document resume evaluation of title i esea projects ...document resume tm 001 307 davidoff, stephen...

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DOCUMENT RESUME

TM 001 307

Davidoff, Stephen H.; And OthersEvaluation of Title I ESEA Projects 1970-1971.Philadelphia School District, Pa. Office of Researchand Evaluation.Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C.Aug 71OEG-48-0043-51-011-01235p.

MF-$0.65 HC-$9.87*Ancillary Services; Cluster Grouping; CognitiveDevelopment; Disadvantaged Youth; EducationalObjectives; *Educational Programs; EmotionallyDisturbed Children; English (Second Language);Evaluation Methods; Individualized Instruction;*Instructional Programs; Measurement Instruments;Program Descriptions; *Program Evaluation; ReadingSkills; *School Community Relationship; SchoolDistricts; Social Studies; Student Motivation*Elementary Secondary Education Act Title I

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this 1970-1971 evaluation was to

examine the degree to which this cluster of projects has beencontributing to the attainment of the community-related goals of theSchool District, and to test the validity of the assumptions (onwhich these projects are based) that information leads toparticipation and that information and participation have a positiveeffect on the opinions of school and community about each other.(Author/DLG)

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EVALUATION OF TITLE I

ESEA PROJECTS

1970-1971

USOE GRANT #48-0043-51-011-01

DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS RESEARCHStephen H. Davidoff, ASsistant Director

DIVISION OF INSTRUCTIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTEdward K. Brown, Director

OFFICE OF RESRARCH AND EVALUATIONJohn B. Peper, Executive Director

THE SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA

August 1971

PROJECT ADMINISTRATORS

The projects reported in this volume have been funded underTitle I ESEA, USOE Grant #48-0043-51-011-01, administered through theOffice of Federal Programs, Thomas C. Rosica, Executive Director.Named below are the individual projects' administrators.

PROJECT

Art Specialist TeachersClass for Mentally Retarded-Emotionally

Disturbed ChildrenClosed-Circuit TelevisionCounseling ServicesCounselor AidesCreative DramaticsEducation in World AffairsEnglish as a Second LanguageGermantown Area Schools ProjectImprovement of Reading Skills:

Part-Time (718)Primary Reading Skills Center (719)Reading Skills Centers (666)Shared Time (666B)

Individualized Education CenterInstructional Materials CentersKindergarten Aides and SupervisorsLearning Dimensions ProgramMotivation ProgramMusic Specialist TeachersNew Staffing Patterns in EIP

Elementary SchoolsOut-of-School Sequenced Science

Experiences for Paired SchoolsSalable Vocational SkillsSchool-Community Coordinator ServicesSpecial Mathematics ProjectWalnut CenterYouth Serving Youth

el

11

ADMINISTRATOR

Jack Bookbinder

Warren B. PerryJohn W. LyverCharles P. McLaughlinHelen Fo FaustMilton GoldbergMaie HoughEleanor L. SandstromPatricia Russell

Charles P. McLaughlinCharles P. McLaughlinMarjorie N. FarmerMarjorie N. FarmerCharles P. McLaughlinLillian L. BatchelorFrances M. BeckerMargaret BinghamRebecca SegalLouis G. Wersen

Milton Goldberg

Samuel S. LepowMilton C. SussmanGeorge GreenAlexander TobinFrances M. BeckerJoseph J. Sweeney

FOREWORD.

School districts, the federal government, other funding agents,the community, and parents are becoming increasingly concerned with theimpact of resource expenditures on educative outcomes. Historically,resource funds in excess of central school budgets have taken the form ofspecial programs/projects designed to meet the needs of pupils withindesignated populations of a school district. Although these expenditureshave produced significant educational changes for the designated popula-tion, parents and the community have requested that the level of addi-tional funding be made available for all pupils in the entire school popu-lation. However, none of the proposed methods for securing additionalfunds (e.g., taxes or.bond issues) has been successful in meeting theseincreasing demands.

Since additional monies have not been made available to centralschool budgets, more extensive monitoring and substantiation procedureshave been introduced by federal and private funding agencies to ascertain(a) whether the recipients are using the appropriated/contributed funds inaccordance with the specified guidelines, and (b) whether the school sys-tem has made in-kind contributions and subsequent programmatic/instruc-tional changes as a result of the funding. The emphasis on the use ofcost-accounting or cost-effectiveness procedures has been instituted as ameans for determining whether a given program/project is producing out-comes that are better than or equivalent to practices costing more orless per unit. The intent of such analyses is to provide information thatcould assist school management and funding agencies in making judiciousdecisions concerning the feasibility of continuing and/or expanding iden-tified successful efforts into other schools within a given school dis-trict or into other districts within the country.

Current methods o evaluation have demonstrated that the tech-niques employed to gather information about the attal..nment of specifiedbehavioral objectives are effective. However, these methodologies havenot demonstrated their capabilities to explain why certain programs/proj-ects are not successful (a) upon replication within a.given school or(b) in those situations where the programs/projects have been expanded.Longitudinal data on projects ivolemented in specific schools reveal thatsuch projects are usually successful for those who are directly involvedin them. Moreover, since some of these programs/projects are specificfor certain grades, students are usually successful performers in thegrades in which the programs/projects are active, but tend to return totheir previous pattern of underachievement in subsequent years.

This sporadic achievement pattern of children who move into andout of special programs/projects is of special concern to school dis-tricts, school administrators, parents, and the community.since it is theywho have the responsibility for the whole educational experience of eachchild. Parents and the community are particularly dismayed and do notunderstand why sustained improvement cannot be achieved throughout theentire educational experience of their children.

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has not been gathering systematic data which could-answer broad educa-tional management questions. For example, "Can pupil.achlevementbe improved by a particular mix or combination of Title I projects? T.thatare some of the school characteristics which seem to maximize the impactpotential of the instructional programs sponsored by both central andfederal budgets? Are the programr/projects presently budgeted and imple-mented helping to achieve the School District's overall objectives?"

To secure such information, a method for obtaining informationabout the impact of Title I projects on the broad operational goals of theSchool District has been undertaken. This techniaue has been calledcluster evaluation. In the execution of this evaluation technique, themajor emphasis is upon determining (a) whether the common objectives ofthe clustered projects are being achieved, (b) whether the clusteredprjects are contributing to the attainment of the School District'sgoalS, and (c) whether there are requisite conditions which insure thesuccess of each individual project within the cluster (he they school-specific or project-specific).

The cluster approach also permits the gathering of evaluativeinformation to meet the specifications of Title I guidelines and affordsthe evaluator an opportunity to observe and investigate the project'simpact from another vantage point. For example, instead of attempting todetermine whether the School-Community Coordinator project is meeting itsspecific objectives, as was done for years 1968 through 1970, a broaderinvestigation was conducted to ascertain (a) whether the goal of improvingcommunity participation in sohool-related activities was being realized,and (b) whether the assumptions and thrusts under which the project isoperating lead to the successful attainment of these goals. In questionform, "Are the current implementation methods and procedures used in proj-ects having school-community goali,; motivating parents to become more in-volved in school-community activities?" Like emphases have beenarticulated in three other central areas: the improvement of instruction-al practices, the improvement of'students' knowledge and uompetence in1:ttcational and career selection, and the improvement_of students' culturalknowledge, awareness, and social interactioms.

It is the belief of the Director of the Division of Instruc-tional Research and Development that the proposed emphasis upon thecluster-evaluation approach will provide (a) more comprehensive informa-tion for all levels of school management, the community, teachers, andstudents concerning the impact of the Title I project offerings on theattainment of articulated goals and concerns of the School District, and(b) mor l! interactive information for project managers who are responsiblefor improving the capacity of the individual projects to deliver the ser-vices for which they were organized.

Edward K. Brown,Director,Division of InstrzictionalResearch and Development

V

CONTENTS

PROJECT ADMINISTRATORS ii

FOREWORD - Edward K. Brown iii

EVALUATING TITLE I ESEA PROJECTS IN CLUSTERS Stephen H. Davidoff 1

SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS AND UNIQUE STAFFING PATTERNS

Barbara Carullo Goldsmith and David W. Allen

Overview 7

The Cluster of Projects 9

School-Community Coordinator Services 39

New Staffing Patterns in EIP Elementary Schools 45

Kindergarten Aides and Supervisors 49

Out-of-School Sequenced Science Experiences for Paired Schools 53

Education in World Affairs 59

Germantown Area Schools Project 67

Referenr:e.is 75

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND STUDENT COGNITI7E PERFORMANCE

Kenneth W. Prussc and Walter A. McDaniel

Overview 77

Ths Cluster of Projects 79

Class for Mentally Retarded-Emotionally Disturbed Children 93

English as a Second Language 99

Individualized Education Center 107

Improvement of Reading Skills 113

Reading Skills

Shared Time

Part-Time

Primary Reading Skills

Learning Dimensions Program

References

Centers

Center

vil

113

123

127

131

135

149

AUXILIARY SERVICES TO SCHOOLS AND PUPILS

Hermine Jeremias Chern, Bruce J. Yasgur,Herman L. Carter, and Frances R. Byers

Overview 151

The Cluster of Projects 153

Counseling Services 157

Counselor Aides 181

Motivation Program 189

Salable Vocational Skills 197

References 201

OTHER TITLE I PROJECTS

Stephen H. Davidoff, Bruce J. Yasgur,and District Research Associates

Overview 203

Art Specialist Teachers 205

Closed-Circuit Television 207

Creative Dramatics 211

Instructional Materials Centers -215Music Specialist Teachers 217

Special Mathematics Project 219

Walnut Center 221

Youth Serving Vonch 235

References 237

vill

EVALUATING TITLE I ESEA PROJECTS IN CLUSTERS

This volume culminates an intensive cooperative effort by theDepartment of Instructional Systems Research and otlAer persons in theDivision of Instructional Research and Development1 to look at Philadel-phia's ESFA, Title I program as a whole, greater than the sum of itsseparate parts.

A Broader A rcich to Pro ect Evaluation

The reorganization in 1970 of what was then called the Depart-ment of Program Assessment made it appropriate to rethink the project-by-project evaluation methodology employed during the two preceding years.

Although useful for producing base-line data, the individualproject technique had certain fundamental limitations. Since studentswere exposed to several projects simultaneously; individual projectevaluations might have provided questionable information (e.g., whether,the children gained because of Project X or because of Project Y). Anexamination of the relationships existing between groups of projects andthe attainment of School District goals seemed to be more relevant.Across-project evaluation could ascertain what L;hanges were produced andmigbt identify aspects of the total effort calling for revision. Fromsuch analyses, evaluation findings might identify outcomes which were con-tingent upon particular antacedent conditions and project processes.

Assessments of the impact of the Title I projects were envi-sioned as information-system networks which could provide data that metthe specifications of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act's guide-lines and at the same time would be consistent with the needs of theSchool Dist=iot. Methods and procedures ware designed to gather relevantinformation concezning selected impact areas which eMbraoed the needs forthese two levels of information. To meet the service responsibilities ofthe DepartMent, a holistic approach was initiated. Under this technique,personnel were assigned in accordance with specified management-informa-tion needs rather than the accumulation of peripherally related projects.It was believed that this method of gathering specified clusters ofrelated management information would provide a more viable system for ob-taining the variety of information required by various levels of manage-ment, and facilitate an in-depth look at more comprehensive evaluationquestions.

1 Dr. Robert Reiter has contributed extensively to report-formatdevelopment, and his editorial assistance has helped to clarify thinkingand to bridge technical communication gaps. Mrs. Deborah Kraisler andMiss Frances Byers have provided timely and extensive data-Analysissupport.

An examination of their goals revealed that the Title I projectsin Philadelphia could be grouped into four general programmatic catego-ries:

1. School-community relations and unique staffing patterns

2. Instructional practices and student cognitive performance

3. Auxiliary services to schools and pupils

4. Other Title I projects.

School-community relations and unique staffing patterns encom-passes those projects which are designed to establish, refine, andstrengthen the lines o'f communication between target-area schools and thecommunities they serve in order to facilitate the interpretation of schoolprograms to the local area, apprise school personnel of community needsand aspirations, develop and implement joint efforts to improve the neigh-borhood, and obtain relevant information which will enable schools tooperate more knowledgeably.

Instructional practices and student cognitive performance encom-passes those projects which are designed (a) to encourage children,through diversified instructional materials, to work voluntarily withmaterials and situations in the learning environment, to function effec-tively in problem-solving situations, and to communicate their experiencesorally or in a graphic or narrative display; (b) to provide specializedinstruction and materials required by children with unusual learning prob-lems, such as Spanish-speaking children, children with speech and oral-language disorders, and children who are mentally retarded and/or emotion-ally disturbed; aad (c) to integrate appropriate hardware, software, andinstructional strategies into multimodal approaches to reading, and otherbasic skills, that would tend to reverse the current trend toward drasticunderachievement in fundamental subjects.

Auxiliary services to schools and pupils encompasses those proj-ects which are designed (a) to provide special services for underachiev-ing students that will facilitate emotional, intellectual, and socialgrowth, and encourage potentially able target-area children to continuetheir education after the completion of.high school; and (b) to provide anopportunity for target-area children to improve their vocational compe-tency through instruction in self-chosen vocational areas and to expandtheir career choices through exploratory and hands-on experiences.

Other Title I projects are those projects which have as a commondenominator aspects and concerns of a more general nature and, thereby,seek (a) to provide preschool and kindergarten children with additionalpersonnel, activities, and care so that their initial exposure to learningwill be enriched, thus establishing the foundation for future cognitivedevelopment by facilitating the development of a positive self-image, asense of belonging, and feelings of security; (b) to provide target-area

2

children with the opportunity for cultural enrichment in the fields ofart, music, and creative dramatics; and (c) to help children gain agreater understanding of themselves, their environment, and interpersonalrelations.

Using the four general programmatic categories, each Title Iproject was classified and placed in one specific category for evaluation.If a project had multiple goals and would fit into several categories,placement was weighted toward the primary focus of the project as ex-pressed in the ESEA, Title I funding descriptions, other evaluationreports, and comments by project personnel. The result of this classifi-cation procedure is seen in the Table of Contents of this volume.

Evaluation Procedure

The operational strategy of the 1970-1971 evaluation approach tothc assessment of the Title I projects centered around the development ofsystematic information that would answer four basic questions related tothe four programmatic categories:

1. To what degree have school-community relationships beenstrengthened by certain Title I projects?

2. What effect has the Title I program had upon the individual-ization of instructional techniques and upon students' cognitive perfor-mance?

3. In what ways have the Title I projects provided auxiliaryservices and enhanced vocational opportunities for target-area students?

4. To what degree have the efforts of certain Title I projectsprovided cultural experiences, intersocial opportunities, and supportiveservices for the target-area students?

Evaluation teams, consisting of Research Associates and ResearchAssistants, were charged with the responsibility of developing a compre-hensive design which would yield information that focused directly uponthe four selected impact areas.

As an integral part of the evaluation, provisions were made forthe extensive monitoring of each project. Systematic observation visitsprovided (a) current descriptive information about the operational statusof the project, and (b) concurrent programmatic information related to thefocus of the cluster area. These were used to complement data obtainedfrom other sources (e.g., tests, questionnaires, and interviews) , therebyextending the information base for evaluation and czaating a conditionwhich could produce more meaningful and realistic findings.

During the 1970-1971 school year, 646 visits were made to 138different Title I schools. Seventy-eight percent of the observationsoccurred in Grades K-6. The average length of each observation was

3

approximately 30 minutes. In only 2% of the visits were classesdescribed as disinterested, uncooperative, or nonparticipating. Whereapplicable, pupils had their own instructional aids which were judgedappropriate to their developmental level. Project-supportive personnelwere observed in 76o. of the observations. The average attendance in the333 classrooms observed was 84.7% of the pupil enrollment. It is believedthat this number of systematic observations, gathered from carefullydetermined samples, provides information that is representative of theSchool District.

Reporting the Findings

The preparation of a composite evaluation report grouping morethan a score of federally funded projects could be beset with at leastthree dangers.

Multiple authorship could create a collection of diverse reportsthat force the reader to change gears mentally as he proceeds from onereport to the next. To deal with this danger, the Department has coopera-tively developed a uniform reporting format which contains two parts: acluster report, and digest reports on projects within the cluster. Thecluster report gives an overview of the clustered projects and their com-mon impact, and sets the stage for the reports of noncommon aspects of theindividual projects which follow it. In each report, the topical/textualsequence is the same: (a) identification and description of the projector cluster (rationale, objectives, operational characteristics, previousevaluations) ; (b) current evaluation procedure (scope and design, instru-ments, subjects, analysis of data); (c) results; and (d) conclusions.

A second danger could be the use of technical language whichmight leave the reader tangled in terminology. Although technical lan-guage cannot be completely avoided in a volume such as this one, an efforthas been made to minimize this danger by frequent revisions in which non-technical terms and illustrations were substituted for more traditionalpublication techniques.

A third danger could be that, in trying to avoid oversimplifica-tion, the authors might have overcomplicated the report. Overcomplicationin this context means that the reader may find, instead of a unitaryanswer indicating whether specific projects have attained their respectivegoals, a comprehensive statement that_implies the impact or interactiveeffect of the projects on a more central question. In presenting thefindings in this manner, it is recognized that the three to five years ofbackground data on each project are indicative of its individual contribu-tion. However, special attention is given to.any significant changes infindings in the individual reports which follow the-cluster presentation.

The evaluation reports which follow are aimed at providing in-formation for a comprehensive program development/management system.Their function has been to present collected and processed information

4

which both project developers and administration management can use toformulate a deeper understanding of the educational process. It is hopedthat this report can help each person having project or management respon-sibilities to see his efforts as having an impact on, or merging into, thebroad objectives and ongoing programs of the School District.

Stephen H. Davidoff,Assistant Director,Division of InstructionalResearch and Development

5


Projects in this cluster are contributing less to the achieve-ment of the community-related goals of the School District than are non-cluster projects. Additionally, noncluster projects are having more ofthe desired impact regarding information, participation, and opinions(cluster objectives) than are the cluster projects. A. possible explana-tion for the relatively lesser degree of effectiveness of the clusterprojects could be that the assumptions on which these projects are basedare invalid (i.e., information, per se, does not lead to participation,nor do information and participation, per se, lead to favorable opinions

Within the school-community cluster, projects differ from oneanother in their amount of impact. Impact, as defined in this study,appears to be dependent upon the relationship and combined effect of theoperation of a project and the operation of the school to which the project has been allocated. Differences within and between schools indicatthat cluster projects have the desired impact only in schools which havegoals similar to those of the projects. Therefore, in order to maximizeproject effectiveness, school characteristics which are compatible withproject goals must be identified.

It is no longer desirable to examine project effectiveness ona citywide basis alone. We must first examine the assumptions on whichprojects and groups of projects are based, to be sure that the statedgoals are truly attainable for projects so designed. If this conditionis met, the projects' operational success or failure is dependent notupon their designs but rather upon how they are deployed and utilizedby key decision makers. Projects can achieve their stated goals if de-cision makers assign them to the appropriate schools (those which havecombinations of factors that allow such projects to operate successfullyDecisions About cost-effectiveness in relation to the broad goals of theSchool District will be premature until deployment and utilization of thsoundly designed projects have been perfected.

The evaluation of the "School-CommunityRelations and Unique Staffing Patterns" cluster andits component projects was designed, conducted, andreported by Barbara Carullo Goldsmith, ResearchAssociate, and David W. Allen, Research Assistant.Mr. Allen had primary responsibility for the evalua-tion of the project, Out-of-School Sequenced ScienceExperiences for Paired schools.

A


This cluster report assesses the common impact of six projectson the school and the community. Separate evaluations of the noncommonfeatures of the individual projects follow this cluster report. Each ofthe individual project reports should be interpreted in the context ofthis cluster report.

Projects included in this cluster are School-Community Coordina-tor Services (SCC), New Staffing Patterns in EIP Elementary Schools (EIP),Kindergarten Aides and Supervisors (KA) , Out-of-School Sequenced ScienceExperiences for Paired Schools (PSSP), Education in World Affairs (EWA),and Germantown Area Schools Project(GASP).

The Cluster of Projects

Although the democratic tradition of the United States presup-poses that citizens will actively participate in political decision making,political and administrative momentum has often led to increased central-ization of power, varying degrees of representation rather than participa-tion, and the alienation of ...7.itizens from decisions which affect theirlives. In education, the rise of large city school systems has widenedthe gulf between decision makers and persons affected by the decisions,and many school systems are now too large to administer sensitively to theneeds of the community (Lopate, Flaxman, Bynum,& Gordon, 1970).

The natural result of this gulf is the tendency for the schoolsystem and the community it serves to be less than adequately informedabout each other. This lack of information, in turn, can make participa-tion difficult. It follows, then, that without information and partir-:ipa-tion, the school system can no longer administer sensitively to the needsof the community.

Although there are many reasons for current.gulfs which separatethe school and the community, a lack of appropriate methods to.conveyinformation and a limited view of teaching may be primarily at fault.Innovative and supplementary programs which provide for a reciprocal flowof information between-the school and the community (so that each segmentcan be well informed about the other) and encourage a tripartite view ofteaching involving instruction, curriculum development, and communityinvolvement are viable solutions to the problem (Cuban, 1969).

A child's educational development depends upon a dynamic inter-action between the school and the parent. Although this interactiongenerally has been limited in the public school situation, several studieshave shown that even circumscribed participation by parents in schoolaffairs correlates with heightened pupil development.

In a study of the effects of contacts between inner-city parentsand school personnel on student achievement, Schiff (1963) reported that

9

parent participation and cooperation in school affairs led to pupilachievement, better school attendance and study habits, and fewer dis-cipline problems. An analysis of the gains on a reading test which wasadministered to experimental and control groups of children revealed thatpupils in the experimental (parent-participation) group improved signifi-cantly more than did pupils in the control group.

Brookover (1965) compared the development of three randomly-assigned low-achieving junior high school student groups: the first groupreceived weekly counseling sessions, the second group had regular contactswith specialists in particular interest areas, and the parents of thethird group had weekly meetings with school officials about their chil-dren's development. At the end of the year the first two groUps showed nogreater achievement as a result of their special treatment. However, thethird group, whose parents had become more intimately involved in theschool and in the children's development, showed heightened self-conceptand made significant academic progress during the year.

