘ / | ˘ / | ˘ / IAMBICS march from short to long;

|˘ ˘ / |˘ ˘ / | ˘ ˘/|˘ ˘ / With a leap and a bound, the swift ANAPESTS throng;

| ˘ / ˘| ˘ / ˘ |˘ / ˘| ˘ / One syllable long with a short at each side

| ˘ /˘| ˘ / ˘ |˘ / ˘ | / AMPHIBRACHYS hastes with a stately stride:

| / ˘ / |/ ˘ / | / ˘ / | /˘ /|˘ First and last being long, middle short, AMPHIMACER

| / ˘ / | /˘ / | / ˘ / | / ˘ /|˘ Strikes his thundering hoofs like a proud high-bred racer.

6. Scansion


OK, YOU GIVE IT A SHOT – SCANSION EXAMPLE 1 From Romeo and Juliet Prologue:

Two housholds both alike in dignitie,

(In faire Verona where we lay our Scene)

From auncient grudge, breake to new mutinie,

Where ciuill bloud makes ciuill hands vncleane:

From forth the fatall loynes of these two foes,

A paire of starre-crost louers, take their life:

Whose misaduentur'd pittious ouerthrowes,

Doth with their death burie their Parents strife.

The fearfull passage of their death-markt loue,

And the continuance of their Parents rage:

Which but their childrens end nought could remoue:

Is now the two houres trafficque of our Stage.

The which if you with patient eares attend,

What heare shall misse, our toyle shall striue to mend.

- Romeo and Juliet Quart 2 (1599)

From - Henry V 4:0

Cho. Now entertaine coniecture of a time, When creeping Murmure and the poring Darke Fills the wide Vessell of the Vniuerse. From Camp to Camp, through the foule Womb of Night The Humme of eyther Army stilly sounds; That the fixt Centinels almost receiue The secret Whispers of each others Watch. Fire answers fire, and through their paly flames Each Battaile sees the others vmber'd face. Steed threatens Steed, in high and boastfull Neighs Piercing the Nights dull Eare: and from the Tents, The Armourers accomplishing the Knights,

6. Scansion


With busie Hammers closing Riuets vp, Giue dreadfull note of preparation.

From The Comedy of Errors 1:2

Ant. He that commends me to mine owne content, Commends me to the thing I cannot get: I to the world am like a drop of water, That in the Ocean seekes another drop, Who falling there to finde his fellow forth, (Vnseene, inquisitiue) confounds himselfe. So I, to finde a Mother and a Brother, In quest of them (vnhappie) loose my selfe.

6. Scansion


MORE SCANSION EXAMPLE 2 From Julius Caesar 1:2

Cass. Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walke vnder his huge legges, and peepe about To finde our selues dishonourable Graues. Men at sometime, are Masters of their Fates. The fault (deere Brutus) is not in our Starres, But in our Selues, that we are vnderlings. Brutus and Cæsar: What should be in that Cæsar? Why should that name be sounded more then yours_. Write them together: Yours, is as faire a Name: Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well: Weigh them, it is as heauy: Coniure with 'em, Brutus will start a Spirit as soone as Cæsar. Now in the names of all the Gods at once, Vpon what meate doth this our Cæsar feede, That he is growne so great? Age, thou art sham'd. Rome, thou hast lost the breed of Noble Bloods. When went there by an Age, since the great Flood, But it was fam'd with more then with one man? When could they say (till now) that talk'd of Rome, That her wide Walkes incompast but one man? Now is it Rome indeed, and Roome enough When there is in it but one onely man. O! you and I, haue heard our Fathers say, There was a Brutus once, that would haue brook'd Th'eternall Diuell to keepe his State in Rome, As easily as a King.

6. Scansion


SCANSION EXAMPLE 3 From As You Like It 2:7

Iaques. All the world's a stage, And all the men and women, meerely Players; They haue their Exits and their Entrances, And one man in his time playes many parts, His Acts being seuen ages. At first the Infant, Mewling, and puking in the Nurses armes: Then, the whining Schoole-boy with his Satchell And shining morning face, creeping like snaile Vnwillingly to schoole. And then the Louer, Sighing like Furnace, with a wofull ballad Made to his Mistresse eye-brow. Then, a Soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the Pard, Ielous in honor, sudden*, and quicke in quarrell, Seeking the bubble Reputation Euen in the Canons mouth: And then, the Iustice In faire round belly, with good Capon lin'd, With eyes seuere, and beard of formall cut, Full of wise sawes, and moderne instances, And so he playes his part. The sixt age shifts Into the leane and slipper'd Pantaloone, With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side, His youthfull hose well sau'd, a world too wide, For his shrunke shanke, and his bigge manly voice, Turning againe toward childish trebble pipes, And whistles in his sound. Last Scene of all, That ends this strange euentfull historie, Is second childishnesse, and meere obliuion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans euery thing. *sodaine

6. Scansion


SCANSION EXAMPLE 4 From Hamlet 1:5

Ham. And therefore as a stranger giue it welcome. There are more things in Heauen and Earth, Horatio, Then are dream't of in our Philosophy. But come, Here as before, neuer so helpe you mercy, How strange or odde so ere I beare my selfe; (As I perchance heereafter shall thinke meet To put an Anticke disposition on:) That you at such time seeing me, neuer shall With Armes encombred thus, or thus, head shake; Or by pronouncing of some doubtfull Phrase; As well, we know, or we could and if we would, Or if we list to speake; or there be and if there might, Or such ambiguous giuing out to note, That you know ought of me; this not to doe: So grace and mercy at your most neede helpe you: Sweare. Ghost. Sweare.

6. Scansion


SCANSION EXAMPLE - 5 From The Tempest 4:1

Pro. You doe looke (my son) in a mou'd sort, As if you were dismaid: be cheerefull Sir, Our Reuels now are ended: These our actors, (As I foretold you) were all Spirits, and Are melted into Ayre, into thin Ayre, And like the baselesse fabricke of this vision The Clowd-capt Towres, the gorgeous Pallaces, The solemne Temples, the great Globe it selfe, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolue, And like this insubstantiall Pageant faded Leaue not a racke behinde: we are such stuffe As dreames are made on; and our little life Is rounded with a sleepe: Sir, I am vext, Beare with my weakenesse, my old braine is troubled: Be not disturb'd with my infirmitie, If you be pleas'd, retire into my Cell, And there repose, a turne or two, Ile walke To still my beating minde.

6. Scansion


EXAMPLE 6 From King Lear 2:3

Edg. I heard my selfe proclaim'd, And by the happy hollow of a Tree, Escap'd the hunt. No Port is free, no place That guard, and most vnusall vigilance Do's not attend my taking. Whiles I may scape I will preserue myselfe: and am bethought To take the basest, and most poorest shape That euer penury in contempt of man, Brought neere to beast; my face Ile grime with filth, Blanket my loines, else all my haires in knots, And with presented nakednesse out-face The Windes, and persecutions of the skie; The Country giues me proofe, and president Of Bedlam beggers, who with roaring voices, Strike in their num'd and mortified Armes. Pins, Wodden-prickes, Nayles, Sprigs of Rosemarie: And with this horrible obiect, from low Farmes, Poore pelting Villages, Sheeps-Coates, and Milles, Sometimes with Lunaticke bans, sometime with Praiers Inforce their charitie: poore Turlygod poore Tom, That's something yet: Edgar I nothing am.

6. Scansion


SHAKESPEARE’S OTHER METERS Here are some examples of Shakespeare using different meters. All the following examples are songs, which allow for a more rigid structure than the natural conversational sound of iambic pentameter.

Trochaic Tetrameter Fairies Sing. You spotted Snakes with double tongue,

Thorny Hedgehogges be not seene, Newts and blinde wormes do no wrong, Come not neere our Fairy Queene. Philomele with melodie, Sing in your sweet Lullaby. Lulla, lulla, lullaby, lulla, lulla, lullaby, Neuer harme, nor spell, nor charme, Come our louely Lady nye, So good night with Lullaby. 2. Fairy. Weauing Spiders come not heere, Hence you long leg'd Spinners, hence: Beetles blacke approach not neere; Worme nor Snayle doe no offence. Philomele with melody, &c. 1. Fairy. Hence away, now all is well; One aloofe, stand Centinell. -A Midsummer Night’s Dream 2:2

Iambic Trimeter [Song.] Vnder the greene wood tree, who loues to lye with mee, And turne his merrie Note, vnto the sweet Birds throte: Come hither, come hither, come hither: Heere shall he see no enemie, But Winter and rough Weather. -As You Like It 2:5

6. Scansion


Amphibrach Tetrameter Desdemona singing The poore Soule sat singing, by a Sicamour tree. Sing all a gre-ene Willough: Her hand on her bosome her head on her knee, Sing Willough, Willough, Willough. The fresh Streames ran by her, and murmur'd her moanes Sing Willough, &c. Her salt teares fell from her, and softned the stones, Sing Willough, &c. (Lay by these) Willough, Willough. (Prythee high thee: he'le come anon) Sing all a greene Willough must be my Garland. Let no body blame him, his scorne I approue. (Nay that's not next. Harke, who is't that knocks?) -Othello 4:3

Iambic Hexameter [Song.] Blow, blow, thou winter winde, Thou art not so vnkinde, as mans ingratitude Thy tooth is not so keene, because thou art not seene, although thy breath be rude. Heigh ho, sing heigh ho, vnto the greene holly, Most frendship, is fayning; most Louing, meere folly: The heigh ho, the holly, This Life is most iolly. Freize, freize, thou bitter skie that dost not bight so nigh as benefitts forgot: Though thou the waters warpe, thy sting is not so sharpe, as freind remembred not. Heigh ho, sing, &c. -As You Like It 2:7

6. Scansion


Iambic Heptameter Ophelia singing (Iambic Heptameter)

To morrow is S. Valentines day, all in the morning betime, And I a Maid at your Window, to be your Valentine. Then vp he rose, & don'd his clothes, & dupt the chamber dore, Let in the Maid, that out a Maid, neuer departed more. -Hamlet 4:5

6. Scansion


SHAKESPEARE’S PLAYS IN ORDER OF COMPOSITION No one is sure of the exact chronology for the writing of Shakespeare Plays. At best, we are guessing to say when they were written. However, we can guess by using written performance dates, publication dates and topical references in the plays. Although the following timeline is subject to debate, it does indicate a trend in complexity of verse as shown below. The following are estimates of the plays’ order and date of composition based on the work of Hardin Craig, T.W. Baldwin, E.K. Chambers, F.J. Furnivall, G. König, and George Saintsbury.

Year Genre Plays Events

Simple Verse Mostly Iambs & Trochees, lots of rhyming lines, no triple sounds

1588 Comedy Love’s Labors Lost 1589 Comedy The Comedy of Errors 1590 Comedy Two Gentlemen from

Verona

1591 History Henry VI, parts 1, 2, & 3 1591 Tragedy Romeo and Juliet 1592 Tragedy Titus Andronicus -Sept. 1592: Robert Greene calls Shakespeare an “upstart

crow” in “Groatsworth of Wit” -Dec. 1592: Greene’s editor publicly apologizes for Greene’s remarks concerning Shakespeare

1593 History Richard III -May 30: Death of Christopher Marlowe 1594 Comedy Taming of the Shrew 1594 Comedy A Midsummer Night’s

Dream

Becoming More Complex Verse More Spondee’s, Pyrrhics, feminine endings, some anapests

1595 History King John 1595 History Richard II 1596 History Henry IV, parts 1 & 2 -August 11, 1596: Hamnet, Shakespeare’s son, dies 1597 Comedy Merchant of Venice -May 4, 1597: Shakespeare buys “New Place”, the second

largest house in Stratford 1597 Comedy Merry Wives of Windsor 1598 Comedy Much Ado About Nothing 1599 History Henry V Henry V includes a reference to Lord Essex’ Irish Campaign.

Essex later imprisoned and beheaded after Irish fails. 1599 Tragedy Julius Caesar Will Kemp, clown, leaves the company.

Very Dense Verse Alexandrines and longer, triple sounds, epic caesuras, more like prose

1599 Comedy As You Like It Robert Armin joins the company as new clown. 1600 Tragedy Hamlet 1601 Comedy Twelfth Night -1601: John Shakespeare, William Shakespeare’s father, dies 1602 Comedy All’s Well That Ends

Well -1603: Queen Elizabeth I dies -1603: King James I ascends the throne

1604 Comedy Measure for Measure 1604 Tragedy Othello 1605 Tragedy King Lear

Final Stages- Return to Simplicity Return to Simplicity with Underlying Complexity. Verse that sounds like simple prose.

1606 Tragedy Macbeth 1606 Tragedy Antony and Cleopatra

6. Scansion


1607 Tragedy Timon of Athens -May 1607: Shakespeare’s daughter, Susanna, marries Dr. John Hall -December 1607: Shakespeare’s brother, Edmund, dies

1608 Tragedy Coriolanus -September 1608: Shakespeare’s mother, Mary, dies 1608 Romance Pericles 1609 Romance Cymbeline 1610 Romance Winter’s Tale 1611 Romance Tempest 1612 History Henry VIII Possibly written in collaboration with others.

-April 23, 1616: William Shakespeare dies

Chapter 7 Imagery, Description,

Metaphor, Personification & Clever Words

For her own person, it beggared all description.

Antony and Cleopatra

Indeed, sir, if your metaphor stink, I will stop my nose; or against any man's metaphor. Prithee, get thee further.

All’s Well That Ends Well

Imagery, Description, Metaphor, Personification & Clever Words

Last printed 8/8/15 8:54 AM Page 2 of 20

INTRODUCTION Shakespeare is full of imagery and metaphors. Most poetry is. So, how do we play it? What do we do with it? Most of all – GO THERE! Live inside the description. Put it inside your heart, soul and mind. Fill it out, put more description there than is listed. Paint a complete picture in your mind. If you don’t fully go there, your audience never will. I believe that the human power of empathy and non-verbal communication is so strong that whatever I am truly thinking of, or feeling, wherever I let myself fully go, the audience goes there too. They may not be thinking exactly what I am thinking, but it will be pretty close. I think this is a part of the natural tribal mammalian nature of humans. We are still essentially pack animals and empathy plays a large part in our communication. We lived together as humans in tribes for thousands of years before we had language. We acted out stories, we physicalized, we grunted and groaned and we thought really hard about what we were trying to communicate.

If I don’t “go” to the metaphors and images, the audience is just sitting in chairs, not flying though their minds. We need to do take them on the journey. In performance, we invite the audience on a trip of the imagination, into the world of metaphor, the language of the heart and of the soul. We must go there too. We must go there beforehand to find the lay of the land. When our characters create metaphors, clever words and major descriptions, they are saying things that do NOT come automatically, or easily. They are phrases created by the characters in the moment. Make sure that you create them for the very first time every time that you say. Don’t rush past them. Take the time to make them real. This is the fun stuff!

IMAGERY Imagery refers to the "pictures" which we perceive with our mind's eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, and through which we experience the world created by poetic language. Imagery evokes the meaning and truth of human experience. Live in the image and describe it to us, feel it, smell it, touch it. Build up tons of sensory details.

MEMORIES AND FUTURE VISIONS Your characters memories are one of the most basic places where imagery needs to live. What are the sights, sounds, tastes and experiences that make up your world? In creating background images, you may choose to draw from your own life or from the characters life. Both instances work, depending on the situation.

When you describe people, things and events, you need “history” taken from either your life or your character’s past. You also need images of your character’s future hopes and fears. Your character ‘sees’ possible events in the future that they either want to achieve or to avoid. Imagining those in vivid detail can help you build the character.

Exercise 1 / Home and Class: Memory/Vision In Titus Andronicus, the character of Tamora has to plead for the life of her first born son, whom Titus is about to carry out a death sentence on. She says

Andronicus, stain not thy tomb with blood: Wilt thou draw near the nature of the gods? Draw near them then in being merciful:



Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge: Thrice noble Titus, spare my first-born son.

If you are playing Tamora, you need to plead for your son’s life. How can you do so if you don’t know what that life was, or what it will be like to take it away? If you can build a world of images for this moment, then the emotion that you want should flow naturally, just as it does for Tamora, as you beg for your son’s life.

Part 1 - Home a. Find a place to be alone and close your eyes. Your son is about to be murdered.

b. Memories: Think of your past with your son leading up to this time. Remember the night

he was conceived. Say “Son. ” Think of the months of anticipation and doctor visits. Say ‘son.’ The moment he was born. The screaming, the pushing, the birthing pain, followed by his first cry. Say ‘first born.’ Hold him to your chest. ‘son.’ His first steps. ‘son.’ His first word. ‘first born.’ Hearing “Mama” or “Dadda” for the first time. ‘first born son.’ Coming to your crying with a hurt knee, His smell as a baby, stroking his soft hair while he sleeps. Hear him say, “Mama, I love you.” Now say, “spare my first-born son.”

c. Visions: Now think of your fears of what is about to happen to juxtapose this: He will be

beheaded with a sword. Imagine his last look at you, begging you to stop it. Hear him plead as they drag him away “Mama, Mama help me!” – say ‘Son’. See them force his head down to the block, his face pressed down against the wood. ‘Son.’ See the welts around his hands tied behind his back. The cheers and screams of the crowd. Hear him scream as the blade goes up with a swoosh in the air – “Mama, help me! Help.” Say ‘first born.’ The motion of it through the air. The hard, thick, wet sound of axe going through flesh, like chopping a watermelon. ‘My first born.’ His head rolling in the street. The blood pumping from his shaking body. The smell of excrement as his bodily functions give way. His head rolling to a still position in the street, dead eyes staring at you. Now say, “spare my first-born son”

d. See his headless body shaking for minutes after in convulsions then going limp. Watch

them dump the body in the river. Floating away. Blood spreading in the water. “Spare my first-born son.”

e. Work on more images. Free associate, each time saying, “spare my first born son.”

Part 2: In Class

f. When you get to class – First balance the room and find actors neutral. Then go to a partner. See them; let them see you, open your heart. Begin to take them there, literally shut your eyes and tell them what you see, what you hear, what your smell about your son, his past and the moment of his coming death. Describe the moment till you feel like you are totally there.

g. Tell them: I see…, I hear…, I smell…, I taste…, I feel…. Now kneel down in front of

them and live the most visceral of all these images. Say ‘spare my first born son.’

h. Balance the room. Then do the same with a different partner (use another image if you want)



i. Stop and circle. Discuss. What was the experience like?

Filling in the Middle Column In chapter 1, we scored out the text by using a blank left hand page and filling in the third column with paraphrasing. In chapter 2, we filled the first column with actions. Now it’s time to fill in the middle column with images. What are the sensory images and visions you may have during your scene? This is the place to put it several possible images to play with in rehearsal. When thinking of images, you really need to be specific. What can you see, smell, taste, feel and hear? Find the ‘trigger’ that gives you the emotional thump. Of all the senses, smell is the most visceral and fast acting, I believe. What does vomit smell like? When you smell it, do you almost immediately gag? Can you describe the smell, when you smelled it? When did someone throw up and you immediately did too (or almost)? What was the trigger? What about the smell of your favorite food? Where were you, what were you doing when you smelled it? What is the trigger? On the page, you don’t need to write more than a few words to get you to the trigger.

Exercise 2 / Class: The Image Box Let’s go back to The Box exercise we did in chapter 2 only this time we’ll use images instead of actions. Here are a few example images to go with. With each of these, you will need to fill in your own life example to make it real. I’m going to go with extreme images here, so imagine the time in your life when each of these was at its most extreme for you – the most intense:

Smell that makes you barf The most cuddled Biggest fear of how you will die Most sensual touch Most degraded you have felt Worst physical pain Most victorious! Best memory with a sibling Nails on a chalkboard favorite toy as a child Coldest you have been Favorite smell of Mom

What images can you add that would be useful for you to think of from your own scripts? Can you add one or a few of those? PRIVACY NOTE: Sometimes images need to be kept private. In fact, that often keeps them powerful. You don’t need to share it with anyone else, just say, “I’ve got one,” and go. It’s best if teacher/facilitators ask questions, but the answers don’t have to be provided out load. For example, a facilitator can say, “Can you think of the insect or rodent that frightens you the most to touch your skin?” and just get the answer, “yes.” Then ask, can you imagine it on your body? “Yes.” “Can you imagine it crawling on you? How about a lot of them? What do they sound like? Can you smell them? Now say ‘bottled spider’.” The actor can take all that in, describing the image in their mind, but it isn’t necessary to say everything you feel out loud. That might lessen the experience, depending on the actor. IMPROV RULES: Remember the improvisation rules:

1. Don’t negate 2. Don’t ask questions 3. No inappropriate touch harm or sexuality

THE BOX



1. Set two chairs or rehearsal cubes about 10 feet away from each other and draw a real or imaginary rectangle around the space with about 3-4 feet around each chair. This makes “the box.” Put an actor in each chair. Actor A is the Imager. Actor B is the Re-Actor.

2. The teacher or the group decides on an image for the Imager to try and a simple phrase for them to say. Like the action image, the text is not that important. It can relate to the image, or be something non-committal like, “I feel fine” or “It’s OK.” We can use even more generic text like, “your shirt is blue,” or “it’s warm in here.” It shouldn’t be the words that trigger; it needs to be the image.

3. The Imager prepares the image. What do you hear? What do you see? What can you smell? What were you doing just before it happened? What can you feel? What do you want to say? What was said? What happened to you physically?

4. The teacher uses a stopwatch and gives the actor 60 seconds on the clock. The actor says “ready,” the teacher starts the clock and says, “Go.”

5. The Imager begins saying the line. Go completely with the image and share it with the Re-Actor. S/he repeats and repeats, keeps trying to image the line. If it doesn’t work, keep working on the image, refining it, putting yourself in the moment. As soon as the Re-Actor feels moved, s/he raises her hand and steps out of the box. The job of the re-actor is simply that, to react. If the line feels fake, s/he can just sit there. But as soon as s/he is moved, or starts to have a reaction, s/he raises her hand. I don’t think it’s necessary that you have to feel the discussed image (although that’s best), but if you are affected, then raise your hand.

6. As soon as the Re-Actor steps out of the box, the Imager becomes the Re-Actor and a new Imager steps into the box.

7. If 60 seconds go by and the Re-Actor doesn’t leave the box, then the Imager steps out of the box and a new Imager comes in to try the same verb with the same amount of time.

8. Start the process again with the same image and see if they can get it in the same or less time.

9. Try to see if you can get the amount of time down lower and lower. I find that people have a lot of their own ways “in” to different images, but watching someone else may really help you, and help you get it quicker. The timer helps and adds a competitive edge to it. I sometimes say “Who can get that image in 20 seconds?”