Rankin (1967) investigated the relationship between parentbehavior and the academic achievement of inner-city elementary schoolchildren and found sUbstantial differences between the attitudes andbehavior of mothers of high-achieving and low-achieving children. Themothers' ability to discuss school matters and their initiation of confer-ences with school officials were two of the general areas in which differ-ences were most often found.

Parents' involvement in the school not only is associated withacademic progress but seems also to influence children's attitudes towardschool and teachers' attitudes toward children. Hess & Shipman (1966), ina study of the effects of mothers' attitudes and behavior toward theirchildz.-en in test situations; concluded, "Engaging parents in the activi-ties of the school in some meaningful way may indeed assist the child indeveloping more adequate and useful images of the school, of the teacher,and of the role of the pupil [p. 35]." Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)reportet: that inner-city children who profited from positive changes inteachers' expectations of their ability all had parents who were involvedto some degree in the children's development in the school and were knownby the teachers.

Compensatory educational programs, especially, benefit fromparent involvement. From personal observations of compensatory programsin various parts of the country, Jablonsky (1968) reported, 7Schools whichhave open doors to parents and community members.have greater success ineducating children. . . . The children seem to be direct beneficiariesof the change in perception on the part of their parents [p. 6]."

The School District of Philadelphia, recognizing the importanceof parent involvement in education, has included the following in itsSchool District goals:

1. To make our schools as freely integrated and diversified aspossible and to develop greater harmony among differing ethnic groups.

10

2. To develop more direct and effective systems of communicationand involvement with the community and with government agencies at alllevels.

3. To improve adult educational opportunities.

4. To improve mental and physical health so that each studentrespects himielf and others and so that he can cope with his environmentconstructively.

To contribute to the achievement of these community-relatedgoals, the School District has allocated a certain portion of Title I ESEAmoney for projects designed to foster school-community involvement. Sixsuch projects are the components of this cluster: School-Community Coor-dinator Services (SCC), New Staffing Patterns in Educational ImprovementProgram Schools (EIP), Kindergarten Aides and Supervisors (KA), Out-of-School Science Experiences for Paired Schools (PSSP), Education in WorldAffairs (EWA), and Germantown Area Schools Project (GASP).

In each of these projects, the staff members are residents ofdistressed areas of Philadelphia, and in SCC, EIP, KA, and GASP are liv-ing in the school communities which they serve. This staffing patternshould result in an increase in the two-way flow of information betweenschool and community and an increase in community participation in schoolaffairs. In addition, each project provides school staffs and communityresidents with information about its respective project practices. Theseinformation-channeling procedures should result in (a) increased school-and community knowledge of school projects, (b) increased community par-ticipation in the school projects, and (c) increased harmony among differ-ing ethnic groups.

The six projects have the following objectives in

Objective 1. To inform community residents abouttives, programs, curricula, and services of the school, andtheir participation in projects relating the school and the

common:

the objec-to increasecommunity.

Objective 2. To inform school personnel about the composition,needs, and concerns of their school's community, and to increase theirparticipation in projects relating the school and the community.

Common to the modes of operation of all projects in the clusteris the implementation of various'elements of the community school concept.Four of the projects (SCC, EIP, KA, and GASP) make education a joint pro-cess involving the school and the community and also upgrade the communityby employing only commUnity residents in certain school positions. Threeprojects (PSSP, EWA, and GASP) draw on resources in the community forimproving education by utilizing existing community facilities to houseeducational programs. Two projects (PSSP and EWA) provide opportunitiesfor children from different schools to increase their knowledge of thetotal community by bringing them together to share.a commonlearning activity.

11

Previous evaluations of the individual projects in this clusterhave provided information about the degree to which each project hasachieved its own stated objectives. Although complete in themselves,they provided no information about where the cluster of projects stood inrelation to the attainment of the community-related goals of the SchoolDistrict, nor did thei provide information about the soundness of theassumptions on which these projects have been based.

Current Evaluation Procedure

The purpose of this 1970-1971 evaluation was to examine thedegree to which this cluster of projects has been contributing to theattainment of the community-related goals of the School District, and totest the validity of the assumptions (on which these projects are based)that information leads to participation and that information and partici-pation have a positive effect on the opinions of school and communityabout each other. The cluster evaluation was focused On five questions:

Question 1. Regarding parents and school personnel: How manyare accurately informed about specific Title I ESEA projects?

Question 2. Regarding parents and school personnel: Do theytend to participate in the Title I ESEA projects about which they areaccurately informed?

Question 3. Regarding parents and school personnel: To whatextent are their opinions about school-community relations related totheir accuracy of information about specific Title I ESEA projects?

Question 4. Regarding narents and school personnel: To whatextent are their opinions about school-community relations related totheir participation in specific Title I ESEA projects?

Question 5. Regarding parents and school personnel: Do theyexpress a need for continuing efforts toward attaining the common objec-tives of the projects in this cluster?

To help in answering these questions, two forms of the locallydesigned School-Community Questionnaire were used. Form A for parentsand Form B for principals and teachers paralleled each other in content,each eliciting factual information about certain Title I ESEA projectsand the respondent's participation in them, as well as certain opinions.

Four variations of each form of the questionnaire correspondedto the four grades in the sample. Nine projects were selected for inves-tigation: the six Title I ESEA projects in this cluster and three non-cluster Title I ESEA projects. Each variation of the questionnaire listeda different combination _of five projects, each being designed to equalizethe amount of exposure each project had in schools where it was imple-mented and in schools where it was not. (Copies of the eight instrumentsare on file in the Research Library of the Board of Education.)

12

A stratified random sample consisting of 37 schools was choseito participate in the evaluation. Stratification criteria were (a) locEtion in one of the seven Title I districts, and (b) school type. Eachthe Title I schools in each of the seven districts was classified as oneof the following school types:

1. Elementary with less than 750 pupils (El);

2. Elementary with more than 750 pupils (E2);

3. Junior high (JH);

4. Senior high (SH).

In order to insure the representativeness of the sample, thefraction of the total Title I enrollment in each district was obtainedfor each of the four school types. In each district the number ofschools to be chosen (which had been determined on the basis of therelative size of the district) was then multiplied by the appropriatefractions to obtain the number of El, E2, JH, and SH schools to beselected. The schools were then chosen at random from lists of schoolswith the necessary characteristics.

Parents of children in Grades 1, 6, 7, and 10 were selected tcbe recipients of Form A of the questionnaire. It was determined that arepresentative sample would be obtained if the following numbers ofclasses in each school type were used:

1. El - Parents of 1 class of 1st graders and of 1 class of6th graders;

2. E2 - Parents of 2 classes of 1st graders and of 2 classes-of 6th graders;

3. JH Parents of 3 classes of 7th graders.

4. SH - Parents of 4 classeR of 10th graders.

The selection of the classes within each school was left to tiprincipal.

Form B of the questionnaire was given to the principal andadministrative assistants of the chosen schools, as well as to theteachers of the classes whose parents received Form A.

'The percentages of return for Forms A and B of the questionnafare reported in Table 1. ,The lowest acceptable rates of return had beerset at 60% for elementary schools, 50% for junior high schools, and 40%for senior high schools. All returns were well above these minimums, wjthe exception of the senior high school parents in District 5. Therefoino conclusions were drawn about senior high schools in District 5.

13

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE OF RETURN OF QUESTIONNAIRES

DistrictNumber

School ofType Schools

Parent Forth A School Form B

Number PercentageIssued Returned

Number PercentageIssued Returned

Elementary 51 Junior High 1

Senior High 1


Senior High 1


Senior High 0


Senior High 1

5

6

Elementary 4Junior High 1Senior High 1



500 83%91 74%111 70%

430 80%69 100%69 65%..

316 89%79 62%

464 80%168 72%51 45%

258 78%88 68%70 34%

116 85%202 81%60 63%

231 74%

24 100%4 100%5 100%

22 100%5 100%5 100%

20 100%5 100%

27 96%5 100%6 100%

16 100%5 100%6 100%

5 100%7 100%1 100%

10 90%

14

To insure the authenticity and validity of the data, it wasdecided to eliminate from further analyses all forms with (a) multiplemarkings in any question, (b) more than ten omitted cells ("blanks") inthe prespecified-project sections of Question 1, or (c) more than two ofthe following logical errors in Question 1:

1. A response of No to the item "Does your school have thisproject?" coupled with a response of Yes to the item "Is your child inthis project?"

2. A No response to the item "Does your school have this proj-ect?" coupled with a response of The school to the item "Who gives youthe most information about the project?"

3. A blank response to the item "Does your school have thisproject?" coupled with a response of Yes to the item "Is your child inthis project?"

4. A blank response to the item "Does your school have thisproject?" coupled with a response of The school to the item "Who givesyou the most information about the project?"

5. A response of A little or A lot to the item "How much do youknow about the project?" coupled with a response of No one to the item"Who gives you the most information about the project?"

6. A response of Nothing to the item "How much do you know aboutthe project?" coupled with a response of Help sometimes or Very active tothe item "How much do you participate in the project?"

7. A response of No one to the item "Who gives you the most in-formation about the project?" coupled with a response of Help sometimes orVery active to the item "How much do you participate in the project?"

The number of forms that were analyzed further and the numberthat were systematically eliminated form further analyses are presented inTable 2. The reduction in the size of the sample (resulting from the sys-tematic elimination of forms) did not affect the representativeness of thesample. The number of forms dropped in each district was proportional todistrict size, and was less than the supplementary portion of the ,-triginalsample that was considered expendable.

For parent Form A and school Form B, data analysis was performedon responses to the items in the questionnaires as follows:

For each project listed in the question, a respondent's answerabout the existence of the project in the school (Item 1) was tabulated aseither accurate or inaccurate. If that item response was accurate, hisresponse about his child's (or pupil's) enrollment in the project(Item 2) was tabulated as either accurate or inaccurate. If both itemresponses weie accurate and the project did, In fact, operate in that

15

TABLE 2

NUMBER OF QUESTIONNAIRES PROCESSED

Number

Dis-

School

of

trict

Type

Schools

Parent Form A

School Form B

Number

Issued

Number

Returned

Number

Eliminated

Number

Analyzed

Number

Issued

Number

Number

NuMber

Returned Eliminated Analyzed

Elementary

5500

415

21

394

24

24

024

1Junior High

191

67

364

44

04

Senior High

1111

78

573

55

05

Elementary

6430

343

40

303

22

22

022

2Junior High

169

69

564

55

05

Senior High

169

45

738

55

05

Elementary

6316

281

36

245

20

20

020

3Junior High

179

49

148

55

05

Senior High

0

Elementary

4464

370

29

341

27

26

026

4Junior High

2168

122

10

112

55

05

Senior High

151

23

023

66

06

Elementary

4258

200

45

155

16

16

016

5Junior High

188

60

852

55

05

Senior High

170.

24

222

66

06

Elementary

1116

99

297

55

05

6Junior High

3202

163

23

140

77

07

Senior High

160

38

830

11

01

Elementary

3231

172

9163

10

90

9

7Junior High

0

Senior High

0

school, the respondent's answers to the other items--about the extent ofhis knowledge about the project (Item 3), his chief source of information(Item 4), and the extent of his participation in the project (Item 5)--were tabulated. This procedure is shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.

The tabulations were summarized for each school and for eachdistrict as well as for all respondents. However, school and districtbreakdowns are not shown in this report.

Frequencies and percentages were obtained for all respondents'answers to Questions 2-7 of Forms A and B of the questionnaire.

In addition, each respondent was rated on three scales: accu-racy, participation, and opinion. The accuracy rating was on a scale fromzero to 10 and measured the degree to which the respondent knew whethereach project listed in Question I was or was not operating in the school.The participation rating, also on a zero-to-10 scale, measured the degreeto which a respondent who knew that a project operated in the school wasparticipating in that project. The opinion rating was on a scale from 3to 6, where 3 indicated that the respondent was dissatisfied with theamount of school-community interaction and 6 indicated that the respondentwas satisfied with it. Means and standard deviations were computed forthese three ratings for each school, for each district, and for allrespondents. Correlation coefficients were computed to determine themutual relationships, if any, among accuracy, participation, and opinion.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Regarding parents and school personnel: HOWmany are accurately informed about specific Title I ESEA projects?

One facet of the impact of a Title I ESEA project, especiallyif it is concerned with school-community relations, is specificity of in-formation. Parents and school personnel must be accurately informed thatthe School District is providing their school with specialized servicesand that their children are the direct beneficiaries of these services.To be informed about a Title I ESEA project, parents and school personnelmust know (a) whether the project exists in their school and (b) whethertheir children or pupils are in the project.

The first two items in Question 1 of the questionnaire weredesigned to test the respondents' knowledge about the existence of thespecific projects in the school (Item 1) and about the children's enroll-ment in these projects (Item 2).

Responses to Item 1 are summarized in Table 3 (parents) andTable 4 (principals and teachers). Responses to Item 2 are summarized inTable 5 (parents) and Table 6 (principals and teachers).

17

Countparent'sinaccurateresponse

No

Go to STARTfor nextproject

Countparent'sinaccurateresponse

No

[-

Go to STARTfor nextProject

No

7,

Doesparent know %

i

the school f,

does nothave it? /1

Yes

'START'

Doesschool

have theproject?

Count parent'saccurateresponse

(Does \

parent know \his child is !

not in theproject?

YesCount parent's

accurateresponse

Yes

Doesparent knowthe schoolhas it?

Count

No parent'sinaccuratEresponse

YesCount parent's

accurateresponse

4-

Is parent \accurate abouthis child'Sparticipationin project?/

YesCount parent's

accurateresponse

4.

Tabulateparent's

responses tonext threeitems about

this projdct4

Go to STARTfor nextproject

Go to STAIfor next,project

Countparent'sinaccuratEresponse

Go to STAIfor nextproject

Fig. 1. Process for analyzing parents' responses about each_ projectlisted in the Form A questionnaire. A parallel procedure was used wtt.h_school personnel's responses on the Form B questionnaire.

18

TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF PARENT RESPONSES TO ITEM 1:

"DOES YOUR SCHOOL HAVE THIS PROJECT?"

Response

School-Community Cluster Projects

Other Projects1

Cluster Other

Projects Projects

Total

Total

(N=9446) (N=2355)

KA

EIP

SCC

PSSP

EWA

GASP

(Nm868)(N=2364)(N=2364)(N=1698)(N=1496)(N=656)

FT

IRS

MP

(N=868)(N=1310)(N=177)

Accurate

57%

53%

57%

71%

60%

91%

54%

39%

69%

61%

48%

No

3%

21%

4%

65%

32%

67%

38%

26%

35%

28%

32%

Yes

54%

32%

53%

6%

28%

24%

16%

13%

34%

33%

16%

Inaccurate

38%

42%

39%

25%

35%

7%

41%

57%

27%

35%

47%

No

20%

28%

3%

20%

13%

6%

1%

9%

18%

19%

6%

Yes

18%

14%

36%

5%

22%

1%

40%

48%

9%

16%

41%

Blank or

Illogical

5%

5%

4%

4%

5%

2%

5%

4%

4%

4%

5%

1FT:

Head Start - Follow Through.

IRS:

Improvement of Reading Skills (Reading

Skills Centers).

MP:

Motivation Program.

TA

BL

E 4

SUMMARY OF SCHOOL-PERSONNEL RESPONSES TO ITEM 1:

"DOES YOUR SCHOOL HAVE THIS PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects1

Cluster

Projects

Other

Projects

Total

(N=176)

KA

(N=62)

2IP

(g=176)

SCC

(N=177)

PSSP

(N=117)

EWA

GASP

(P=114)

(11=59)

FT

(N=62)

IRS

(N=90)

MP

(N=24)

Total

(N=705)

Accurate

65%

66%

92%

79%

76%

73%

76%

42%

100%

77%

62%

No

0%

29%

2%

69%

27%

65%

58%

34%

4%

29%

39%

Yes

65%

37%

90%

10%

49%

8%

18%

8%

96%

48%

23%

Inaccurate

29%

27%

4%

'

11%

16%

3%

10%

51%

0%

15%

30%

No

11%

9%

2%

1%

6%

21s

0%

10%

0%

5%

5%

Yes

18%

18%

2%

10%

10%

1%

10%

41%

0%

10%

25%

Blank or

Illogical

6%

7%

4%

10%

8%

24%

14%

7%

0%

8%

8%

,

'Acronyms of noncluster projects are defined in Table 3 footnote.

TABLE 5


"IS YOUR CHILD IN THIS PROJECT?"

Response

Schcol-Community Cluster Projects

Other Projects

1Cluster

Projects

Other

Projects

Total

(N=1114)

KA

(N=493)

EIP

SCC

(N=I246)

-

PSSP

(N=1197)

EWA

(N=892)

GASP

(N=600)

FT

IRS

MP

(N=469)(N=514)(11=131)

Total

(N=4428)

Accurate

74%

68%

-98%

82%

99%

95%

85%

62%

80%

86%

No

74%

55%

-93%

69%

73%

70%

71%

7%

72%

63%

Yes

0%

13%

-5%

13%

26%

25%

14%

55%

8%

23%

Inaccurate

25%

30%

-2%

18%

0%

4%

15%

37%

19%

13%

No

0%

9%

-0%

6%

0%

1%

10%

36%

6%

9%

ves

25%

21%

-2%

12%

0%

3%

5%

1%

13%

4%

.

Blank or

Illogical

1%

2%

0%

0%

1%

1%

0%

1%

1%

lAcronyms of noncluster projects are defined in Table 3 footnote.

TABLE 6

SUMMARY OF SCHOOL-PERSONNEL RESPONSES

TO ITEM 2:

"ARE ANY OF YOUR PUPILS IN THISPROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects

1Cluster

Projects

Total

(N=375)

Otner

Projects

Total

(N=109)

KA

(N=40)

EIP

SCC

(N=116)

-

PSSP

(IT=92)

EWA

(N=87)

GASP

(N=40)

FT

(N=47)

IRS

(N=38)

MP

(N=24)

Accurate

85%

67%

-88%

70%

75%

87%

68%

75%

76%

84%

No

55%

39%

-77%

35%

62%

66%

58%

62%

52%

50%

Yes

30%

28%

-11%

35%

13%

21%

10%

13%

24%

34%

Inaccurate

12%

16%

-0%

18%

0%

0%

3%

0%

10%

1%

No

10%

4%

-0%

7%

0%

0%

0%

0%

4%

0%

Yes

2%

12%

-0%

11%

0%

0%

3%

0%

6%

1%

Blank or

Illogical

3%

17%

-12%

12%

25%

13%

29%

25%

14%

15%

lAcronyms of noncluster projects are defined in Table 3

footnote.

Proportionately more parents and school personnel were accu-rately informed about the existence of the cluster projects in the schoolsthan about noncluster projects. However, proportionately more members ofboth groups were accurately informed about children's enrollment in thenoncluster projects than about their enrollment in the cluster projects.

Across cluster and noncluster projects, proportionately moreprincipals and teachers than parents were accurately informed about whichprojects existed in their schools (with the exception of GASP), but pro-portion,Ltely more parents than school personnel were accurately informedabout the children's enrollment in projects (with the exception of KA).The mean accuracy score (on a 10-point scale) for school personnel was7.4; for parents it was 5.5. This meant that the average principal orteacher tended to know four of the five projects listed in the question-naire's Question 1, whereas the average parent tended to know only 21/2of the five projects.

The only conspicuous similarity between parents and schoolpersonnel regarding their responses about the individual projects was thatproportionately more of both groups were uninformed about EIP than aboutany other project in relation to the existence of the project in theschool and the enrollment of children in the project.

Parents and school personnel were accurately informed about dif-ferent Title I ESEA projects. Proportionately more parents were accu-rately informed about the existence in the schools of projects in whichtheir children were enrolled. Proportionately more principals andteachers were' accurately informed about which projects existed in theirschools, whether or not the teachers' own pupils were enrolled in them.

Specific project characteristics appear to have a definiteeffect on impact as measured by accuracy scores. Most parents and schoolpersonnel were accurately informed about smaller projects that involvetransporting children from one facility to another (PSSP, EWA). Parentsand school personnel tended not to be accurately informed about largerprojects involving the utilization of auxiliary personnel in a supportive,instructional capacity (KA, ZIP, but not SCC). Fewer parents and schoolpersonnel were accurately informed about projects that had received agreat deal of publicity (e.g., FT, IRS). Most respondents who wereinaccurate about these projects responded Yes to the item "Does yourschool have this project?" when, in fact, the project was not in theirscools.

Specific factors in school communities appear to be related toproject impact as measured by accuracy scores. In school-by-schoolexamination of the data from each diStrict (not presented in this report)it was noted that in schOols where more pricipals and teachers wereaccurately informed, more parents were accurately informed. And in.schools where fewer principals and teachers were accurately informed,fewer parents were.accurately informed. Also, individual school communi-ties tended to be informed about the same projeCte.-

23

To the extent that accuracy of information is an indicator ofimpact, the projects in the cluster (designated as school-cammunity impactprojects) have had a greater impact oh school and community than theother Title I ESEA projects investigated. While 59% of the parents andschool personnel were accurately informed about the existence of thecluster projects in their schools (as opposed to 50% for the other Title Iprojects) , the other 41% of the respondents were not accurate about them.And 20% of the 59% who were accurate about the existence of the clusterprojects in the schools were not accurate about the participation of theirchildren in the project (as opposed to 13% for the other Title I proj-ects).

Data relevant to Question 2: Regarding parents and school personnel: Dothey tend to participate in the Title I ESEA projects about which theyare accurately informed?

Responses to Item 5, regarding the respondents' degree of par-ticipation in specific projects, are summarized in Table 7 (parents) andTable 8 (principals and teachers).

For projects about which they were accurately informed, princi-pals and teachers indicated a higher degree of participation than didparents. Seventy-nine percent of the parents claimed no involvement inthe projects about which they were accurately informed, 16% claimed thatthey helped sometimes, and 4% claimed that they were very active. Thirty-two percent of the school personnel claimed no involvement in the projectsabout which they were accurately informed, 30% claimed that they helpedsometimes, and 36% claimed that they were very active.

On the scale from zero (no participation in any of the speci-fied projects) to 10 (very active participation in all specified projectsexisting in the local school) the average parent indicated a degree ofparticipation equivalent to 0.6 points, while the average school staffmember indicated his participation as being equivalent to 3.9 points.