Thoughts on Imagery from the Box In discussions with actors doing the exercise, here are a few observations:

• Continuing to think of sensory details really helps form the image. • Making the re-actor into whoever is in the image with you really helps. For example:

your partner and the person in my image have the same color eyes. Use that to blend that (and other details) to make your partner be a part of the image.

• Sometimes you can get the image to be real, but it comes out small – honest but small – something a film camera might pick up but not big enough for stage. Try to share it with your partner.

• Images can be from your past, or from your imagination, they do not have to be real. • It’s not about how loud you say it, or how many times, or how fast. It’s about it is real

and whether it affects your partner • If you try once and feel very real and clear but get no reaction from your partner, stay

there. Keep building. Don’t drop the image because you “failed” then have to start all over again. Just keep working at it till it happens.



Exercise with a Partner: Moving from the Box to Shakespeare Can you use a Shakespeare line instead of the contemporary line and do the same thing? Does it still work? Does the image work when using the Shakespeare lines as well as the contemporary line? I don’t see any reason why not.

1. Pick a line of text from a scene or monologue that you want to associate with an image. Write some thoughts on the image into the middle column.

2. Try the box with a paraphrase or not committal-line with a partner and the image you have chosen.

3. Now substitute in the Shakespeare line instead of the contemporary line. What happened? Discuss.



METAPHOR, SIMILES AND PERSONIFICATION A metaphor or simile is an unreal comparison that somehow more closely describes how we feel than basic facts do. We use metaphors and similes to describe our emotions when word fail to describe the fullness of how we feel. In musical theatre, coaches and directors say that the characters burst into song when normal words can no longer contain how they feel. The same is true for metaphors. A Shakespearean character ‘bursts’ into metaphor when normal words can no longer contain the image, thought or emotion that they feel. I believe metaphor is the language of the soul. It reaches beyond facts to more fully describe our feelings.

METAPHOR DEFINITION : a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money); broadly : figurative language. A word or phrase applied to an object to which it is not literally applicable. A physical picture of a meta-physical condition. It allow new links to develop and generate new ways of thinking. Example:

Why strew'st thou sugar on that bottled spider

Whose deadly web ensnareth thee about? - Richard III

SIMILE DEFINITION A figure of speech comparing two unlike things that is often introduced by like or as (as in cheeks like roses). A metaphor using like or as.

Look how I am bewitch'd; behold, mine arm

Is like a blasted sapling wither'd up. – Richard III

What they both mean When a character reaches for metaphor or simile, it is special, normal words can no longer suffice to describe your feelings. The character reaches for something more than normal words and “coins” the metaphor to describe the intense feeling. Metaphors are conscious constructs created in the moment. Take the audience with you and truly FEEL the metaphor. Show them the totality of how the words feel to you.

What’s the difference between simile and metaphor? You could say ‘none’ and be right. Perhaps there is no difference. You need feel them both, but I think that perhaps a simile is a touch more removed than a metaphor. A character that says something is “like” something else is not quite making the same commitment. My love is like a red, red rose May not have quite as much commitment as: My love is a red, red rose Even if it does scan better (and fans of Robert Burns may disagree at this particular example.) As a generality, I would say that they are the same and you should treat them that way.



Exercise 3 / Class: Metaphors All actors balance the room in actors neutral and explore some of the following. Feel, smell, touch, hear and react as if while hearing each of these phrases. It is best for the teachers to toss each of these out one at a time and let the students work with each metaphor, exploring in physically and vocally for a while. Don’t be afraid to make sounds, roll on the floor, physicalize and vocalize each metaphor. Imagine that you are an early tribesman trying to explain the metaphor to someone else. Try different variances of being the thing, feeling the thing, illustrating the thing, demonstrating the thing.

❏ As if they are a “bottled spider” ❏ As if their arm is “like a blasted sapling, withered up” ❏ As if their “mind is tossing on the ocean” ❏ As if their “eternal summer shall not fade” ❏ As if their “mind is full of scorpions” ❏ As if “hope was drunk”. ❏ As if they were a “poisonous bunch-back'd toad” ❏ As if they were an “elvish-mark'd, abortive, rooting hog” ❏ As if the “worm of conscience was gnawing their soul”

We’ll come back to more metaphor work after looking at the different times of

THE PATHS OF DESCRIPTION You may have noticed in the metaphor exercise that some people tried to “illustrate” what it meant and some tried to really get the “abstract feeling” of it.

Illustrations An illustration shows the listener a path or diagram of what we are trying to say or feel. ‘Time’ may sound or look like a ticking clock. ‘Rumour’ may whisper in our ears. ‘Love’ might draw a heart, or touch the heart. They are usually logical to us. They are left brain/right handed. They use symbols that we know and understand. They come from the head, from reason, from logos.

Exercise 4 / Home: Finding an illustration Let’s use one of the metaphors above and illustrate it -- “bottled spider” Take a few minutes act out being a spider in a bottle. Imagine that you have eight legs and the body of a spider and scuttle around. Now imagine that you are trapped in a bottle. Are you cramped? Do you tap at the glass? Are you suffocating? What are you going to do when you get out of the bottle? Illustrate your movements and sounds. The physical actions. The sounds, commands and thoughts. Now say “bottled spider” and move and sound like your illustration.

Abstractions Abstractions go for the feeling of something without illustration. For example, if illustrating I might put my arms out and flap them to describe flying, but in an abstraction I would go for how it makes me feel – laughing, or frightened, powerful, exhilarated. Then I would try to physicalize/vocalize that feeling into something abstract, something that feels right to me and makes me feel ‘exhilarated’ but not something where I run around the room with my arms flapping. It is right brain/left handed. Abstractions make great physicalizations, but it usually takes a number of tries to get rid of illustrations to find them. When doing a physical exploration of an abstraction, you have to go farther inside yourself. Abstractions come from our feelings, our passions, and our hearts, not our logical minds. They take more time to find, but they can also be much more rewarding. When I start trying to do an abstraction, I usually illustrate, even when I don’t mean to, so I have to



discard that and keep exploring, sometimes discarding over and over till I find a gesture that makes me “feel” like what I want. To use a simile, illustration and abstraction is like comparing classical sculpture and modern abstract sculpture. Both of this paintings depict Jesus, but in very different ways.

“The Transfiguration” a painting of Jesus by Raphael

Abstract expressionist “Jesus” by Thomas Kolendra



Exercise 5 / Home: Finding an abstraction Let’s use the same metaphor -- “bottled spider” and abstract it. Take 5 minutes and explore that phrase through abstraction. Lie on the floor, or sit and say the words over and over exploring the ‘feeling’ of being a bottle spider.

❏ How do you feel inside the bottle, what do you want to do? ❏ Are you trying to get out? ❏ Do you want to bite the person that did this to you? ❏ How does it feel to be trapped, cramped and claustrophobic? ❏ How do you feel when you say or think of the words? ❏ What is your goal as a spider? Do you want to escape? Do you hate? Loathe? Are you

sick? Each time you “illustrate,” toss that out and find something else. It needs to come from the heart. It is not logical. It is not pre-planned. Now say “bottled spider” and move and sound without preconception. See where you go, what happens. Do this at home, and then show it to the class. Perhaps let the left side of your body dominate, try not to think, just feel. Abstractions are much harder than illustrations and may take some time to get comfortable with exploring.

Exercise 6 / Home and Class: Psychological Gesture for your Character’s Name Michael Chekhov was an actor, director and author (nephew of Anton Chekhov). He studied under Constantin Stanislavski at the Moscow Art Theatre, where he acted, directed, and studied Stanislavski's 'system'. He later developed his own methods, including the Psychological Gesture, which we are going to use a bit for our own purposes in this session.

Psychological Gesture (PG) work can be helpful in getting the idea of how to create abstractions. Chekhov did a lot of work developing a Psychological Gesture, a marriage of sound and movement, to explore an archetypal expression of a characters’ name.

Let’s use Richard III (the bottled spider of the previous example). His full name would be Richard Plantagenet, or Richard of Gloucester, or Richard the III, King of England, depending on which play and scene he is in. In any case, imagine that you are Richard. What is your character’s objective? In the play Richard III, he is trying to become King. So his objective might be to:

❏ Murder his way to crown, or ❏ Take the crown, or to ❏ Claw his way to the crown of England.

Take a few moments to try physicalizing all those verbs while saying Richard, King of England. What does it feel like to take away from someone, so steal his or her life and power? Relish and play in that. Vocalize it; roll around in the murder. Is it joyous? Disgusting? Horrific? Fun? Now take the crown and hoard it from others. Take it in different ways from:

❏ Your brother Clarence, ❏ Your brother Edward,



❏ Your wife Anne, and ❏ Your nephews the little Princes.

What is that like? What does it sound like to claw your way to the crown? What does it taste like? Say the full name each time and experiment with it. Now can you physicalize/vocalize these objectives and gestures into one archetypal action/marriage of voice and sound? Take 5 minutes and coming up with one encompassing gesture and vocal approach to say the name and share it with the class. It doesn’t need to mean anything to anyone but you. Is what you did an illustration of Richard, or an abstraction? Hopefully, all these gestures will show insights into Richard that are NOT about having a crippled leg and arm and limping across the stage. Limping would be an illustration. Abstractions are going for what is inside Richard. So, when doing an abstraction, think of these things:

❏ How does it make me feel to do/be this? ❏ What am I trying to do/want/give with this? ❏ How do I want my partner or audience member to feel from this?

Now, do it with your own character name. There are only a few overriding basic objectives and many characters share them, albeit in individual ways. Here they are listed with XXX as the object:

❏ I Want XXX ❏ I Reject or Spurn XXX ❏ I Give XXX ❏ I Take XXXX ❏ I Hold Firm (stand my ground) on XXX ❏ or I Yield XXXX

Try each sentence above and fill in the XXX. How do you move and speak? What feels right? Now do it again and say your character’s full name instead of XXX. What is your character’s objective? How does your character want to do that to other people in the play? Express it as a strong verb and then physicalize/vocalize that verb and its feeling. Try pushing, pulling, lifting, throwing, tearing with your characters’ name. Which feels best? Now combine these explorations with the name and take five minutes to come up with one psychological gesture for the character. Work on your characters psychological gesture at home, then share your explorations with the class.

PERSONIFICATION DEFINITION : attribution of personal qualities; especially : representation of a thing or abstraction as a person or by the human form. A divinity or imaginary being representing a thing or abstraction. Attributing human attributes to something non-human. A personified word will usually be capitalized, as it is being described as have a name like a person does.

Example: Devouring Time, blunt thou the lion's paws, And make the earth devour her own sweet brood; Pluck the keen teeth from the fierce tiger's jaws, And burn the long-lived phoenix in her blood;

!- Sonnet 19



What to do: In Shakespeare’s text, the word will be put in Capitals. So the actor needs to put the word in Capitals or “Quotes,” to coin it, so that the audience recognizes that we know you are personifying it. Say it as if you were saying someone’s full titled name for the first time, or as if you were creating a name for someone in the moment.

Exercise 7 / Class: Personification Each actor picks a word from the list (or make up your own) and personifies the word. (You can also write all these on slips of paper and pick one from a hat.)

Time Rumour Love Hate Nature Death Laughter Patience Humor Justice Future Greed Pity Sloth Anger Sleep Sex Innocence Longing Wisdom

1. Come to a place to be alone.

2. Explore what it feels like to be that quality, explore it as sound, explore it as movement.

Explore the word for a while. Try different gestures, vocalizations. What does it feel like to be that word? What power do you have? What can you do? What do you want to do to your subjects? How do they worship you? What powers do you have? Create a “psychological gesture” for your personification. Explore an illustration as well. Take what you want from each one, combine them together, or just use what works best for you.

3. Come to a Circle. Look at your audience. Take them in.

4. Be the God or Goddess and tell us all about yourself by saying the word. One at a time,

say: “I am … and your full name.” Then say “I am … and your personification and psychological gesture.” Live it. Be it. Remind them to breath, see and be vulnerable.

5. Discuss what was most powerful. What worked? When were you moved? When were

you not?

Using a Personification in the text I recommend always doing this type of exploration when you play a character that uses a personification. The first time your character says the word, you need to put it in quotes, coin it, pick it, emphasize it in such a way that we, the listeners, know that you are not using ‘time’ in the normal sense of the word, but that you are making a god of it, a god with human qualities, needs and wants. In performance, the gesture may only slightly be there or not present at all, but hopefully, it will fill your mind, affecting the way you say it and, therefore, affect the audiences mind as well.

Example Personifications Thou Nature art my Goddess, to they Laws my services are bound

- Edmund from King Lear Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back,



Wherein he puts alms for oblivion,

A great-sized monster of ingratitudes:

Those scraps are good deeds past; which are devour'd

As fast as they are made, forgot as soon

As done:

- Ulysses from Troilus and Cressida Sometimes the actual personification appears onstage and speaks to us directly as in Rumour in Henry VI, iii (Shakespeare even describes his costume, painted full of tongues). Enter RUMOUR, painted full of tongues

Rumour. Open your ears; for which of you will stop

The vent of hearing when loud Rumour speaks?

- Rumour from Henry VI, iii Time appears in The Winter’s Tale [Enter Time, the Chorus]

Time. I, that please some, try all, both joy and terror

Of good and bad, that makes and unfolds error,

Now take upon me, in the name of Time,

To use my wings.

- Time, The Winter’s Tale

Exercise 8 / Home or Class: Metaphors and Similes

Pick an image or metaphor Have everyone look at their scripts and select 1-2 metaphors or images to share with the group. Highlight them in your scripts as possible.

1. Go around the room and everyone say one, then balance the room and find actors neutral.

2. Find a place to be alone. Take 2 minutes to explore the metaphor or simile, use illustration and abstraction. Find what works for you.

3. Balance the room again, and then find a partner. Breathe each other in. See each other.

Share your metaphors with each other.

4. Balance the room then come to a circle. Share your metaphor with the class. Afterwards, share your thoughts with the group on the experience. What was it like?



DESCRIPTIONS Sometimes you have a long descriptive passage describing something in the past tense or that you imagine in the future, a scene that the audience doesn’t see but that your character describes. Again, you need to get the audience to go there, and the best way to do that is for you to go there yourself. So, you need to do a lot of exploration till you really know everything you are describing. Let’s take an example from the Chorus in Henry V.

Suppose that you have seen The well-appointed king at Hampton pier Embark his royalty; and his brave fleet With silken streamers the young Phoebus fanning: Play with your fancies, and in them behold Upon the hempen tackle ship-boys climbing; Hear the shrill whistle which doth order give To sounds confused; behold the threaden sails, Borne with the invisible and creeping wind, Draw the huge bottoms through the furrow'd sea, Breasting the lofty surge:

Take a few moments now to do your text work and a quick paraphrase so that you know what you are saying. Look up the words you don’t know. This text talks of Henry’s ships sailing across the North Channel to Harfleur. The Chorus describes what to see, hear and, obliquely, what to hear and feel as well. As an audience, we are not going to see this during the play; it isn’t a movie. Shakespeare’s theatre was in full daylight and used few props and almost no set pieces. Therefore, the imagery of the language has to convey to the audience all of those things in a tangible way so that we can “feel” a world which we literally do not see or hear. As the speaker, you need to know many more details than are described, and take us with you into the scene and through each image as you describe it.

Exercise 9 / Home and Class: Draw/Make the Image – Do/Illustrate the Actions So, what do you do? Let’s make the picture. Literally. Get a pencil and paper, markers or whatever and draw it. Or if that is not your skill, make a collage of images from the internet, from magazines, etc. Let’s go line by line through the script:

Suppose that you have seen The well-appointed king at Hampton pier Embark his royalty

Draw the harbor at Hampton Pier and the ships. It’s a big army, so there will be a lot of ships. According to accounts, there were 1,500 sails. Henry’s own ship, the Trinity is a 300-ton vessel. Although the battle for Troy was a couple thousand years earlier, this visual image for the movie Troy is in my mind for the fleet:



Still from the Movie “Troy” by Warner Brothers

Is Henry on his own ship? Or is he on the pier looking at the vessels? Be Henry for a moment and look out over your fleet. The text says he is well appointed. How are you dressed? Are you wearing armor, robes, or a flowing cape? What is your stance? Where do you look? Do you have a spyglass? Take a moment to wave to the gathered crowds who are shouting your name.

his brave fleet With silken streamers the young Phoebus fanning: Play with your fancies, and in them behold Upon the hempen tackle ship-boys climbing;

Here is a look at the replica Golden Hinde, the ship that took Sir Francis Drake around the world. (This replica sits on the South Bank of the Thames today, very close to the reconstruction of the Globe Theatre).

Imagine a fleet of 1500 of these flying long silken streamers in the breeze. What colors are the streamers? What emblems, royal insignias, coats or arms are there? Now be a ship boy and physically climb the rope ladders (hempen tackle) to unfurl the sails. What does the rope feel like, do the motions and climb the rigging. What can you see from the crow’s nest on top of the ship? What are you wearing? Can you smell the sea?

Hear the shrill whistle which doth order give

To sounds confused;



What does that shrill whistle sound like? What are the “sounds confused”? The shouting of men and boys? the squeal of block and tackle? Cannons rolling into place? The rumble of sails unfurling? Hear it, get a whistle and make it, or whistle it with your lips.

behold the threaden sails, Borne with the invisible and creeping wind,

See the wind pick up in the sails and billow out above you. What sounds do you hear? Physicalize being a sail and billowing out, or be the wind pushing the sails.

Draw the huge bottoms through the furrow'd sea, Breasting the lofty surge:

Become the ship pushing through the waves. Climb up each surging wave then come down with a shuddering boom! as you come back down into the trough. Imagine hundreds of these vessels crashing through the waves toward Harfleur. If you want, draw another picture of the ships crashing through the sea. Now tie all the physicalizations, sounds and text together and do the speech. 1. Perform it like you are telling it to a group of young school children. Get them excited! 2. Now do it again with no illustrations. Can you keep the clarity? 3. Practice it a few more times, bringing in any onomatopoeia and physicalizations you

really like and letting your text and voice cover the rest. 4. Share it with the class at the next meeting. So, with everyone performing it for the class, what parts do you like best? What went well? What seemed like not enough? Too much? As a class, discuss the differences.

Suggestion versus illustration Illustration is the simplest form of acting something out, and sometimes it works great. But it also can feel overdone, too much, too “story time.” When illustration seems like to much, how can you simplify it to a ‘suggestion’ rather than an ‘illustration?’ For example, if you climbed the hempen tackle as a ship boy and you liked the feeling of that, but it seems too overdone, how can you simplify it? Maybe just lift one hand up and grab above you? Stand up on a chair? What keeps the essence but isn’t too much? I have found that in using imagery, suggesting a simple movement can work wonders, but over-illustrating makes the audience feel like they are being talked down to. I suggest fully illustrating to get the experience, then simplifying to the essence. Once you have the feeling, you may not need any physicalization at all. And if you do, how can you do it simply?

Abstraction versus Illustration and Suggestion Abstractions are great tools for getting the feeling of something. You could easily go back through the previous exercise and work on abstracting, getting the feeling, of each part of the speech. Again, how can you simplify it down to something simple that takes the audience along with you, but isn’t too much? A warning on abstractions Since abstractions are exactly that, abstraction, you can easily confuse the audience with them if you are not clear what you are talking about. They help give you feeling, but make sure that they don’t confuse and audience when you use them in production. Sometimes an exploration of a



physical abstraction helps you find a way to play a word or phrase, but you never need to fully do the abstraction on stage. It was a step in the process.

Observations on working descriptions Placing imaginary things on the stage You need to take the audience/partner through the story that they can follow and is coherent. If you say “In Troy, there lies the scene” and point left, then a moment later the Trojans are on the right, the audience will be confused. If you are describing a number of things – two armies, three people, all the sails on a ship, etc., - think of where you want to place them on the stage. You can move them, but you need to show the audience that movement, or they will be confused. Consider this passage from Troilus and Cressida: PROLOGUE

In Troy there lies the scene. From isles of Greece,

The princes orgulous, their high blood chafed,

Have to the port of Athens sent their ships

Fraught with the ministers and instruments

Of cruel war. Sixty and nine that wore

Their crownets regal, from th'Athenian bay

Put forth toward Phrygia, and their vow is made

To ransack Troy

The prologue talks of Troy, Greece, Athens, Phrygia (the region around Troy). The Prologue says that our play will take place in Troy, but before that all the Princes of Greece, met in Athens with their ships, then 69 princes put forth together from the Athenian bay and sailed toward Phrygia (the modern day region of Turkey where Troy lies), and they want to destroy Troy. That’s a lot of directions and descriptions. So, where are they? Is Phrygia in the audience, and Greece behind the stage? Are they left and right? North and South? Athens is in Greece, and all the princes of Greece met in Athens, so wherever you set the “isles of Greece,” Athens has to be in there somewhere. Troy is in Phrygia, so same thing there. The Prologue refers back to Athens and Troy, so they have to remain where they were the first time when you mention them the second time. Whatever physicalizations you do, they need to make coherent sense to your audience without confusing them. Seeing things with your mind It may not be necessary to point or walk or physically deomstrate anything if you can see it with your eyes. Once you really understand the text, and done yoru homework of filling out the entire image with many details, you can lead us from place to place by seeing each things as it unfolds with your eyes. We see the film happening in your eyes. Remember to stay in the now and see each thing as it happens and take us there with you.

Exercise: Placing Things with Your Body, Seeing Them with Your Eyes



1. Try the following lines a few times until you feel you could make it clear where everything is. Use you hands, head and body to show the audience where everything is.

2. Now do the whole thing again and rather than pointing and indicating, see each place with your eyes, lead us, the audience with where you look and what you see in your mind. Don’t get ahead of yourself and allow the movie to unfold in front of your, seeing each image as it comes.

3. Perform one or both for the class, then discuss what worked well.

Summary on Descriptions With descriptions I recommend:

• In your mind, fill out the description in a much larger way than the text, with many more details.

• Try some illustrations, abstractions and suggestions. Then try it with none. • As you describe it with Shakespeare’s text, explore the imagery in your mind and see

what happens. • Make a clear, coherent, picture for the audience to follow moment by moment. • Make sure any abstractions are not confusing • Make sure illustrations are not to “story-time.” Usually a minimal suggestion works

better than an illustration. • Try seeing things moment by moment with your mind.

CLEVER AND RARE WORDS

RARE WORDS Shakespeare’s text has words that either are not used frequently today, or perhaps not even in Shakespeare’s day. The common educated speaker of today has a vocabulary of around 20,000 different words and uses only about 2,000 words regularly per week. Shakespeare used over 29,000 in his plays, so we are bound to come across words that we don’t know. (Although to be fair, that sum of 29,000 counts each tense and variation of a root word as a different word, so it’s not that high). Shakespeare also introduced 1,700 new words to the English language. In contrast, the King James Version of the Bible, written during Shakespeare’s lifetime, has around 8,000 words. As actors, whenever we get to a word we are afraid that the audience might not know, we often speed up, to get past it and on to something they will understand. In fact, we sometimes quickly go over rare words because WE don’t understand them. Actually, you need to do just the opposite. Whenever you say a word that the audience may not know you need to find a way to make it clear. So, how do you do that? 1. First of all, YOU have to know the word. Going all the way back to chapter 1, you have to

look up every word you don’t know. 2. Slow down when you get to a rare word. Have your character select the word, s/he is, after

all, showing off her/his vocabulary, and picking a particular word over more common ones. Coin it, pick it, and select it.

3. Do you need a variance in inflection, suggestion, abstraction or illustration to make it clear? Try a few and see if your partner or teacher gets it then.

Some Rare Words Here are a few examples. How would you make the words in bold clear? Play with a few answers.



Henry V - three corrupted men, One, Richard Earl of Cambridge, and the second, Henry Lord Scroop of Masham, and the third, Sir Thomas Grey, knight, of Northumberland, Have, for the gilt of France,—O guilt indeed! Confirm'd conspiracy with fearful France; And by their hands this grace of kings must die,

In the example above, the word ‘gilt’ means gold. France is paying money in gold to three traitors to betray King Henry. We don’t commonly use the word ‘gilt’ much anymore although it is still in the dictionary. We used ‘gilded’ for a thin layer of gold on something, which is from the same root. We still say we don’t want to “gild the lilly.” But you need the audience to really understand ‘gilt’ so they can get the pun on ‘guilt’ that follows it. How can you get that across? Try a few different approaches to indicate a payment in money. Holding a wallet? Rubbing you fingers together to indicate money? Holding some gold coins? Emphasizing the words while thinking of money? There are a lot of answers, but if you don’t take the time to play with the word, it will slip right past the audience.

More to be added

Exercise 10 / Home: Explore Your Clever Words Do you have any clever words in your scene or paragraph? Pull them out. Play with them. Make some images, illustrations and suggestions. Find something that works and try it for yourself, or with a partner.



SOUNDS

Sections to be added on sounds and onomatopoeia

OH AND AH !Othello'

Whip me, ye devils,

From the possession of this heavenly sight!

Blow me about in winds! roast me in sulphur!

Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire!

O Desdemona! Desdemona! dead!

Oh! Oh! Oh!

!ONOMATAPOIEA

The hum of either army stilly sounds,

That the fixed sentinels almost receive

The secret whispers of each other's watch.

!RII'*'Bolingbroke'And consequently, like a traitor coward,

Sluiced out his innocent soul through streams of blood:

Thoughts: Making an image machine of a speech.

!

Chapter 8: RHETORIC

Ethics, Logic, Passion & Devices

DRAFT - NOT FOR PUBLICATION RHETORIC

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RHETORIC

WHAT IS RHETORIC? Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is the study of and the ability to use language effectively, as well as the composition and delivery of persuasive speeches. Pertaining to our study of Shakespeare’s words, it is the art of the specialized uses of language to persuade including figures of speech.

When Shakespeare went to school, we know he studied rhetoric, as did all school children in England. When he began to write plays, he usually composed his speeches, particularly his character’s soliloquies to the audience, in the style of classical oratory, using rhetorical devices to influence the thought and conduct of his listeners.

Rhetoric, as an art, is divided into five major categories or "canons": 1. Invention – Finding something to say 2. Arrangement – Arranging your argument 3. Style – The figures of speech, ornamentation, how the words fit to the purpose. 4. Memory – How you will remember your points and how you will get the

audience to remember them. 5. Delivery - how something is said, rather than what is said. The Greek word for

delivery is "hypokrisis" or "acting."

SKIPPING INVENTION I am not going to analyze “Invention” here, since, as a character in Shakespeare, you don’t have to find something to say, since Shakespeare has given it to you (although you should spend some time thinking about how your character thought this up!).

MEMORY I am also going to skip Memory. There are many ways to remember your lines, but that is not the essence of this book. I will leave you mnemonic devices up to you. Memory however, does not only deal with how you will remember your lines, it also is about how your listeners will remember them. The many rhetorical devices covered in “Style” are all ways to imprint (particularly with repetition) a moment in the audience’s mind.

INTRODUCTION

When considering a persuasive speech in Shakespeare it is important to be aware of the arrangement of the argument. This will help you, the actor, determine how the speech goes. As you plan tactics to better help you convey the character’s emotional state and line delivery, knowing intellectually how a character has ordered their thought process will help you interpret how you experience the speech.


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It is also important to understand the frame of mind of Shakespeare’s audience. So let’s take a moment to think like Elizabethans. Just like us, they were trying to answer the big questions of life. The dominant questions of the common Elizabethan were:

• How should I act? (what is proper?) • What must I do? • What does it mean to be alive? • What happens after death?

Sounds pretty Zen, doesn’t it? A bit Eastern mystic? But essentially, the questions of life remain the same, regardless of the culture.

Elizabethans were also placed in a set status when they began life. There was little chance of moving up. One tried to be best at their station in life. This idea connects to the idea of trying not to upset the natural order of the world. Just take a look at Macbeth, and one can quickly see the effect altering the natural order of events to advance status.

Educated Elizabethans, including Shakespeare, would have been taught to speak, read, and write Latin. Lower grades would study grammar and translate plays and poetry. Upper grades would study logic and rhetoric through reading and composition. Therefore, when a Shakespearean character would begin an argument or long speech, the audience would mostly be able to tell how successful they were. An Elizabethan audience would be more apt to pick up on other rhetorical devices discussed in this chapter. A common method of study in the classroom was repetition. Therefore, Elizabethans were already more primed for interpreting information aurally, rather than visually, as modern audiences do. So, how does the argument begin?

1. ARRANGEMENT - THE ORDER OF THE SPEECH

Classical oration is laid out in a very ordered method.

INTRODUCTION (EXORDIUM ) (ETHOS) The Topic or Question

The first thing that the speaker does is to introduce the topic, the subject and purpose of the discourse, and where one usually employs the persuasive appeal of ethos in order to establish credibility with the audience.

For example: “What’s he then that says I play the villain?”

Or “To be or not to be, that is the question”

The introduction is usually an ethical dilemna. Which choice is better for the common good? Which choice is the most just? What is the right thing to do? What is best for society? In the above example, Iago asks, “Who in the audience or in society can rightly


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call justly me a villain?” Hamlet asks, “What is the best choice, to do something or to do nothing at all?” The introduction sets the topic or question to be answered and creates a frame for the discussion.

The Appeal to Character The introduction also includes an appeal to the audience regarding the character (ethos) of the speaker. We, the audience, should listen to this speaker because of this character, or “right” to speak. Basically, the character is saying “Here is topic XXXX. And here is why I am qualified to talk about XXXX.”

STATEMENT OF FACTS (LOGOS) What follows the introduction, is a list of facts and details regarding the topic. The speaker here provides a narrative account of what has happened and generally explains the nature of the case, a kind of summary of the issues or a statement of the charge.

DIVISION (LOGOS) In this section of the oration, the speaker outlines what will follow, in accordance with what's been stated

PROOF (LOGOS) comes the main body of the speech where one offers logical arguments as proof.

REFUTATION (LOGOS) this section of a speech was devoted to answering the counterarguments of one's opponent.

CONCLUSION (PATHOS) The conclusion of the discussion. This often starts with “therefore” or “in conclusion” or “thus.”

LET’S LOOK AT A SPEECH

So, let’s look at To Be or Not to Be and divide it up according to its arrangement. In this his introduction, Hamlet doesn’t really start with a specific appeal to ethos (you should believe me because I am a worthy man) since he already has a relationship with the audience. He goes directly into the question to be discussed:

Enter Hamlet.

Ham. To be, or not to be, that is the Question: INTRODUCTION – The Issue or Question

Whether 'tis Nobler in the minde to suffer

The Slings and Arrowes of outragious Fortune,

Or to take Armes against a Sea of troubles,

And by opposing end them:

to dye, to sleepe Statement of Facts- What is

No more; and by a sleepe, to say we end

The Heart-ake, and the thousand Naturall shockes

That Flesh is heyre too? 'Tis a consummation


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Deuoutly to be wish'd. To dye to sleepe,

To sleepe, perchance to Dreame;

I, there's the rub, Division – What is to come

For in that sleepe of death, what dreames may come,

When we haue shufflel'd off this mortall coile,

Must giue vs pawse.

There's the respect Proof – Logical Arguments

That makes Calamity of so long life:

For who would beare the Whips and Scornes of time,

The Oppressors wrong, the poore mans Contumely,

The pangs of dispriz'd Loue, the Lawes delay,

The insolence of Office, and the Spurnes

That patient merit of the vnworthy takes,

When he himselfe might his Quietus make

With a bare Bodkin?

Who would these Fardles beare Refutation – Countering

To grunt and sweat vnder a weary life, Other arguments

But that the dread of something after death,

The vndiscouered Countrey, from whose Borne

No Traueller returnes, Puzels the will,

And makes vs rather beare those illes we haue,

Then flye to others that we know not of.

Thus Conscience does make Cowards of vs all, CONCLUSION

And thus the Natiue hew of Resolution

Is sicklied o're, with the pale cast of Thought,

And enterprizes of great pith and moment,

With this regard their Currants turne away,

And loose the name of Action.

BRUTUS FUNERAL SPEECH – JULIUS CAESAR Now let’s compare two speeches that appear back to back in a play, the speeches of Brutus and Antony at Julius Caesar’s funeral. Which one is more effective? Why? How do they follow or not follow the classic guidelines? Brutus:

Romans, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my Introduction - Appeal to Character

cause, and be silent, that you may hear: believe me

for mine honour, and have respect to mine honour, that

you may believe: censure me in your wisdom, and

awake your senses, that you may the better judge.

If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of

Caesar's, to him I say, that Brutus' love to Caesar


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was no less than his. If then that friend demand

why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer-- INTRODUCTION – The Issue or Question

Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved

Rome more.

Had you rather Caesar were living and Division – What is to come

die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live

all free men? As Caesar loved me, I weep for him;

as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was

valiant, I honour him: but, as he was ambitious, I

slew him. There is tears for his love; joy for his

fortune; honour for his valour; and death for his

ambition.

Who is here so base that would be a Refutation

bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. – Countering Other Arguments

Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If

any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so

vile that will not love his country? If any, speak;

for him have I offended. I pause for a reply.

All. None, Brutus, none.

Brutus. Then none have I offended. I have done no more Conclusion

To Caesar than you shall do to Brutus. The question of

his death is enrolled in the Capitol; his glory not

extenuated, wherein he was worthy, nor his offences

enforced, for which he suffered death.

Brutus speaks in prose and spends a long time building his appeal in character. He is known as an honorable man and a friend of Caesar’s. He uses this as his trump card in convincing his audience that if he, Caesar’s friend, could kill Caesar, then it must be for altruistic purposes and for the common good. He pretty much skips a statement of facts about Caesar’s life and appeals only to his own character.

MARK ANTONY’S SPEECH Brutus approach has left a weak link for Antony. Since the main thrust of Brutus argument was his own character, then if Antony can impugn Brutus honour and rouse the audience’s love for Caesar, he can turn the tide. He does this with a masterful start – an introduction that he will not praise Caesar at all and total agreement that Brutus is honorable. His introduction is so short, and so curt, it undercuts arguments against him. He doesn’t give himself any appeal to character. It doesn’t even sound like he’s going to fight or disagree with Brutus. But then look at his statement of Proof, his logical arguments of facts start to undermine that building of character done by Brutus. He


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spends the majority of his time reminding the audience of facts about Caesar’s life and his generosity. He also combines these “logical arguments” with emotional stories about Caesar’s – memories of the good times – he adds the sentiment of “Pathos” to his arguments to the appeal to the audience’s emotions.

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; INTRODUCTION��

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. The Issue

The evil that men do lives after them; Statement of Facts – What is

The good is oft interred with their bones;�

So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus�

Hath told you Caesar was ambitious:

If it were so, it was a grievous fault,�

And grievously hath Caesar answer'd it.�

Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest -- Division – what is to come

For Brutus is an honourable man;�

So are they all, all honourable men --

Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.��

He was my friend, faithful and just to me:�� Proof – Logical Arguments

But Brutus says he was ambitious;�

And Brutus is an honourable man.�

He hath brought many captives home to Rome�

Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:

Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?�

That the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept:�

Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:�

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;�

And Brutus is an honourable man.

You all did see that on the Lupercal

I thrice presented him a kingly crown,

Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition?

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;

And, sure, he is an honourable man.

I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, Refutation

But here I am to speak what I do know.

You all did love him once, not without cause:

What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?

O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, Conclusion

And men have lost their reason.

Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,

And I must pause till it come back to me.


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The speech actually continues on from there with Antony claiming that he has a copy of Caesar’s will but is afraid to read it for fear the crowd will riot to find out how much Caesar loved them. He does read it and the crowd does riot and thus begins the fall of Brutus! So why does Antony’s speech work better than Brutus? Well, it’s better defined by classic standards. It is better delineated into sections. It uses much better undeniable proofs. It appeals to the audience emotions more strongly. And it also uses better rhetorical repetitions, but we will get to those later in the chapter.

EXERCISE: Now You Try Here’s another speech. Find the order of each section in the speech. Defining what parts of the speech fit into which category will help you discover how effective the character is in constructing their argument. Here is a speech from Richard II from the King. He is in prison and has lost everything to the usurper, Bolingbroke.

I have been studying how I may compare

This prison where I live unto the world:

And for because the world is populous

And here is not a creature but myself,

I cannot do it; yet I'll hammer it out.

My brain I'll prove the female to my soul,

My soul the father; and these two beget

A generation of still-breeding thoughts,

And these same thoughts people this little world,

In humours like the people of this world,

For no thought is contented. The better sort,

As thoughts of things divine, are intermix'd

With scruples and do set the word itself

Against the word:

As thus, 'Come, little ones,' and then again,

'It is as hard to come as for a camel

To thread the postern of a small needle's eye.'

Thoughts tending to ambition, they do plot

Unlikely wonders; how these vain weak nails

May tear a passage through the flinty ribs

Of this hard world, my ragged prison walls,

And, for they cannot, die in their own pride

Thoughts tending to content flatter themselves

That they are not the first of fortune's slaves,

Nor shall not be the last; like silly beggars

Who sitting in the stocks refuge their shame,

That many have and others must sit there;

And in this thought they find a kind of ease,

Bearing their own misfortunes on the back


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Of such as have before endured the like.

Thus play I in one person many people,

And none contented: sometimes am I king;

Then treasons make me wish myself a beggar,

And so I am: then crushing penury

Persuades me I was better when a king;

Then am I king'd again: and by and by

Think that I am unking'd by Bolingbroke, 2785

And straight am nothing: but whate'er I be,

Nor I nor any man that but man is

With nothing shall be pleased, till he be eased

With being nothing.

- Richard II

WHERE YOU’RE ARGUMENT IS COMING FROM

Persuasion is brought about through three kinds of proof or persuasive appeals. ❏ Logos – Logic. The appeal to reason. ❏ Pathos – Passion. The appeal to emotion. ❏ Ethos – Ethics. The appeal of one's character or ethics.

Although they can be analyzed separately, these three appeals work together in combination toward persuasive ends.

Aristotle calls these "artistic" or "intrinsic" proofs—those that could be found by means of the art of rhetoric—in contrast to "nonartistic" or "extrinsic" proofs such as witnesses or contracts that are simply used by the speaker, not found through rhetoric.

PATHOS - PASSION Pathos names the appeal to emotion. Emotional appeal can be accomplished in a multitude of ways:

❏ by a metaphor or story telling, common as a hook, ❏ by using passionate, visceral, emotional words ❏ by a general passion in the delivery and an overall number of emotional items in

the text of the speech, or in writing.

Pathos is often associated with emotional appeal. But a better equivalent might be appeal to the audience's sympathies and imagination. An appeal to pathos causes an audience not just to respond emotionally but to identify with the writer's point of view - to feel what the writer feels. In this sense, pathos evokes a meaning implicit in the verb 'to suffer' - to feel pain imaginatively. Perhaps the most common way of conveying a pathetic appeal is through narrative or story, which can turn the abstractions of logic into something palpable and present. The values, beliefs, and understandings of the writer are implicit in the story and conveyed imaginatively to the reader. Pathos thus refers to both the emotional and the imaginative impact of the message on an audience, the power with which the writer's message moves the audience to decision or action.


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NOTE: I am indebted to Jonathan Epstein for the following technique of highlighting ethos, pathos, and logos with highlighters. I took a wonderful workshop from him using this technique and have since used it many times in classes and rehearsals.

Sample Rhetorical Analysis: PATHOS Antony, addressing the crowd after Caesar's murder, stirs them up to anger against Brutus and the conspirators by drawing upon the crowd’s sympathy and emotion. Notice the highlighted, emotional words in yellow, as well as the cutting, stabbing verbs and nouns in blue below: Look, in this place ran Cassius' dagger through;

See what a rent the envious Casca made;

Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb'd,

And as he pluck'd his cursed steel away,

Mark how the blood of Caesar followed it,

As rushing out of doors to be resolv'd

If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no;

For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel.

Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar lov'd him!

This was the most unkindest cut of all;

— Julius Caesar 3.2.174-183

Key words that indicate Pathos Here are some words that may help you find when a character is appealing to emotion. Look for strong verbs and modifiers like this: Feel, passionate, strong, love, kind, envy,

ETHICS – ETHOS Ethics indicates the status of the speaker, the “truths” that they hold dear. When a person appeals to ethics, they are referring not to facts, but to principles. What do they (or the audience) know to be right, to be just, to be true.

In classical oratory the initial portion of a speech (introduction) was usually the place to establish one's credibility with the audience through ethos, saying to the audience, “here are the reasons why you should believe me.” Let’s look again at Brutus’ introductory words to the crowd:

Romans, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my

cause, and be silent, that you may hear: believe me

for mine honour, and have respect to mine honour, that

you may believe: censure me in your wisdom, ….


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Notice the word “believe” mentioned twice, along with the other words like “respect” and “wisdom.” These are not facts, and not passions. They are appeals to beliefs. Key words that indicate Ethos Here are some words that may help you find when a character is appealing to emotion. Look for strong verbs and modifiers like this:

Know, believe, true, should, wisdom, truth, I know Note that often a character speaks something as a fact that is actually an opinion – particularly “I know,” which more often than not means “I believe.”

LOGIC – LOGOS Logos names the appeal to reason. Aristotle wished that all communication could be transacted only through this appeal, but given the weaknesses of humanity, he laments, we must resort to the other appeals. The Greek term logos is laden with many more meanings than simply "reason," and is in fact the term used for "oration." Key words that indicate logos Here are some words that may help you find when a character is appealing to logic. Look for facts, look for what is undeniable.

• “It is two o’clock” is a fact. - Logos

• “I should make my decision by two o’clock.” is a belief/principle - ethics

• “I hate and fear when two o’clock will come.” is an emotion - pathos. Logos statements say, “This happened. This is a fact.” There are not things that are subject to opinions.

HIGHLIGHTING - USING LOGOS PATHOS AND ETHOS FOR INDIVIDUAL ACTING MOMENTS -

In the sense of classical oratory, a section of a speech – three to twelve or thirteen lines or longer – may be devoted to an appeal to passion, ethics or logic. It helps to see the breakup of a speech into the 5 canons of rhetoric. However, to play thirteen lines as entirely “pathos” will get repetitive and may miss a great deal of variety along the way. As people, we constantly change where we are coming from as we try to convince others of our point of view. So, lets look at Logos, Ethos and Pathos broken up word by word. This next section is about locating the text in the body and seeing where you are literally coming from with each section. In the following section, we are going to highlight the lines to indicate the appeal. So, let’s do the following: Logos – Blue Highlighter. Blue for cold reason and facts.

Pathos – Pink highlighter. Pink for passion. Ethos – Yellow highlighter. Yellow for judgement, beliefs and decisions

NOTE: I am indebted to Jonathan Epstein for first introducing this exercise to me. Although we have continued to develop it here at Orlando Shakespeare in classwork, the original idea was shown to me by Johnny. Additional thanks to whoever may have shown it to him.


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Here are a few lines from Shylock to Antonio in their first meeting in The Merchant of Venice. Antonio has treated Shylock very poorly in the past, but now he wants to borrow money from him. Here is Shylock’s response. In the following speech, I have highlighted each phrase or word from the character by delineating where he is coming from – from his passion, his logic, or his principles (ethics). It changes very quickly.

Shy. Signior Anthonio, many a time and oft

In the Ryalto you haue rated me

About my monies and my vsances:

This statement is a fact. This happened in the past. It is not up to debate. It happened. However, I am going to pick out the moment of “rated” which has one of two meanings – a) short for “berate” to scold or lecture, or b) to score are value the “rate”. In either case, this verb is not necessarily a fact, but Shylock’s opinion of the matter. I am sure Antonio’s opinion is probably different than Shylock’s. So, let’s highlight all this in blue, except for the “rated me” part, which I will put in the pink of passion, since I am going to go with the meaning of “berate” which is passionate. (I could also choose a yellow highlighter if I want to use the b) meaning, to judge or rate.)




NOTE: Although we can perhaps agree on how most of this breaks up, the way actors will personally breakup the text will vary from person to person. Don’t worry about that, let’s just see where the character changes the appeal from word to word and not argue too much about which appeal we are using. It’s variety we are looking for, and where it lives in your body.




Still haue I borne it with a patient shrug,

(For suffrance is the badge of all our Tribe.)

You call me misbeleeuer, cut-throate dog,

And spet vpon my Iewish gaberdine,

And all for vse of that which is mine owne.

Well then, it now appeares you neede my helpe:

Goe to then, you come to me, and you say,

Shylocke, we would haue moneyes, you say so:

You that did voide your rume vpon my beard,

And foote me as you spurne a stranger curre

Ouer your threshold, moneyes is your suite.

What should I say to you?


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Now, I’m going to assume that you may disagree with some of the highlights above. That’s great. Different actors will have different opinions. The point is to think about where your argument is coming from – fact, emotion, or ethics.

Exercise: Acting the Rialto Speech Now, I want you to have someone hold the speech in front of you, or put it on a music stand, put it somewhere in front of you so that your hands can be free. Get a partner to be Antonio and situate him across from you so that you can talk to him. Now perform the speech with the following physical actions:

LOGOS (Blue) – Touch your forehead and tap it with a finger. Let your energy come from your mind, your reason. Try to get rid of emotion and state the words as a fact. (Depending on the obstacle and how you feel, you may fail at this, but let reason be the objective. It’s very interesting to watch someone try to be dispassionate and factual about something they feel very strongly about).