More parents and more school personnel indicated some degree ofparticipation in noncluster projects than in cluster projects. In addi-tion, their indicated degree of participation was greater in nonclnsterprojects than in cluster projects. To the extent that participation isan indicator of impact, the projects in the cluster (designated as school-community impact projects) have had less impact on school and communitythan the other Title I ESEA projects investigated.

Parents and school personnel agreed on the three projects inwhich they participated most: Head Start Follow Through (FT), GASP,and Motivation Program (MP), in that order.

Specific factors in school communities appear to be related toproject impact as measured by participation scores. In school-by-schoolexamination of the data from each district (not presented in this report)it was noted that participation scores varied significantly from school

24

TABLE 7


"HOW MUCH DO YOU PARTICIPATE IN THE PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects1

Cluster

Projects

Total

(N=2452)

Other

Projects

Total

(N=322)

KA

EIP

SCC

(N=3361(N=373)0t=12601

PSSP

(N=72).

EWA

aT=2521

GASP

m.1591

FT

IRS

MP

(N=152)(N=96)(N=74)

Not

Involved

27%

82%

78%

89%

82%

66%

63%

79%

73%

80%

70%

Help

Sometimes

11%

13%

17%

7%

17%

15%

24%

17%

26%

15%

22%

Very

Active

1%

4%

3%

4%

1%

19%

12%

4%

1%

4%

7%

Blank or

Illogical

1%

1%

.2%

0%

0%

0%

1%

0%

0%

1%

1%

1Acronyms of noncluster projects are defined in Table 3 footnote.

TABLE 8


"HOW MUCH DO YOU PARTICIPATE IN THE PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects1

Cluster

Projects

Total

Other

Projects

Total

KA

EIP

SCC

PSSP

EWA

GASP

FT

IRS

MP

(N=33)

(N=45)

(N=159)

(N=12)

(N=38)

(N=5)

(N=10)

(N=6)

(N=23)

(N=292)

(N=39)

Not

Involved

61%

29%

30%

33%

32%

20%

0%

50%

22%

34%

20%

Help

Sometimes

6%

24%

33%

33%

47%

60%

0%

33%

39%

31%

24%

Very

Active

30%

47%

35%

33%

21%

20%

100%

17%

39%

33%

56%

Blank or

Illogical

3^,

0%

2%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

2%

0%

1Acronyms of noncluster projects are defined in

Table 3 footnote.

to school and from district to district. This finding suggested thatcommunity participation was sought in some schools but not in others.

In order to test the assumption (on which the projects in thiscluster are based) that information leads to participation, correlationcoefficients to indicate the relationship, if any, between accurateinformation and participation were computed for both groups of respon-dents.. These coefficients were +.24 for parents and +.44 for principalsand teachers, which might suggest that there was some degree of directrelationship between accurate information and participation for bothgroups. However, the degree of relationship obtained was quantitativelysimilar to the degree of relationship that had been superimposed upon theanalysis by the cluster's assumption that information leads to participa-tion. Thus, because it was possible for members of both groups to haveinformation without participation but virtually impossible for them tohave participation without accurate information, these correlation coef-ficients were interpreted as indicating no true relationship betweenaccurate information and participation.

Data relevant to Question 3. Regarding parents and school personnel: Tcwhat extent are their opinions about school-community relations relatedto their accuracy of information about specific Title I ESEA projects?

Questions 5, 6, and 7 of the questionnaire were designed toelicit respondents' opinions about the adequacy of (a) parents' partici-pation in school affairs, (b) school personnel's knowledge about thecommunity, and (c) their own information about the other segment of theschool-community partnership. Responses to these questions are summa-rized in Table 9 (parents) and Table 10 (principals and teachers).

TABLE 9

SUMMARY OF PARENT RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 5, '6, AND 7ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE (N=2363)

Question Yes No Blank

5. Do you think parents participateenough in school affairs?

6. Do you think school staff membersknow enough about your community?

7. Do you wish you knew moreabout your child's school?

14%

22%

93%

85%

77%

6%

27

TABLE 10

SUMMARY OF SCHOOL-PERSONNEL RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 5, 6, AND 7ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE (N=176)

Question YE S No Blank

5. Do you think parents participateenough in school affairs?

6. Do you think school staff membersknow enough about the community?

7. Do you wish you knew moreabout your school's community?

14% 84% 2%

24% 75% 1%

87% 12% 1%

Parents and school personnel both expressed the feeling thatthe amount of information and participation had not reached an adequatelevel. This was evident in the parents' responses to an even greaterdegree than in the principals' and teachers' responses.

In school-by-school examination of the data from each district(not presented in this report) it was noted that opinions varied signif-icantly from school to school and from district to district. Thisfinding suggested that in schools (and districts) where information wasprovicZed and parent participation was sought, principals and teachersresponded more favorably to Questions 5, 6, and 7 of the questionnaire.

In order to test the assumption (on which these projects arebased) that information has a positive effect on opinion, correlationcoefficients to indicate the relationship, if any, between accurate in-formation and opinion were computed for both groups of respondents.These coefficients were +.03 for parents and -.02 for principals andteachers, indicating that there was virtually no relationship betweenaccurate information and favorable opinion for either group. Thus thedata did not support the assumption that information leads to favorableopinion.

Data relevant to Question 4. Regarding parents and school personnel: Towhat extent are their opinions about school-community relations relatedto their participation in specific Title I ESEA projects?

In order to test the assumption (on which these projects arebased) that participation .has a positive effect on opinion, correlationcoefficients to indicate the relationship,.if any, between participation

28

and opinion were computed for both groups of respondents_ These coef-ficients were +.10 for parents and +.06 for principals and teachers,indicating that there was little or no relationship between participa-tion and favorable opinion for either group. Thus the data did notsupport the assumption that participation leads to favorable opinion.

Data relevant to Question 5. Regarding parents and school personnel: Dothey express a need for continuing efforts toward attaining the commonobjectives of the projects in this cluster?

In addition to ascertaining the opinions of parents and schoolpersonnel about school-community relations, Questions 5, 6, and 7 of thequestionnaire permitted assessment of the need fc.r continuing effortstoward attaining the common objectives of the projects in this cluster.For the summary of responses to these questions the reader is again re-ferred to Table 9 (parents) and Table 10 (principals and teachers), whichindicate that an overwhelming majority of parents and school personnelexpressed a need for more information and more participation. Responsesfrom both groups paralleled one another in intensity for the threequestions. Parents and school personnel expressed a need for parents toparticipate more in school affairs and for school personnel to be moreknowledgeable about the community. In addition, each group expressed adesire to know more about the other.

In school-by-school examination of the data from each district(not presented in this report) it was noted that parents and school per-sonnel responded to the opinion questions in the same way, on the aver-age, regardless of their accuracy and participation scores.

Another interpretation of responses to Question 7 suggeststhat, by expressing a desire for more information, parents and schoolpersonnel were, in effect, indicating that the projects in the clusterhad not been so successful as both groups wanted them to be in attainingthe common goals of the cluster. Data presented in earlier pages of thisreport, indicating that projects in the cluster had been less successfulthan noncluster projects in supplying information and evoking participa-tion, lend credence to this interpretation.

It was noted that a nationally distributed survey by Gallup(1969) included a question similar to Question 7 of our questionnaire.In the Gallup survey, 65% of responding parents indicated that theywished they knew more about the schools in their community. The factthat 93% of our responding parents indicated a similar desire dramati-cally emphasizes the need in Philadelphia, and perhaps other urbanareas, for implementing projects (or systems) that will be effective inproviding information about the schools to parents.

29

Complementary Data

Item 3 in Question 1 of the questionnaire was designed to as-certain to what extent parents and school personnel considered themselvesto be informed about the cluster projects and the noncluster projects.Responses to this item are summarized in Table 11 (parent..4) and Table 12(school personnel).

Of all the projects listed in this study, cluster projects werethe ones about which parents and school personnel responded most oftenthat they knew "nothing." The principals and teachers responded thatthey knew at least "a little" about all the projects listed except SCC,EIP, PSSP, and EWA, all of which were cluster projects. Five of theprojects about which the parents said they knew the least (SCC, EIP, KA,PSSP, and EWA) were cluster projects. These findings indicated that theprojects in the cluster (designated as the school-community impact clus-ter) had less impact on school and community with regard to the amountof information supplied about the projects than did noncluster projects.Parents and school personnel felt less informed about cluster projectsthan about noncluster projects.

Item 4 in Question 1 of the questionnaire was designed to as-certain the chief source of parents' and school personnel's accurate andinaccurte information about projects. Responses to this item are summa-rized in Table 13 (parents) and Table 14 (principals and teachers).

Both groups indicated that their primary source of accurate in-formation about cluster and noncluster projects was the school. When theresponses for Head Start - Follow Through (FT) were eliminated from thenoncluster totals, the second source of parents' information about non-cluster projects was the child. Thus, parents received most of theiraccurate information about the specified Title I ESEA projects eitherfrom the school or from the child, whereas principals and teachers re-ceived most of their accurate information from members of the schoolstaff. (The data have not yet been analyzed to identify the respondents'primary sources of inaccurate information. They will be included in asupplementary report.)

Question 2 of the questionnaire was designed to ascertain themain channels of communication between school and community. Responsesto this question are summarized in Table 15 (parents) and Table 16(school personnel).

The responses to this question indicated that parents spokemost frequently with teachers, and that teachers and principals spoke most:frequently with parents and School-Community Coordinators. The pri-mary channel of communication is between the two parties most directlyinvolved with the childthe parent and the teacher.

Questions 3 and 4 of the questionnaire were designed to ascer-tain the extent to which parents and school personnel attended Home and

30

TABLE 11


"HOW MUCH DO YOU KNOW ABOUT THE PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects1

Cluster

Projects

Total

Other

Projects

Total

KA

EIP

SCC

PSSP

EWA

GASP

FT

IRS

MP

(N=336)

(N=373)

(N=1260)

(N=72)

(N=252)(N=159)

(N=119)

(N=96)(N=74)

(N=2452)

(N=289)

Nothing

29%

30%

25%

22%

43%

2%

1%

18%

5%

26%

7%

A Little

62%

56%

59%

59%

50%

51%

47%

66%

57%

57%

56%

A Lot

8%

13%

16%

19%

6%

461

49%

16%

38%

16%

36%

Blank or

Illogical

1%

1%

0%

0%

1%

1%

3%

0%

0%

1%

1%


TABLE 12


"HOW MUCH DO YOU KNCW ABOUT THE PROJECT?"

Response

..


Other Projects

1Cluster

Projects

Total

Other

Projects

Total

KA

ETP

SCC

PSSP

EWA

GASP

FT

IRS

MP

(N=33)

(N=45)

(N=159)

(N=12)

(N=38)

(N=5)

(N=l0)

(N=6)

(N=23)

(N=292)

(N=39)

Nothing

0%

4%

1%

8%

3%

0%

0%

0%

0%

2%

0%

A Little

33%

31%

36%

42%

42%

20%

10%

33%

22%

36%

20%

A Lot

64%

65%

63%

50%

55%

60%

90%

67%

74%

61%

77%

Blank

or

-

Illogical

3%

0%

0%

0%

0%

20%

0%

0%

4%

1%

3%

13 footnote.

Acronyms of noncluster projects are defined in Table

TABLE 13

,SUMMARY OF PARENT RESPONSES TO ITEM 4:

"WHO GIVES YOU THE MOST INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects1

Cluster

Projects

Total

(N=2450)

Other

Projects

Total

(N=279)

KA

(N=336)

EIP

(N=371)

SCC

(N=1260)

PSSP

(N=72)

EWA

(N=252)

GASP

(N=159)

FT

(N=119)

IRS

(N=86)

MP

(N=74)

No One

0%

15%

16%

0%

27%

1%

2%

6%

1%

16%

3%

The School

15%

35%

48%

14%

18%

19%

74%

33%

37%

39%

51%

Your Child

38%

36%

16%

11%

47%

73%

15%

51%

62%

30%

39%

Other People

30%

14%

19%

71%

8%

7%

8%

10%

0%

15%

7%

Blank or

Illogical

17%

0%

1%

4%

0%

0%

1%

0%

0%

0%

0%


,77,

01.1

.nra

TABLE 14


"WHO GIVES YOU THE MOST INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROJECT?"

Response


Other Projects

1Cluster

Projects

Total

(N=312)

Other

Projects

Total

(N=39)

KA

(N=54)

EIP

(N=45)

SCC

(N=159)

PSSP

(N=12)

EWA

(N=38)

GASP

(N=4)

FT

(N=10)

IRS

(N=6)

MP

(N=23)

No One

0%

4%

1%

8%

3%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1%

0%

School Staff

91%

78%

89%

50%

58%

50%

80%

83%

87%

82%

85%

Your Pupils

0%

0%

1%

17%

13%

25%

0%

17%

13%

3%

10%

Other People

5%

13%

7%

25%

18%

25%

20%

0%

0%

10%

5%

Blank or

Illogical

4%

5%

2%

0%

8%

0%

0%

0%

0%

4%

0%


TABLE 15

SUMMARY OF PARENT RESPONSES TO THE QUESTION, "IN THE LAST SIX MONTHDID YOU TALK WITH ANY SCHOOL PEOPLE . . ?" (N=2363)

Response Teacher PrincipalGuidanceCounselor

School-CommunityCoordinator

AideOthStaMerr

Yes

No orBlank

52%

48%

21%

79%

14%

86%

11%

89%

8%

92%

1C

9C

TABLE 16

SUMMARY OF SCHOOL-PERSONNEL RESPONSES TO THE. QUESTION, "IN THE LAMSIX MONTHS, DID YOU TALK WITH ANY OF THESE PEPSONS . . ?" (N=176)

ResponseISchool- Home- Other Community

Parent/- Community School Community Service CommGuardian Coordinator Visitor Person Agetncy Lea&

Worker

Yes

No orBlank

94% 87% 72% 61% 49% 47

6% 13% 28% 39% 51% 5:

School Association meetings and community meetings. Responses to thequestions are summarized in Table 17 (parer.kts) and Table 18 (priricApzand teachers). A greater percentage of principals and teachers thanparents attended ,fnool and community meetings during the six-month ]iod.

35

TABLE 17

SUMAARY OF PARENT RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 3 AND 4ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE (N=2363)

QuestionResponse

Yes No Blank

3. Mn the last six months, did you attendthe Home and School Association orany other school meeting for lakents?

4. In the last six months, did you attenda meeting of any community organization?

44% 56% 0%

30% . 70% 0%

TABLE 18

SUMMARY OF SCHOOL-PERSONNEL RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 3 AND 4ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE (N=176)

QuestionResponse

Yes No Blank

3. In the last six months, did you a.ttendthe Home and School Association orany other meeting for parents at thisschool?

4. In the last six months, did you attenda meeting of any community group inthe area served by this school?

76% 22% 2%

48% 50% 2%

Conclusions

Question 1. Regarding parents and school personnel: How many are accu-rately informed about specific Title I ESEA projects?

Proportionately more school personnel (principals and teachers)than parents are accurately informed about the existence of specific

36

42

Title I ESEA projects in their schools, but proportionately more parentsthan school personnel are accurately informed about their children's orpupils' enrollment in those projects. Fifty-nine percent of the parentsare accurately informed about the existence of the projects in theirschools, and 84% of tha': number are also accurately informed about theirchildren's enrollment in them. Seventy-four peroent of the school per-sonnel are accurately informed about the existence of the projects intheir schools, and 78% of that number are also accurately informed abouttheir pupils enrollment in them.

Accuracy of information gives a mixed indication of the impactof projects in this cluster. With regard to accuracy of informationabout their existence in the schools, the projects in this cluster havegreater impact on the school and the community than do noncluster proj-ects. However, with regard to accuracy of information about the enroll-ment of the children in them, the cluster projects have less impact onthe school and the community than do noncluster projects. Furthermore,with regard to the amount of their information about projects, parentsand school personnel feel less well informed about the cluster projectsthan about the noncluster projects.

District, school, and grade level appear to be more importantfactors for accuracy of information than loes project operation. Dif-ferences between projects are less conspicuous than differences betweendistricts, between schools, and between grade levels within the respec-tive projects.

Question 2. Regarding parents and school personnel: Do they tend toparticipate in the Title I ESEA projects about which they_are accuratelyinformed?

Proportionately more school personnel (principals and teachers)than parents participate in Title I ESEA projects about which they areaccurately informed. Seventy-nine percent of the parerits claim no in-volvement in the projects about which they are accurately informed,whereas only 32% of the school personnel claim such noninvolvement,

On a scale from zero (no participation in any of the specifiedprojects) to 10 (very active participation in all specified projectsexisting in the local school) the average parent indicated a degree ofparticipation equivalent to 0.6 points, while the average school staffmember indicateo his participation s being equivalent to 3.9 points. Norelationship was found between accurate information and participation foreither the parents or the school personnel. Thus it seems probable thatpossession of accurate information about specific Title I ESEA projectsdoes not 2er se lead to participation in those projects.

To the extent that participation is a measure of a project'simpact, the projects in this cluster have less impact on the school andthe community than do noncluster projects. Parents and school personnel

37

43--

participate less in cluster projects about which they are accurately in-formed than in noncluster projects about which they are accurately in-formed.

District, school, and grade level appear to be more importar'..factors for participation than does project operation. Differences be-tween projects are less conspicuous than differences between districts,between schools, and between grade levels within the respective projects.

Question 3. Regarding parents and school personnel: To what extent aretheir opinions about school-community relations related to their accuracyof information about specific Title I ESEA projects?

No relationship was found between opinions about school-com-munity relations and accuracy of information, for either parents orschool personnel. While both groups expressed predominantly negativeopinions, the accurately informed members of each group were no less neg-ative than their inaccurately informed counterparts. Thus it seems prob-able that possession of accurate information about specific Title I ESEAprojects does not per se lead to favorable opinion.

Question 4. Regarding parents and school personnel: To what extent aretheir opinions about school-communit relations related to their artici-pation in specific Title I ESEA projects?

No relationship was found between opinions about school-com-munity relations and participation in the projects, for either parentsor school personnel. While-both groups expressed predominantly nege_tiveopinions, the partislipating members of each group were no less negativethan their nonparticipating counterparts. Thus it seems probable thatparticipation in specific Title I ESEA projects does not per se lead tofavorable opinion.

Question 5. Regarding parents and school personnel: Do they express aneed for continuing efforts toward attaining the common objectives ofthe L.Jrojects in this cluster?

Substantial majorities of parents and school personnel haveexpressed a need for more information and participation. Both groupsacknowledge the need for parents to participate more in the school, andfor school personnel to be better informed about the community. More-over, each group has indicated a desire to learn more about the other(parents about the school, and school personnel about the community).Thus both groups have indicated their approval of the common objectivesof the projects in this cluster (information and participation--whichalso are goals of the School District), but from their indications of aneed for continuing efforts one may infer their feeling that these ob-jectives have not yet been attained.

38

A A

SCHOOL-COMMUNITY COORDINATOR ,:.'':RVICES(PBRS #111-17-505)

The School-Community Coordinator Services project (SCC) employscommunity residents as school-community coordinators to transmit informa-tion and to encourage mutual participation between the school and the community.

This project report should be interpreted in the context of thecluster report, "School-Community Relations and Unique Staffing Patterns,in earlier pages of this volume.

The Project

One of the problems facing urban education today is the ladk ofcommunication and participation between the school and the community. Inmany instances, middle-class teachers and lower-class parents are unableto establish a satisfactory rapport because of language and cultural bar-riers, lack of common experiences, and the frequent inability of bothgroups to express their feelings appropriately and constructively. As aresult, each group lacks vital information About the,other,and mutualparticipation in de;:ision making is practically nonexistent.

To bridge' the gap between schools in target areas and the com-munities they serve and to improve lines of communication, innovativeand supplementary projects have been developed by the School District ofPhiladelphia. SCC is one such project. It is based on the following as-sumptions:

1. An intermediary between middle-class teachers and lower-class community residents is necessary if communication between the two 3to be established.

2. The intermediary must be able to "talk the language" ofboth groups and translate for each information about the other.

3. The intermediary must be an indigenous community resident(with vested interests) if he is to provide maximal service to bothgroups.

The key objectives of SCC are the following:

Objective 1. To-indrease paticipation of parents in sChooland community projects by informing the community of the objectives, pro-grams, curricula, and services of the school.

Objective 2. To increase participation of school personnel incommunity-related projects by keeping the school personnel informed abou7the needs and concerns of the community.

39

To achieve these objectives, 226 srl-, ol-community coordinatorshave seen assigned to 180 elementary and secondary schools in targetareas. One coordinator is assigned to each target-area elementary schooand two are assigned to each junior or senior high school. In general,there are one or two school-community coordinators for every 1,000 to3,000 students.

Coordinators have flexible work hours to permit them to workduring, before, and after school as well as on weekends. Their most im-portant function is that of liaison persons between the school and thecommunity, keeping each group informed and up-to-date with respect to thother, developing and supporting school-community activities, and visit-ing individual homes to gain information which will enable the school tooperate with greater awareness of the community. In addition, they workwith community agencies (e.g., Mental Health Center, PAC) to provide acoordinated exchange of information.

To perform these demanding tasks, coordinators are carefullyscreened jointly by the School District and the community through examintion procedures, and must meet the following criteria:

1. They!Must reside within their respective school communitie

2. They must have demonstrated leadership ability throughcommunity, civic, school, recreational, or church activities.

They must be in good health.

4, Their ability to work with all segments of the communitymust be well above average.

5. They must have a high school education r its generalequivalent.

6. They must, if they represent the Puerto.Pican community,be able to speak both Spanish and English.

The project is administered by one project director, threesupervisors (professionally trained in guidance and social work) , and 14area coordinators (promoted from the positiion of coordinator) . This steis responsible for the supervision and professional development of thecoordinators.

Previous SCC evaluations have indicated (a) that community reEdents whO had been visited bv the coordinators were more knowledgeableabout the school and pa-,7ticipated more in school activities than thoseresidents whc had rlc, vil-;:ited, and (b) that the coordinators havebeen more successfu7-fn x7:a2izing those project objectives directed to-ward community resi,to than those directed toward school staffs.

40

46


In addition to the questions considered in the evaluation ofthe cluster as a whole (reported in ea=aier pages of this volume) , thisyear's SCC evaluation dealt with one question about the project itself.

Question: Are the tasks performed by school-community coordinators com-patible with the objectives of the SCC project?

To answer this question, 63 visits were made to 37 coordinatomin 37 schools. The instrument used to record conditions observed durincthese visits was the Observational Checklist. (A copy of the instrumentis available in the Research Library of the Board of Education.)

In addition, 72 coordinators and 20 principals were interviewEand asked about the appropriateness of the activies in which coordina-tors engage. Data from observations and interviews were recorded andsummarized in tenms of frequency.

Results

Data relevant to the Question: Are the tasks performed by school-community .coordinators compatible with the objectives of the SCC project

In 31 of the 63 visits, the coordinators were observed intheir schools. During 13 of these visits they were meeting with repre-sentatives frout community agencies or organizations; during the other18 they were involved in meGtings with parents and members of the schoo]staff. The 13 meetings with community representatives had been initiateby the coordinators, usually to coordinate certain school programs withcertain community programs. Although the 18 meetings with parents hadbeen initiated by principals or teachers, usually to.discuss truancy ordiscipline problems, intex-views revealed that it was the coordinators'home visitations that had resulted in the parents' actual attendance atthese meetings.

For 23 of the other 32 visits, the coordinators were observedin the community either on home visits or at community meetings. Most ctheir home visitations were made either to explain school programs toparents or to get parents inao the school to dIscuss their children.Most community meetings which the coordinator attended dealt with problerelevant to the school and the community (e.g., gang control, mentalhealth).

For the 'nine remaining visits, the coordinators were observedworking alone at desks in their schools. The tasks usually performed aithese times were record keeping, such as recording contacts made, writir

41

47

up minutes of meetings, and preparing fliers to be sent to parents abouta school meeting.

Seventeen of the 72 school-community coordinators interviewedduring the 1970-1971 school year indicated that at least one-fifth oftheir time was spent performing tasks incompatible with SCC project ob-jectives. The others reported that in emergencies the principal peri-odically requested their assistance in "nonrelated" activities. However,these 55 coordinators indicated that their performing of such "nonrelated"tasks was not_Roolli.E2: to their role (as long as it remained peri-odic) since cooperating with principals in times of emergencies tended toperpetuate good will and to reinforce the coordinator's role as an activemember of the school staff. This position was supported by all 20 of theprincipals interviewed. They indicated that, because of the importanceof her role, they re6cuested the coordinator's assistance in "nonrelated"activities only as a last resort. The principals reported that the co-ordinators understood this and always responded graciously to such re-quests.

All the interviewed coordinators and principals reported thatthe coordinator's major activities varied from school to school dependingon the needs of the school-community being served. They indicated thatany activity which increased the two-way channels of information andparticipation between the school and the community was compatible withproject goals and School District goals, and that at least 80% of thecoordinator's activities were directed toward this.

Fifty-six coordinators and 12 principals reported that thecoordinators were working more with community.residents than with schoolstaff members and were encountering greater success in the community thanin the school. Their explanation for this was that school staff meMberswere more resistant to the coordinator and to becoming "involved" thanwere community residents.-

Complementary Data

There was a sign-out log for the school-community coordinatorin 31 of the schools visited. These logs differed from school to school,and in four schools they were used not for locating the coordinator butmerely to identify the task she was performing (e.g., "home visitation").

In 12 schools visited, the coordinators did not have their owndesks. When working at schools, they would use any desk that was avail-able to them, whether or not it was near a phone.

Five of the eight interviewed secondary school SCC's indicatedthat they had extreme difficulty in meeting with school personnel to dis-cuss school and community needs because of the nature and size of theirschools. This was not cited as a problem by the SCC's in elementaryschools.

42

Conclusions

Question: Are the tasks performed by school-community coordinatorscompatible with the objectives of the SCC project?

Yes, the tasks actually being 1.erformed by the coordinatorsare compatible with the objectives of the SCC project. Direct obser-vations and interviews with coordinators and principals have confirmedwidespread use of the coordinators for tasks which should facilitatethe two-way channels of information and participation between schooland community.

43

NEW STAFFING PATTERNS IN EIP ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS(PERS #111-02-518)

The project, New Staffing Patterns in EIP (Educational Improve-ment Program) Elementary Schools (EIP), emi.loys community residents toassist classroom teachers in grades one through three. Although servingdifferent grade levels, it is similar to the Kindergarten Aides and Super-visors (KA) project in its rationale, general objectives, and mode ofoperation.

This project report should be interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "School-Community Relations and Unique StaffingPatterns," in earlier pages of this volume.

The Pro ect

Widespread conditions of poverty are known to have an adverseeffect on pupil academic performance. In Philadelphia, pupils in schoolsdesignated as Title I score substantially below national norms on stan-dardized tests. In addinlon, 70% of these schools are overcrowded withenrollments continuing to increase. To accommodate the increasing pupilenrollments and to provido a quality education for a community whose com-position is rapidly changing, innovative and supplementary projects havebeen developed. EIP is one of these projects. It is based on the follow-ing assumptions:

1. Disadvantaged children need more individual and small-groupinstruction if academic performance s,:ores are to improve.

2. The amount of individual and small-group instructiondecreases as classroom enrollment increases because of the increasingdemands placed on teacher time.

3. Teachers in overcrowded classrooms need .supportive assis-tance if they are to spend more time teaching and give more attention toindividuals and small groups cf pupils.

The key objectives of EIP are the following:

Objective 1. To free the teacher from duties not directlyrelated to instruction, as well as from some instructional duties, sothat she will be able to carry out more individualized and small-groupinstruction than would otherwise be possible.

Objective 2. To improve pupil performance in English andmathematics.

To achieve tT-%ese objectives, classroom aides have been assigned

45

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KINDERGARTEN AIDES AND SUPERVISORS(PBRS #111-01-506)

The Kindergarten Aides and Supervisors (KA) project employscommunity residents to assist kindergarten teachers in all T,Jhases ofclassroom activity. Although serving a different grade level, it issimilar to New Staffing Patterns in EIP Elementary Schools (EIP) in itsrationale, general objectives, and mode of operation.

This project report should be interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "School-Community Relations and Unique StaffingPatterns," in earlier pages of this volume.

The Project

Wide3p.read conditions of poverty are knc:r7n to have an adverseeffect on pupil academic performance. In Philadelphia, pupils in schoo]designated as Title I score substantially below national norms on stan-dardized tests. In addition, 70% of these schools are overcrowded withenrollments continuing to increase. To accommodate the increasing pupi]enrollments and to provide a quality education for a community whose conposition is rapidly changing, innovative and supplementary projects havebeen developecL KA is cine of these project It is based on the folloving assumptions:

1. Disadvantaged children need more individual and small-grotinstruction if academic performance scorols are to improve.

2. The amount of individual and small-group instructiondecreases as classroom enrollment increases becaase of the increasingdemands pla,ced on teacher time.

3. Teachers in overcrowded classrooms need supportive assis-tance, especially in kindergarten, if they are to spend more time teachiand give more attention to individuals and small groups of pupils.

The key objectives of KA are the following:

Objective 1. To free the teacher from duties not directlyrelated to instruction, as well as from some instructional duties, sothat she will be able to carry out more individualized and small-groupinstruction than would otherwise be possible.

Objective 2 To improve pupil performance on the PhiladelphiaReadiness Test.

To achieve these objectives, 157 kindergarten aides have beenassigned to 113 schools during the 1970-1971 school year. The number of

49

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Data relevant to Question 1. Has the presence of the kindergarten aidereduced the number of noninstructional tasks th,5 teacher performs?

All 38 of the interviewed teachers reported that at least aportion of the aides' time was used for noninstructional tasks. Eightof them indicated that they used aides for noninstructional tasks only.

During 10 of the 30 observation visits, kindergarten aideswere observed performing noni,Astructional tasks. On eight occasions theywere participating in lavatory or snack-time activities; on the other twooccasions they were physically preparing the room for an activity. Duringeach of these observations, when the aide was performing noninstructionaltasks, the teacher was engaging in whole-group instruction.

Data relevant to Question 2. Has the presence of the kindergarten aideincreased the amount of individualized or small-group instruction thepuloils receive?

Of the 38 interviewed teachers, the 30 who used the aides foronly part-time noninstructional tasks reported an increase in the amountof individual and small-group instruction (some by the teacher and someby the aide). Of the eight teachers who used the aides solely for non-instructional relief, two reported that, although they were freed formore whole-group instruction, there was no increase in the amount ofindividualized or small-group instruction they could perform.

During 20 of the 30 visits, kindergarten aides were observedworkina in an instructional capacity. On 18 occasions, the aides wereconducting qmall-group instruction with the teachers present, and on twooccasions they were conducting individualized instruction outside theclassroom with pupils designated by the teachers. During each of the 20observations when aides were conducting individualized or small-groupinstruction, the teacher was engaging in the same type of activities.

Complementary Data

For 32 of the 38 interviewed teachers, the benefits cited inQuestion 1 (noninstructional-task relief) and Question 2 (individualiza-tion ot instruction) tended not to occur simultaneously. Individualiza-tion occurred when kindergarten aides were used for instructional tasks,but not when they were used merely to relieve the teacher of noninstruc-tional tasks.

51

Conclusions

Question Has the presence of the kindergarten aide reduced the numberof noninstructional tasks the teacher performs?

number ofviews andaides forteacher's

Yes, the presence of the kindergarten aide has reduced thenoninstructional tasks the teacher performs. Teacher inter-classroom Observations confirm widespread use of kindergartentasks which, without the aide, would encroach upon theavailability for actual teaching.

Question 2. Has the presence of the kindergarten aide increased theamount of individualized or small-group instruction the pupils receive?

Yes, the presence of the kindergarten aide has increased theamount of individualized or small-group instruction the pupils receive.Teacher interviews and classroom observations indicate that such individ-Ualization occurs when kindergarten aides are used for instructionaltasks, but not when they are used merely to relieve the teacher of non-instructional tasks.

52

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To achieve these objectives, PSSP brings 1-Iildren from pairedschools to the Franklin Institute for instruction science. This com-munity resource has facilities and equipment not av.1.1a1Dle in the pupils'home schools. The children from the two schools ar paired so thatthey work together in the laboratory investigationS and developMentalsessions and have lunch together. It is anticipated that the interac-tions in these activities may promote interracial urlderstanding, motivatescience learning, facilitate linguistic responses,isolation.

reduce social

PSSP has two seven-week cycles per school rear. Each cycleinvolves approximately 300 sixth-grade pupils trom ve pairs of schools.Pupils from each pair of schools are randomly assiTrIed to either of twoidentical three-hour workshops. Thus, each worksh013, group is composcdof a 50% random sample from each of the paired classes. An alternateseatiag pattern is utilized in order to insure that children from differ-ent schools have an opportunity to work.together-

Each workshop includes a short lesson-dermoilstration, relatedlaboratory investigations, and lunch. Franklin Ins titute instructorsdemonstrate how science apparatus is to be assembled and used to illUs-trate the science concepts being taught; pupils theri construct the appa-ratus. Each pair of pupils works with the selt-constructed apparatus,using a work sheet for the investigations. The insttuctors summarizeideas developed inductively by pupils in accordance 141th their worK-sheetinvestigtions.

In previous evaluations (1968, 1969, 1970) It was found thatpupils' scores on the Science Achievement Test were eignificantly higherfor classes participating in PSSP than for corresporldIng control groups.This finding indicated that some of the cognitive O713jectives were beingattained in PSSP which apparently were not beirig attained in the regularsixth-grade classrooms.


This year's evaluation focused on two queStions:

1. Sas PSSP provided the conditions that ere considered Pre-requisite for the attainment of its objectives?

2. Have PSSP pupils demonstrated knowledge and understandingof basic concepts of physical science?

More attention was given to cognitive thaxx to attitudinal ob-jectives of the project because of the pupils relat.ively short exposureto PSSP and the lack of sensitivity of direct attitIlde measures overshort exposure times.

54

59

Although a measure of attitudes was not used to evaluate the.Ploject's achievement of its attitudinal objective, soMe slAbjectiveclbservations were made. Attendance and interaction between paired schoolZqapi1s were monitored and teachers were asked whether they felt the pair_.1-11g of pupils from different schools was valuable. Findings are included-11-1 this report as "Complementary Data."

lestion 1. HaS PSSP provided the conditions that are con idered re-qlsite for the attainment of its objectives?

Various pssp activities (e.g., laboratory invest 1.%trations, and classroom discussion) were systematically

gations, demorIruzlnitored with

the use of the Observational Checklist, during each cycle of the project.(A copy of the checklist is available in the Research Library of the110-aid of Education.) Data from the observations were reco rded in terMsZ frequency.

klestion 2. HaVe pSsP pupils demonstrated knowledge and u nderstanding ic:-.351esic concepts of physical science?-.

Since base-line data were available from the Previous year's'Craluation, a nosttest-only design was utilized to answer this question.

'1'he instrument used was the Science Achievement Test, Form A (reliabilit/clefficient .82,, Kuder-Richardson Formula 20), which was e specially

d m -Feveloped to easure cognitive learning resulting -rom Franklin Institute4cperiences. (A copy of the test is on file in the Research Library of

the Board of Education.)

The Science Achievement Test was administered to every PsspPupil (N=588) by the participating teachers in the 14 publl. c and sixdiocesan schools. The mean score of the 1970-1971 PSsP PuPils was com-Z'ared with (a) the mean score of the previous two years' PSsp partici-Z'ents and (b) the mean score of the previous two years' nonparticipantc:anparison groups. The difference found in the latter comparison was

SUbjected to a t test.

Results

Ilbeta relevant to Question 1. Has PSSP provided the condit4.ons that arensidered prerequisite for the attainment of its objectivs?_

Data obtained through the systematic monitoring Of psSP activi-ties are summarized in Table 1. Consistently favorable c011d itions were

55

60

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING 21 VISITS TO PSSP

Desired Condition

Number of Observation Visits

ConditionPresent

ConditionLacking

Condition notAppropriate

duringObservation

1. Scheduled topic was beingdiscussed.

2. Science materials were

20

available. 20

3. Pupils were constructingor working with sciencematerials.

20 1

4. Instructors were answeringquestions. 20 0 1

S. The written and/or oralscience material was presentedat the pupils' level.

18 0 3

6. There was a demonstrationrelated to the topic ofthe day.

13* 2 6

7. Pupils were attentive tothe demonstration. 9* 2 10

*Data about demonstrations were gathered in two ways: (a) by directobservation, and (b) by asking pupils about the demonstrations they hadattended. Data about attentiveness were obtained only in the instanceswhen direct observations were made.

Data relevant to Question 2. Have PSSP pupils demonstrated knowledge andunderstanding of basic concepts of ph sical science?

The mean score for the two 1970-1971 cycles was 17.3 out of apossible score of 26. This was significantly higher (p<-01) than

56

61

the previous two years nonparticipant comparison groups' mean score of13.8. The mean score of the previous two years' PSSP pupils was 15.3.

Complementary Data

Interviews with eight PSSP cooperating teachers indicated thatseven of the eight perceived the pairing of pupils from different schoolsas having social value. The 89% average daily attendance for the proiecttends to confirm that the PSSP pupils enjoyed their Franklin Instituteexperiences.

Conclusions

Question 1. Has P5I'SP provided the conditions that are considered re-requisite for the attainment of its objectives?

Yes, PSSP has provided ths conditions that are considered pre-requisite for the attainment of its objectives. Systematic monitoringhas yielded consistent results: appropriate materials have been avail-able and used; instructors have been fulfilling their specified rolesappropriately; and pupils have been attentive during the P5SP activities.

Question 2. Have PSSP pupils demonstrated knowledge and linderstanding ofbasic concepts of physical science?

Yes, PSsP pupils have demonstrated knowledge ancl understandingof basic concepts of physical science. Their mean score On the ScienceAchievement Test for the two 1970-1971 cycles was significantly higherthan the mean score of the previous two years' nonparticipant comparisongroups. Thus one may conclude that physical science achievement of PSSPpupils continues to exceed that of pupils in regular sixtil-grade class-rooms.

57

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Brazil, England, and Ghana.) Before each tlack.,, an introductory tape isplayed to the class. Booklets on the countrY1 basic geographic, his-torical, political, alnd cultural background provided. A hative ofthe country being studied (usually a student) visits classes to talk topupils and to answer their questions.

At the end of each in-depth study, A culminating program isheld at one of the schools in each distrjct, sttidents from all partici-pating elementary schools in that district pexorm songs, dances, plays,skits, and poetry which they have learned dliritig their study. A trip tothe United Nations is arranged for each of thA sixth-grade classes fromEWA participating schools. Forty-two Title I choo.s partic iPate in theelementary program including the trip to tne Qtlited Nations.

The junior high school program ervg 37 Title I schools issimilar in structure to the elementary prograrri, The same fol.= coun trie.c.;are studied both in class or club (using Wnr20 Affairs Council materials)and at the Civic Center and the Art Museum- At the latter lcca tons,native speakers give short talks supplemented )11. slides and art:.-facts oftheir country. After a short question-and-a.ner period, stiidents tourappropriate country exhibits. A world fair, itivolving student presenta-tions and displays, serves as a culminating aQtivity to the Study of thefour countries.

Title I funds allocated to the erlicok- high school World AffairsCouncil program support an ongoing speakere' -(:)gram in nine Public highschools. Each month speakers, frequently orAtgn graduate sChool stu-dents, visit the schools and aedress the t1.1dAtits on a topic which cor-responds to a current international issue beinfq presented to the class atthat time. More than three-fourths of the participating studen ts receivesubscriptions to Newsweek. Other materiale Prpvided are filfis and books(e.g., Status, Achievement and Social Valises) (:)r each student. Through-out the year "scholarships" are provided tn TrIeble students to attend thevarious seminars, forums, and trips of the Wox- Id Affairs Council's seniorhigh school program. Each participating cla.s takes a trip to the UnitedNations which includes attendance at two Dr ietrigs given by leading diplo-mats from various countries.

Evaluations conducted in 1967-1,968 Alla 1968-1969 indicated astatistically significant saperiority of EWA ikanior hig:s students overcomparison groups in knowledge of the four caLltit ries but not in "open-mindedness." 2±.ndings in the 1969-1970 scnool year again contiraied theEWA students' greater factual knowledge and dettionstrated th,7 t the amountof knowledge was directly related to the vIaltibA of district Meetingsattended.

Current Evaluation_p_oRqux7

In addition to the questions ccnOideed in the evaluation of thecluster as a whole (reported in earlier pageS pf this volume), this year'sevaluation dealt with the follcwing questi.nris 4.hout the TLWA project:

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64

1. Have the learning activities t-:onsidered essential to theEWA program in the participating schools taken pla,-e during 1970-1971?

2. Have the procedures and structural axr ar,gements consideredessential to EWA activities at the Civic Center and the i,rt Museum beencarried out?

3. To what extent are the students' beSt-liked EWA activitiesseen by the teachers as having educational value?

Question 1. Have the learnin activities consideZed essential to theEWA program in the participating schools taken 2cluring 1970-1971?

Systematic monitoring of elementary district programs and jun-ior high EWA club and classroom activities was conducted with the use ofthe Observational Checklist. (A copy of the cheCklist is on file in theResearch Library of the Board of Education.)

Five elementary district programs (about Ghana, China, Englandand Brazil) were observed involving some 25 participating classes Fivevisits to junior high club and/or class activities were made. Observedactivities were listed descriptively.

2uestion 2. Have the procedures and structural eznents consideredessential to EWA activities at the Civic Center and the Art Museum beencarried out?

Systematic monitoring of EWA activities occurring at the ArtMuseum and the Civic Centc -01;..s conducted with the aid of another form othe Observational Checklist. (A copy of this forM also is on file in thResearch Library of the Board of Education.)-

Eleven EWA meetings were monitored. participating pupils rep-resented approximately 43 schools. The data were sammaxized in terms offrequency of the presence or absence of specific conditions (e.g.,whether the number of pupils prereported as coming actually came, andwhether pupils participated in country activities).

2uestion 3. To what extent are the students' best-liked EWA activitiesseen by the teachers as having educational value?

All junior high HwA students were asked to evaluate their EWAexperiences by means of the Student Evaluation Questionnaire, and par-ticipating teachers were asked to indicate their opinions of the educa-tional va7_ue of the EWA activities by means of the Teacher EvaluationQuestionnaire. (Copies of both questionnaires are on file in theResearch Library of the Board of Education.) Teachers' responses to an

61

65

open-end question were categorized and compared with the rank-order listof students' best-liked activities.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Have the learning activities consideredessential to the EWA program in the participating schools taken olaceduring 1970-1971?

The. following learning activities were observed on variousoccasions during ten visits to EWA classrooms, clubs, and/or assemblyprograms:

1. Pupils listened to an introductory tape on one of the fourcountries being studied.

2. Pupils listened to their teacher talking about one of the

3. Committees worked on projects and did research in the

4. Pupils answered questions from the secially preparedcountry booklet.

5. Pupils and their teacher showed slides and discussed arecent trip they had taken to one of the countries they were studying.

6. Pupils gave reports on the country their EWA class was

countries.

library.

studying.

7. Pupils acted out local folk tales of the country.

8. Pupils demonstrated a dance indigenous to the country.

9. Pupils played the music of the country they were studyingand sang songs including the country's national anthem.

From this list, one sees the variety of activities taking placein the schools as a result of the EWA project nersonnel and materials.Tne structural arrangement of the EWA activities in the local schoolvaries from clubs, to classrooms, to the involvement of several schoolsin presenting an assembly program on a particular country.

62

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the table) reflect the fact that participating schools were disrupted bya strike and some of them were unable to provide the necessary substi-tutes for the absent EWA participating teachers. The programs mostaffected were the ones on Ghana at the Civic Center. Attendance for theother country programs was high until late spring when other schoolactivities began to conflict with EWA meetings. However, attendance atthe world fair, which took place on June 1-3, was very high.

Data relevant to Question 3. To what extent are the students' best-likedEWA activities seen by the teachers as having educational valUe?

Students' indications of "best-liked" EWA activities andteachers' indications of "most valuable" activities are presented in-Table 2. A rank-difference correlation of zero indicated that there wasneither positive nor negative relationship between specific EWA activities'educational value (as perceived by teachers) and enjoyment value (as per-ceived by students). A reranking based on both educational and enjoymentfactors would show country programs and the United Nations trip as offer-ing the best combination of educational value and enjoyment.