PATHOS (Pink)- Place your hands on your guts, just above the pelvis and below your stomach, then push or fling your hands out as you speak, “throwing your guts” at the listener. Come from your emotional center, how you feel, deep in your guts. Let the words come from your passion and center that passion in your guts

ETHOS (Yellow)- There are two physical choices here, one sometimes works better than another for the person and the situation. “I am considering what to do” - Put either hand out to the sides of your body palms up like a scale and “weigh” the question back and forth. Should I or shouldn’t I? Which is the better choice?

“I believe” - Hold your hand over your heart and swear what you hold to be true. When processing ethical statements, look to see if it is ethics or fact. We often state things we believe to be true (but are really our opinions) as facts, when we are really coming from our ethical centers, a choice is possible and we choose one particular opinion.

Now, perform the speech and move you hand to each of the areas – head, heart and guts and let your words come from there, allowing the speech to work it’s way through your body and out to your partner. Now as a class, discuss how these choices affected you, the audience, and the listener. Oftentimes, I hear the speaker saying that it was hard to jump from place to place, while on the other hand, I hear the audience say that it was fascinating to watch the variety of opinions and changes move throughout the body. Now on your own time, drop the physical exercise and perform the speech as usual, acting it with your partner and allowing whatever influence the rhetoric exercise had on you to just naturally happen.

Home Exercise : Highlight your own speech.


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On your own time, highlight your own speech and perform it, esperimenting with the physical actions, then the next time the class meets, perform your explorations.


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5. DELIVERY

At this point, I am going to jump forward to the last canon, Delivery, before coming to Style, since it is going to have a great impact on Style. Great speakers can hold a room with the power of their voice. Listen to the power of Martin Luther King’s delivery and you know what a great orator sounds like. So, what made him sound so good? Beyond the words he had to say and the fabulous rhetoric of repetition, antithesis and other devices he used, he also:

❏ Volume and Resonance - Had a strong, powerful, resonant voice ❏ Length and depth of words – He could draw out the length and power of

important words ❏ Inflection – He had a variety of inflections to employ to get his meaning across ❏ Rhythm - Could vary his speed and rhythm

This is not a voice book, so I won’t delve into waking up your resonators, vocal warmups, and the many different and wonderful schools of voice thought your have available to you – Linklater, Lessac, Berry, Fitzmaurice, etc. Therefore, I am going to concentrate on one aspect which is crucial to rhetorical devices and style – inflection. Remember the inflection patterns we considered when looking at scansion? Inflection is at the heart of rhetorical devices. Rhetorical devices are all about comparing the different meanings of words, often the same word and its several meanings.

Home Exercise – Comparing the word ‘love’ Whenever we try to tell someone the difference between the “love” we feel for a brother or sister and the “love” we feel for our soul mate, the inflection is very different. Try the phrase: I ‘love’ my brother, but I ‘love’ my wife.

Hear the different inflections? Now really be vehement about the difference between the two. Hear how the inflections get even larger?

THE FOUR INFLECTIONS There are basically four different inflections, each one with many varieties of pitch and emphasis, that creates our subtext and meaning.

❏ Rising ( / ) “I have a question.” OR “Stay with me, there’s more!” A rising or upward inflection raises, or goes up in pitch. We typically associate this with a question, but it also has a major use in building thoughts. If a series of lines end in rising inflections, the audience is carried through the thought – they know that you are not finished yet – the thought builds and builds, until it climaxes with the final word of the sentence, which will usually be a downward inflection. This doesn’t mean every line ends up sounding like a question; it means that the rising inflection on a word says to the


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audience “stay with me, there’s more thought coming here.” This is so useful in long sentences, when the end of each verse line (particularly enjambed lines) rises at the final and always important word, and continues to build the thought and move forward, letting the audience know that you are not done yet.

❏ Falling ( \ ) “That’s the end.”

The falling or downward inflection is a drop in pitch. Downward inflections say “and that’s the end” or “I’m finished with that thought.” This works great when you are actually at the end of a sentence. The audience knows by the falling inflection that you have completed your thought and prepares for your next thought. Unfortunately, many Americans use downward inflections when they are NOT finished with the thought, creating false endings that confuse the audience. This happens in particular at the end of verse lines that do not end in periods. When actors put downward inflections at the end of verse lines that are enjambed, or end in commas, they inadvertently create periods and confuse the audience by indicating “I’m finished!” when they are, in fact, in the middle of a thought. Often young actors, and Americans in particular, lose commitment towards the end of verse lines. As a result, when speaking Shakespearean text, the most important words (which are usually at the end of the line) are lost, and the long train of Shakespearean thought gets truncated into a mess of downward inflected fragments.

❏ Even (--) “I’m setting something up, I’ll be back…”

An even inflection draws out the word as if stretched for emphasis without raising or falling in pitch. This is really usefull when comparing words or setting off parentheses or commas. An even pitch says “ I’m setting something up here, and I’ll come back to it.”

❏ Circumflex ( ~ ) “Let’s compare this…”

A circumflex is like a bumpy slide falling and rising in pitch. Both the even inflection and circumflex add color and variety to a word putting a new stress in the character’s line. The circumflex can “wiggle” up and down once or many times, depending on the stress. It’s great for setting up comparison and contrast. Like the even pitch, it says “I’m setting something up here, and I’m going to compare or contrast it to something else in just a moment.” The audience then gets ready to hear the comparison or antithesis

Class Exercise – Lysander and Hermia For example, lets examine Lysander’s line from A Midsummer Night’s Dream. In it, he and Hermia,his love, lament their situation that they are not allowed to marry. Lys: For ought that euer I could reade,

Could euer heare by tale or historie,

The course of true loue neuer did run smooth,

But either it was different in blood –

Her. O crosse! too high to be enthral'd to low.


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Hermia interrupts him with her line and the scene continues with many examples of frustrated love relationships. It’s possible to put a falling inflection on the end of every line. Try it now. What do you hear? Probably four different thoughts, almost four different sentences, and particularly so after “smooth.” “But either…” becomes the beginning of a new sentence. But it’s not, if you look at the grammar. There is no period in any of these lines. Lysander is forming a thought, not ending one, when he is interrupted by Hermia. Now trying a rising inflection at the end of each line. On “reade” rise up and think of your next example “hear”, then rise again on “historie” to tell her that ALL the historie books are full of frustrated love. Then on “smooth” rise again to show begin leading her into your example that it was “either different in blood.” Lys: For ought that euer I could reade, ➚ (stay with with, I have more examples) Could euer heare by tale or historie, ➚ (stay with with me, I’m getting there) The course of true loue neuer did run smooth, ➚ (am I right?) But either it was different in blood – ➚ (here’s an example) Her. O crosse! too high to be enthral'd to low. ➘ How does that work? Is it more connected? Does she cut you off more? Is it a little hard to do it on “smooth?” Maybe “blood” too? Let’s try it again and use a circumflex on “smooth” to set up an inherent thought of “I’m setting something up here – here comes a list of examples of how it’s not smooth,” or maybe “it’s really rough, not smooth.” Put another circumflex on blood to set up your first example – “Here, let me talk about this example about kinship or ‘blood’ .” Lys: For ought that euer I could reade, ➚ (stay with with, I have more examples) Could euer heare by tale or historie, ➚ (stay with with me, I’m getting there) The course of true loue neuer did run smooth, ~ (am I right?) But either it was different in blood – ~ (here – I’ll set up an example)

Her. O crosse! too high to be enthral'd to low. ➘

How does that work? “Smooth” is exactly what their relationship isn’t. Therefore, putting the most stress on that word is a strong choice in communicating Lysander’s message. Now let’s apply these inflections, which convey so much tone to the audience, to rhetorical devices.


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More Inflection Examples – to be added….

PHYSICALIZATION OF INFLECTION RISING – RAISE YOUR HAND CIRCUMFLEX – WIGGLE OUR HAND. DOWNWARD – STAB DOWN WITH YOU FINGER FLAT – FLATTEN HAND

Explanation of Physicalization – to be added….


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3. STYLE: RHETORICAL DEVICES

In school, Shakespeare studied rhetoric and all the rhetorical devices we are about to study. He knew them by name and practiced how to use them. Most of his audience knew them too. So whenever Shakespeare used “epanalapsis” in a speech, every boy who had gone to school was aware that the character had just used a clever rhetorical device to prove or make his point. Today, modern audiences are much less aware of these devices, so we have to emphasize them EVEN MORE or they will never hear the comparisons and contrasts the characters are using to persuade them. A massive edge in persuasive speech will be lost.

Rhetoric is a very large subject and includes many more terms and analysis than I will cover in this chapter. There are also parts of rhetoric – metaphor, simile, imagery, - that I will cover in a different chapter. My purpose here is to awaken you to the repetition of sounds and words that Shakespeare employs and the comparisons he creates with different words. It is not paramount to know the Latin term for every piece of rhetoric that you character use, but it is important to know that your character is trying to persuade his/her audience and with what tricks s/he is doing it. The figures of speech listed below are described so that you can begin to identify them on your own. When encountering a rhetorical device, it is a perfect opportunity for you, as the actor, to stop and question why the character is employing this form of heightened language.

❏ What’s the contrast of words my character is setting up and why? ❏ How does the device help me as a character to prove or make my point? ❏ What point is my character making? ❏ Is my character experiencing an unusually intense emotional circumstance? ❏ What is at stake that my character chooses now to make use of this special form

of language? ❏ What exactly is my character trying to accomplish by saying these words this

way, and who am I speaking them for? ❏ Am I trying to show how smart I am? Am I trying to sound smarter than the

person I am talking to? Am I making a strong emotional point that ordinary words simply will not contain?

Using a rhetorical device in a speech points up the language in a way that draws attention to specific words. Figures of speech act almost as accents or little sparks of energy, providing a difference among the other sounds, highlighting a particular individual moment. I’m going to divide rhetorical devices into three groups.

! Repetition of Sounds ! Repetition of Words ! Wordplay


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There, in fact, hundreds, if not thousands of Greek words for every conceivable variation of rhetorical devices. I am going to try hear to highlight the ones the Shakespeare uses the most.


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REPETITION OF SOUNDS – VOWELS, CONSONANTS AND RHYMES

ALLITERATION Alliteration is a literary or rhetorical stylistic device that consists in repeating the same consonant sound in several words in close succession. An example is the Mother Goose tongue-twister, "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers …" Here is an example from Shakespeare. Here is Benedick from Much Ado about nothing expressing his disdain for Beatrice through the repeated use of the consonant “B”. it the base though bitter disposition of Beatrice

- Much Ado About Nothing

So, now we know where the alliteration is, but what do we do with it?

At Home Exercise My first recommendation is to pour your pervading action of the moment into the alliteration. So, imagine that you want to “wound” Beatrice at this time, so say the line several times while stabbing at her with each of the “b”s. Now try using you subtext at this time – really mean “bitch” each time you say a “B.” Now try an image on each one. Use an image of three different terrible things she has said to you with each “B”.

Exercise: Now You Try Underline the alliterative letters. Now try the line a few times, using actions, then subtext, them imagery to go with the alliteration.

and here the maiden sleeping sound,

on the dank and dirty ground.

She durst not lie near this lack love, this kill courtesy

- Puck, Midsummer Night’s Dream

The hum of either army stilly sounds


The secret whispers of each others watch.

- Chorus, Henry V

When to the sessions of sweet silent thought....

- Sonnet XXX

When I do count the clock that tells the time,

- Sonnet 12

Sometimes Shakespeare makes fun of alliteration too:


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Whereat, with blade, with bloody blameful blade, He bravely breach'd his boiling bloody breast.

- Peter Quince, Midsummer Night’s Dream

Generally, alliteration refers to the repetition of initial sounds in a word, but it may also link the initial stressed consonant of a word with that of a stressed syllable within a word: ‘Beated and chopp'd with tann'd antiquity’

- Sonnet 62, l. 10

When I did speak of some distressful stroke

- Othello 1.3.157

ASSONANCE Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences. For example, in the phrase "Do you like blue?", the /uː/ ("o"/"ou"/"ue" sound) is repeated within the sentence and is assonant.

Here are examples from Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet: To die, to sleep--

To sleep, perchance to dream-- ay, there's the rub,

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come,

- Hamlet

Is crimson in thy lips and in thy cheeks."

- Romeo and Juliet, V, iii

Exercise: Now You Try Underline the alliterative letters. Now try the line a few times, using actions, then subtext, them imagery to go with the alliteration. Notice that repeated words are naturally both assonant and alliterative. Fire answers fire, and through their paly flames

Each battle sees the other's umber'd face :

Steed threatens steed, in high and boastful neighs

- Chorus, Henry V

HERMIA: Methinks I see these things with parted eye,

When every thing seems double.

HELENA: So methinks;

And I have found Demetrius like a jewel,

Mine own, and not mine own.

DEMETRIUS: Are you sure

That we are awake? It seems to me

That yet we sleep, we dream. Do not you think

The Duke was here, and bid us follow him?

- Midsummer Night’s Dream


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And nothing 'gainst Time's scythe can make defense

Save breed to brave him, when he takes thee hence.

- Sonnet 12

RHYME Rhyme is the repetition of ending sounds in two or more words. Shakespeare’s use of rhymes tends to fall into two categories:

Perfect rhymes Perfect rhymes can be classified according to the number of syllables included in the rhyme.

❏ masculine: a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the words. (rhyme, sublime)

❏ feminine: a rhyme in which the stress is on the penultimate (second from last) syllable of the words. (picky, tricky)

Eye rhymes Though not strictly rhymes, eye rhymes or sight rhymes refer to similarity in spelling but not in sound, as with cough, bough, or love, move. These are not rhymes in the strict sense, but often were in earlier language periods. For example, "sea" and "grey" rhymed in the early eighteenth century, though now they would make at best an eye rhyme. Many of the Shakespeare rhymes that look like they won’t rhyme to us may have rhymed in Shakespeare’s time. Since Shakespeare’s text was, for the most part, meant to be spoken aloud and not read from a page, we must assume that at the time of the writing most of his rhymes were, in fact, perfect rhymes. Does that mean that we should perform for audiences in the 21st century and “make” words rhyme that don’t anymore? No, it doesn’t. In general, we should say words the way they are pronounced today so that our audience can best understand them. However, the character is being clever in rhyming and the character knows they are being clever. Find out why and what action, image, or subtext they want to convery. Then you can do that with the last words in the line, regardless of whether they rhyme.

Making an Eye Rhyme Perfect As far as trying to force a rhyme, I always try it once in rehearsal, just to make sure there isn’t an interesting choice to be made. Usually there is not, but sometimes, it can be a strong choice to make something rhyme with a variant pronunciation. For example: And with the juice of this I’ll streak her eyes

And make her full of hateful fantasies

- Oberon, A Midsummer Night’s Dream

It’s not necessary to make a rhyme here and I’ve seen actors do it both ways, but if you say “fant – a – sighs,” it not only gets the rhyme in, it also creates the word “sigh,” which is want Oberon wants Titania to do, to sigh in love for whoever she first sees after she wakes up (in this case, a donkey). That might be a fun thing to do and for Oberon to play with the audience with his rhyme, stretching an eye rhyme into a perfect rhyme.


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Shakespeare tends to rhyme to indicate to the audience the following circumstances. 1. Love – Lovers tend to speak in rhyme to heighten their language into a further

expression of poetry that blank verse and prose to do not express. 2. Royalty and Prestige – Status can be indicated by rhyme as well, with higher

status characters rhyming, indicating their heightened status. 3. Ends of scenes and acts – Shakespeare often indicates the end of a scene with

a couplet and, at times, with three rhymed lines. 4. To indicate a change in rhythm – the entrance of a new character, shift in

the scene, or change from verse to prose. 5. Aphorisms, witty sayings, and comedic dialogue 6. High-order wordplay, with verbal extravagance and often bursts of

alliteration

Shakespeare’s work in the first third of this career uses much more rhyme than his later plays. Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night’s Dream, Comedy of Errors and others feature long sections of rhymed verse, which are not to be found in his later plays. So, how should I perform rhyme? Here are a few keys to help you along the way.

1. Make the last word in the line important to you. Simply doing this will take you

and the audience a long way toward the poetry of rhyming. Underline or highlight the last words in each verse line and find a tactic, action or image to play there, a reason to “milk” the word and get the juice out of it.

2. Breathe at the ends of the verse lines. Following the verse line breath we learned earlier will also really help let the rhymes breath. (Remember not to accidently make a period at the ends of enjambed lines with a downward inflection. Lift your inflection on these.)

3. Be clever – Lean into the love, the status and the heightened language. Know that this is your character talking at their very best. Use it. Shape it. Play it.

4. Discover – Discover some of the rhymes as your character. Let the audience or fellow actor guess what the coming rhyme is as you fill out the verse. Warning: don’t over use this technique; it will only work once in a while, but they can be fun times.

5. Don’t be sing songy. In rhyme, it’s easy to fall into the trap of upward/downward/ upward/downward, etc. Don’t do it.

6. Most of all, enjoy it! Don’t run away from it.

Exercise: Working in Rhyme Here is Romeo and Juliet meeting for the first time. They don’t fall into simple rhyming couplets. Instead, together they form a perfect 14 line sonnet. This is a much more complex form, with lines 1,3 and 2,4 rhyming. Romeo initiates the conversation with the a rhyme on 1,3 and 2,4. It’s a clever pick up line asking for a kiss. It reminds me of all those pick lines we talk about in bars. It’s romantic, funny, and gets right to the point –


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“I want a kiss.” Juliet plays right back, answering him in his own vein, but denying the kiss for a handshake. The wordplay goes one. Play this scenario out. Two of you are in a bar.

1. Underline: - First underline the rhymed words at the end of the verse lines and do your text work, so you know what all the lines mean. (Hint: A holy palmer was a pilgrim who carried a palm leaf to signify the making of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. )

2. Paraphrase: Have Actor A play Romeo and gives him best pick up line to Juliet. Use modern paraphrases of the best pick up lines you can think of. The class can help. Juliet’s have to reply back with a response that is teasing, but not accepting.

3. Rhyme Words only: Now try only using the final words in the verse lines below – only the rhyming words. Play with the rhymes, discover them, fence with them. Try to get your objective.

4. Full Text: Now use Shakespeare’s text below. Try to keep all the fun and emphasis you had in Parts 1 and 2.

Rom: If I profane with my unworthiest hand

This holy shrine, the gentle fine is this:

My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand

To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss.

Jul: Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much,

Which mannerly devotion shows in this;

For saints have hands that pilgrims' hands do touch,

And palm to palm is holy palmers' kiss.

Rom: Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too?

Jul: Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in pray'r.

Rom: O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do!

They pray; grant thou, lest faith turn to despair.

Jul: Saints do not move, though grant for prayers' sake.

Rom: Then move not while my prayer's effect I take.

A few minutes after this meeting and their first kiss, Juliet discovers that Romeo is from the other side of the feuding family battle. The nurse over hears her and asks “What’s this? What’s this? - or “What’s going on? What are you doing? Note Juliet’s reply below.

Jul. My only love, sprung from my only hate!

Too early seen unknown, and known too late!

Prodigious birth of love it is to me

That I must love a loathed enemy.

Nurse. What's this? what's this?

Jul. A rhyme I learnt even now

Of one I danc'd withal.


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Before meeting Romeo, she has only used rhyme once in an earlier scene, to indicate the end of her talk with her mother and the entrance of a servant.

Juliet. I'll look to like, if looking liking move:

But no more deep will I endart mine eye

Than your consent gives strength to make it fly.

[Enter a Servant]

However, when she meets Romeo, she discovers and lifts up into the poetry of rhyming love and tells the Nurse what she learned a few lines later.

ENDS OF SCENES Practice giving the scene a solid end with some of these lines:

Exercise: Nurse and Juliet Note: As the nurse, you need to find a reason to punch “cell” or Juliet can’t rhyme farewell to anything. Make sure you set your partner up.

Nurse: Go; I'll to dinner: hie you to the cell.

Juliet. Hie to high fortune! Honest nurse, farewell.

- Romeo and Juliet

Exercise: Henry V Henry ends many of his scenes with strong rhymes. Here he ends the scene with two couplets for double strength. Put a strong end on the scene and go striding off, leading your men!

More feathers to our wings; for, God before,

We'll chide this Dauphin at his father's door.

Therefore let every man now task his thought,

That this fair action may on foot be brought.

- Henry V


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REPETITION OF WORDS

Repetition of words is a powerful rhetorical device. The location of the repetition and the different meaning used for each repetition have great power. All the following conceits share repetition of sound (through alliteration and assonance), however the location and the variance in meaning create different feelings and effects.

REPETITION EXERCISES* : Underline the each rhetorical device and write and inflection

OK, let’s find some more. Here is a list of commonly used rhetorical devices Shakespeare uses in his plays.

1. First underline the compared words. 2. Next, figure out your action or subtext. What do you really mean by that

word? Be very specific – you might want to paraphrase your meaning for each of the compared words in each devices, in particular when using repetition. How do you mean the word differently each time? What comparison are your setting up?

3. Now, indicate and try different inflections to make your meaning clear. Let’s start with the simplest form of repetition, epizeuxis.

EPIZEUXIS – DIRECT REPETITION (e-pi-zook'-sis) From Gk. epi, "upon" and zeugnunai, "to yoke. Repetition of words with no others between, for vehemence or emphasis. The same word is repeated two or more times over in immediate succession; repetition of the same word, word, word! It is a very powerful form of expressing something vehemently. Usually, the vehemence grows with each repetition. As actors, we need to be specific with the imagery and actions we put behind each repetition, so that it’s not a redundant list. Try increasing your stakes and emphasis in each of the following. Of course, exceptions make the rule, you could also try increasing the stakes but decreasing the volume in the following examples. I put the first one in bold.

And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life!

Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,

And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more,

Never, never, never, never, never!

Pray you, undo this button: thank you, sir.

Do you see this? Look on her, look, her lips,

Look there, look there! Dies

-- King Lear in King Lear

Now you try She should have died hereafter.

There would have been a time for such a word.

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow

Creeps in this petty pace from day to day

To the last syllable of recorded time,


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- Macbeth

Whip me, ye devils,

From the possession of this heavenly sight!

Blow me about in winds! roast me in sulphur!

Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire!

O Desdemona! Desdemona! dead!

Oh! Oh! Oh!

- Othello

With epizeuxis, the volume and intensity typically rises with each repetition. More importantly, think of how the word has changed for you with each repetition. What exactly do you mean by the repetition. What different action or subtext comes with each repeat?

SEPARATED EPIZEXIS – SEPARATED REPETITION

Separated Epizexis is repetition of a word or phrase with a different meaning separated by other words within the line.