TABLE 2

STUDENTS' AND TEACHERS' EVALUATIONS OF SPECIFIC EWA ACTIVITIES

EWA Activity Student "Votes" 1Teacher "VOtes"2

United Nations Trip

Country Programs

World Fair

Speakers

305

135

99

39

6

12

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the one they liked best.

2Number of times the activity was named (in response to an open-endquestion) as having the most educational value.

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GERMANTOWN AREA SCHOOLS PROJECT(PBRS #111-02-595)

The Germantown Area Schools Project (GASP), sponsored by theGermantown Community Council and based on the concept of the communityschool, provides seventh- and eighth-grade students with a social studiEcurriculum based on the community in which they live, and offers 50 Ger-mantown High School seniors an alternative curriculum at Vernon House.

This project report should be interpreted in the context of thcluster report, "School-Community Relations and Unique Staffing Patternsin earlier pages of this volume.

The Project

One of the problems confronting urban educ,ators today is thelack of community involvement in the educational process. To increasecommunity participation in education and to increase pupils' awareness ctheir community, innovative and supplementary projects have been devel-oped. GASP is one of these projects.

In its various settings, GASP operates as if it were two proj-ects--a junior high project (GASP-J) and a senior high project (GASP-S).

Junior High School (GASP -J)

The key objective of GASP-J is the following:

Objective: To provide a community-based social studies curriculum for pupils at Henry, Houston, Jenks, and Holy Cross schools.

To achieve the GASP-J objective, a community-based socialstudies curriculum was designed for more than 500 seventh- and eighth-grade pupils in Henry, Houston, Jenks, and Holy Cross Schools. Thethrust of the eighth-grade curriculum is to explore American civilizatioiin terms of the relationship between the traditions and ideals of histor:Germantown and the socia) developments, issues, and tensions of our timeThe seventh-grade curriculum deals with cultural, political, economic, aaecological geography as an interrelated whole that can be observed in thestudent's own community. Both curricula attempt to develop an awarenessof urban planning in the students.

GASP-J takes place within the framework of the regular schoolprogram of the students. There are 32 groups meeting for a 90-minuteperiod each week. The groups include members from the four participatincschools and involve the interchange of students among these schools.Teaching in GASP-J is a partnership involving a community resource persoras group leaderi the regular classroom teacher, and interns from Antioch-Putney and the Great Lakes College Association.

67

71

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1. Are the opinions of junior high GASP students about theproject compatible with the project's objective of a community-basedsocial studies curriculum?

2. Have the procedures and structural arrangements consideredessential to the senior high GASP project been carried out?

Question 1. Are the opinions of junior high GASP students about theproject compatible with the project's objective of a community-basedsocial studies curriculum?

To answer this question, two seventh-grade and two eighth-gradGASP-J classes were administered the GASP Student Questionnaire at thetermination of the project. (A copy of the questionnaire is available 1the Research Library of the Board of Education.)

Responses to the questionnaire were recorded and summarized interms of percentage.

Question 2. Have the procedures and structural arranaements consideredessential to the senior high GASP project been carried out?

To answer this question, GASP-S classes were systematicallymonitored on 34 occasions during.the year. The instrument used to recorproject-specific conditions observed during these visits was the Observational Checklist. (A copy of the instrument is available in the Researc:Library of the Board of Education.)

Data from the observations wer*: recorded and summarized in ter]of frequency.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Are the opinions of junior high GASP stu-dents about the project compatible with the project's objective of acommunity-based social studies curriculum?

Table 1 summarizes the 155 students' responses to each item onthe GASP Student Questionnaire. The majority of GASP-J students who re-sponded to the questionnaire described the project as a chance to learnnore about themselves and their community. They indicated that theyspent most of their time while in GASP-J talking about their school orcommunity. These responses were considered indicative that GASP-J wasimplementing the community-based social studies curriculum cited as itsobjective.

69

73

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE OF GASP-3 STUDENTS (N=155) CHOOSING EACH RESPONSE TO QUESTIONNAIRE

ITEMS

Item

1. If someone asks you

what GASP is, which

one of these would

be your answer?

2. How much do you

like GASP?

3. How do you think

your teacher and

principal feel

about GASP?

4. What is the most

important thing xou

did to make GASP a

good program this

year?

Response

Percentage of

Responses1

It is a chance to learn more about myself and my community.

36%

It is a chance to meet new p eople.

25%

It is a chance to get out of my regular classes.

14%

It is a chance to talk about things that concern me.

8%

It is a waste of time.

8%

It is a chance to work out solutions to problems.

7%

I don't know what it is.

2%

I like it a lot.

48%

I like it a little.

23%

It makes no difference to me.

15%

I don't like it vary much.

6%

I wish we did not have it.

6%

- They seem

to like it a lot.

36%

They seem to like it a little.

23%

They seem not to like it very much.

13%

They wish we did not have it.

12%

It makes no difference to them.

10%

Participated in discussions.

33%

Helped to plan GASP activities.

17%

Just attended the GASP activities.

14%

Made suggestions to the group or the leader.

13%

Nothing.

13%

Helped in some other way.

10%

TABLE 1 (Continued)

PERCENTAGE OF GASP-J STUDENTS (N=155) CHOOSING EACH RESPONSE

TO QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

Itern

5. How did your groap

spend most of its

time while in GASP

this year?

6. Which one oi these

:J1

did yoTI-Ilke best

about GASP?

7. Which one of these

did you like least

about GASP?

Response

Percentage of

Responses

1

Talking about our school or community.

31%

Making plans.

24%

Doing nothing.

16t

Talking about ourselves.

13%

Going places.

10%

Talking about places we went.

5%

Playing games.

1%

Going on trips.

36%

Going to another school.

24%

Doing things for our school or community.

10%

Having students visit our school.

8%

Talking about our school and community.

7%

Making plans and decisions.

6%


3%


33%

Making plans and decisions.

19%

Going to another school.

16%

Talking about our school and community.

11%

Having students visit our school.

9%

Doing things for our school or community.

3%

Going on trips.

2%

Doing nothing.

1%

'Where percentages

total less than 100, some respondents omitted the item.

Data relevant to Question 2. Have the procedures and structural arrange-ments considered essential to the senior high GASP project been carriedout?

Table 2 shows the number of times the desired conditions werefound to exist in the 34 observations of GASP-S.

Conditions 1, 5, and 6 in Table 2 were not observable in mostcases because planning-meetings usually occurred in the evening ratherthan during the school day, and usually it was not stated during theclassroom observation whether students not seen were fulfilling servicerequirements, working in the library, or engaged in other activities.

-

TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF 34 OBSERVATIONS OF GASP-S

Desired Conditionor Activity

ConditionPresent

ConditionLacking

Condition no.Observable

1. Planning-meetingsinvolving studentsand community.

8 0 26

2. Small-group discussions. 19 15 0

3. Nondifferentiated staff. 29 5 0

4. Classes being heldin various communityagencies (e.g., YMCA).

34 0 0

5. Students fulfillingservice requirements.

14 0 20

6. Students doinglibrary research.

10 0 24

7. Community people beingused to teach students.

31 3 0

8. One topic beingdiscussed relatingto community probl

26 5 3

72

Conclusions

Question 1. Are the opinions of junior high GASP students about theproject compatible with the project's objective of a community-basedsocial studies curriculum?

Yes, the opinions of junior high GASP students about the projecare compatible with that objective. The majority of students who re-sponded to a questionnaire described the junior high project as a chanceto learn more about themselves and their community and stated that mostof their time in GASP was spent talking about their school and community.

Question 2. Have the procedures and structural arrangements consideredessential to the senior high GASP project been carried out?

Yes, the procedures and structural arrangements consideredessential to the senior high GASP project have been carried out. System-atic monitoring has consistently revealed small-group discussions, non-differentiated staff usage, classes being held in community agencies, cormmunity residents conducting classes, and discussions that center aroundcommunity problems.

73

77

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types of curricular materials used also were expected to make differentstaff development demands, for in one instance teachers might need tolearn how best to facilitate pupils' use of a package of materials, andin another they might need to learn how to develop their own materials.

Because the projects operate in special settings for specialpurposes, it was assumed that each project has developed a model of spe-cialized instruction. The investigation sought to discover the charac-teristics of the models in the context of their objectives and thecharacteristics of their participating pupils. The resulting descrip-tions of the instructional practices could then be further refined toshow relationships among the arrangements of pupils, the methods of in-str,2cting, the types of educational materials, and the modes of learning.

Questions concerning cognitive achievement are not answereddirectly in this report, but they are answered in the individual proj-ects' reports in relation to the specific objectives and the characteris-tics of the pupils served.

Thus the current year's evaluation of this cluster was focusedon the following question:

Question: What are the operational characteristics of theprojects designed to remediate learning deficiencies?

In order to describe objectively the variety of instructionalpractices, it was necessary to construct an observational instrumentwhich would facilitate the collection of data across projects. The "Ad-ditional Observational Items" form was developed to be used in conjunc-tion with the standard Observational Checklist. (Copies of both instru-ments are on file in the Research Library of the Board of Education.)

The Additional Observational Items dealt with four instruc-tional elements: class structure, teaching form, mode of learning, andcontent area.

Class structure. There were four types of pupil organization:whole class, two groups, multigroup, and individual pupil arrangements.

Teaching form. Four varieties of teaching form were observed.The first (teacher instructing) is characterized by the teacher's tell-ing or demonstrating while the pupils watch or listen. The second(teacher-pupil interaction) is characterized by verbal interactionsbetween the teacher and the pupils. The teacher controls the instructionwhile the pupils respond to the teacher's questions. The third variation(pupils interacting with educational materials) is characterized by thepupils' interaction with a problem or with educational material. Theteacher provides the structure through a somewhat indirect procedure.. Insome cases the teacher might permit pupils to choose between two alterna-tive tasks. The fourth variation (pupils doing independent work) ischaracterized by the pupils' wide choice of problems or activities, or bythe pupils' freedom to determine independently what they wish to do with

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TABLE 1

OBSERVATION VISITS TO PROJECTS

Item RE-ED ESL IEC IRS 1.0P

NuMber of visits usingAdditional ObservationalItems

22 18 16 20 46

Number of reportedobservations (3 pervisit)

66 54 48 60 138

Number of visits usingObservational Checklist 19 21 22 27 42

Number of visits toindicated grade:1

- - - - 11 - - 3 1 132 (2)2 4 2 1 73 (5) 5 2 1 84 (2) 0 4 8 65 - 2 1 3 26 __ 1 3 8 57 - 3 2 - -8 - 1 4 - -9 - 0 - - -

10 - 1 - - -

1On some visits to some projects, grade was not specified.

2Pupils are not assigned to grades while in the RE-ED pr,)ject.

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TABLE 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECTS IN THE "INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND STUDENT COGNITIW,PERFORMANCE" CLUSTER

Projeqt

Objectives

Pupil Characteristics

Typical Setting

Instruction

RE-ED

To develop basic

skills and promote

emotional adjust-

ment.

1

Retarded educable with

emotional disturbance

related to retardation.

Standard classroom; limited

number of pupils,

Individual work

for each child;

constant adult

guidance,

ESL

To develop English

audiolingual

skills.

Do not speak or under-

stand English.

"Part-time" attendance;

bilingual teacher; limited

number of pupils.

Group and indi-

vidual practice

in speaking pat-

terns and compre-

hending.

IEC

To develop general

comprehension, and

skills in language

arts and mathematics.

Title I requirements

for school and area;

parochial education,

Standard classroom; special

equipment for multimedia

materials; aides availabls.

Programmed skill-

development ma-

terials and other

printed materials.

IRS

To develop reading

skills and compre-

hension.

Title I nquirements

for school and area;

pupils have severe

reading problems.

"Part-time" attendance in

proportion co severity of

reading dIsability; specially

equipped classroom "center"

for multimedia matwidls;

aides available.

Programmed skill-

development mate-

rials; workbooks;

literature.

LDP

To develop general

.cognitive compre-

hension and skills,

and self-expression,

Title I requirements

for school and area,

Self-contained classrooms

with "activity centers" for

sensory-related materials;

aides available.

"Open classroom";

task cards; printed

materials.

TABLE 3

OBSERVED CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

Project

Class Structure

__ Teaching Form

..,..

..

Instructional Materials

Mode of Learning

RE-ED

Individual

(Whole class)

Pupils involved with materials

with teacher's direction,

(reacher-pupil interaction.)

Printed materials and other.

(Chalkboard.)

Talking, listening; (reading,

manual activity, visual

activithwriting).

(Talking, listening, reading,

visual activity.)

ESL

Whole class

Teacher-pupil interaction.

(Pupils involved with materials

with teacher's direction.)

Visual materials.

Talking, listening, visual

activity.

IEC

Individual

Multigroup

Pupils doing independent work.

a. Teacher-pupil interaction.

b. Pupils involved with materials

with teacher's direction.

c. Pupils doing independent work.

Tapes, workbooks, programmed

materials.

a. Chalkboard.

b. Workbooks, programmed materials.

c. Tapes, texts, programmed materials.

Listening, reading, talking,

writing.

a. Talking, writing, reading.

b. Reading, listening, writing.

c. Listening, writing, readirg.

IRS

Multigroup

(whole class)



with teacher's r;irection.


(reacher-pupil interaction.)

a. Workbooks, chalkboard.

b. Workbooks, programmed materials,

tapes.

n. Literature, programmed materials,

tapes.

(Workbooks, literature.)

a. Talking, reading.

b. Reading, listening, writing.

c. Reading, listening, writing.

(Reading, listening, talking,

writing.)

LOP

Whole class

Individual

Or

Multigroup

a. Teacher-pupi', interaction.


with teanher's direction.



with teacher's direction.


a,b. Chalkboard, printed materials,

other,

a. Printed materials.

b. Other, printed materials,

chalkboard, tapes.

c. Other, printed materials, texts.

a,b. Listening, talking,

reading, writing,

manual activity.

a. Listening, talking.

b. Manual activity, reading,

writing, visual activity.

c. Manual activity, reading,

writing.

1

Secondary or less prevalent features are enclosed in parentheses.

all pupils were engaged in the same assignment. Alternately, the indi-vidual arrangements were used for art work and writing assignments, withthe teacher answering questions as they arose.

Table 4 displays (a) the observed average pupil attendance,(b) the observed number of instructional personnel including teachers,aides, and others, and (c) the ratios of instructional personnel topupils with and without the presence of part-time staff members- Underideal conditions, the ratios ranged between 1:6 and 1:11. The projects(RE-ED and ESL) which had no aides used other arrangements which tendedto produce similar ratios of instructional personnel to pupils. Whenaides were available, teachers tended to use multigroup arrangementswhich facilitated the individualization of instructional practices.

TABLE 4

AVERAGE NUMBER OF PUPILS AND STAFFAND RATIOS OF STAFF TO PUPILS

Project

AverageNo. ofPupilsPresent

No. of Teachers &/or Aides1 Ratio of Staff to Pupils

When AllStaffPresent

WhenPart-TimeStaff Absent

When AllStaffPresent

WhenPart-TimeStaffAbsent

RE-ED 6 1 1 1:6 1:6

ESL 10 1 1 1:10 1:10

IEC 22 2 1 1:11 1:22

IRS 18 3 2 1:6 1:9

LDP 21 3 1 1:7 1:21

1EDP master teachers are included.

Conclusions

Question: What are the operational characteristics of the projects de-signed to remediate learning deficiencies?

Two types of project implementation have been identified inthis cluster of projects. One type (e.g., RE-ED, ESL, and IRS) Is

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CLASS FOR MENTALLY RETARDED-EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED CHILDREN(PBRS #111-05-652)

The Class for Mentally Retarded-Emotionally Disturbed Children(RE-ED) is a special class for children who are both retarded educable(RE) and emotionally disturbed (ED).

This project report should he interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "Instructional Practices and Student CognitivePerformance," in earlier pages of this volume.

The project

The School District of Philadelphia has special classes for re-tarded educable (RE) children, and for emotionally disturbed (ED) chil-dren. When a pupil diagnosed as ED also displays a highly erratic intel-ligence profile (i.e., high scores in some aspects of intelligence andlow scores in others) and has an overall intelligence quotient betweenapproximately 60 and approximately 85, there is reason to suspect thatthe pupil's emotional disturbance lies at the base of his problems in theeducational setting.

The RE-ED project attempts to improve the emotional adjustmentof selected RE children. It is hoped that, as a result of that improvedadjustment, the children will find greater success in that educationalsetting, and eventually will be able to function with moderate success inmore typical educational settings.

The primary objectives of the RE-ED project are the following:

Objective 1. To reduce the degree of emotional disturbanceexhibited by the RE-ED children in the classroom environment.

Objective 2. To facilitate the RE-ED children's readiness forlearning.

Objective 3. To increase parental understanding of the prob-lems of RE-ED children so that family members can better cope with thechild's limitations.

The project is implemented in a regular-size classroom with amaximum of eight children. Pupils are-screened before being admitted tothe project. The screening committee is composed of specialists such asa physician, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, a school counselor, and theproject teacher. The parents' attitudes toward (a) the goals of the proj-ect, (b) providing regular transportation for the pupil where necessary,and (c) getting the pupil to school regularly are taken into consider-ation. The pupil's attributes also are considered so that pupils who areextremely disruptive, for example, are not admitted.

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Thomas, Becker, and Armstrong (1968) was used. Relevant behaviors weredefined as behaviors which were appropriate to the task at hand in theeducational setting. Nonrelevant behaviors were categorized as GrossMotor (kicking, twisting, walking), Noise Making (making vocal or othernoises), Orienting (looking at another pupil or out the window for ex-tended periods of time), Verbalizing (talking, calling the teacher whilethe teacher is talking) , Aggression (any aggressive act, regardless ofpurpose), and Other.

The observed behaviors of pupils were tallied, and the percent-age of relevant behaviors was determined bv dividing the number of rele-vant behaviors by the number of all behaviors observed.

The five pupils who were in attendance for the school year weresubjects for this part of the evaluation. In this report they are identi-fied as Pupils 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7.

Question 2. Has the RE-ED pupils' achievement in reading and mathematicsimproved?

The teacher's comments on the pupils' work in reading andmathematics were used as assessments of that achievement and provided thebasis for noting gains during the school year. The teacher's assessmentof academic achievement was used because (a) conventional measures ofachievement are not generally applicable to RE pupils, and (b) the ser-vices of the previous year's skilled ITPA tester were not available thisyear.

The achievement levels of pupils were reported by the teacherin DeceMber (allowing the autumn months for the teacher to become wellacquainted with the pupils) and in June, and were compared to note indi-vidual gains.

The same subjects were used in the investigation for this ques-tion as for Question 1.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Has the RE-ED pupils' classroom behavior be-come more relevant to the task at hand?

The relevance of the full-year RE-ED pupils' behaviors, as ob-served in two parts of the school year, is summarized in Table 1. Thetable shows, for example, that from September through December, 68% ofPupil l's observed behaviors were categorized as "relevant."

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RE-ED PUPILS' MOST FREQUENTLY OBSERVED NONRELEVANT BEHAVIORSAND TEACHER'S COMMENTS ON PUPILS' ADJUSTMENT

Pupil*Pupil's Most CommonNonrelevant Behavior

Teadher's Comments onPupil's Adjustment

1 Disrupting by talkingand calling out_

. .

Good progress over pre-vious year, but someregression during thesecond half-year of1970-1971; continuedhigh Absence rate.

3 Moving around, makingnoises, looking around,

Diminished gross motorbehavior; making goodsocial adjustment.

5 Looking around. Making good social adjust-ment; still anxious butmore assertive.

6 Daydreaming. Has made good adjustment;currently attending aregular class on trialbasis; continued tardi-ness and high absencerate.

7 Looking around,pouting.

Chronic instigation ofproblems and bad feel-ings; poor motivation.

*Pupil 4, who attended on a half-day basis, was described as"overactive" and "unable to cope with a full day of school." Pupil 8has had a "very.poor attendance record."

97

TABLE 3

READING AND MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT OF RE-ED PUPILSAS ASSESSED BY TEACHER IN DECEMBER AND JUNE

Pupil*Reading Book Level Mathematics Year Level

December June December June

1 Pre-Primer Pre-Primer Year 1 Year 1

3 Book 1 Book .2 Year 1 Year 1

5 Pre-Primer Book 1 Year 2 Year 2

6 Book 22 Book 32 Year 3 Year 3

7 Pre-Primer Pre-Primer Year 1 Year 1

*Pupil 4 in June: Reading, "readiness"; mathematics, "Year 1."Pupil 8 in June: Reading and mathematics, "readiness."

Conclusiczals

Question 1. Has the RE-ED pupils' clssZ'oom behavior become more rele-vant to the task at hand?

In general, yes_ Of the fiVe pupils who were in RE-ED for thefull year, all but one have shown greeter* relevance in their behaviorduring the second half-year than during the first. This improved be-havior is an indication that the special setting is a factor in remedi-ating poor psychological and social adjustment.

Question 2. Has the RE-ED pupils' acIlievement in reading and mathemat-ics improved?

Although improvement in some cases has been less than one booklevel or less than one year level, there have been indications of gener-ally increased achievement. This achievement has been more noticeablein reading than in mathematics.

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Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Have ESL pupils in different schools showndifferent amounts of gain in English audiolingual skills?

The mean score for ..-!ach test administration at each school isshown in Table 1. The same data are presented graphically in Figure 1_

TABLE 1

MEAN SCORES OF ESL PUPILS AT SIX SAMPLE SCHOOLSIN THREE ADMINISTRATIONS OF LCI

School October February May

1 50_8 60-2 65.2

2 48.3 57.4 69.4

3 38.5 64.1 63.5

4 43.6 47.5 57.2

5 40.3 45.4 50.6

6 35.8 47.8 50.9

Overall 44.8 53.1 59.5

Schools 2 and 3 made October-to-May gains of more than 20 points, whilegains in the other schools were in the range of 10 to 15 points. School2 was the only secondary (junior high) school in the sample; the ESLclass in School 3 was self-contained and highly task-oriented.

The one-way analysis of variance with a repeated measure re-vealed three effects that were statistically highly significant (theprobabilityof their occurring by chance was less than one in 10,000):(a) differences between schools, (b) an overall upward-trend of averagescores with the passage of time, and (c) an interaction between a and b.

102

1116

70

65'

60

55050'0450040

35

1October

SChool 2 (g=21)

Sdhool 1 (N=52)School 3 (N= 8)

School 4 (g=13)

School 6 (g=13)School 5 (N=41)

February

DATE OF TESTING

May

Fig. 1. Average scores on the Linguistic Capacity Index (LCI)obtained by ESL pupils in six schools. Schools 3 and 6 had self-con-tained ESL classrooms.

(The interaction is demonstrated also by the fact that the trend lines inFigure 1 are not all parallel to one another.)

Although further statistical treatment was not conducted totest the interaction, it appears from the graphs that part of the inter-action occurred because of the difference in learning patterns betweenclasses which utilize "part-time attendance" and those which utilize"self-contained classrooms." A separate plotting of the average scoresfor Schools 3 and 6 combined and the average scores for the other fourschools combined is shown In Figure 2. The two schools (3 and 6) hadself-contained classes, while the others (1, 2, 4, and 5) had pupils in"part-time attendance." Pupils in the self-contained classes made anaverage gain of 17.2 points between October and February, and an averagegain of 1.7 points between February and May, indicating that their great-est acquisition of skills occurred during the early part of the schoolYear. The pupils in "part-time attendance" made an average gain of 7.0points during each interval or a constant gain over the entire year.However, it was noted that both groups tended to gain the same absolutequantity of skills during the peripd of their i-ost active learning.(In this respect, a similar relationship between intensity of instruc-tion and rate of learning specific skills, reported by Brown, is mentionedin the cluster report.)

103

60

35

Schools 1,2,4,5Schools 3,6

October February

DATE OF TESTING

Fig. 2. Average LCI scores obtained by self-contained ESL classes(Schools 3 and 6) and ESL classes at other schools in the sample.

May

Data relevant to Question 2. What differences in audiolingual skillgains, if any, exist among students who have been in ESL (a) for the en-tire school year, (II) for the first half-year only, and (c) for thesecond half-year only?

The average scores and gains for the three groups of pupils arereported in Table 2. The same data are presented graphically in Fig-ure 3.

The gain made by each group of pupils was significant for therespective period of participation. The gain of the full-year group dur-ing its first half-year was not sianificantly different from the gain ofeither half-year group. But the gain of the second half-year groupexceeded that of the first half-year group by a statistically significantamount. Because of uncontrolled factors (such as disruptions in instruc-tion during the first half-year) it was difficult to draw definite con-clusions based upon the difference found.

Complementary Data

During each observation visit to an ESL class, the number ofEnglish statements or questions and the number of Spanish statements orquestions were tabulated over three five-minute intervals. The ratioof English to Spanish usage was then ealculated. This ratio was approxi-mately 10 to 1; i.e., English was spoken about ten times as often asSpanish.

104

168

TABLE 2

OCTOBER, FEBRUARY, AND MAY AVERAGE SCORESAND GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS OF ESL PUPILS

Group'sExposureto ESL

Pupilsin

Group

Average Scores Gain Scores

Oct.- Feb.- Oct.-Oct. Feb. May Feb. May May

Full school 164 44.8 53.1 59.5 8.3 6.4 14.7*year

,

First half-year only

31 43.3 51.0 - 7.7* -

Second half-year only

58 44.3 54.8 - 10.5* -

*The trend for the full-year group and the gains for both half-yeargroups were statistically significant (p<.01).

60

55

H 50

45

0 40

October February

DATE OF TESTING

May

Fig. 3. Average LCI scores obtained by pupils In ESL (a) for thefull year, (b) for the first half-year only, and (c) for the secondhalf-year only.

In self-contained classes and in upper elementary, junior high,and senior high school classes, teachers were observed to use the chalk-

105

1 CO

board, hand out written papers, and use texts printed in English as partof their teaching. (Although this practice was not recommended as astandard part of the project, the evaluation team thought it worthy ofconsideration. For example, if pupils could already read and write inSpanish, they might have some decoding skills which could help them pro-nounce written words. Pupils who have acquired sufficient audiolingualskills might find this type of activity a reasonable next set of skillsto begin to develop.)

Conclusions

Question 1. Have ESL pupils in different schools shown different amountof gain in English audiolinqual skills?

Yes, pupils in different schools have shown statistically sig-nificant differences in their amounts of gain. The differences in gainamong schools are probably attributable to (a) differences in gradesserved, and (b) differences in instructional setting (e.g., the se:1f-contained classroom versus part-time attendance in ESL classes).

Although the end-of-year scores for self-contained classesaveraged about the same as end-of-year scores for "part-time" classes,pupils in self-contained classes made most of their gains during thefirst half-year, while pupils in "part-time" classes made their gainsmore evenly throughout the school year.

Question 2. What differences in audiolingual skill gains, if any, existamong students who have been in ESL (a) for the entire school year,(b) for the first half- ear only, and (c) for the second half- ear onl ?

Pupils in ESL only during the second half-year outgained thosein the project only during the first half-year. The greater gains by thesecond-half pupils might be related to the fact that other pupils who hadbeen in the classes since September had a greater facility with Englishand were able to help the newer pupils during the second half-year.

No significant difference is apparent between the gain by thefull-year group during their first half-year of participation and thegain made by either of the groups limited to a half-year of participa-tion.

All groups made statistically significant gains on the LC1 dur-ing their exposure to ESL. Thus it may be concluded that ESL is meetingits objective of increasing the pupils' English audiolingual skills.

106

110

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION CENTER(PBRS #111-06-733)

The Individualized Education Center (IEC) project serves pupifrom different socioeconomic neighborhoods who attend an interparochialschool located in Society Hill. Instruction is individualized throughmultimedia and programmed materials.

This project report should he interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "Instructional Practices and Student Cognitive Per-formance," in earlier pages of this volume.

The Prr)ject

The rationale of the project has a sociological basis. Re-search by Bledsoe (1964) and by Engel & Raine (1963) has suggested thata negative self-concept adversely affects academic progress. Clark &Clarke (1947) have implied that the self-concepts of black and white pu-pils are negatively influenced by de facto segregated schools.

A major thrust of IEC is to enhance the individual dignity ofpupils who come from diverse backgrounds and to nurture their sense ofcommon humanity. The intention of IEC is to establish a desirable edu-cational setting and program to develop self-esteem, moti-Tation, and theappreciation of the worth of others for pupils from contrasting demo-graphic backgrounds. Consistent with this concern for pupils' self-esteem is an emphasis on individualization of both instruction and themeasurement of pupil progress. Instruction can be individualized throucdiagnosis of each pupil's educational disabilities and prescription ofspecific remedial activities using multimedia and multilevel materials.Measurement of progress can be individualized through the setting ofattainable goals for each pupil and the avoidance of peer comparisons.

Objectives of the project include the following:

Objective 1. To individualize instructional practices.

Objective 2. To improve pupil performance in the basic skills

The IEC is located at Fifth and Locust Streets. The physicalplant is one year old and has eight classrooms, a cafeteria-gymnasiumcombination, a library, a principal's office, and other smaller roomsof varied purposes.

Pupils from six adjacent parishes attend the IEC so that inte-gration is on a voluntary basis. A myriad of demographic features char-acterize the respective parishes. For example, St. Mary's parish ishistoric and opulent. Affluent whites and a number of socially sim-ilar blacks reside there. Our Lady of the Blessed Sacrament parish is 1a poverty-stricken area. Low-income blacks and people of Spanish-speak-

107

iii

ing ancestry predominate in that area.

Of the 188 pupils attending the center, approximately half areboys. The average class has 24 pupils. The racial composition is 45%black, 32% white, and 23% Spanish-speaking. sixty percent of the familieslist their annual income as less than $7,000. Thirty-three percent of themale heads of households have completed ninth grade.

Diagnostic and basic skill tests are administered to all pupilsin October and February. The October results are used as guides for theselection of specific instructional materials, programs, and experienceswhich will remediate ::Iducational disabilities. The February results as-say the effectiveness of the first half-year's instructional program and,more Importantly, indicate which changes in instructional practices mustbe initiated and implemented to mee--E the pupils' educational needs duringthe remainder of the year.

The IEC staff includes one principal, two instructional aides,one parent school aide, eight classroom teachers, and a teacher for read-ing adjustment and English as a second language (RA/ESL).

The classroom teachers diagnose individual educational needs,select the necessary vehicles for remediation, and teach toward allevia-tion of the needs. The RA/ESL teacher develops individualized learningactivities for pupils with special reading problems and/or for Spanish-speaking pupils who need to improve their audiolingual English skills.ESL instruction is bilingual. Materials used in the inetructional pro-gram include the McGraw Programmed Reading Series, Open Court ReadingSeries, Creative Reading Series, Reader's Digest Skill Builders, SRA Lis-tening Skills Program, SRA Reading Progress Laboratory, Scott ForesmanTalking Alphabet, Distar Program, Imperial Reading Program, CreativeLearning Program, and a wide assortment of textbooks at various gradelevels.


The evaluation for 1970-1971 (the first full school year of theproject's operation) was focused on two questions related to the project'sobjectives:

practices?1. Has IEC increased the individualization of instructional

2. Has pupil performance improved in the basic skills?

Question 1. Has 1EC increased the individualization of instructionalpractices?

Instructional practices of the projct were observed both for-

108

mally and informally by the evaluator to answer this question. Theformal observations were made using the Additional Observational ItemsChecklist, which facilitated the observation of class structure andteaching form.

All classroom groups at the center were observed. Findings(expressed in percentages) during the second half-year were compared withthose of the first half-year to reveal any changes in the degree of indi-vidualization of instruction.

Question 2. Has pupil performance Improved in the basic skills?

Pupil performance in two,administrations of the Iowa Tests ofBasic Skills (ITBS) was examined to answer this question. Four subtestswere used: Vocabulary, Reading, ?+-rithmetic Concepts, and ArithmeticProblems. All pupils in grades t!iree through eight were tested in Octo-

, ber and retested with an equivalent form of ITBS in February. A corre-,' lated t test was used to determine the statistical significance of thedifference between pretest and posttest average grade-equivalent scoresfor each grade.

No comparison group was used because the ITBS is not typicallyused in parochial schools.

Results

Data relevant to Quest±on 1. Has IBc increased the individualization ofinstructional practices?

Observed class structures that typified the project's groupingmodels between October and January were whole class and multigroup;between February and May, they were multigroup and individual. Observedtypical teaching forms from October until January wer teacher instruct-ing and teacher-pupil interaction; from February until may, they wereteacher-pupil interaction and pupils doing independent work. Sixty for-mal observations are summarized in Table 1.

Data relevant to Question 2. Has pupil performance improved in the basicskills?

Average grade-equivalent scores and national percentile ranksof the IBC pupils on the ITBS in October and February are shown in Table2. The difference between pretest and posttest average grade-equivalentscores was statistically significant at the .05 chance level in 17 ofthe 24 1TBS score comparisons. One may be 95% confident that these gainsdid not happen by chance.

109

113

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF IEC FORMAL OBSERVATIONS

Items and Categories

Percentage of Observations

Oct.-Jan.(18 Formal

Observations)

Feb.-May(42 Formal

Observations)

Class Structure

Whole class 33% 0%Two groups 0% 0%Multigroup 67% 37%Individual 0% 63%

Teaching Form

Teacher instructing (teaching) 25% 0%Teacher-pupil interaction 31% 26%Pupils interacting with educationalmaterials

22% 19%

Pupils doing independent work 22% 55%

110

114

TABLE 2

.AVERAGE GRADE-EQUIVALENT SCORES AND PERCENTILE RANKS ON ITBS SUBTESTSIN OCTOBER 1970 AND FEBRVARY 1971

Grade Item

Vocabulary ReadingComprehension

ArithmeticConcepts

ArithmeticProblems

Oct. Feb. Oct. Feb- Oct. Feb; Oct. Feb.

I

3 Mean GE 2.7 3.3* 2.5 .3* 2.7 3.3* 2.7 3.4*%ile Rank 37 45 31 46 33 44 35 48

4 Mean GE 3.2 3.5 2.3 3.4* 3.4 4.1* 3.7 4.2*%ile Rank 27 26 8 34 25 38 37 42

5 Mean GE 3.7 4.1 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.5* 3.8 3.8%Ile Rank 19 22 20 17 15 25 17 12

6 Mean GE 4.6 5.7* 4.0 5.9* 4.2 5..2* 3.8 5.2*%Ile Rank 20 34 8 37 8 20 7 22

7 Mean GE 6.4 6.4 5.9 6.5* 5.6 6.5* 5.2 6.4*%Ile Rank 35 30 27 33 17 29 15 29

8 Mean GE 7.8 8.t 6.9 79* 6.2 6.6 6.6 7.4*%Ile Rank 43 I44 30 41 14 18 26 33

*Gain statistically significant at .05 level.

Conclusions

Question 1. Has IEC increased the individualization of instructionalpractices?

Yes, increasing individualization of instructional practiceshas been evidenced by changes in class structure and teaching form in IECclassrooms. These shifts have been observed both formally and infornallyduring the 1970-1971 school year. The individualization of instructionalpractices was observed in both half-year periods but to different degreesand through different teaching forms. The increased individualization ofinstruction during the second half-year was facilitated by midyear testresults which identified individual pupils who had been least responsiveto the first half-year's instructional practices.

111

Question 2. Has pupil performance improved in the basic skills?

Yes, Improved pupil performance in the basic skills has beenevidenced by statistically significant gains on the Iowa Tests of BasicSkills during the October-to-February period. The gains made by the pu-pils may be attributed to their heterogeneous -Tocioeconomic background,regression effects, the Hawthorne effect, and/or the ope tational charac-teristics of the project.

Standardized tests such as the ITBS tend to be more sensitivebetween the 16th and 83rd percentiles than outside that tange. AlthoughTitle I-pupils do not typically score within that range, 17 of the IECpupils 24 subtest mean scores were within it. The average IEC pupilinitially scored lower on the ITBS than was desired, bUt higher than thetypical 'Title I pupil. The higher=than-expected gains fOund in IEC mightbe related to the initial difference between pupils in IEC and those inother Title I projects.

This formative evaluation was designed not to identify causeand effect relationships, but to collect base-line data and to describethe enabling and process characteristics of the project. Summative eval-uation of pupil performance will be more appropriate in 1971-1972.

Evaluator's Comment

When IEC teachers received midyear ITBS results, they analyzedthe effectiveness of their teaching procedures and made Illodifications inthem. This benefit would not have been possible if testing had been de-layed until the end of the school year.

To the evaluator, IEC calls attention to certain implicationsand issues. Evidently integration is possible when persons of diversebackgrounds share a common concern for quality education in which theindividual worth of each child is given top priority. Si miler schoolsoffering attractive academie' :advantages could be strategically locatedbetween differing racial and socioeconomic neighborhoods- Such strategiclocation of schools probably would draw pupils from both neighborhoodsand thus provide the additional benefits of integration- perhaps to in-sure the quality of education, the size of the physical Plant and pupilpopulation should be kept small and manageable, as in TEC, to keep therelationships among teachers, pupils, and parents more intimate.

112

IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKIT.Ls

Four related projects are treated as a subcluster in thisreport: Improvement of Readjng Skills: Reading Skills Centers (PBRS #11:02-666), Improvement of Reading Skills: Shared Time (PBRS #l11-02-666B),Improvement of Reading Skills: Part-Time (PBRS #111-02-718), and Improve-ment of Reading Skills: Primary Reading Skills Center (PBRS #111-02-719)The last three are covered in separate appendices which follow the reporion Reading Skills Centers. The entire report, includina the appendices,should be interpreted in the context,of the cluster report, "InstructionzPractices and Student Cognitive Performance," in earlier pages of thisvolume.

IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKILLS: READING SKILLS CENTERS(PBRS #111-02-666)

Improvement of Reading Skills: Reading Skills Centers (IRS) islocated in ten Reading Skills Centers in seven districts. It primarilyserves underachieving readers who attend a Reading Skills Center eithertwo, three, or four times each week, depending upon the extent of theneed. At the centers the pupils receive intensive individualized in-struction in basic reading skills and comprehension through multilevel,multisensory, multimedia materials. The centers are also used as demon-stration units for district staff development in reading.

The Project

The original inspiration for the Reading Skills Center approachis credited to Dr. Alan Cohen and his work in New York City. Ida Kravitzand Natica Moose, Philadelphia Reading Supervisors, developed theirdesign utilizing some of Dr. Cohen's basic concepts (Cohen, 1967). TheIRS project was intended to counteract the drastic underachievement inreading in Title I schools. The seven original centers focused on fourkey concepts: word recognition, comprehension, study rkills, and litera-ture.

Multimodal and multilevel materials are used to accommodate in-dividual needs and interests. Pupils are rostered in the Skills Centersaccording to their reading def:ciencies. Those with the greatest defi-ciencies attend at least four periods a week. Puils whose originalachievement was higher attend one or two times a week. Az pupils' defi-ciencies diminish their attendance rate is reduced.

The attendance in special se:tings with highly skilled teacherswho are able to provide d_Lagnostic and prescriptive skillswith aides andappropriate materials,should have a positive effect on pupils who havesevere reading deficiencies.

113

dtai

The primary learning objectives of the Reading Skills Centersare the following:

Objective 1. To Improve independent word-attack skills.

Objective 2. To improve reading comprehension.

Objective 3. To increase reading vocabulary.

The IRS project is established in ten schools: Belmont andWashington in District 1, Smith (District 2), Kirkbride (District 3).Kenderton (District 4), Moffet (District 5), Emlen and Wister in District6, and Bethune and Smedley in District 7. Centers at the Washington,Emlen, and Smedley Schools were opened midway through the 1970-1971school year.

Each center has a special reading teacher and two aides to in-struct classes composed of fourth-, fifth-, and/or sixth-grade pupils whoare identified as very poor readers. The pupils attend the center fromtwo to four times a week, depending upon the severity of their readingproblemq Other pupils in the school may use the center during one classperiod a week. Pupils are provided the opportunity to use skills alreadylearned and to amply those skills to new learning situations. The SkillsCenter personnel provide material and services to classroom teachers andare supportive of the school's onaoing reading program, and the centersserve as demonstration and staff development centers for reading teachers.

The typical experiences of the original fourth-grade pupilsover the three-year period are shown in Figure 1.

Evaluation of the project began in 1968-1969. Statisticallysignificant gains in reading comprehension, word-attack skills,-andphonics performance were reported for pupils in the project that year.In 1969-1970, pupils participating in the project scored significantlyhigher and showed greater gains than nonparticipants on the IRI and theBotel Phonics Inventory. Although no differences were found between thetwo groups on the Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension subt.rtsts of theITBS in that school year, a two-year trend analysis showed that the IRSfr_ipils had made significantly greater gains in both areas than a groupof non-IPS pupils for the same two-year period.

Current Eva±uation Procedure

The 1970-1971 evaluation of IRS focused upon the longitudinalstudy of pupils who had the most seVere reading prol.:_ems. It asked threequestions related to 71---le project's objectives:

1. To what degree have IRS pupils demonstrated phonics masteryduring a three-year period?

114

17th %Ileor above

1...allirMM.=11Pupil attendsReading SkillsCenter once ortwice per weekfor remainderof pupil's en-rollment inthis school.

Pupil enters Grade 4.

16th %Ileor below

1

Pupil attendsReading E-IllsCenter 3 or 4times per weekfor a year oruntil earlierbook-leveltest.

2 orove

At whatbook-leveldoes pupil

read?

31 or

below

Rig. 1. Flow chart showing typical experiences of original fourth:-grade pup_Us during three years in ITIS project.

115

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equivalent scores at or below the national 16th percentile in both Vocab-

ulary and Reading Comprehension subtests of the ITBS. Only pupils who

had three years of scores were selectea for comparison in Grades 3

through 5. Of that group, those who continued through the sixth grade at

the same school were azed for the comparison with sixth-grade national

norms. Because few of the pupils remained at the same school for sixth

grade, the number of available non-IRS pupils' scores was diminished from

46 for the third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade averages to 22 for Grade 6,

while 33 IRS pupils' scores were used for each of the four testing

periods.

Because the pupils selected for study were achieving at very low

levels, their ITBS scores fell below the "guessing level." Further,

pupils who score in this range are,receiving ITBS "out of level" tests.

For this reason, no statistical tests were applied to the data; instead,

a simple graphical comparison was provided.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. To what degree have IRS pupils demonstrated

phonics mastery during a three-year period?

Table 1 shows the percentages of pupils who attained phonics

mastery of at least 78% over the three-year period, which was the minimal

expectation set for the project. At the end of the third year, 82% of the

pupils had achieved a satisfactory 78% level of mastery. The largest

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE OF IRS PUPILS SCORING AT LEAST 50 POINTS (78% MASTERY)

ON BOTEL PHONICS INVENTORY (N=33)

1968-1969Grade 4

1969-1970Grade 5

P.re Mid Post Pre Mid Post

17% 24% 47%

1970-1971Grade 6

Pre Mid Post

55% 72% 82%

gains occurred during the second and third years (midtest to posttest,

1969-1970, and pretest to midtest, 1970-1971). A full three-year partici-

paton in the program appears to have produced satisfactory phonics

achievement for the participants with the greatest need.

121

Data relevant to Question 2. To what degree have IFS puls im roved inreading comprehension during a three-year eriod?

The median book-level score on the IR/ for each testing periodis presented in Table 2. BeCaUse each instructional reading level coversa rathet wide range of skills, the percentage of pupils who scored at orabove ech median book-level is also provided. At the beginning of thepupils' participation in the IRS, the median book-level was Primer and nopupil Tiqs reading at the 21 book-level. By the end of the sixth grade,only about one-fifth of the pupils were below the Book 4 level, and ofthose 01.11y one pupil was below Book 31. Pupils who initially were readingon the primer level were able to read at the fourth book-level by the endof theit three-year eXperience. Thus the pupils with the greatest needsgained two book-levels per year.