You have good leave to leave us

- Duke Frederick, Twelfth Night

Now you try Bring him dead or living within this twelvemonth, or turn thou no more to seek a living in our territory.

- Duke Frederick, Twelfth Night

ANAPHORA – REPEATED BEGINNING (an-NAF-ruh): Figure of repetition that occurs when the first word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases; repetition of the initial word(s) over successive phrases or clauses. "Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!" - King John, II, i

When using Anapophora, if the repeated word is the main noun or verb in the sentence, give it special emphasis and allow each repetition to have its own variant meaning. If however, as in the case above, the anaphoric word is a modifier, makes sure that the modified words (world, kings, composition) get the main emphasis (or at least as much) and the repeated word a secondary emphasis. For Example:

"Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!" - King John, II, i

Modern Uses "To raise a happy, healthy, and hopeful child, it takes a family; it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety. It takes all of us."

Hillary Clinton, 1996 Democratic National Convention Address

"What we need in the United States is not division. What we need in the United States is not hatred. What we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is


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love and wisdom and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country whether they be white or whether they be black."

Robert F. Kennedy, Announcing the death of Martin Luther King

EPISTROPHE- REPEATED ENDING (eh-PISS-truh-FEE): Figure of repetition that occurs when the last word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is repeated one or more times at the end of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases. "Now I want you to remember that no bastard ever won a war by dying for his country. He won it by making the other poor dumb bastard die for his country."

- delivered by George C. Scott (from the movie Patton)

SYMPLOCE – REPEATED BEGINNING AND REPEATED END Figure of repetition that combines Anaphora and Epistrophe in which the first and last word or words in one phrase, clause, or sentence are repeated in one or more successive phrases, clauses, or sentences; repetition of the first and last words in a clause over successive clauses. "Much of what I say might sound bitter, but it's the truth. Much of what I say might sound like it's stirring up trouble, but it's the truth. Much of what I say might sound like it is hate, but it's the truth."

-- Malcolm X

ANADIPLOSIS - REPETITION AFTER PUNCTUATION Anadiplosis is the immediate repetition of a single word or group of two to three words, when the repetition of the last word of one line or clause to begin the next, separate by a punctuation mark. It comes from two Greek words meaning "to double back again" or "to reduplicate" This is a powerful rhetorical device and Shakespeare uses it quite often. It’s used in important passges of the Bible. Modern politicians and poets still use it a lot. The power of anadiplosis lies in its forward motion. The first word is links into the past or present situation, the repeat of the word reaches for the future, propels the audience into the consequences and future of the situation. Anadiplosis can create a future world that is not true for now, but is within reach. Repeated anadiplosis is particularly powerful and creates a climax, or ladder, which we will look at in the next heading.

In Shakespeare Eyes without feeling, feeling without sight.

But to my self, my self did give the blow

Then had my love, my love for ever been.

The love of wicked men converts to fear, That fear to hate, and hate turns one or both To worthy danger and deserved death.

—Richard II 5.1.66-68

In the Bible "In the beginning God made the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep


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- Genesis 1:1-2

"Earth" is the "doubled" word, the word that links the "beginning" of verse 1 and the "darkness" of verse two.

Modern Examples "They call for you: The general who became a slave; the slave who became a gladiator; the gladiator who defied an Emperor. Striking story."

- From the movie Gladiator)

"Tonight, we are a country awakened to danger and called to defend freedom. Our grief has turned to anger, and anger to resolution."

- George W. Bush, 9-20-01 Address to Congress and the Nation

CLIMAX – THE LADDER Laddering is the mounting progress of thought in a speech, a build from point to point to a conclusion. The character takes a series of anadiplosis terms and builds them to a climax.

Exercise - Ladder In the quote below Shakespeare takes a specific word representing an idea and then compares it to another idea. The word is then repeated in its current form or a conjugated version as the thought develops through the character’s thought process. The first example italicizes the laddering words as they develop through the thought. Lets try it:

EXAMPLE 1 His virtue made him wise, his wisdom brought him wealth,

His wealth won many friends, his friends made much supply.

See the ladder? See the repeated word? (I’ve italicized them, so it should be pretty easy.) The first rung and last rung of the ladder are not repeated; every other rung in between gets a repeat, like putting both feet on the same rung of a ladder before moving up. Thoughts build and ladders go up, so let’s say the lines and go up the ladder with our inflections. Try it with these inflections written above the words. ~ ➚ ➚ ➚ His virtue made him wise, his wisdom brought him wealth,

➚ ➚ ➚ ➘ His wealth won many friends, his friends made much supply.


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In order to make inflections work, they can’t just be “outside in” exercises. You have to use your “actions”, subtext, imagery and other acting tools to flesh it out, to make it natural. The inflection leads the listener up and down the ladder, but your actions tells us what each word means in it’s particular use at this time for you.

EXAMPLE 2 Now in the following example, underline on your own the laddering words that represent the thought movement. Write above your laddering words which inflection you intend to use using the symbols for rising, falling, even, or circumflex.

For your brother and my sister no sooner met but they look'd; no sooner look'd but they

lov'd; no sooner lov'd but they sigh'd; no sooner sigh'd but they ask'd one another the

reason; no sooner knew the reason but they sought the remedy- and in these degrees have

they made pair of stairs to marriage, which they will climb incontinent, or else be

incontinent before marriage. They are in the very wrath of love, and they will together.

Clubs cannot part them.

Now say the example out loud using the inflection choice on each italicized or underlined word. Experiment how using different inflections changes the color of the line and helps communicate the idea. Using the same inflection style over and over without employing other varieties of inflections can lose its effect, so vary it up some. Be careful not to use a falling inflection too often. Be extra critical of yourself as you go through the exercise, or have a partner listen carefully to you and see if they heard the inflection choice you were intending. Having a partner listen to your inflecting is important because you probably are not going as far with the inflection as you think. When speaking aloud, really try to over-exaggerate the sound, just to solidify this new tool. Now try it with this one. Where is the ladder? What inflections will help the audience understand it?

EXAMPLE 3

If words be made of breath and breath of life, I have no life to breathe what thou hast

said to me.

Modern Examples "Fear is the path to the dark side. Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering. I sense much fear in you."

-- Yoda in Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menance


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"Once you change your philosophy, you change your thought pattern. Once you change your thought pattern, you change your attitude. Once you change your attitude, it changes your behavior pattern and then you go on into some action."

- Malcolm X, The Ballot or the Bullet

ANTI-METABOLE - REVERSAL OF WORDS Reversal of words or Anti-metabole is the repetition of two words in comparison as they change purpose within the line without changing conjugation. Notice that it makes a little ladder.

Your gentleness shall force more than your force move us to gentleness. Thy name well fits thy faith, thy faith thy name.

Modern Versions

"We do not stop playing because we grow old; we grow old because we stop playing."

- Benjamin Franklin

"The absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence."

- Carl Sagan

EPANALEPSIS – SAME WORD AT THE BEGINNING AND END (eh-puh-nuh-LEAP-siss) Epanalepsis is the figure of speech when the same word or words are used at beginning and end of the line. This may mean at the end of the verse line as in these examples:

Well may we fight for her whom we know well Fear is more pain than is the pain it fears. They love indeed who quake to say they love.

Deceiu'd in thy Integritie, deceiu'd In that which seemes so. Flies my do this but I from this must flie

- Romeo, Romeo and Juliet -

Epanalapsis may also mean at the beginning and eand of each phrase, as below:

"Blood hath bought blood, and blows have answer'd blows.

- King John, II, i

POLYSYNDETON (paulee-SIN-dih-tawn): Figure of addition and emphasis which intentionally employs a series of conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) not normally found in successive


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words, phrases, or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. "If there be cords, or knives, Poison, or fire, or suffocating streams, I'll not endure it." - Othello, III, iii

ASYNDETON (a-SIN-dih-tawn): Figure of omission in which normally occurring conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) are intentionally omitted in successive phrases, or clauses; a string of words not separated by normally occurring conjunctions. "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came; I saw; I conquered")

- Julius Caesar

"We use words like honor, code, loyalty. We use these words as the backbone of a life spent defending something. You use them as a punch line."

- A Few Good Men

ANTANACLASIS - PUN Antanaclasis is a pun, repeating a single word, but with a different meaning.

My forces raz'd, thy banners rais'd within.


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WORDPLAY

This section deals with rhetoric that sets one word against another, not through repetition, but through change and contrast – opposites, additions, misuse and onomatapoiea.

METAPHOR AND SIMILE Examined in a separate chapter.

ANTITHESIS Comparing a word with its opposite. Antithesis is opposites put side by side. One extreme is compared with its opposite. In the below example, rise on “Least” and fall on “most.” That’s the most common inflection for comparison – rise then fall. Try it now. ➚ ➘ In least speak most to my capacity.

That’s the simplest form of comparison and it can sound formulaic and sing songy very easy. A circumflex works well here too and creates more variety and emphasis. Try that too. ~ ➘ In least speak most to my capacity.

Exercise – Antithesis Now you find and underline the antithetical words below, then pick some inflections and try it. Good have I done you, much, harm did I never none,

Ready to joy at your gaines, your losses bemoan,

Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more." - Julius Caesar, III, ii

IRONY The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. A statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

To be expanded

POLYPTOTON po-lyp-to'-ton. from Gk. poly, "many" and ptotos, "falling" or ptosis, "[grammatical] cas. Polyptoton is one word declining into another. Words with the same root are repeated as they change in form.

Admired Miranda, Indeed the top of admiration


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- Ferdinand, The Tempest New created the creatures that were mine.

- Prospero, Tempest I would my arms could match thee in contention As they contend with thee in courtesy

- Nestor, Troilus and Cressida If it were so, it were a grievous fault; And grievously hath Caesar answere'd it.

- Marc Antony, Julius Caesar

With eager feeding food doth choke the feeder.

—John of Gaunt, Richard II 2.1.37

BRACHYLOGIA Brachylogia is connected subjects and adjectives or verbs in a phrase. In the first example from Hamlet, notice how courtier matches eye, scholar/tongue and soldier’s/sword. The courtier's, scholar's, soldier's, eye, tongue, sword,

- Ophelia, Hamlet

Don’t just run past the comparison of the audience won’t be able to follow the device.

Now line up this next long list of brachylogia. Say it in a way that make sure the audience understands how each word connects to its fellow word. Note that in this scene Enobarbus is talking about Octavius’ love for Antony during a party to celebrate a temporary truce (they really hate each other). He is probably being quite sarcastic, and might be a little drunk. See if you can get laughs from the “hoo!”s and the hard work it is too make the brachylogia work.

Hoo - hearts, tongues, figures, scribes, bards, poets cannot think, speak, cast, write, sing, number - hoo!- His love to Antony

- Enobarbus, Antony and Cleopatra

HYPERBOLE An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.

To be expanded

MALAPROPISM This last example is called a Malapropism, in which words are used incorrectly as a character confuses them with similar words. This is almost always used for a humorous effect. "I do lean upon justice, sir, and do bring in here before your good honor two notorious benefactors."

"Are they not malefactors?"

- Measure for Measure, II, i

Here is a moment of malapropism and brachylogia together.


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The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man's hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive nor his heart to report what my dream was.

- Bottom, A Midsummer Night’s Dream

OXYMORON – IMPOSSIBLE OPPOSITES An oxymoron is an impossible opposite. Extreme opposites are put side by side to describe something beyond natural scope.

Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical! Dove feather'd raven! wofish-ravening lamb!

- Juliet, Romeo and Juliet

PARANOMASIA - NICKNAMER Paranomasia or Nicknamer is a word repeated in the phrase changed by letter or syllable pointing up both.

What says my conceal'd lady to our cancell'd love

- Romeo, Romeo and Juliet A little more than kin and less than kind. - Hamlet

Let Paris bleed; 'tis but a scar to scorn; Paris is gored with Menelaus' horn.

- Troilus, Troilus and Cressida Who dotes, yet doubts, suspects, yet strongly loves

- Iago, Othello To catch with his surcease, success;

- Macbeth

ONOMATAPOIEA

The hum of either army stilly sounds,


The secret whispers of each other's watch.

- Chorus, Henry V

And consequently, like a traitor coward,

Sluiced out his innocent soul through streams of blood:

- RII - Bolingbroke

"There be moe wasps that buzz about his nose."

- Henry VIII, III, ii

PARADOX A statement that appears to contradict itself.

More to be added


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SUMMING UP

In general, a rhetorical device highlights how a character is feeling at a specific moment and aids them in their means to communicate that state. Rhetorical devices in Shakespeare are very similar to when, in musical theater, a character is moved to sing. Emotion is so strong that it cannot be expressed in any other way but a heightened poetic form. There are many other rhetorical devices or figures of speech Shakespeare made use of, these are only a few. Continue to explore the language in its many forms. Always remember that it is the message the character is trying to convey that is the most important. Heightened text provides a layer for the actor to incorporate that informs the character’s emotional state. The message and the emotion are written simultaneously into Shakespeare’s immortal text.

HOW TO FIND RHETORICAL DEVICES IN YOUR TEXT.

1. Look for repeated words. When you find them, discover why you are repeating the word and what you are contrasting. In particular look for words that you are either repeating that your fellow actor just said before you, or that you say and then you scene partner repeats. If you don’t set up a word for your partner, they can’t do anything with it. It’s like playing tennis when you hold the ball, but don’t serve it to your partner. They can’t hit the ball back to you - it’s still in your hand (or more likely, lying on the ground.)

2. Look for antithetical words and phrases. This will help find antithesis and oxymorons. Figure out why it is important to you at this time to make this comparison and then make the difference between the words clear to your partner or audience.

3. Look for words that shares sounds with other words in the line. This will really help you find Paranomasia and Polypyptons.

4. Look for lists – this helps find brachylogia. How do the words connect in each list.

Remember lists are never lists to your character, each is a new example that makes your point in a different way.

5. Look for metaphors and similes – This will be explained in another chapter


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Chapter 9:

Using Thee, Thou, Ye and the Royal ‘We’

I thou thee, thou traitor!

-Sir Edward Coke, 1603

'if thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss' - Twelfth Night

DRAFT - NOT FOR PUBLICATION THEE, THOU AND THE ROYAL ‘WE’

8/8/15 8:57 AM 9. Thee and Thou New-1.doc Page 2 of 16

INTRODUCTION TO THEE AND THOU Today we use only one word, “you,” as the pronoun for the second person in singular, plural, familiar and formal circumstances, but Shakespeare had both the formal ‘you’ form as well as the familiar ‘thou’ form. This usage has died out in the English language, but many other Latin based languages continue to maintain a different set of ‘you’ words for familiar and formal speech. French (tous/vous), German (du/sie), and Spanish (tu/usted) all use the formal ‘Vous’ and the familiar ‘Tu’ (The T-V forms). In a language using the T-V form, there are second-person pronouns that distinguish levels of politeness, social distance, courtesy, familiarity, or insult. In the Elizabethan era, Shakespeare could still use the distinction between the second person singular, plural, familiar and formal.

Latin T-V is a reference to the initial letters of the pronouns in Latin, tu and vos. In Latin, tu was originally the singular, and vos the plural, with no other distinction. Usage of the plural to the Roman emperor began in the fourth century AD, perhaps because there were two emperors at that time (in Constantinople and in Rome.) Roman emperors began to speak of themselves as nos (we) and required to be addressed as vos (plural you). This was later extended to other high powerful figures like the Pope. This led to the French way of addressing all superiors (and later through courtesy all equals, especially strangers) with the plural pronoun ‘vous.’ The royal “we” in English still indicates the relationship of the king and God as a plural unity.

Old English With the conquest of 1066, the French Normans brought the Latin based French romance language into England, where it melded with the Irish, Anglo and Saxon languages to from the new English tongue. ‘Thou’ (probably because of the French use of ‘tu’) became the singular term used for addressing one person; ‘ye’ for more than one or as the form of address for a superior.

Middle English During Middle English, ‘thou’ became the most common form for addressing an inferior. It became normal for a powerful person to use a T-form but expect a V-form in return. A master addressing a servant with ‘you’ would have raised eyebrows in the thirteenth century. "Thou" and "thee" were for familiar use, and "you" and "ye" were formal. "You" was now used in the singular to signify politeness, respect or distance, ‘ye’ the formal plural form, which left "thou" and "thee" for all the other singular uses, ranging from endearing intimacy to bitter rudeness. A good mode to think about this for a modern speaker is the difference between saying “Mr. Doe,” and “John.” In any case where you would use “Mr.,” then “you” is appropriate. The familiar “John” fits with “thou.” So, the President of the United States might call me Jim (thou), but I would still call him Mr. President (you), as it would seem presumptuous of me to assume that familiarity with him, but flattering that he would use it with me.

Early Modern During Shakespeare's time, the distinction between ye and you was disappearing, and ‘you’ became the normal in written and spoken communication. ‘Thou’ and ‘thee’ were also giving way to the more polite ‘you.’

‘Ye’ remained in some use, but by the end of the 16th century it was restricted to archaic, religious, or literary contexts. ‘Ye” might be used to the Gods, magical creatures, formal contexts or to give high status.

‘you’ was used most often. Shakespeare often uses ‘you,’ where in previous centuries “thou” would have been in use. In Richard III, Shakespeare uses the singular or plural ‘you’ 379 times in conversations involving commoners, nobles, and royals.

‘thou’ was still used on occasion for intimacy or rudeness and Shakespeare’s characters sometimes switch back and forth the form they are using as they employ different tactics and emotions. A subtle switch between T-V forms can mean a great deal in French/German/Spanish today, as it did in Shakespeare’s time.



About God as Thou When William Tyndale first translated the Bible into English in the 1526 (and was later executed for doing so), he tried to preserve the singular and plural distinctions from the original Hebrew and Greek. He consistently used thou for the singular and ye for the plural regardless of the relative status of the speaker and the addressee. Tyndale's usage was imitated in the King James Bible (written in the early 1600’s), where God is addressed in the familiar with a capital letter -- "Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done," etc. This was to emphasize that God was not an unapproachable ruler but a God who had a friendly relationship with his people. The use of thou in the King James Bible seem to us in modern times to be formal, and holy; but to the translators and Elizabethan readers, it indicated an intimate familiarity.

NOTE: In order to show that all people were equal before God, Quakers continued to use thee and thou longer than anyone else, and it may still be heard in some ‘plain speech’ Quaker communities.

These words were shifting so much in Shakespeare’s time that he uses them in many different ways, depending on the situation and no one single definition can really hold them. What is important to see is that the relationship of the speaker to whom s/he is addressing is changing whenever there is a switch.

In this example from Hamlet, The Prince uses three different T-V forms in close proximity when talking to the player king as he asks him to put on a special play that he intends to trap Claudius with in performance.

Ham: Dost thou heare me old Friend, can you play the murther of Gonzago? Play. I my Lord. Ham. Wee'l ha't to morrow night. You could for a need study a speech of some dosen or sixteene lines, which I would set downe, and insert in't? Could ye not? Play. I my Lord.

Familiar thou, followed by formal you. Formal you Archaic ‘Ye’ form

THEE AND THOU DIAGRAM Word Translation When to use Thou You When “you” is the subject of the sentence. Thee You When “you” is the object of the sentence.

Thy Your Possessive form of you. Commonly used before a noun that begins with a consonant/consonant sound (like the article, “a”).

Thine Your

Possessive form of you. Commonly used before a noun that begins with vowel/vowel sound (like the article, “an”). Also used when indicating that something is “absolute and understood”.

Ye You (plural) Plural form of “you” when addressing a group of people.

Modern Given the popularity of his plays with audiences, Shakespeare probably helped make the transition from the ‘thee’ and ‘thy’ era to the simple you era of modern English. By 1700, "you" replaced nearly all uses of "thee" and "thou" and “ye.” They only survived in religious context and in poetry. Today, we tend to only encounter thee and thou in biblical quotes, and since people seem to think of God as mighty and remote, they connote the term ‘thee’ as a mark of servility and respect. Thus the once very



familiar pronoun now has the reputation of being a formal servile term. And so, when movies or novels use ‘thou’ today, it is usually used to create a sense of formality and servitude. For example: "What is thy bidding, master?" Star Wars – Darth Vader, speaking to the Emperor In Shakespeare’s time, The Emperor would have used “thy” with Vader and expected to hear “you” in return (unless Vader saw the Emperor as a god or supernatural being, which I suppose is possible). In standard modern English, we also have certain fixed phrases such as "holier than thou" and "fare thee well" which indicate a false sense of status. A few translators and novelists have used the T-V distinction in English with "thou" and "you" to keep a sense of a foreign language’s familiar and polite forms. Ernest Hemingway, in his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, uses the forms "thou" and "you" in order to reflect the relationships between Spanish-speaking characters.

Y’all - Talking to Friends

Originally, thou was simply the singular counterpart to the plural pronoun ye, derived from an ancient Indo-European root. In imitation of continental practice, thou was later used to express intimacy, familiarity, or even disrespect while another pronoun, you, the oblique/objective form of ye, was used for formal circumstances. After thou fell out of fashion, it was primarily retained in fixed ritual settings, so that for some speakers, it came to connote solemnity or formality. In standard modern English, thou continues to be used only in religious contexts, in literature that seeks to capture an archaic sense of formality, and in certain fixed phrases. The disappearance has been compensated for through the use of neologisms in various dialects. Colloquial American English, for example, contains plural constructions that vary regionally, including y'all, youse, and you guys.

DON’T STRESS THE PRONOUN – THEIR USE IS SUBTLE In general, don’t stress the pronoun, stress the key word by it. Although there may be exceptions to this rule, particularly when using the T-V form to be rude, stressing pronouns is a bad habit, so play your action on the strong word closest to the T-V form (often capitalized in the folio), not the T-V form itself, unless the T-V form is in a stressed position in the scansion.

NOTE: Exceptions are exciting, so finding when your character switches from one T-V form to another to remind another character of their status might be a good time to emphasize ‘thee’ or ‘you.’

CONNOTATIONS OF THOU IN SHAKESPEARE’S LANGUAGE In general, Shakespeare uses the intimate ‘thou’ form in the following situations:

• Master to Servant / Parent to Child

• Friend to Friend / Lover to Lover

• Addressing God or the Gods, Praying

• Addressing Witches, Ghosts and Supernatural Beings

• Being rude, creating a higher status above the person addressed

• Being Improper - trying to be familiar when one should not.

As a simple exercise, stand with some distance from your partner and lean in or step closer every time you use a familiar ‘thou’ form (whether in intimacy or rudeness), and pull back or step farther away every time



you use the formal ‘you’ form. For the high status ‘ye’ form, hold your arms out to your partner, or the Gods below or above you. Again, let me emphasize that Shakespeare uses thou and you and ye in many different ways and although I have put guidelines here, the most important part is to change intentions, intimacy and status in your own way. Whatever choice you ultimately make is up to you as an actor, but I hope that you will see how the changing T-V forms create subtle shifts in intimacy throughout the text.