TABLE 2

ACHIEVEMENT OF 33 PUPILS IN SELECTED LONGITUDINAL SANPLEON INFORMAL READING INVENTORY

Item

Median book-level score

1968-1969Grade 4

Pre Mid Post

1969-1970Grade 5

Pre Mid Post

1970-1971Grade 6

pre Mid Post

primer 1 2 12

1 2 2 313

1 32 4

Percentdge ofscorin

at or abovethe rridian

66% 73% 63% 64% 53% 65% 68% 70% 79%

Data relevant to Question 3. To what degree have IRS pupils improved innational ercentile rank on the Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension sub-tests of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills?

Figure 2 shows the average national pupil percentile'rank onthe ITBS vocabulary subtest for each year for the samples of IRS andIRS pupils.

118

122

16

15

/4

13

1.4

11

N 10

9Pr.7.1

7c4rx1 e

4

3

2

1

IRS Pupils (N=33)°----° Non-IRS Pupils (N=46 in Grades 3, 4, 5; 22

in Grade 6)

Grade 3Spring, 1968

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6Spring, 1969 Spring, 1970 Spring, 1971

DATE OF TESTING

Pig. 2. Comparison of Vocabulary scores on ITBS obtained by samplesof Ips and non-IRS pupils. Each group's average grade-equivalent scorewas converted to national individual-pupil percentile rank.

The ITBS measured:the pupils' achievement in the spring of eacyear. The project's effect on the pupils' vocabulary was not noticeableuntil the sixth grade, when IRS pupils average percentile rank reversedits downward trend. The fact that the pupils still scored below thenational 16th percentile after that improvement served to emphasize the

'magnitude of their initial reading deficiency.

Figure 3 shows that the trend on the ITES Reading Comprehensiosubtest, which had been downward, was reversed for IRS pupils after theifirst year in the project and continued upward. while pupils not in Skil

Centers continued to show a decline in percentile rank. Again the magni:-_ude of the pupils' reading deficiency was evidenced by their low per-centile rank, even after the improvement.

119

123

16

1514

1312

1/

10

9

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

IPS Pupils (g=33)Non-IRS Pupils (N=46in Grade 6)

......

In Grades 3, 4, 5; 22°----°

Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6Spring, 1968 Spring, 1969 Spring, 1970 Spring, 1971

DATE OF TESTING

Fig. 3. Comparison of Reading Comprehension scores on ITBSobtained by samples of IRS and non-IRS pupils. Each group's averagegrade-equivalent score was converted to national individual-pupil per-centile rank.

Conclusions

Question 1. To what degree have IBS pupils demonstrated phonics masteryduring a three-year period?

Pupils with severe deficiencies have acquired a satisfactory(78%) mastery of phonics as a result of their three-year participation inthe IRS (Reading Skills Centers) project. The majority of these pupilsrequire three years of participation for the maximum benefit of the pro-gram when their rate of learning requires that they attend the centersthree or four times a week.

Question 2. To what degree have IRS pupils improved in reading compze-hension during a three-year period?

Pupils with severe deficiencies have gained in reading compre-hension at an average rate Of two book-levels per year as a result oftheir varticipation in the IRS (Reading Skills Centers) project. Mcstof the pupils have reacned a Book 4 instructicmal reading level by theend of their third year in the program.

120

Question 3. To what degree have IRS pupils improved in national per-.centile rank on the Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension subtests Ofthe Iowa Tests of Basic Skills?

The downward trend of Vocabulary scores (of pupils with thegreatest'need in relation to the national pupil norms) was reverseclafter two years in the project, and the downward trend of their ReddingComprehension scores was reversed after one year in the project-

Evaluator's Comment

The evaluator wishes to share some concerns for the implernenta-tion of projects based upon the Reading Skills Centers model. First, al-though the.project has provided for-pupils to participate for a thre-year period, the instructional program might provide its greatest h%ne-fit for most pupils during their first year of participation. Secoro,the optimum benefits might be best prc-ided by increasing the inten%ityof instruction (say to two hours or more per day). Third, the projctmight best be made available to a limited number of pupils in any orxeschool to be consistent with such increased intensity of instructiori.Fourth, successful implementation of the project is dependent upon theskills of the teachers, and thus staff development is apparently a ru-cial element of the model.

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125

IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKILLS: SHARED TIME(PBRS #l11-02-666B)

The "Shared Time" project serves eight pairs of public andparochial schools. The reading teacher is "shared" by a public schooland the paired parochial school.

This project report is related to the preceding report andshould be interpreted in the context of both the suboluster comment,"Improvement of Reading Skills," and the cluster report, "InstructionalPractices and Student Cognitive Performance," in earlier pages of thisvolume.

The Project

The rationale of the "Shared Time" project is similar to thatof the Reading Skills Centers project. objectives of the project includethe following:

Objective 1. To improve reading oomprehension.

Objective 2. To improve word-attack skills.

Public and parochial school pupils in Grades 4, 5, and 6 sharethe istructional services of a reading teacher. Four of the pairedschools are in their first year of operation. Instruction is individu-alized through the use of multimedia and programmed materials.

Previous evaluations indicated that progress was made in read-ing ccmprehension and in word-attack skills.


The evaluation for 1970-1971 was focused on two questions re-lated to the project's objectives:

1. Has reading comprehension Improved?

2. Have word-attack skills improved?

Question 1. Has reading comprehension im roved?

Pupils' scores:on three administrations of the Informal ReadingInventory (IRI) were examined to answer this question. Pupils represent-ing Grades 4, 5, and 6 in each participating school were tested in Sep-teMber, January, and May. Percentages of pupils scoring at or above eachbook-level in SepteMber, January, and May were compared.

123

126

The same sample of pupils was used for answering this questionas for Question 1. Pupils' scores en three administrations of the BotelPhonics Inventory were compared to answer this question. Pupils weretested in September, January, and May. The results were compared usingpercentages of pupils scoring at or above 45 points on the test.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Has reading comprehension improved?

The percentage of pupils-reading at or above a given book-levelincreased between September and January and again between January andMay. Figure 1 shows, for example, that 29% of the pupils were reading ator above the Book 22 level in September. In January, this percentageshowed an increase to 51%, and in May the percentage reached 73%.

10 0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

43. A 1 0

9 8

9 7 AS 589

076

a 90.

.3

54 51

736 8

51

A May 1971 (N=110)--January 1971 (N=125)o September 1970 (N=124)

3C12924

8 6 7 7

R PP P 1 21 22 31 32 4 5 6

BOOK-LEVEL SCORE ON IRI

Fig. 1. Percentage of pupils (Grades 4-6) scoring at or aboveeach IRI book-level in September 1970, January 1971, and May 1971.

124

,127

Data relevant to Question 2. Have word-attack skills

Fifteen percent of the pupils in Grades 4,scores of at least 45 on the Botel test in September.corresponding percentage was 32%, and in May, 56%.

Conclusions

Question 1. Has reading comprehension improved?

improved?

5, and 6 hadIn January the

Yes, improved reading comprehension has been indicated by theincreasing percentage of "Shared Time" pupils scoring at or above eachbook-level on the IRI.

Question 2. Have word-attack skills improved?

Yes, improved word-attack skills have been indicated by the itcreasing percentage of "Shared Time" pupils scoring at or above 45 on thBotel Phonics Inventory.

125

IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKILLS: PART-TIME(PBRS #111-02-718)

The "Part-Time" project uses part-time reacling teachers toserve pupils from low socioeconomic neighborhoods who attend parochialschools.

This project report is related to the two preceding reportsand should be interpreted in the context of both the subcluster comment,"Improvement of Reading Skills," and the cluster report, "InstructionalPractices and Student Cognitive Performance," in earlier pages of thisvolume.

The Project

The rationale of the "Part-Time" nroject is similar to that ofthe Reading Skills Centers project. Objectives of the project includethe following:



Instri:ction is indi.T-.dualized through the use of multimedia oneprogrammed materials. Pupils served are reading at least one year belowgrade level. .Individualized reading instruction for 121/2 hours is pro-vided for more than 1,000 pupils in 30 schools by 31 part-time readingteachers.

Previous evaluations indicated that progress was made in read-ing comprehension and in word-attack skills.


The evaluation for 1970-1971 was focused on two questionsrelated to the project's objectives:

1. Has reading comprehension improved?


Question 1. Has reading comprehension Improved?

Pupil performance on two administrations of the SRA PlacementTest was examined to answer this question. All pupils in Grades 3through 8 were pretested in September and posttested in May. Scores weretransformed to IRI book-level equivalents. Percentages of pupils scoringat or above each level in September and May were compared.

127

129


Pupils' scores on two administrations of the Hotel PhonicsInventory were compared. All pupils in Grades 3 through 8 were testedin September and retested in May. For each grade, September and Mayresults were compared using percentages of pupils answering at least45 items correctly on the Hotel test.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Has reading comprehension improved?

The percentage of pupils reading at or above each IRI book-level equivalent increased between September and May as shown in Figure1. For example, the percentage of pupils reading at or above the Book 22level was 59% in September and 82% in May. Pupils progressed on theaverage approximately two book-levels during the year.

100

90

80

70

60

SO

40

30

20

10

0

g10099

99A9793086

1

s o 82

59

A May 1971 (N=1,119)o Septeriber 1970 (N=1,096)

39

27

41

016

PP P 1 21 22 31 32 4

IRZ BOOK-LEVEL EQUIVALENT

A20

5 6

Fig. 1. Percentage of pupils (Grades 3-8) scoring at or above eachIRI book-level equivalent on SRA Placement Test in September 1970 andMay 1971.

128

130:

Data relevant to Question 2. Have word-attack skills improved?

In each grade, the percentage of pupils scoring at or above45 on the Hotel test increased between September and May, as shown inFigure 2.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

61

11+

33

A85

650

60

68

A May 1971o SepteMber 1970

89

065

3 4 5 6 7 8

(136, 142) (373, 353) (318, 321) (213, 219) (41, 41) (17, 17)

GRADE

Fig. 2. Percentage of pupils in each grade scoring at or above45 on the Hotel Phonics Inventory in September 1970 and May 1971.(Numbers of pupils tested in September and May, respeCtively, areshown in parentheses.)

Conclusions

Question 1. Has reading comprehension improved?

Yes, improved reading comprehension has been indicated by theincreasing percentage of "Part-Time" pupils scoring at or above each IR:book-level equivalent on the SRA Placement Test_

129

131


Yes, improved word-attack skills have been indicated by theincreasing percentage of "Part-Time" pupils in each grade who havt

.. scoredat or above a raw score of 45 on the Hotel Phonics Inventory.

130

IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKILLS: PRIMARY READING SKILLS CENTER(PBRS #111-02-719)

The Primary Reading Skills Center project serves primary-graipupils from low socioeconomic neighborhoods who attend the St. Columbaparochial zchool.

This project report is related to the three preceding report:and should be interpreted in the context of both the subcluster commen-"Improvement of Reading Skills," and the cluster report, "Instructiona:Practices and Student Cognitive Performance," in earlier pages of thisvolume.

The project

The rationale and operation of the "Primary" project are sim:lar to those of the Reading Skills Centers project. Objectives of theproject include the following:



A reading teacher and a classroom aide provide individualizeereading instruction for pupils reading at least one year below gladelevel. Although first-, second-, and third-grade pupils receive majorattention, a special group of disabled readers in the fourth grade con-tinues t_o receive remedial instruction.

Previous evaluatiaas indicated that progress was made in reading comprehension and in word-attack skills.


The evaluation for 1970-1971 was focused on two questions re-lated to the project's objectives:

1. Have reading comprehension and vocabulary improved?


Question 1. Have reading compreheasion and vocabulary improved?

Pupil performance on two administrations of the CaliforniaAchievement Test (CAT-70) was examined to answer this question. Pupilscurrently in Grades 2, 3, and 4 who had been tested the preceding yearwere retested in 1971. Grade-equivalent score gains in the areas of coprehension and vocabulary were compared by means of a correlated t test

131

133


Pupils scores on three administrations of the Botel PhonicsInventory were compared to answer this question. Pupils in Grades 2, 3,and 4 were tested in September, January, and May.

Percentages of pupils answering at least 45 items correctly onthe Botel test each test period were computed for comparison.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Have reading comprehension and vocabularyimproved?

Average grade-equivalent scores and gains in comprehension andvocabulary are reported in Table 1. The gains were statistically signif-icant and therefore are not likely to have occurred by chance. Pupilsshowed approximately one year's "growth" for a year's time in the proj-.act, with third graders showing greater gains and the other groups show-ing smaller ones.

TABLE 1

AVERAGE GRADE-EQUIVAIENT SCORES AND GAINS ON CAT-70 SUBTESTS

GradeComprehension Vocabulary

1970 1971 Gain 1970 1971 Gain

2 1.3 1.9 0.6* 1.4 1.9 0.5*

3 1.8 3.4 1.6* 2.6 3.5 U.9*

4 2.9 3.8 0.9* 3.2 3.9 0.7*

*Change was statistically significant at the .05 level.

Data relevant to Question 2. Have word-attack skills improved?

Ten percent of all pupils in Grades 2, 3, and 4 attained rawscores of at least 45 on the Botel test in September 1970. The per-centage increased to 31% in January and to 40% ix. May 1971.

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134-

Conclusions

Question 1. Have reading comprehension and vocabulary improved?

Yes, "Primary" pupils have shown statistically significantgains in both comprehension and vocabulary as measured by the CaliforniaAchievement.Test.


Yes, improved word-attack skills have been indicated by theincreasing percentage of "Primary" pupils attaining raw scores of atleast 45 on the Botel Phonics Inventory.

133

135-

LEARNING DIMENSIONS PROGRAM(PBRS 4111-01-791)

The Learning Dimensions Program (LDP) at W. F. Miller andJohn Moffet Schools is a L:taff development project to develop "openclassrooms" and "activity centers" and to use Piaget's theory of mentaldevelopment to guide the teachers in curriculum development and instruc-tion.

This project report should bc interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "Instructional Practices and Student Cognitive Per-formance," in earlier pages of this volume.

The Project

The analysis of educational problems of disadvantaaed youthsuggests that a number of factors are related to slow learning rates.Pupils in compensatory educational programs tend to have overall learn-ing rates which are less than the rate of learning for national normpopulations (General Electric Company-TEMPO, 1971).

In an open classroom, pupils are encouraged to be active par-ticipants with the teacher in determining what they study, how they inves-tigate problems, and what goals they set for themselves. The first stepin facilitating pupils participation is the establishment of activitycenters in the classroom. This provides places for pupils to focus onproblems and to work by themselv. It allows the teacher to be freefrom a "whole-group" interaction role so that she may work with onepupil or one small group of pupils at a time. All pupils have opportuni-ties to be engaged in learning while the teacher may act as a resourceperson or consultant dealing with the problems of individuals. Althoughthe teacher may choose to deal with the class as a whole, if she haslearned the techniques of managing activity centers in the classroomshe has an alternative teaching role available to her.

Piaget has enunciated a theory of learning which oermits oneto take into consideration the=self-regulatory learning function of theindividual. Through a process of equilibration, a pupil is envisionedas assimilating and accommodating between his own mental systems and hisreal experiences.

One of the factors which control the pupil's particularequilibration processes is his particular development and facility withbasic logical operations. Disadvantaged children tend to have a poorercommand of logical operations than their more advantaged counterparts(See, for example, Raph, Lieberman, & Pascale, 1971). It is suspectedthat disadvantaged children have had fewer opportunities to express,clarify, and use logical operations as identified by Piaget. There isevidence that the use of logical operations can be clarified by posing

135

136

the kinds of questions and tasks which permit pupils to use only a fewoperations at a given time (Raven, 1970).

Teaching strategies and curricula can be designed which (a)are related to various levels of logical operations, (b) utilize achild's processes of accommodation and assimilation, and (c) are appli-cable to individualized instruction (Raven & Salzer, 1971). Teachingmodes which help children focus upon certain types of problems seem toallow them the opportunity to use specifiable types of logical operationsand to practice forming logical relationships. The result could be apositive effect on overall learning rates of the target population.

Through staff development activities, LDP seeks to help teach-ers develop oraanizational strategies, curricula, and instructional prac-tices which relate to a Piagetian developmental framework. The staffdevelopment program is organized around a hierarchy of educational issuesabout which teachers are concerned. When teachers have satisfied theirconcerns at one level in the hierarchy, they can focus upon the issues atthe next level (Fuller, 1969). These levels of concern are considered inthe following way:

Level 1. Organizational concerns. These concerns are relatedto the teacher's efforts to develop viable ways to deal with pupil behav-ior, organize pupils for instruction, and handle the many logisticaldetails involved in running a classroom.

Level 2. Curricular materials concerns. These concerns arerelated to each teacher's strategies for implementing a curriculum. Atthis level, the teacher perceives e curriculum and instructional prac-tices as suggested by the instructional materials, teacher guides, andother teacher materials. These define what the curriculum is supposedto be for pupils of a given grade, age, or ability. The focus upon cur-ricular materials requires the teacher to learn how to translate the pre-packaged suggestions into vible lessons. The concept of "curriculum"changes at subsequent levels of concern so that many experiences of thechild can be used profitably for learning.

Level 3. Interpretive concerns. These concerns are seen inthe teacher's search for explanatory frameworks to help her in interpret-ing pupil behavior, pupil learning, curriculum content, and instructionalpractices, and the relationships among these factors This is an impor-tant transitional stage, because skill in diagnosing and explaining mustbe achieved before concerns can shift to the next higher level.

Level 4. Creative concerns. This is a stage at which teachersfocus upon each child's cognitive and social development and problems.Diagnosis and planning for each child become realities when the teacheris able to utilize experiences and explanatory frameworks to devise les-sons, activities, and resources for creatively individualizing instruc-tion. To reach this level, the teacher must accomplish the assimilationand integration of the skills consistent with the resolution of issueson the three preceding levels.

136

Given the four levels of concern, and the desirability ofteachers' being able to focus on the fourth level, LDP offers methodsfor resolving issues at each level which are consistent with one anotherand are viewed as likely to be most effective toward this end. It ishoped that LDP's efforts will increase the probability that teacherswill have such competence at the first three levels that they can givemaximal attention to the individual development and progress of eachchild (Level 4).

The primary objectives of LDP for 1970-1971 have been thefollowing:

Objective 1. To increase the teacher's use of concepts, prob-lem solving, and form-field relationships within the framework of thearts.

Objective 2. To improve the teacher's understanding of how touse concepts, problem solving, and form-field relationships within aregular classroom and/or one with activity centers. Specifically, theteacher is to be taught (a) how to present problem-solving situationsthat encourage solutions through search and discovery, and (b) how torelate these experiences to other areas of learning.

Objective 3. To improve pupils' abilities to use their assimi-lative and accommodative processes.

Objective 4. To increase pupils' symbolic skills and verbalcommunication skills.

Objective 5. To increase pupils' affective skills (ability touse art forms to express feelings), and to foster trust among pupils andadults.

Objective 6. To increase pupils' cognitive skills and to widentheir application of logical processes (Piagetian logical operations).

In its current mode of operation, LDP involves all the regularteachers and pupils in the William F. Miller and John Moffet ElementarySchools. Originally scheduled for several schools but not fully imple-mented, it has been consolidated into the two schools in recognitionthat previous staff development time was spread too thin for a high degreeof implementation, and that the resulting implementation might not havebeen sufficiently different from more typical practices.

LDP encompasses two types of activities. In staff developmentactivities, the director and LDP staff work with teachers, presentinglessons, preparing materials, providing help in development of diagnosticskills, organizing workshops, and acting as resource personnel and con-sultants. In instructional activities, teachers develop centers forhighly sensory-related learning activities within the framework of con-tent and process curriculum objectives.

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138

Piaget's developmental theory and the British Infant Schoolmodel provide general guides for staff development and for the develop-ment of curriculum and instruction for the project. Workshops andweekly meetings with teachers provide curriculum ideas. There is afocus on logical operations and, more generally,on changes in instruc-tional strategies and classroom organization.

LDP has attempted to supply curriculum materials which lendthemselves to instruction in which both teacher and pupil can be activeparticipants in the decision-making processes of learning encounters.The Sylvia Ashton-Warner approach to reading (experience approach) isrecommended for teachers' use. Wooden blocks, Attribute Blocks, LegoBlocks, and many other types of blocks and games are used. The AAAS andSCIS science curricula are available. Nuffield Mathematics is encour-aged, as well as Bank Street Readers. Teachers are encouraged to visitthe School District's Teacher Centers to build other materials they wishto use. Cages for pet animals and water or sand tables have been madeby the teachers. Teachers and pupils are asked to maintain logs of theirwork.

The earliest evaluations of LDP were formative in their empha-sis on identification of problems in implementation and measurement. Thedevelopment of a test of mental operations during the 1969-1970 schoolyear permitted a summative evaluation of pupils' development in relationto the degree of their teacher's commitment to establishing classroomactivity centers emphasizing sensory awareness and logical operations.No difference in mental-operations gain was found between pupils whoseteachers showed, respectively, low and high degrees of commitment. Ques-tionnaires and observations of teaching indicated that some of theteachers had gained in understanding and use of techniques of the pro-gram.


This year the evaluation was focused primarily upon staff de-velopment goals. Answers to the following questions were sought:

1. Have staff development activities been provided throughoutthe school year to help teachers resolve issues on various levels of con-cern?

2. To what extent have teachers received help in resolvingtheir organizational concerns (Level 1)?

3. To what extent have teachers received help in the develop-ment and use of curricular materials (Level 2)?

4. To what extent have teachers received help in understandingPiaget's developmental theory (Level 3)?

138

JGGILlGs.a.

to cope with issues related to the creative individualization of instruc-

tion (Level 4).

Question 1. Have staff development activities been provided throughout

the school year to help teachers resolve issues on various levels of

concern?

An LDP log was kept as a record of staff development activities

during the school year. The activities were briefly described as to the

mode in which they occurred and the subject with which they dealt. They

were then categorized by the evaluator according to the level of concern

at which they could help teachers. The list of categorized activities

was then examined to determine the sustained efforts and the variety of

issues treated at the various levels of concern.

Question 2. To what extent have teachers received help in resolving

their organizational concerns (Level 1)?

To answer this question, the project was monitored during the

first and second halves of the school year. The Observational Checklist

and additional items were used to note classroom parameters of Class

Structure and Teaching Form. (The reader is invited to refer to the

cluster report for further descriptions of these items.) Comparisons of

observations during the first and second halves of the year were made to

see whether the class structures were increasingly consistent with the

goals of the program. On the LDP Questionnaire, teachers were asked to

express the extent to which they felt the efforts of LDP had helped to

resolve their concerns on Level 1. (The checklist, the additional items,

and the questionnaire are on file in the Research Library of the Board of

Education.)