NOTE: Although the T-V forms indicate a shift in status, it doesn’t mean that you emphasize the T-V words themselves. You should only emphasize pronouns when they are in stressed positions in the scansion and/or in contrast to another thought or person. Stressing pronouns can be a very bad habit, so indicate the shift in status physically and with your key words, but not necessarily on thou or you. It’s a subtle thing.

Examples

STATUS – ‘YOU’ FROM HIGH RANK TO LOW RANK, ‘THOU’ FROM THE OPPOSITE ‘You’ was used by people of lower rank or status to those above them (such as ordinary people to nobles, children to parents, servants to masters, nobles to the monarch). By contrast, thou / thee were used by people of higher rank to those beneath them and by the lower classes to each other. A modern analogy would be like the boss saying to the intern “Joe, can you get me that report?” (familiar) and the intern replying “Yes, Mr. Smith” (formal). Familiarity goes down the ladder, but it rarely goes up, particularly in public.

Status – Royalty to common folk

Here is an example of Hamlet talking to Horatio, his best friend. In most cases throughout the play, Hamlet refers to Horatio as ‘thou.’ Horatio, however, always uses ‘you’ with Prince Hamlet. It might be above his status to move to Thou, since Hamlet is royalty and Horatio is not.

Ham. What hoa, Horatio? Hora. Heere sweet Lord, at your Seruice. Ham. Horatio, thou art eene as iust a man As ere my Conuersation coap'd withall. Hora. O my deere Lord. Ham. Nay, do not thinke I flatter: For what aduancement may I hope from thee, That no Reuennew hast, but thy good spirits To feed & cloath thee. Why shold the poor be flatter'd?

You – Formal Thou – Royalty to Commoner

Horatio only switches to “thy’ when he holds the now dead Hamlet in his arms, indicating his intimate friendship to the Prince and perhaps the godlike status he now bestows on him:

Hor: Now cracke a Noble heart: Goodnight sweet Prince, And flights of Angels sing thee to thy rest,

TALKING TO GHOSTS AND SPIRITS Here is the beginning of Hamlet when the Ghost appears to Horatio, Marcellus and Bernardo. All three of them are common folk and can use thee to indicate closeness, or you for distance.

Mar. Peace, breake thee off:

Marcellus uses the familiar thee to indicate his friendship with



Enter the Ghost. Looke where it comes againe. Barn. In the same figure, like the King that's dead. Mar. Thou art a Scholler; speake to it Horatio. Barn. Lookes it not like the King? Marke it Horatio. Hora. Most like: It harrowes me with fear & wonder Barn. It would be spoke too. Mar. Question it Horatio. Hor. What art thou that usurp'st this time of night, Together with that Faire and Warlike forme In which the Maiesty of buried Denmarke Did sometimes march: By Heauen I charge thee speake. Mar. It is offended. Barn. See, it stalkes away. Hor. Stay: speake; speake: I Charge thee, speake. Exit the Ghost. Mar. 'Tis gone, and will not answer. Barn. How now Horatio? You tremble & look pale: Is not this something more then Fantasie? What thinke you on't?

Horatio as the ghost appears and they are all “friends’ in this together. He pulls Horation close and then hides behind him? Horatio now use ‘thou’ to address the Ghost throughout. Bernardo switches back to the formal you once the ghost is gone.

Thou and You in Family Context Here is a bit of Polonius talking to his son, Laertes. when Laertes is about to leave for France. At first he is formal and distant, then switches to the fatherly familiar. Polon. Yet heere Laertes? Aboord, aboord for shame, The winde sits in the shoulder of your saile, And you are staid for there: my blessing with you; And these few Precepts in thy memory, See thou Character. Giue thy thoughts no tongue, Nor any vnproportion'd thought his Act: Be thou familiar; but by no meanes vulgar:

Let’s follow the dialogue in the scene between Hamlet and his mother immediately after the play within the play. Polonius tells Gertrude to give Hamlet a stern talking to, but Hamlet is now sure that Claudius killed his father and he is ripe for revenge (unfortunately, he slays the wrong man.) Throughout the scene, Hamlet uses the formal you, as son to mother, but Gertrude slides back and forth in T-V forms throughout the scene. After the scene Claudius appears using the royal “we.”

Enter Queene and Polonius. Pol. He will come straight: Looke you lay home to him, Tell him his prankes haue been too broad to beare with, And that your Grace hath scree'nd, and stoode betweene Much heate, and him. Ile silence me e'ene heere: Pray you be round with him. Ham. within. Mother, mother, mother. Qu. Ile warrant you, feare me not. Withdraw, I heare him comming.

You - Polonius uses the formal you with the Queen. You – She uses the same formal you with him



Enter Hamlet. Ham. Now Mother, what's the matter? Qu. Hamlet, thou hast thy Father much offended. Ham. Mother, you haue my Father much offended. Qu. Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue. Ham. Go, go, you question with an idle tongue. Qu. Why how now Hamlet? Ham. Whats the matter now? Qu. Haue you forgot me? Ham. No by the Rood, not so: You are the Queene, your Husbands Brothers wife, But would you were not so. You are my Mother.

Qu. Nay, then Ile set those to you that can speake. Ham. Come, come, and sit you downe, you shall not boudge: You go not till I set you vp a glasse, Where you may see the inmost part of you?

Qu. What wilt thou do? thou wilt not murther me? Helpe, helpe, hoa.

LATER IN THE SCENE, after Polonius death. Hamlet harangues his mother for marrying and sleeping with Claudius. Ham. Looke heere vpon this Picture, and on this, The counterfet presentment of two Brothers: See what a grace was seated on his Brow, Hyperions curles, the front of Ioue himselfe, An eye like Mars, to threaten or command A Station, like the Herald Mercurie New lighted on a heauen-kissing hill: A Combination, and a forme indeed, Where euery God did seeme to set his Seale, To giue the world assurance of a man. This was your Husband. Looke you now what followes. Heere is your Husband, like a Mildew'd eare Blasting his wholsom breath. Haue you eyes? Could you on this faire Mountaine leaue to feed, And batten on this Moore? Ha? Haue you eyes? You cannot call it Loue: For at your age, The hey-day in the blood is tame, it's humble, And waites vpon the Iudgement: and what Iudgement Would step from this, to this? What diuell was't, That thus hath cousend you at hoodman-blinde? O Shame! where is thy Blush? Rebellious Hell, If thou canst mutine in a Matrons bones, To flaming youth, let Vertue be as waxe, And melt in her owne fire. Proclaime no shame, When the compulsiue Ardure giues the charge, Since Frost it selfe, as actiuely doth burne, As Reason panders Will. Qu. O Hamlet, speake no more. Thou turn'st mine eyes into my very soule, And there I see such blacke and grained spots, As will not leaue their Tinct.

Thou – Does she switch to the Mother / child in command or in close friendship? Polonius has told her to be ‘round’ with him He replies with formality. She drops the familiar and creates distance. You – formal You – formal You – formal, with a command to ‘sit down’ Thou – She switches to the intimate form, in fear? Playing on Hamlet’s status as her child? Your, you – Formal Your – Formal You – Formal You – Formal You – Formal Your – Formal You – Formal Thy – Familiar, Shame personified Thou – Familiar Thou – Familiar



LATER – When Hamlet begins speaking to the Ghost, a ghost Gertrude cannot see, she switches to the formal distant you. Ham: How is it with you Lady? Qu. Alas, how is't with you? That you bend your eye on vacancie, And with their corporall ayre do hold discourse. Forth at your eyes, your spirits wildely peepe, And as the sleeping Soldiours in th'Alarme, Your bedded haire, like life in excrements, Start vp, and stand an end. Oh gentle Sonne, Vpon the heate and flame of thy distemper Sprinkle coole patience. Whereon do you looke?

LATER – When the King enters he uses the royal we throughout this speech King. Oh heauy deed: It had bin so with vs had we beene there: His Liberty is full of threats to all, To you your selfe, to vs, to euery one. Alas, how shall this bloody deede be answered? It will be laide to vs, whose prouidence Should haue kept short, restrain'd, and out of haunt, This mad yong man. But so much was our loue, We would not vnderstand what was most fit, But like the Owner of a foule disease, To keepe it from divulging, let's it feede Euen on the pith of life. Where is he gone?

You – Formal You – Formal Thy – switch to familiar You – back to formal Claudius uses ‘we’ in reference to himself and God and/or himself and his wife and uses the formal you in reference to his wife.

HUSBANDS AND WIVES

Switching back and forth from You to Thou A husband might address his wife as thou, and she reply with you, or if they were truly equals (in a strong marriage to a strong women of status), they may both use ‘thou.’ Here is an example of a husband and wife, (Hotspur and his wife, Lady Percy, from Henry IV, I) both in the position to use the familiar “thou” and the formal “you,” switching back and forth as they use both intimate tactics and formal tactics. Think that each time they say “thee” they are saying “I love you” or “you are special to me” and each time they switch to “you” they become formal and create distance.

La. But heare you, my lord Hot. What say'st thou my Lady? La. What is it carries you away? Hot. Why, my horse (my Loue) my hors La. Out you mad-headed Ape, a Weazell hath not such a deale of Spleene, as you are tost with. In sooth Ile know your businesse Harry, that I will. I feare my Brother Mortimer doth stirre about his Title, and hath sent for you to line his enterprize. But if you go- Hot. So farre a foot, I shall be weary, Loue La. Come, come, you Paraquito, answer me directly vnto this question, that I shall aske. Indeede Ile breake thy little finger Harry, if thou wilt not tel me true Hot. Away, away you trifler: Loue, I loue thee not, I care not for thee Kate: this is no world To play with Mammets, and to tilt with lips. We must haue bloodie Noses, and crack'd Crownes,

Formal ‘you’ and with ‘my Lord’ a formal greeting. He switches to the familiar ‘thou’ and acknowledges her station as his Lady. But she sticks with ‘you’ and does not switch to the familiar. Still with ‘you’ Finally, she switches to the familiar ‘thy’ and ‘thou,’ as she threatens to break his finger. Does that betray her love even as she threatens? Now he switches to the formal ‘you,’ then right back to ‘thee.’ “I love thee not”, is almost an oxymoron, a joke, acknowledging their close loving relationship while saying he does NOT



And passe them currant too. Gods me, my horse. What say'st thou Kate? what wold'st thou haue with me? La. Do ye not loue me? Do ye not indeed? Well, do not then. For since you loue me not, I will not loue my selfe. Do you not loue me? Nay, tell me if thou speak'st in iest, or no Hot. Come, wilt thou see me ride? And when I am a horsebacke, I will sweare I loue thee infinitely. But hearke you Kate, I must not haue you henceforth, question me, Whether I go: nor reason whereabout. Whether I must, I must: and to conclude, This Euening must I leaue thee, gentle Kate. I know you wise, but yet no further wise Then Harry Percies wife. Constant you are, But yet a woman: and for secrecie, No Lady closer. For I will beleeue Thou wilt not utter what thou do'st not know, And so farre wilt I trust thee, gentle Kate La. How so farre? Hot. Not an inch further. But harke you Kate, Whither I go, thither shall you go too: To day will I set forth, to morrow you. Will this content you Kate? La. It must of force.

love her. He stays familiar throughout the speech. She switches to the more archaic ‘ye’ reserved normally for the Gods, then back to the formal you. In asking for simple truth, back to the familiar. Stays familiar. Switches to the formal. Back to the familiar Back to formal. Back to familiar. Ends with formal.

ANGER AND RUDENESS (TAKING SUPERIOR STATUS) ‘Thou’ commonly expressed special intimacy or affection; you, formality, politeness, and distance. ‘Thou’ could also be used, even by an inferior to a superior, to express such feelings as anger and contempt, crossing the lines of familiarity when they should not be crossed. The use of thou to a person of equal rank could thus easily count as an insult, as Sir Toby Belch says when he advises Sir Andrew Aguecheek on how to write a challenge to 'the Count's youth' (Viola):

'if thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss' (Twelfth Night, III.ii.42)

himself using a demeaning thou in a speech situation where the norm should be you. Likewise, the use of you when thou was expected (such as from master to servant) would also require special explanation."

The above is taken from -- The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, ed. David Crystal (CUP: 1995), p. 71

At the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh in 1603, Sir Edward Coke, prosecuting for the Crown, sought to insult Raleigh by saying:

I thou thee, thou traitor!

Here is an example from the Taming of the Shrew where Signior Gremio “thy’s” Tranio as his elder, and gets “Thy’d” back by Tranio. As they don’t know each other and are rivals for Bianca’s hand, they cannot be using the familiar “thy” of friends.

BAPTISTA: The gaine I seeke, is quiet me the match. GREMIO: No doubt but he hath got a quiet catch. But now, Baptista, to your younger daughter: Now is the day we long have looked for: I am your neighbour, and was suitor first. TRANIO: And I am one that love Bianca more

You – formal



Than words can witness, or your thoughts can guess. GREMIO: Youngling, thou canst not love so dear as I. TRANIO: Graybeard, thy love doth freeze. GREMIO: But thine doth fry. Skipper, stand back: 'tis age that nourisheth. TRANIO: But youth in ladies' eyes that flourisheth. BAPTISTA: Content you, gentlemen: I will compound this strife: 'Tis deeds must win the prize; and he of both That can assure my daughter greatest dower Shall have my Bianca's love. Say, Signior Gremio, What can you assure her?

You – formal Thy – rude status Thy – rude return Thy – Another rude return You – Baptista restores the order.

Laertes uses Thou rudely against the priest that refuses to bury his sister in holy ground

Laer: I tell thee (churlish Priest) A Ministring Angell shall my Sister be When thou liest howling?

In contrast, he uses the “thou” of familiar equal friendship with Hamlet, as he confesses and regrets his part in Hamlet’s murder, while Hamlet uses the rude form with Claudius.

Ham. Oh Villany! How? Let the doore be lock'd. Treacherie, seeke it out.

Laer. It is heere Hamlet.

Hamlet, thou art slaine, No Medicine in the world can do thee good. In thee, there is not halfe an houre of life; The Treacherous Instrument is in thy hand, Vnbated and envenom'd: the foule practise Hath turn'd it selfe on me. Loe, heere I lye, Neuer to rise againe: Thy Mothers poyson'd: I can no more, the King, the King's too blame.

Ham. The point envenom'd too,

Then venome to thy worke. Hurts the King. All. Treason, Treason. King. O yet defend me Friends, I am but hurt. Ham. Heere thou incestuous, murdrous, Damned Dane, Drinke off this Potion: Is thy Vnion heere? Follow my Mother. King Dyes. Laer. He is iustly seru'd. It is a poyson temp'red by himselfe: Exchange forgiuenesse with me, Noble Hamlet; Mine and my Fathers death come not vpon thee, Nor thine on me. Dyes. Ham. Heauen make thee free of it, I follow thee.

Thou, thee and thy – all familiar equal status Thy – familiar rude status. Thou and thy – familiar rude status. Thee and thine –familiar equal status Thee and thine –familiar equal status



Here is a piece from King Lear where Kent oversteps his bonds by using the thou form with King Lear. Kent uses both the rude thou (by pulling a higher status and calling Lear an old man) and the familiar thou (family closeness) to try to convince Lear to recant his decision to disinherit Cordelia, but Lear is incensed at Kent’s impertinence and banishes him. KENT: Royal Lear, Whom I have ever honour'd as my king, Loved as my father, as my master follow'd, As my great patron thought on in my prayers,-- KING LEAR: The bow is bent and drawn, make from the shaft. KENT: Let it fall rather, though the fork invade The region of my heart: be Kent unmannerly, When Lear is mad. What wilt thou do, old man? Think'st thou that duty shall have dread to speak, When power to flattery bows? To plainness honour's bound, When majesty stoops to folly. Reverse thy doom; And, in thy best consideration, cheque This hideous rashness: answer my life my judgment, Thy youngest daughter does not love thee least; Nor are those empty-hearted whose low sound Reverbs no hollowness. KING LEAR: Kent, on thy life, no more. KENT: My life I never held but as a pawn To wage against thy enemies; nor fear to lose it, Thy safety being the motive. KING LEAR: Out of my sight! KENT: See better, Lear; and let me still remain The true blank of thine eye. KING LEAR: Now, by Apollo,-- KENT: Now, by Apollo, king, Thou swear'st thy gods in vain. KING LEAR: O, vassal! miscreant!

Thou – rude status Thou – familiar friendly status Thou – giving Kent servant status. Thy – familiar friendly Thou – which one is it, familiar pleading or rude explosion? Thou – Rude status.

Here is another example from Cymbeline. The King’s (Cymbeline’s) former soldier, Belarius, was falsely accused and banished 20 years ago. In revenge, he stole Cymbeline’s two sons and has raised them as his own. Now in the final scene of the play, the truth of their identity is revealed. See how Belarius takes status over Cymbeline with the “rude” from of thou, then after saying “I am too blunt and saucy” makes a change in tactic and returns to “you.”

BEL. Stay, Sir King. This man is better then the man he slew, As well descended as thy selfe, and hath More of thee merited, then a Band of Clotens Had euer scarre for. Let his Armes alone, They were not borne for bondage. CYM. Why old Soldier: Wilt thou vndoo the worth thou art vnpayd for By tasting of our wrath? How of descent As good as we? ARVI. In that he spake too farre. CYM. And thou shalt dye for't. BEL. We will dye all three, But I will proue that two one's are as good As I haue giuen out him. My Sonnes, I must For mine owne part, vnfold a dangerous speech,

Thy – rude, taking status over Cymbeline Royal – our, we Thou – King to Vassal



Though haply well for you. ARVI. Your danger's ours. GUID. And our good his. BEL. Haue at it then, by leaue Thou hadd'st (great King) a Subiect, who Was call'd Belarius. CYM. What of him? He is a banish'd Traitor. BEL. He it is, that hath Assum'd this age: indeed a banish'd man, I know not how, a Traitor. CYM. Take him hence, The whole world shall not saue him. BEL. Not too hot; First pay me for the Nursing of thy Sonnes, And let it be confiscate all, so soone As I haue receyu'd it. CYM. Nursing of my Sonnes? BEL. I am too blunt, and sawcy: heere's my knee: Ere I arise, I will preferre my Sonnes, Then spare not the old Father. Mighty Sir, These two young Gentlemen that call me Father, And thinke they are my Sonnes, are none of mine, They are the yssue of your Loynes, my Liege, And blood of your begetting.

Thy – rude, taking status Here, Belarius, changes his tactic, and kneels before the king, restoring status. Return to the formal “you” of servant to King.

USING YE TO GODS AND MAGICAL CREATURES “Ye” Exercise: In this example, Prospero mixes the Ye and You forms. In this speech he calls all the elves, puppets and magical creatures he has held in servitude on the island and invocates that he is ready to give up all his magic and “drown my booke.”

For the high status ‘ye’ form, hold your arms out to your partner, or the Gods below or above you. For ‘you’ status, try taking a step back or pointing out specifically the location of the ‘puppets’ and those you make ‘midnight mushrumps.’ Ye Elues of hils, brooks, standing lakes & groues, And ye, that on the sands with printlesse foote Doe chase the ebbing- Neptune, and doe flie him When he comes backe: you demy-Puppets, that By Moone-shine doe the greene sowre Ringlets make, Whereof the Ewe not bites: and you, whose pastime Is to make midnight-Mushrumps, that reioyce To heare the solemne Curfewe, by whose ayde (Weake Masters though ye be) I haue bedymn'd The Noone-tide Sun, call'd forth the mutenous windes, And twixt the greene Sea, and the azur'd vault Set roaring warre:

SWITCHING BACK AND FORTH Shakespeare sometimes followed the old rules and sometimes ignored them, preferring you, for example, to thee, thy, or ye–regardless of the social status of who was speaking to whom. In The Merchant of Venice,



Portia uses thou or thee one moment to address her servant, Nerissa, and you the next to address the same woman. Since Nerissa is her servant, the stricter rules of the previous century would dictate that Portia always use ‘thee’ with Nerissa, since Portia has higher status, yet Shakespeare mixes it up. This can help actors follow the subtle shifting of the relationship from familiar to formal.

In Henry V, the hostess uses thy and your in the same sentence when addressing Nym as she tries to get him to stop fighting. In this following passage, the shifting t-v forms may indicate that she beseeches or pleads with Nym with familiar ‘thy,’ then creates quick distance and command by useing the formal thou. You can play a wide variety of actions here in both positions. What is most important is to change actions with the shifting pronouns.

QUICKLY: Good Corporal Nym, show thy valour and put up your sword.”

Here is Leontes (the King in Winter’s Tale who believes his wife is having an affair and that his servant, Camillo, is lying to him about it) switching forms from line to line.

Leo. Say it be, 'tis true. Cam. No, no, my Lord. Leo. It is: you lye, you lye: I say thou lyest Camillo, and I hate thee, Pronounce thee a grosse Lowt, a mindlesse Slaue,

In Henry IV, Shakespeare has Falstaff mix up the two forms speaking to Prince Henry, the heir apparent and Falstaff's commanding officer, in the same lines of dialogue:

Enter Henry Prince of Wales, Sir Iohn Fal- staffe, and Pointz. Fal. Now Hal, what time of day is it Lad? PRINCE: Thou art so fat-witted with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast forgotten to demand that truly which thou wouldest truly know. What a devil hast thou to do with the time of the day? … FALSTAFF: Indeed, you come near me now, Hal … And, I prithee, sweet wag, when thou art a king, as God save thy Grace – Majesty, I should say; for grace thou wilt have none –

As the soon to be monarch, the Prince uses the familiar ‘thou’ to show his higher status over Falstaff.

Falstaff acknowledges the status with ’you’ but then switches to the intimate ‘thou’ of a good friend and confidante, even as he is calling Hal the future king.

NOW YOU TRY!

Examine the two scenes below. Identify the changes in you and thou and incorporate them into your reading. Remember, don’t put unneeded stress on ‘you’ or ‘thou’, but do observe physically how that changes the relationship with your scene partner.

Moving with T-V As an exercise, try this:

❏ Thou - Make a step or gesture towards your scene partner on the informal ‘thou.’ ❏ You - Make a step or gesture away from your scene partner on the formal ‘you’.

Also, look for other ways in which characters address each other while trying to change their status.

❏ Title - If you use a title – Lord, Grace, etc. – then bow, kneel, incline your head, or find some physicalization for the status you are creating.



❏ Family - If you use a familial title – cousin, brother, friend, etc - reach toward your partner, or use a familiar welcoming gesture.

❏ Put Down - If you use an inappropriate or rude title – boy, sirrah, etc – flip your hand up, taunt them to you, or push them away, or point down with your gesture.

Look at this scene from Much Ado About Nothing. Here Leonato and his brother Anthony are assaulting Claudio and Don Pedro the Prince for having slandered Hero’s name at Claudio and Hero’s wedding ceremony. Notice how Claudio and the Prince try to maintain composure while Leonato and Anthony let loose on them.

Claud. My villany? Leonato. Thine Claudio, thine I say. Prin. You say not right old man. Leon. My Lord, my Lord, Ile proue it on his body if he dare, Despight his nice fence, and his actiue practise, His Maie of youth, and bloome of lustihood. Claud. Away, I will not haue to do with you. Leo. Canst thou so daffe me? thou hast kild my child, If thou kilst me, boy, thou shalt kill a man. Bro. He shall kill two of vs, and men indeed, But that's no matter, let him kill one first: Win me and weare me, let him answere me, Come follow me boy, come sir boy, come follow me Sir boy, ile whip you from your foyning fence, Nay, as I am a gentleman, I will. Leon. Brother. Brot. Content your self, God knows I lou'd my neece, And she is dead, slander'd to death by villaines, That dare as well answer a man indeede, As I dare take a serpent by the tongue. Boyes, apes, braggarts, Iackes, milke-sops. Leon. Brother Anthony. Brot. Hold you content, what man?

Claudio and Prince, how easy was it to keep formality and distance? Leonato and Anthony, how successful were you at putting Claudio and the Prince in their places? Now look at this scene from Henry V. King Henry has just conquered France, and now, all he has to do is conquer Katherine’s heart. As princess of France, Katherine doesn’t know much English. This proves an obstacle in King Henry’s wooing her. Is King Henry more successful when he speaks formally, or informally, in French, or in English?

King. No, it is not possible you should loue the Ene- mie of France, Kate; but in louing me, you should loue the Friend of France: for I loue France so well, that I will not part with a Village of it; I will haue it all mine: and Kate, when France is mine, and I am yours; then yours



is France, and you are mine. Kath. I cannot tell wat is dat. King. No, Kate? I will tell thee in French, which I am sure will hang vpon my tongue, like a new-married Wife about her Husbands Necke, hardly to be shooke off; Ie quand sur le possession de Fraunce, & quand vous aues le possession de moy. (Let mee see, what then? Saint Dennis bee my speede) Donc vostre est Fraunce, & vous estes mienne. It is as easie for me, Kate, to conquer the Kingdome, as to speake so much more French: I shall neuer moue thee in French, vnlesse it be to laugh at me. Kath. Sauf vostre honeur, le Francois ques vous parleis, il & melieus que l' Anglois le quel Ie parle. King. No faith is't not, Kate: but thy speaking of my Tongue, and I thine, most truely falsely, must needes be graunted to be much at one. But Kate, doo'st thou vnderstand thus much English? Canst thou loue mee? Kath. I cannot tell. King. Can any of your Neighbours tell, Kate? Ile aske them. Come, I know thou louest me: and at night, when you come into your Closet, you'le question this Gentlewoman about me; and I know, Kate, you will to her disprayse those parts in me, that you loue with your heart: but good Kate, mocke me mercifully, the rather gentle Princesse, because I loue thee cruelly. If euer thou beest mine, Kate, as I haue a sauing Faith within me tells me thou shalt; I get thee with skambling, and thou must therefore needes proue a good Souldier-breeder: Shall not thou and I, betweene Saint Dennis and Saint George, compound a Boy, halfe French halfe English, that shall goe to Constantinople, and take the Turke by the Beard. Shall wee not? what say'st thou, my faire Flower-de-Luce. Kate. I doe not know dat. King. No: 'tis hereafter to know, but now to promise: doe but now promise Kate, you will endeauour for your French part of such a Boy; and for my English moytie, take the Word of a King, and a Batcheler. How answer you, La plus belle Katherine du monde mon trescher & deuin deesse. Kath. Your Maiestee aue fause Frenche enough to deceiue de most sage Damoiseil dat is en Fraunce.

How successful were you at seducing the French Princess?



SUMMING IT UP The most important thing to notice and use with acting the T-V forms in Shakespeare is:

• Characters referring to each other in different modes. In such cases examine the status of the two characters and how it changes as they change modes. If you are consistently using ‘thou,’ but your partner is using ‘you,’ what is the difference in status? Is it the equivalent of you saying “ How are you, Bill?” and him replying with “I’m fine, Mr. Smith”?

• When characters switch back and forth from ‘you’ to ‘thou.’ This indicates that the relationship has, for a moment, changed. Notice the subtle shifting of intimacy and formality as the pronouns flow back and forth to see if your character might be being either an affectionate, intimate, rude or commanding pose. What happens when we switch from the use of full names to first names, then back?

• Don’t stress the pronoun, stress the key word by it. Stressing pronouns is a bad habit in general, so play your action on the strong word closest to the T-V form (often capitalized in the folio), not the T-V form itself, unless the T-V form is in a stressed position in the scansion.

NOTE: Exceptions are exciting, so finding when your character switches from one T-V form to another to remind another character of their status might be a good time to emphasize ‘thee’ or ‘you.’

Try to use strong actions to support these emotional T-V markers and a lot of illuminating choices can occur.

Chapter 10: Status, Titles,

Bows and Courtesies By Jim Helsinger

Last printed 8/8/15 9:00 AM 10. Status, Titles, Bows and Courtesies.doc Page 2 of 19

INTRODUCTION TO STATUS The United States Declaration of Independence states: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal…

In American theory, anyone who comes from any economic, racial, sexual, religious or other background can become the leader of the country or hold any high position. Everyone is supposed to get the same respect and care under law, in a store, in a restaurant, at home, and in the government. Although we do have titles like Doctor, Mister, Ms. and others, we have a government and national style reaching for equalization. Even the highest elected official, the President, is a Mr., as in “Mr. President,” not your Majesty, your Holiness, my Liege, your Grace, or even my Lord. So it’s easy to think that all the titles used in Shakespeare (and they are many and changing constantly) are not very important, but they are very important clues in the text, indicating the moment-to-moment relationship between people and the current feelings they have towards each other. Elizabethan society, the world that Shakespeare was born into, was very different from ours. Elizabethans believed there was an explicit and divine order in the world, from God in Heaven down to the lowest beggar on the street and below to the fires of Hell. Everyone was a part of that order and it was important to stay in that order or chaos would reign, the world would be destroyed and the powers of Satan would burst forth. This structure was directly reflected in every way – in the government, at home, at church and in all daily interactions.

AN EXAMPLE HIERARCHY SPEECH – ODYSSEUS Here is a speech by Odysseus from Troilus and Cressida describing the Elizabethan world order. He states that all things have an exact place in the universe and in society. If they get out of alignment, if that divine order is shaken, “untune that string,” and chaos will reign in both heaven and earth. The Heauens themselues, the Planets, and this Center, Obserue degree, priority, and place, Insisture, course, proportion, season, forme, Office, and custome, in all line of Order: And therefore is the glorious Planet Sol In noble eminence, enthron'd and sphear'd Amid'st the other, whose med'cinable eye Corrects the ill Aspects of Planets euill, And postes like the Command'ment of a King, Sans checke, to good and bad. But when the Planets In euill mixture to disorder wander, What Plagues, and what portents, what mutiny? What raging of the Sea? shaking of Earth? Commotion in the Windes? Frights, changes, horrors, Diuert, and cracke, rend and deracinate The vnity, and married calme of States Quite from their fixure? O, when Degree is shak'd, (Which is the Ladder to all high designes) The enterprize is sicke. How could Communities, Degrees in Schooles, and Brother-hoods in Cities, Peacefull Commerce from diuidable shores, The primogenitiue, and due of Byrth, Prerogatiue of Age, Crownes, Scepters, Lawrels, (But by Degree) stand in Authentique place? Take but Degree away, vn-tune that string, And hearke what Discord followes: each thing meetes In meere oppugnancie. The bounded Waters, Should lift their bosomes higher then the Shores, And make a soppe of all this solid Globe:


Strength should be Lord of imbecility, And the rude Sonne should strike his Father dead: Force should be right, or rather, right and wrong, (Betweene whose endlesse iarre, Iustice recides) Should loose her names, and so should Iustice too. Then euery thing includes it selfe in Power, Power into Will, Will into Appetite, And Appetite (an vniuersall Wolfe, So doubly seconded with Will, and Power) Must make perforce an vniuersall prey, And last, eate vp himselfe.

Comparisons Sun – Planets –Earth – Land/Ocean – Floods/Famine King – Community – Schools/Brotherhoods Father –Son Justice-Will-Appetite Wolfe-prey-eate himself

A title or position is not just a definition of rank, it is a definition of the person it represents. Certain respect and manners are due to everyone, and addressing someone with the appropriate title is the first step in winning their respect in return. With respect comes honor, and honor is one of the most valued and coveted things in the Elizabethan world. Your financial and social position in life is based almost entirely on the honor you have recognized and the respect that is given to you and defined by the title you hold.

GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE Listed below are various political/social, familial, and religious titles listed according to rank from highest to lowest in Shakespeare’s time. Nobility (Government) Some Suggested Physical Moves Royalty (The King and immediate Family) King / Queen The anointed king of the country, God’s representative to the people on earth. It is possible for the Queen to be the ruling monarch, as was Queen Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII. She was not married and had no King. Referred to as “Sovereign, majesty, your Grace, etc.”

Hold yourself upright and fully erect. Feel the weight of your crown. Nod your head to others to give them respect. Wave a hand to the crowd. Indicate to others that they may stand after they have knelt. Only bow to other heads of state and never lower than them. You can sit, everyone has to stand, unless you indicate that they may sit.

Prince or Princess Son and daughters of the King. The first born son is usually the Prince of Wales.

Same as above Court bow before you sovereign, always lower than him.

Nobility - The Peerage – Lords and their Families The below titles represent the formal body of aristocracy, distinguished by titles and by the right to sit in the House of Lords. Apart from attendance in Parliament, their main privileges were access to the monarch and the right to trial by the House of Lords. All referred to as Lord X or Lady X, or by the specific titles below.

Court Bow to your King or Prince, always lower than him. You might kneel to the King if your need is high, or if the King is in a bad mood. Kneel or bow low on the words “Sovereign or Majesty” After kneeling, stand up on “My Lord, or My Liege, or after the King has indicated for you to stand”


Nod or otherwise acknowledge those below the peerage.

Duke / Duchess Controller of a duchy (like a governor of a state), for example the Duke of York, Duke of Lancaster and Duke or Gloucester. All the aforementioned are usually held by the King’s sons, brothers, or uncles. The title remains regardless of the person holding it. So, although there is a Duke of York in almost all of Shakespeare’s histories, that title is almost always held by a different person. May also be referred to as “Sovereign, or your Grace, etc.” by those beneath them.

For all of the Peerage follow the same rules and always bow lower to the peerage members above you.

Marquis / Marchioness One step above a Count, the term originally denoted a count holding a march, or mark (frontier district). There are currently only 34 marquessates

See above

Earl (Count) / Countess Corresponding to a Count in Europe. In charge of a district or “county.” Originally from the Old English “eorl” warrior, nobleman.

See above

Viscount / Viscountess Comes from the Latin vicecomes, vice-count. Usually a son or younger brother or a count.

See above

Baron / Baroness The Lowest Rank of the English Peerage. Originally, those who held land direct of the crown by military service. A baron would hold a barony.

See above

Ranks Below the Peerage – Commoners Knight / Knight’s Lady Originally an armed and mounted warrior serving a feudal superior; usually. Usually held land for a feudal lord. Knighthood is a non-heritable form of gentility, but is not nobility. Referred to as “Sir.”

Kneel to or court bow very low to Rulers Kneel on the words “Sovereign or Majesty” After kneeling, stand up on “My Lord, or My Liege, or after the King has indicated for you to stand” Court Bow deeply to the Peerage Equal court bow to other knights (If you are a courtly knight, you would do all these things well, but you may also be a country knight and not do all these things well.) Brief court bow to those below you.

Squire – Land owner of a district or country estate Referred to as “Master”

Kneel to the King Court Bow to the Peerage Elizabethan bow to equals You may greet friends with a Roman “forearm” handshake. Nod to those below you

Gentleman A member of the landed Gentry, a landowner. In our modern day the term “gentlemen” refers to manners, but at that time, the term was specific to land ownership. A landowner should have been schooled and have good manners, but not always. To a degree,

Same as above


"gentleman" signified a man who did not need to work as he received monies from his lands. A Gentleman usually had a coat of arms (Shakespeare got one and thus became a gentleman). Referred to as “Master” Government officials – Justices, Masters of Revels, Chancery, physicians, mayors and other head officers

Same as above

Merchants, Craftsmen – The growth of the middle-class of Elizabethan Society was a giant change in society in between the rich and the poor. Wool merchants, tanners, blacksmiths, glovers (Shakespeare’s father trade) and more had middle class incomes and positions in society. The Guildhalls (Elizabethan unions) held great power over most specialties and industries.

Same as above.

Lower Class Commoners Soldiers Although the Elizabethans did not have

particular salutes, attentions and at ease as modern armies do, stage plays usually create them, I believe since the audience expects it. So for a particular production, you will probably have a form of Salute, Attention, and at ease. Otherwise, same as above.

Peasants, Labourers Tenants who work on someone else's land for wages.

Kneel to the King Elizabethan bow to all, very low to anyone above you. (or try a court bow, but you may not know it) You might kneel to those above you if you feel they are in great power. You can use full abasement (flat on floor) if you are in real trouble.

Servants – Grooms are generic household serving men: grooms of the stable, chamber, etc. Females of the same order are called maids or serving maids: of the kitchen, chamber, still room, etc Called “manservant, or just “man” or “sirrah” A lady might refer to her gentlewoman or her maid.

Same as above

Foole – Clown Foole, or Sirrah

Mockingly do whatever you want, but be ready to be knocked about for it from those of high class, or really just about anyone. You can “fool” or mock, most anyone, if you can get away with it.

Beggar Sirrah

Grovel, stay very low, bent over, hold your hand out for money. Full abasement, lying on the floor for complete mercy.


FAMILIES This same hieriarchy is rigidly respected in the home as well in the following order:

• Father • 1st Born Son (as he comes of age) • Mother • Other Sons • Daughters • Cousins • Servants

PATRONAGE: RETINUE, COMPANIONS, AND LIVERY

Men Young men go to Court to find a patron. Any of the great nobles draws such gentlemen to him in an essentially feudal relationship, based on personal loyalty, service, gifts, and favors. These can include knights and younger sons, often with substantial incomes of their own. They might instead be scholars, musicians, and intellectuals, depending on the lord's inclinations. Some of the gentry put their sons into great homes for their education and advancement. Retainers, companions, or personal attendants are not necessarily poor relations. The earl of Essex has a knight in his train worth £1,000 per year! Some of these companions are the armed (and often dangerous) men who go everywhere with their patron, to back him in a quarrel or simply to be there for the party. The lord maintains them, pays them a fee (wages or favors), puts them in his livery, and gives them nominal positions in the household (such as gentleman or yeoman usher.) Their main function is to increase the prestige of the patron while putting themselves in the way of advancement.

Women A noble lady draws her waiting women from her relatives (and/or her husband's) and the daughters of the gentry. She helps her unmarried girls of good family to find suitable marriages and introduces them at Court. If they marry any of the Earl's followers, they may stay in attendance upon the Countess. A great lady's gentlewomen join her in sewing, minding the older children, dispensing charity in the neighborhood, nursing the household. They also take charge of her clothing, jewelry, etc. The Queen's Maids of Honor are (or should be) in this same client relationship to the Queen. They are her servants; she looks after their future. She is supposed to be finding them good husbands.

LIVERY A nobleman provides livery for his servants in both Summer and Winter weights and sometimes variant colors. Sir William Petre put his household in blue for summer and a marbled grey for winter. Livery can mean uniform clothing, or a badge of the lord's family on the sleeve, or a cloak in the lord's colors with the livery badge on the shoulder. The Earl of Southampton gave his followers each a gold chain as their livery token. If you take a nobleman's livery (sometimes called taking his cloth) you become his follower (that is, his servant) and you owe him loyalty and other services as required. You also share his exemption from certain laws. Peers cannot be arrested except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace (aside: the U.S. Constitution until amended in 1995 made the same guarantee to members of Congress), and neither can anyone in their livery. They cannot be put to torture without being attainted first. A statute in every Tudor reign forbade the wearing of livery by any but household servants, to discourage factional fighting and the build up of private armies. For a while this threatened the freedom of liveried actors.


ABOUT KNIGHTS Knights are not noble. They are knightly. Knights and peers' sons may sit, by election or appointment, in the House of Commons. An ordinary, undifferentiated knight is a Knight Bachelor. Knight Banneret is an honour conferred on a man who distinguished himself on the battlefield in front of his monarch. It is a battlefield promotion which permits him to cut the tails off his pennon (making it a banner) and permits/requires him to lead a company of his own men under it. In Elizabeth's reign, there are only three, including Sir Ralph Sadler. Knights of the Garter outrank all the other knights. Note: The rank of Baronet (an hereditary knighthood) does not exist until James I invents it as a money making scheme. In 1558, there were no more than about 600 knights in the country.

HONOR AND DUELING Is nowhere described better than by Lawrence Stone in Crisis of the Aristocracy:

Tempers were short and weapons easy to hand. The basic characteristics of the nobility, like those of the poor, were ferocity and childishness and lack of self-control.

Calling someone a liar, or otherwise impugning his honor, his courage, or his name is a challenge in itself. Dueling is illegal, so you take the fight out of the way, and sometimes out of the country (any war-zone will do). Usually this is single combat, unlike the group duels of France, which lead to long-standing feuds. If you are angry enough, you may not wait for a duel, or even for a fair fight. One (or some) of your men may lie in ambush. People get killed this way all the time, though often it's a gentleman's retainers who take the brunt of the attack. Sir John Hawkins was killed by someone who mistook him for Sir Christopher Hatton. Sir Drew Drury was killed in a dispute over precedence.

The Noble Style The prime proof of rank and nobility is liberality. People want to be known for their hospitality. The ideal is a substantial house, plenty of servants, a lavish table where anyone is welcome. As further evidence of liberality, the broken meats (table leavings) are customarily given to the poor at the kitchen door. (Incidentally, this also counts as "good works".) As a great compliment, it was said of the 3rd Earl of Derby: "His house in plenty was ever maintained." This has to be tempered by the need to live within one's income and avoid oppressing the tenantry to raise the cash. One Earl and Countess of Rutland got so carried away they had to be put on a budget of £200 a year! Income is usually discussed as rentals, and does not take into account profits from offices, industry, land farmed by the lord himself, profits of court, bribes, douceurs, and sale of offices. Very few noblemen have an accurate notion of their full income, gross or net. That's what you have servants for.


THE CHURCH First of all, remember that the Church of England was created by Elizabeth’s father, King Henry VIII. Catholicism was abolished. Icons were destroyed, the churches were whitewashed and the “Popery” became the enemy. Many, many Englishman (including perhaps shakespeare’s family) are still secret Catholics, however. Certain ecclesiastical titles are also ranked with the peers. Bishops have a rank equal to that of an Earl. Archbishops rank with the Dukes, and are addressed as Your Grace.

Pope The Catholic leader of the church. The Church of England has broken with the Pope of Rome and “Popery” is illegal in England. There is no Pope in England.

People Kneel and Kiss your Ring. DETAILS ON ALL BELOW TO BE ADDED

Cardinal – Next level below pope in the Catholic Church

Archbishop The highest position in the Church of England. There are 2 Archbishops - Canterbury, and York. The 3rd highest position in the Catholic Church. Referred to as “Your Grace”

Bishop Of a diocese. Often has a cathedral.

Archdeacon Oversees a number of deaneries.

Dean In charge of a deanery consisting of a number of parishes in a particular district.

Parish Priest In charge of the most local level, often consisting of one church building and surrounding community.

Vicar, Rector, Priest Work at a parish

Curate / Deacon Laymen Excommunicated Witches Demons Satan


HOW TO MOVE NOTE: Different stage productions will use different sets of etiquettes. So don’t feel that you have to follow any of these instructions slavishly. In each production you do, the cast and director, or movement coach may have a particular set of etiquette rules that may wish to follow. I am not an expert in Elizabethan movement. My experience comes from having performed in Shakespearean plays with different directors and movement coaches, so you may hear contradictory information from what is contained here. I believe that what is most important is that each production you are in contains its own world of agreed upon movement.

BASIC MOVES

Bowing and Scraping - Men The depth of the bow indicates the degree of respect or gratitude. “Bowing” indicates the leaning over part. "Scraping" refers to the drawing back of the right leg as one bows, such that the right foot scrapes the floor or earth. Typically, while executing such a bow, the man's left hand is pressed horizontally across the abdomen (or hold your sword hilt to control it) while the right is held out from the body. The right hand would hold the hat that you also doff as you bow.

Curtsy - Women To be added.

Handshake To be added.

Kissing To be added.


MORE INFORMATION Here are some rules from different sources to add to your information and possibilities.

Handout on Elizabethan Manners - From the Society of Creative Anachonism The Following is taken from : http://www.latourdulac.com/manners/Elizabethan.html How to Approach a Prince

The kind of court experience that we have in the SCA is not a particularly common one for people of the time period, even noble people. Sovereigns did "hold court" when people were theoretically free to approach them, usually with petitions of some kind or other. This usually required running a gauntlet of bureaucrats who would manage access to the sovereign. However, the medieval concept of kingship meant that the king was supposed to be the ultimate provider of justice to all the people, and as kings concentrated power, they also became the chief provider of patronage. If you wanted social advancement, you would end up having to go to court at some point. Often times, however, this access to the king was achieved while he was walking around, eating dinner, or engaging in other daily business. The formal court setting we see in the SCA was something that typically only happened on special occasions.

I've chosen to draw on Fabritio Caroso's "Nobilita di Dame" (1600) in his Dialog Between a Disciple and His Master, on the Conduct Required of Gentlemen and Ladies at a Ball and Elsewhere for some pointers on how to behave in court.

For Gentlemen

Here is his description for a gentleman's comportment with a king:

You need to know, then, that should a prince or gentleman be required to approach a great king to kiss his hand, the sides of his cape or mantle (whichever it is) should be of equal length, for aside from the fact that [any unevenness] looks quite ugly, it is also necessary that he reveal the front of his body, and keep his hands down, holding both ends of his cape or riding cloak with them, so that the king will have no reason whatsoever to suspect him of carrying something beneath them that could harm him (as we have seen occur in our own day, and not too many years since). It is good, therefore, to reveal your hands and to wear your cape or riding cloak as I have said above. Moreover, you should doff your bonnet (or hat) as I have taught in the rule for doffing the bonnet; you should doff it with your right hand, changing it to your left hand as soon as you have removed it, and turning the inside of your bonnet toward the thigh corresponding to the hand in which you hold it. Upon appearing in the hall (or room) where the king is, immediately make a grave Reverence; then take four or six steps forward, and make another [Reverence]; and when you are a short distance from His Majesty, make the last one very low, so as almost to touch the floor with your knee, pretending to kiss the king's knee. Then look up and and kiss your petition, accompanying this act with another Reverence, and presenting it to him. After this, having achieved your purpose or a suitable answer from His Majesty, take leave of him, once again pretending to kiss his knee. You ought to know that in making the last Reverence you should not face His Majesty, but [should face] a little to the side, so that the king is on your right; if the king is seated, however, and you are standing, face him directly. Should the king walk along with you, stay a step behind him at all times. In turning, follow the commendable Spanish fashion of falling back three steps, always keeping His Majesty on your right. When taking your leave, make a Reverence by bowing so low that your knee almost touches the ground (as I have said above); and upon rising, retire by making three more Reverences without ever turning your


back upon the king. Now I have nothing more to tell you about this.

This excerpt illustrates some important aspects of masculine behavior. In Caroso's book, he gives a great deal of attention to the correct way to wear a cape or cloak. Unless it is a short "butt-scraper," the cloak should be over the left shoulder, wrapped around one's body and tucked under the left arm, keeping the sword hilt clear. . (Among the unfortunate consequences of covering the sword with the cloak is "that the swords are so obstructed that if they should be needed, they could not be [got at], thereby endangering their lives, which is a bad and perilous habit.)" The tactic above of keeping the cloak open and showing your hands is the period equivalent of people disarming themselves when they come into court. A gentleman never removes his sword if he can help it.

Elsewhere Caroso offers advice on sword wearing, another essential social skill of a gentleman: "When a gentleman wears a sword while dancing these lively dances, he should hold it with his left hand, so that it will not wave around wildly; also if he find himself dancing in a very samll space, he should hold it [still] with his left hand, turning it a bit by that hand so that the point will hang forward in order to avoid offsense to those seated behind him. If you have space, however, allow it to move as usual. Be careful not to push down on yoru sword hilt to such an extent that the tip points skyward, for if you do so, you will resemble a Spanish Captain playing his part in the Commedia, and you will be mocked at and ridiculed, rather than appreciated by any onlookers. After you have taken leave of your lady and as you return to your seat, pay due respect to thoseenear where you will be sitting with a small salutation; and with your hat in your right hand, and your left hand turning your sword toward the front."

Removing the hat in the presence of a social superior is a custom all over Europe. Montaigne makes comments about people removing their hats if the king is anywhere in the area, as a sign of people being overly pretentious in their manners. There is a funny story about Henry de Navarre and a charcoal burner that illustrates the hat concept (ask Yevsha to tell it to you). Caroso is fastidious in his recommendation about how to take off your hat. He begins his "rules for dancing" with a treatise on how to take off your hat before beginning a dance with a lady:

Among those accomplishment of the utmost importance, my dear Son, which occur at the beginning of dances (wherein one practieses beautiful and courtly manners), the doffing of your bonnet (or hat) holds first place, for this is the means mankind has devised to honor and revere one another, even when [we are] not dancing.

Here Caroso lists a number of bad behaviors, such has holding your hat as if to beg for alms, or the reprehensible practice of letting people see your sweaty hatband. He summarises with the correct method:

For a gentleman, then, to doff his bonnet (or hat) and hold it in his hand with that utter grace and beauty which may render him elegant, he shall do best to take his bonnet (or hat) gently by its rim (or his hat by its brim), doffing it and dropping his right arm straight down. Note, however, that once it is doffed, he should not pretend to kiss his bonnet or to bring it toward the one for whom he has doffed it, for, as I told you before, this appears disgusting both to the person for whom he has doffed it, and to any other observers. Instead he should hold his bonnet (or hat) with the inside facing the same leg which corresponds to the side on which he removed it , and he should pretend to kiss his own left hand. For since this is the hand belonging to the heart, he thus performs an act of cordiality; consider also that by this behavior he will not only appear


attractive and gracious to all observers, but will also escape any appearance of imperfection which could be associated with any of the [other] methods mentioned above.

Concerning the Reverence -- one of the social skills that the nouveau riche tried hard to acquire was bowing. Just as there were dancing masters and fencing masters to teach the important social skills, so also were there bowing masters. The depth of bow is a crucial part of the social language of acknowledging someone else's social status.

Kissing -- we don't currently make use of this gesture as the sign of respect it was intended to be. Again, Montaigne complains about pretentious people getting carried away with kissing their hands whenever they meet anyone. No one actually makes any contact with anyone or anything when performing this kissing gesture.

Keeping the king to your right -- the right hand is the side of honor, and the left hand is a lower status position. When seated, you should give the right hand seat to someone you wish to honor, and when a guest, you should insist on the left hand seat so as to honor your host.

When walking, it may involve a certain amount of flexibility to stay a step or two behind the king. If he wants to make a left turn, you need to actually step backward so you can stay in your inferior position.

Never turn your back until you are out of offical range -- another universal custom.

For a Lady

Now as soon as a lady espies a princess or noblewoman (whichever the case), she should step out and go toward her; and before approaching her, she should make a half Reverence (that is, a little bow), and when she has come close she should kiss her own right hand (without, however, bringing it near her mouth, but holding it at some distance), bending it a little, and not holding it so rigidly that it appears to be crippled. While moving this way, she should make a grave Reverence, as indeed I showed you, prentending to kiss the princess's right hand. If she is not the equal of that particular princess or great lady, however, she should pretend to kiss the [princess's] knee. Then the princess should make a Reverence, making the same [gestures] as if she were her equal; if [she is] not she should pretend to raise her with her [own] hands, taking the visitors's left hand in her right hand. This is even more appropriate if she is her equal, for anyone who is paid a visit should always receive the caller most warmly and affectionately. Should the hostess wish to put the caller on her own right to honour her, however, the visitor should never permit it.

It is interesting to note that it is assumed that public business will be conducted by men, and that women engage in purely social behavior with other women. There aren't directions about how a woman should behave in a court situation with a prince. The contexts in which men and women interact are actually quite limited, dancing being one of the major ones, and one reason why deportment is so important a part of dance instruction. Caroso's guidance on how a lady should invite a gentleman to dance provide interesting insight into behavior between the genders:

[Sometimes] during a dance, some new brides and other ladies cast their eyes so low that the gentlemen cannot tell which one of them has been invited [to dance], so that one rises to his feet


rather than the other. Or sometimes, in their great eagerness to dance, they [all] give her their hands, with the result that she does not know which one to take. It would be better, then, for a lady to keep her eyes level, and when she chooses to invite some gentleman, to look at him [directly], so that those sitting near to or behind him will not need to rise, thus avoiding any ensuing scandal. Now as he rises, the gentleman whom she has invited should remove his right glove (if he is wearing it) at the same time as she makes a Reverence to him, and she should pretend to adjust her dress, making it sway, strutting slightly, and turning a bit sideways toward the one she has just invited. On occasion a gentleman may wear his gloves so tightly that removing his right glove takes longer than saying an 'Ave Maria', as I have said above. It is not proper, however, for the lady to remain directly facing [the gentlemn], for it would look as if they were making love; therefore gentlemen should wear their gloves a little loose rather than tight.

This is interesting because it describes the polite way for women to interact with men -- not too direct, but not so modest as to cause social confusion. The bit about not facing the gentleman for too long a time is worth noting. Before the late 20th century, the phrase 'making love' referred to romantic conversation. Being truly lady-like by the standards of the time is a difficult task!

Meeting and Greeting

Many of the guidelines outlined above apply in normal social. Gentlemen still have to deal with their hats, their cloaks, their swords. They doff their hands, may kiss their own hand, and bow. Typically, a gentleman removes his hat with his right hand and kisses his left hand. If he needs to present his right hand (for example, to take a ladies hand for a dance or to offer a gift), he may change his hat to his left hand and kiss his right hand or the gift in his right hand. How intensely a man goes through these operations is part of the social language of status. The hat doffing is more pronounced, the bow deeper, the higher up the social scale the other person is. Between equals, the shorthand might be more of a gesture to touch the hat without taking it off completely. You can overdo it: "You need to be aware that unnecessary, empty and precious courtesies are scarce-hidden flatteries; on the contrary, [they are] so clear and obvious to all that those who make too many Reverences (by sliding their feet, kissing their hands or doffing their bonnets while bowing and scraping before their favorite ladies) lose just as much [favor in the eyes of others] as they think to gain, for their blandishments only displease and bore them.

Historically, women's roles are more private and less public. They make Reverences (curtsey) as part of social introductions, but don't have swords and capes and removable hats. If she is wearing one, a lady never removes her cap. Hand kissing seems to be an activity between ladies. I have not seen women described as kissing their hands when introduced to men. It is the man's responsibility to kiss his hand, since he is the one being honored by the lady.

WALK LIKE AN ELIZABETHAN – (FROM WALK LIKE AN ELIZABETHAN BY BRUCE LECURE) If your Shakespearean play is set in the Elizabethan period, how will you be able to wear constricting Elizabethan clothes and display the precise manners and etiquette of 16th century England? How do you move with the grace and pride of a proper Elizabethan nobleman or woman? To be believable, actors must sit properly, stand accurately, gesture correctly, and bow to the Queen herself with the precision necessary to survive in Elizabeth’s strict world. Each performer should look as if born and bred to this environment. Otherwise, the play may have the forced look of modern actors moving and acting realistically, but dressed in very stiff and unforgiving period clothes.


The solution lies in the basic elements of dance, for Elizabethans nobility were taught by dance masters from the time they could walk how to sit, stand, move, gesture, and bow. Here’s how the elements of dance can achieve that “Elizabethan look”, if practiced and mastered long before the costumes are worn at first dress rehearsal. I am not saying your actors should move and look like dancers, but rather like individual characters who have lived this style of movement their whole lives.

The Proper Stance The Elizabethan period has a very “horizontal” feel. The costumes were wide and expansive, containing a great deal of padding and starch. An upper-class Elizabethan gentleman stood straight and tall in a wide second or slight fourth dance position [see diagram below for the basic dance positions], with his feet naturally turned out. He often rested his closed fist(s) on his waist as he looked out to the horizon. The Elizabethan woman stood in either a first, third, or small fourth position. Her corset also demanded she stand very lengthened and tall. The costume didn’t allow her arms to fall by her side, but rather were held so that there was “air under her armpits.” Her hands often rested with the “heel” of the palms gently touching the wide skirt or with the right hand resting in the palm of the left. Her gaze was soft and didn’t allow for a great deal of direct eye contact, as was customary for men.

The Proper Walk Both men and women walked in straight lines and turned the entire body when changing directions or responding to a direct address (the ruff around the neck restricted head movement). An actor portraying and Elizabethan man takes large, strong steps; the steps of the woman are quite small, slightly larger than the length of her foot. The modern female actor must learn to slow down. In order to wear the costume properly, the Elizabethan woman was required to glide when walking. There is no up-an-down movement; instead, the head “draws” a straight, horizontal line as the body walks across the room. The feet should not be visible under the dress as the body appears to float gracefully in space. When walking together, the man may offer the woman the inside of his forearm or place his arm out (again, on a horizontal plane) for the female to rest her hand as they walk. Also, during rehearsal be sure to keep a good deal of distance from the other actors because the width of the costumes will require it on stage.

The Proper Sit In addition to a woman’s costume bulk and inflexibility, there also might be a train. Trains need to be managed carefully in order to avoid the embarrassing trip or stumble on stage. When sitting, approach the chair from behind at a 45-degree angle. You need to catch the chair out of your peripheral vision as you approach it. When your feet are in front of the chair, turn your whole body to the front which will wrap the train around your feet, making it easier to control when choosing to stand and move again. Be sure to sit on the front half of the chair rather than against the back of the chair as we do today. The woman’s feet are placed in an open second position, due to the point of the corset. The action of sitting (for both men and women) needs to be smooth and controlled. Do not plop in the chair or reach for it as you sit. Sit yourself with a great deal of grace and ease. The male sits with his feet in a slight fourth position on the front half of the chair with the same feeling of strength he exudes while standing.

The Proper Gestures The gestures of the Elizabethan man, in keeping with his movements, were strong and exuded on a strictly vertical or horizontal plane. Gestures for the woman were softer than the man’s but still on the same vertical or horizontal plane. In other words, avoid curves in your movement and gesturing. Be sure to also keep some “air under the armpits” for each gesture as required by the costume constriction.


The Proper Greeting Men greeted men of a similar rank by grasping each other’s forearms. There was no shaking as we do today. If the men were very familiar with each other, they might choose to grasp both forearms. Men might greet men or women with a slight inclination of the head and a slight opening of the torso to the other person. Men and women could greet each other by grasping both forearms and putting cheek-to-cheek on one side of the face or both. (A definite kiss is not required but rather a simple touching of the cheeks). The Elizabethan woman also might place one hand (or both) to her bosom as a sign of respect as she greets another. A man or woman would greet a superior (such as Elizabeth herself) by kneeling on the right with a lowered head. You might “kiss” the hand of the superior by taking the other’s hand in your right as you kneel and placing the back of their hand to your forehead. You would never touch your lips to the hand (that is, actually kiss the hand), to avoid spreading any bodily fluids form the nose or mouth to the superior person. Be sure to rise and step away from this greeting in the opposite direction of your approach. Standing straight up at the end of such a greeting would bring you face-to-face with your superior—an insult by Elizabethan standards.

The Proper Bow In a more formal situation (such as an audience with the Queen, being introduced into a room, or asking someone to dance), a bow is a necessary act of respect. For the Elizabethan man, a leg (usually the right) moves forward into a slight fourth position with the weight evenly balanced on both feet. Then bend both knees (in dance terms, a plie) slowly and smoothly. The upper body bends forward slightly from the hip socket as you plie. (Do not bend fully at the waist—a 17th century bow.) The depth of the bow depends on how much respect you wish to show the other person. The more respect, the deeper the bow. Slightly open the arms/palms as you plie. Men slowly lower their eye contact as they bend their knees and raise their eyes to regain contact and straighten their legs at the bow’s conclusion. If you are wearing a hat, remove it with the right hand on a horizontal plane at the beginning of the bow and replace it at the end or hold it by the side of the body. The proper Elizabethan woman bows by bringing her feet together in a first position and bending the knees in the same manner as the man. However, the upper body of the female does not bend but remains tall and lengthened because the corset restricts bending from the waist. You can open the arms/palms like the male or bring the hand(s) to the bosom to show respect during the bow. Keep your eyes lowered during the duration of the bow. Each actor should make subtle individual choices to make these manners and etiquette fit the character. Your character may choose to break one or more of these rules, but if he does, everyone onstage must know it. In order to bring the spirit and feel of the proper period to the production, you need to live within the rules, manners, and etiquette of Elizabeth’s time. In many ways, the costume will help accomplish this. The heavy, unforgiving Elizabethan costumes can be a useful, constant physical reminder of a different way of moving and behaving. Moving believably in costume won’t be something to overcome, but a way to fully develop your character.

SUMMING UP

To be added


Exercise: Status and Titles So what are we supposed to do with all this status information? Someone’s status effects how they stand, how they walk, where they look, how much “room” they take in personal space and everything about their general “aura.”

Take the following titles and write them down on slips of paper. Each person draws a paper. Now make two lines, one on each side of the room. One at a time, have two people approach each other from the other side of the room, as they meet, have them announce themselves with their full names and titles (Make up a name for yourself) to each other using all the gestures, tones and attitude they feel is necessary. Have a referee (teacher?) declare the winner by who is most indicative of their status and slowly bring the contest down to two people.

POLITICAL/SOCIAL TITLES Title Example Name Sovereign Henry the Fifth, King of England

Charles, King of France Queen Margaret, daughter to Reignier

Liege Richard Plantegenet, King of England Prince John, of Lancaster Princess Katherine Plantagenet

Majesty Katherine, Queen of France Grace Archbishop Scroop, of York George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence Lord Bertram, Count of Rosilliion Lady Lady Jane Grey Sir Sir John Falstaff

Sir William Stanley, Earl of Derby Sir William Glansdale

Justice Robert Shallow Esquire Master Frank Ford Madam Countess of Rousillion

Lady Katherine Percy General Othello, the Moor of Venice Lieutenant Iago Soldier Ralph Mouldy

Peter Bulcalf, Country Soldier Thomas Wart, Country Soldier

Merchant Dick the Butcher Smith the Weaver

Mistress Mistress Ford, wife to Master Frank Ford Quickly, Hostess of a Tavern in Cheapside Mistress Anne Page, daughter of Master George Page

Servant Tranio, servant to Lucentio Sirrah Shepherd, Father to Joan of Arc Grumio, servant to Petruchio

Second Murderer Foole Touchstone the Clown

Feste, the Jester Whore Doll Tearsheet Beggar Poor Tom O’Bedlam


Status Example from As You Like It In the following example, do something to indicate each change of status. Notice that Rosalind and Celia vary constantly in attempts to influence the Duke, ranging from:

o cousin and father (family names), o to your Grace and my Lord (general names for the peerage) o to Highness and Liege (most status they can give him as a peer)

Find different physical ways to denote each of these, sinking lower and lower from family to “my liege.”

Ros. Let me loue him for that, and do you loue him

Because I doe. Looke, here comes the Duke.

Cel. With his eies full of anger.

Duk. Mistris, dispatch you with your safest haste,

And get you from our Court.

Ros. Me Vncle.

Duk You Cosen,

Within these ten daies if that thou beest found

So neere our publike Court as twentie miles,

Thou diest for it.

Ros. I doe beseech your Grace

Let me the knowledge of my fault beare with me:

If with my selfe I hold intelligence,

Or haue acquaintance with mine owne desires,

If that I doe not dreame, or be not franticke,

(As I doe trust I am not) then deere Vncle,

Neuer so much as in a thought vnborne,

Did I offend your highnesse.

Duk. Thus doe all Traitors,

If their purgation did consist in words,

They are as innocent as grace it selfe;

Let it suffice thee that I trust thee not.

Ros. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a Traitor;

Tell me whereon the likelihoods depends?

Duk. Thou art thy Fathers daughter, there's enough.

Ros. So was I when your highness took his Dukdome,

So was I when your highnesse banisht him;


Treason is not inherited my Lord,

Or if we did deriue it from our friends,

What's that to me, my Father was no Traitor,

Then good my Liege, mistake me not so much,

To thinke my pouertie is treacherous.

Cel. Deere Soueraigne heare me speake.

Duk. I Celia, we staid her for your sake,

Else had she with her Father rang'd along.

Cel. I did not then intreat to haue her stay,

It was your pleasure, and your owne remorse

I was too yong that time to value her,

But now I know her: if she be a Traitor,

Why so am I: we still haue slept together,

Rose at an instant, learn'd, plaid, eate together,

And wheresoere we went, like Iunos Swans,

Still we went coupled and inseperable.

Duk. She is too subtile for thee, and her smoothnes;

Her verie silence, and per patience,

Speake to the people, and they pittie her:

Thou art a foole, she robs thee of thy name,

And thou wilt show more bright, & seem more vertuous

When she is gone: then open not thy lips

Firme, and irreuocable is my doombe,

Which I haue past vpon her, she is banish'd.

Cel. Pronounce that sentence then on me my Leige,

I cannot liue out of her companie.

Duk. You are a foole: you Neice prouide your selfe,

If you out-stay the time, vpon mine honor,

And in the greatnesse of my word you die.

Exit Duke, &c.

Exercise King Lear Now look at this speech from King Lear. As an exercise, try acting out everything that happened as you speak, recounting the entire thing. Add each bow, each kneel, kneel, nod, create distance or close distance during the monologue. If you really get specific, Kent will almost never be still.


Kent. My Lord, when at their home I did commend your Highnesse Letters to them, Ere I was risen from the place, that shewed My dutie kneeling, came there a reeking Poste, Stew'd in his haste, halfe breathlesse, painting forth From Gonerill his Mistris, salutations; Deliuer'd Letters spight of intermission, Which presently they read; on those contents They summon'd vp their meiney, straight tooke Horse, Commanded me to follow, and attend The leisure of their answer, gaue me cold lookes, And meeting heere the other Messenger, Whose welcome I perceiu'd had poison'd mine, Being the very fellow which of late Displaid so sawcily against your Highnesse, Hauing more man then wit about me, drew; He rais'd the house, with loud and coward cries, Your Sonne and Daughter found this trespasse worth The shame which heere it suffers.

Exercise King John Take a look at this cutting from King John. Constance is criticizing King John’s fortune to her son Arthur. Again, specify different forms of respect, (or in Constance’s case, disrespect) for each title. “King” is different from “majesty,” which is different from “uncle,” which is different from “sovereign,” which is different from “bawd” or “strumpet” or “fellow”. How passionate does Constance get about the titles King John has which Arthur does not?

Cons: . . . But Fortune, oh, She is corrupted, chang'd, and wonne from thee, Sh' adulterates hourely with thine Vnckle Iohn, And with her golden hand hath pluckt on France To tread downe faire respect of Soueraigntie, And made his Maiestie the bawd to theirs. France is a Bawd to Fortune, and king Iohn, That strumpet Fortune, that vsurping Iohn: Tell me thou fellow, is not France forsworne? Envenom him with words, or get thee gone, And leaue those woes alone, which I alone Am bound to vnder-beare.

Personifies Fortune Disrespects King John with Uncle title Marries Majesty and Bawd Titles: Strumpet Fortune, Usurping John Thou fellow, a common term

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Credits

I can nothing say, but thanks, thanks and ever thanks.

Sebastian – Twelfth Night

For so much of the material in this book I am indebted to many great teachers, scholars, researchers, authors and colleagues. First of all a special thanks to the following teachers, who guided me on the long path of Shakespeare I have been so blessed to follow. Without any one of them, I feel a section or portion of Shakespeare’s text would lie unknown to me. Michael Cohan, Julie Proudfoot, Lyn Conaway, Tom Manning, James Donadio, Patrick Tucker, Neil Freeman, Robert Mooney, Tina Packer, Johnnie Epstein, Dan McCleary, Eric Zivot, Anne Hering, Richard Width, Suzanne O’Donnell …. More to be added.

Authors, articles and books

A large section to be added crediting all books cited and quotes:

• Walk Like an Elizabethan by Bruce Lecure • Merriam Webster Free Online Dictionary • Michael Checkov • Patrick Tucker • Neil Freeman • Tina Packer • Freeing Shakespeare’s Voice - Kristin Linklater • OpenSourceShakespeare -- opensourceshakespeare.com

6. scansion-ben changes3 with folio - webcourses@ucf

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