Of the four types of class structure considered during LDP ob-

servations, a multigroup structure is most consistent with the objectives

of LDP. A high percentage (25% or more) of observations in this class

structure would be evidence of teachers' resolving their organizationalconcerns in a manner consistent with LDP.

question 3. To what extent have teachers received help in the develop-

ment and use of curricular materials (Level 2)?

As with Question 2, relevant observations of the project during

both halves of the school year were compared to determine the extent to

which teachers were using sensory-related materials, activity cards, and

instructional techniques consistent with the goals of the program.

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140

Of the four teaching forms considered in LDP observations,"Pupils interacting with educational materials under teacher's direction"and "Pupils doing independent work, teacher acting as a resource person"are most consistent with the objectives of LDP. A high percentage (25%or more) in each of these categories would be indicative of teachers'resolving issues on the second level of concern.

On the LDP Questionnaire, teachers were asked to respond tothree questions regarding their feeling about the extent of their owndevelopment with concerns on Level 2.

Question 4. To what extent have teachers received help in understandintiPiaget's developmental theory (Level 3)?

One question on the questionnaire asked teachers to indicatethe extent to which they felt they understood piaget's theory. Unstruc-tured discussions with teachers also provided some indications of theirfeelings on this matter.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. Have staff develo ment activities been ro-vided throu hout the school ear to hel teachers resolve issues on vari-ous levels of concern?

Representative staff development activities during Septemberand April are listed in Tables 1 and 2. similar tables (not shown inthis report) were developed for the intervening months.

The numbers of activities dealing with concerns on each levelare summarized in Table 3, to give a general indication of the levelsof concern that received significant attention during each month. (Mayand June were not included because the project director used thesemonths to interview teachers and pupils.)

There was, in general, more emphasis on Level 1 concerns dur-ing the first half-year than during the second half-year. Level 2concerns received emphasis throughout the school year. Level 3 concernsreceived more or less emphasis periodically-

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141

TABLE 1

REPRESENTATIVE LDP STAFF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIESDURING SEPTEMBER, 1970

Levels 1

ofConcern

Activities

1 2

2

3

2

1

2

1

1

2

2

Faculty Meetings

Introduced curriculum flow chart for topic withsuggestions on how to plan integrated day basedupon such charts.

Introduced Sylvia Ashton-liarner's Organic Readingapproach.

Introduced Piaget's logical operations.

Distribution of Nuffield Mathematics and ScienceGuides, and Whitman Art Series.

Slide presentation on English schools.

Lunch Meetings

Work on flow chart (the Community). to developcurriculum ideas.

Slide presentation to show how integrated day isused in England.

LDP Staff Work in Classrooms

Helped teachers organize rooms into activity centers.

Helped teachers start an integrated-day curriculum.

Worked with pupils on logical operations.

141

142

LUK-LNLI, iv/a.

Levelsof

ConcernActivities

3

2

2

2 3

2

2

2 3

2 3

2 3

Faculty Meeting

Discussed staff's feelings about progress; consideredroles of teachers and LDP staff.

Lunch Meetings

Planned lessons, shared ideas.

Wrote task cards.

Teachers provided list of activities for reading assuggestions for curriculum activities for teachingreading.

LDP Staff Work in Classrooms

Worked with pupils on logicAl operations.

Stressed mathematics and art work.

Workshops

Alexis Kopperman (Mathematics Instructional Services)led "mini-workshops": teachers wrote task cards,taught a task-oriented lesson.

Dr. Kruickshank (Temple University) conducted work-shop, introduced Diene's materials for mathematics.

Allen Barton (Mathematics Instn3ctional Services)conducted rathematics mini-workshops.

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140

TABLE 3

NUMBER OF LDP STAFF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES DEVOTING SIGNIFICANTATTENTION TO EACH LEVEL OF CONCERN,

SEPTEMBER 1970 - APRIL 1971

Month

Levels of Concern

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

September 5 6 1

October 4 10 2

November 4 5

December 2 5 5

January 4 7 1

February 1 6 1

March 2 8 1

April 0 8 5

Data relevant to Question 2. To what c_txtent have teachers received helpin resolving their organizational concerns (Level I)?

Of the four types of class structure considered during LDP ob-servations, a multigroup structure is most consistent with the objectivesof LDP. The teachers at the Miller School maintained a multigroup classstructure above 25%, although there was some decline during the secondhalf-year. The Moffet School's teachers did not maintain this classstructure above the 25% level. (See Item 1 ill Table 4.)

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TABLE 4

SUMMARY OF LDP CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS

Items and Categories

Percentage of Observation Visits*

Miller School I Moffet School

Sept.-Dec. Jan.-Apr. Sept.-Dec. Jan.-Apr.(10 Visits) (13 Visits) (9 Visits) (14 Visits)

1. Class Structure

Whole class 0% 38% 41% 35%Two groups 22% 3% 0% 6%Multigroup 56% 46% 37% 13%Individual 22% 13% 22% 46%

2. Teaching Form

Teacher instructing 6% 10% 10% 13%Teacher-pupil

interaction,teacher directinglesson

25% 26% 42% 24%

Pupils interactingwith educationalmaterials underteacher'sdirection

38% 24% 23% 38%

Pupils doing inde-pendent work,teacher actingas resourceperson

31% 40% 25% 25%

3. Mode of Learning

Listening 25% 22% 26% 20%Talking 30% 19% 22% 15%Writing 10% 11% 15% 17%Reading 15% 16% 11% 22%Manual activity 15% 14% 11% 11%Visual activity 5% 18% 15% 15%

*Three observations of five minutes each were recorded during eachvisit.

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The following interpretation by the evaluator may heln toexplain the changes noted. The teachers at the Miller School institutedactivity centers at the beginning of the year. Most learned how toorganize them and have pupils work in them, and found a level at whichthey could continue to maintain them during the year. Other teacherscould not maintain their activity centers to the same degree, andrelied more heavily upon whole-class instruction during the sc-condhalf-year.

The teachers at the Moffet School instituted activity centersin the afternoons during the first half-year. They did not use activitycenters during the morning hours when, because of a procedure (cycling)in which pupils are grouped according to ability in reading and then inarithmetic, they relied on more whola-class instruction. Early in thesecond half-year, when cycling was voted to be discontinued, some teach-ers instituted activity centers for their classes. However, more teach-ers seemed to rely upon individualizing instruction through workbooks asa method to satisfy the new demands made by having a wide range of pu-pils' abilities to deal with du:cing the day. (At this time, it couldhave been most propitious for the LDP staff to provide extensive supportfor the teachers at Moffet in organizational concerns.)

The first item in Table 5 summarizes teachers' questionnaireresponses indicating the extent to which they felt they were receivinghelp and resolving concerns on Level 1 in a manner consistent with LDP.The reader will note that teachers of the lower grades in both schoolsresponded somewhat more positively (a higher number on the scale) thanteachers of the upper grades, and teachers at the Miller School respondedmore positively than those at the Moffet School.

In interpreting these results, it is important to note thatthe Miller teachers have been involved with LDP more intensively andfor a longer period of time than the Moffet teachers.

Data relevant to 9uestion 3. To what extent have teachers received helpin the development and use of curricular materials (Level 2)?

Of the four teaching forms considered in LDP observations,"Pupils interacting with educational materials under teacher's direction"and "Pupils doing independent work, teacher acting as a resource person"are most consistent with the objectives of LDP.

In both the Miller and Moffet Schools, teachers evidenced a per-centage near or above the 25% level in the two categories mentioned.(See Item 2 in Table 4.)

Miller teachers relied more on pupils' independent work thandid Moffet teachers. This is of interest in light of the type of classstructure (Item 1) reported most often at each school. Certainly, the

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TABLE 5

SUMMARY OP TEACHERS' RESPONSES TOLDP QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

Item

Average Scaled Response*

Miller Teachers Moffet Teachers

GradesK-3(N=8)

Grades4-6(N=6)

GradesK-3(N=7)

Grades4-6(N=6)

1. To what extent have the activi-ties and efforts of LDP helpedyou to develop open classroom

3.0 2.8 2.4 2.3

management techniques?

2. To what extent have the activi-ties and efforts of LDP helpedyou to develop individualized

3.3 2.7 2.6 1.7

instructional techniques?

3. To what extent have you been ableto use the Sylvia Ashton-Warnerapproach to reading this year?

4.0 2.8 2.6 1.5

4. To what extent have you increasedyour use of manipulative andsensory learning activities thisyear?

3.6 3.3 2.9 2.8

5. To what extent do you feel youunderstand Piaget's developmentaltheory?

1.9 2.0 2.4 2.3

*On a 4-point scale: l="Not at all"; 2="Slightly"; 3="Moderately";4="Extensively."

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greater percentage of observations of pupils doing independent work ispreferred for LDP, and thus a relative judgment of progress for Level 2concerns can be considered for the teachers of the two schools. Here itis perhaps most important to consider the relative experience of the twogroups of teachers with LDP.

Of the six modes of learning (Item 3 in Table 4) that were con-sidered during observations, the manual and visual activities are mostindicative of sensory-related learning activities. The percentagesreported for the second half-year in these modes of learning as comparedwith the percentages reported for other modes indicated a reasonabledistribution of attention paid to all learning modes.

Individualized instruction, use of an experience approach toreading, and manipulative and sensory learning activities are importantindicators of the resolving of Level 2 concerns. Items 2, 3, and 4 inTable 5 summarize teachers' questionnaire responses regarding such activ-ities. Again it is noted that teachers of lower grades responded morepositively than teachers of upper grades, and Miller teachers respondedmore favorably than Moffet teachers. The two average scaled responsesof less than 2.0 from the upper-grade Moffet teachers are considered tobe negative responses. Thus, depending upon which group a teacher wasin, the effects of LDP's efforts seem to be varied for Level 2 concerns.The director of LDP indicated that teachers often requested help in plan-ning mathematics and language arts activity centers.

Data relevant to Question 4. To what extent have teachers receivedhelp in understanding Piaget's developmental theory (Level 3)?

A weekend workshop with Eleanor Duckworth (a well-known stu-dent of Piaget) was provided for all staff members of the two schools.The workshop was well attended, and teachers observed interviews withchildren and then conducted their own. A general discussion of theoryfollowed.

The teachers' questionnaire responses regarding their under-standing of Piaget's theory are summarized in Item 5 of Table 5. Teach-ers of upper and lower grades indicated approximately the same feelings,but Moffet teachers reported a higher degree of understanding than thatexpressed by Miller teachers. (The scaled response of 1.9 should beconsidered negative, and the 2.0 response borderline.) One might hypoth-esize that the responses were indicative of the Miller teachers' greaterdesire to know more in relationship to the extent of their involvementwith LDP. Taken in this way, the less positive responses indicate thatthat group of teachers (Miller School, especially in the lower grades)is focusing on Level 3 concerns, but has not yet settled those issues.

The director of LDP related on various occasions that teacherswere seeking greater clarification of Piaget's theory and its relation-ship to understanding their work and the development of their pupils.

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Question 1. Have staff development activities been provided throughoutthe school year to help teachers resolve issues on various levels ofconcern?

Yes, LDP has provided sustained staff development activitiesthroughout the school year, and these appropriately have focused on thefirst three levels of concern. The Lre log indicated a greater emphasison direct in-class help with organizational concerns (Level 1) duringthe first part of the year, with the issues of curriculum and instruction(Level 2) receiving attention throughout the year. Piaget's developmen-tal theory and its Implications (Level 3) received varying amounts ofattention each month. More in-class help with organizational concernsmight have been provided at Moffet School during the second half-year tocoincide with the discontinuance of the cycling procedure there.

Question 2. To what extent have teachers received help in resolvingtheir organizational concerns (Level 1)?

Organizational concerns have been resolved--in a manner consis-tent with the objectives of LDP--for a large proportion of the teachersat Miller School and for some of the teachers at Moffet School. There isgenerally more resolution of issues on this level for teachers of GradesK-3 than for teachers of Grades 4-6.

Question 3. To what extent have teachers received help in the develop-ment and use of curricular materials (Level 2)?

Curricular and instructional concerns have been resolved formost teachers at the Miller School in a way consistent with the objectivesof LDP. Fewer teachers at the Moffet School have so resolved theseissues. In general, teachers of the lower grades have resolved moreissues on this level than teachers of the upper grades.

Question 4. To what extent have teachers received help in understandingPiaget's developmental theory (Level 3)?

Teachers have indicated that they have at least an overview ofPiaget's theory, but their understanding of the fine structure of thetheory and of its implications apparently needs greater attention.

A workshop for all the LDP teachers has been planned for thesummer of 1971, when an entire week will be devoted to learning specificlogical operations consistent with Piaget's theory. Teachers will havethe opportunity to apply these logical operations to the development ofcurricular materials and to discuss their application to interpretingpupils' comprehension of problems.

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REFERENCES

Barbe, W. B. Instructional Causes of Poor Reading. Education, 1957,77, 534-540.

Bledsoe, J. C. Self-Concepts of Children and Their Intelligence,Achievement, Interests, and Anxiety. Journal of IndividualPsychology, 1964, 20, 55-58.

Brown, E. K. An Evaluation of the Sayre Junior High School Project.Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia, Officeof Research and Evaluation, August 1968.

Brown, E. K. More Effective Educational Research through the Use ofProcess Evaluation Technique. Journal of Research and Devel-opment in Education, June 1970.

Clark, K. B., & Clarke, M. P. Racial Identification and Preference inNegro Children. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.),Readings in Social Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston, 1947.

Cohen, A. The Skills Center Approach to the Teaching of Reading:Administrator's Program for the Improvement of Reading In-struction. Distributed by Ida Kravitz, Reading Supervisor,Curriculum Office, The School District of Philadelphia.Mimeographed, Spring 1967.

Engel, M., & Raine, W. J. A Method for the Measurement of the Self-Concept of Children in the Third Grade. Journal of GeneticPsychology, 1963, 102, 125-137.

Fuller, F. F. Concerns of Teachers: A Developmental Conceptualiza-tion. American Educational Research Journal, 1969, 2 (2),207-226.

General Electric Company-TEMPO: Evaluation of Title I ESEA Compensa-tory Education. Publication 71TMP-23. Washington, D. C.:General Electric Company, March 1971.

Raph, J., Lieberman, D., & Pascale, P. Influence of a Piaget-OrientedCurriculum on Intellectual Functioning of Lower-Class Kinder-garten Children. Paper presented at meeting of AmericanEducational Research Association, New York, February 1971.

Raven, R. J. The Effects of a Structured Learning Sequence on Secondand Third Grade Children's Classification Achievement.Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1970, 7, 153-160.

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Raven, R. J., & Salzer, R. T. Piaget and Reading Instruction. ReadingTeacher, 1971, 24 (7), 630-639.

Robinson, H. M. News and CommentIndividualized Reading. ElementarySchool, 1960, 60, 411-420.

Safford, A. L. Evaluation of an Individualized Reading Program. Read-ing Teacher, 1960, 13, 266-270.

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Digest of ESEA, Title I Projects for Title I Allocation Meet-ings. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia, 1971.(A digest of evaluations prior to 1970-1971)

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Interim Reports, 1971, Department of Instructional SystensResearch. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia,February 1971.

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation,Division of Administrative and Survey Research. Enrollment:Negro and Spanish-Speaking in the Philadelphia Public Schools,1969-1970. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia,1970.

St. Mary's Interparochial School. A Self-Assessment by St. Mary'sInterparochial School. A report to the Provincial Council,Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, Mimeographed, 1971.

Thomas, D.., R., Becker, W. C., & Armstrong, M. Production and Eliminationof Disruptive Classroom Behavior by Systematically VaryingTeachers' Behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,1968, 1, 35-45.

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AUX2LIARY SERVICES TO SCHOOLS AND PUPILS

Projects in this cluster have been influential in giving pupilsan awareness of career alternatives, in helping them prepare for theirdhosen careers, and in promoting their successful adjustment to theirschool experiences. Currently serving only a small percentage of pupils,they represent significant beginnings in an emphasis on the School Liis-trict's goals in the areas of career guidance, career preparation, moti-vation, and mental health.

However, these Projects represent only a small portion ofoperating services and federally-funded prograus which seek to meet theseneeds in a larger context.

Current task-force recommendations to Implement the career-development needs of youth demonstrate that these Title I projects clear-ly represent beginning steps in the transition from the traditional con-cepts of mental health, occupational education, and guidance to a morevital approach to the solution of problens of youth in today's society.

With such massive needs at all grade levels, Title I projectsare only beginning to provide the services which are necessary to fulfillthe School District's responsibilities to its pupils. Therefore, examine.-tion must be made of the School District's operating-budget programs,and other federally-funded programs such as those functioning under theVocational Education Act of 1968, to adequately assess the degree towhich these auxiliary services are meeting the needs of youth.

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The evaluation of the "Auxiliary Servicesto Schools and Pupils" cluster and its componentprojects was designed, conducted, and reported byHermine Jeremias Chern, Research Associate, andBruce J. Yasgur, Herman L. Carter, and Frances R.Byers, Research Assistants. Miss Byers had primaryresponsibility for the evaluation of the CounselingServices project, and Mr. Carter had similar respon-sibility for the evaluation of the Counselor Aidesproject.

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AUXILIARY SERVICES TO SCHOOLS AND PUPILS

This cluster report examines (a) the theoretical bases for thecreation and integration of projects directed toward the broad-basedcareer development goals of the School District of Philadelphia, and(b) the degree to which these goals are facilitated by the common impactof the projects in this cluster. Separate evaluations of the noncommonfeatures of the individual projects follow this cluster report. Each ofthe individual project reports should be interpreted in the context ofthis cluster report.

Projects included in this cluster are Counseling Services (CSP),Counselor Aides (CA), Motivation Program (MP), and Salable VocationalSkills (SVS).

The Cluster of Projects

As a person develops, he needs assistance in handling the appro-priate vocational development tasks of various age levels. Guidance andcounseling programs must operate as an integral part of the total educa-tional program, because they are important in helping the individual todevelop an adequate self-concept in relation to the world-of-work.

In its broad-based career development goals, the School Districtadknowledges its responsibility to provide eadh student with (a) an aware-ness of career alternatives, (b) the skills, motivation, and assistance tcdhoose his own future, and (c) the settings which will assist the continu-ation or improvement of his mental health. It is believed that the inter-action of these objectives will enable pupils to cope constructively withtheir environment in an atmosphere of respect for self and others.

The School District has long recognized the need for expansionand improvement of vocational guidance and counseling services. Improve-ment in these services will allow individuals to plan.more realisticallyfor their futures. This increased effort must be based upon sound theo-ries of personal and vocational development and appropriate counseling andguidance procedures.

With the accelerating rate of technological change, the SchoolDistrict; through its coLmselors, has an even greater mission to providechildren with learning experiences which will enable them to becomesocially and economically functioning adults. To this end, the federalgovernment under Title I ESEA has allocated funds for the development andimplementation of four projects in Philadelphia which are designed tobroaden the base of services to students in the public and parochialschool systems.

In order to provide for the unique needs of target-area studentsit was considered essential that traditional guidance and counseling ser-vices be continued and expanded, and that further study and experimenta-

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ticn be encouraged to find new methods and techniques for dealing moreadequ-tely with these problems.

Five components have been identified as highly desirable forprojects directed toward broad-based career development goals. While allfive are not needed by all projects, one or more are considered necessaryfor each. Career development projects should, in general, provide thefollowing:

education.1. Early development of positive values regarding work and

2. A satisfying relationship with an esteemed adult.

3. Information about education and work.

4. Experience with a variety of vocational models, settings, andappropriate activities leading to familiarity with the world-of-work, andassistance In organizing and integrating these experiences in order tomake them meaningful.

5. Opportunities for decision-making experiences leading to therealization that one must take personal responsibility for the conse-quences of one's decisions.

While each of the Title I projects in this cluster is designedto meet one or more of these broad-based needs, the diversity of settingsand of target populations gives each project its own individuality withinthe context of the cluster.

The Counseling Services project serves parochial elementaryschools by providing specialists who can identify and remediate thoseenvironmental conditions which may cause behavioral disabilities in chil-dren. Teachers, principals, and parents collaborate in the initiation ofa preventive program designed to eliminate many of the social and emo-tional barriers which hinder the full development of the child.

The Counselor Aides project provides paraprofessional support tothe school guidance counselor. By performing clerical tasks the aiderelieves the counselor of some parts of the job which do not require pro-fessional training. In this way, the professionally trained counselor maybe able to offer intensive help and devote more time to disadvantagedchildren.

The Motivation Program provides activities designed to encouragestudents to attend college or other post-high school educational institu-tions. Seeking the active participation of the community, it is based onthe belief that the business, neighborhood, and intellectual communitiesshould accept responsibility for the educational process. As in otherprojects in this cluster, career development responsibilities of theschool are assumed.

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The Salable Vocational Skills project enables one areavocational-technical school to make its faculty and facilities availablEto target-area youth on Saturday mornings. It has as its objectives theenhancement of vocational preparation for students who are seeking(a) Improvement of skills already partly learned in the classroom,(b) exploratory experience in an occupational area which might Le considered for future training, and/or (c) occupational training not otherwiseavailable during their regularly scheduled school day.


While information dealing with the impact of auxiliary servicEupon the School District is needed, the diversity of the four projects ithis cluster has inhibited their examination from a unified point of viEBecause one project was clearly outside the domain of the public schoolsystem, results for it could not be compared directly with those obtainswithin the system. By the use of common data-gathering instruments suchas the Observational Checklist, questionnaires, and interviews whereappropriate, descriptive data were obtained to determine the degree ofcongruence between project operations and School District goals. Butbecause of the diversity of both the projects and the scope of the goalsa common lens for viewing this cluster is yet to be found.

For this reason, procedures used in the project evaluations amdescribed only in the respective project reports which follow this clustreport.

Results

Each project in the cluster has made a contribution toward thESchool District's broad-based career development goals.

Salable Vocational Skills, although limited in scope, was seeras a vehicle for the enhancement of vocational opportunities for publicand parochial school students. Its direct contribution in providing sexvices to students to enable them to obtain the skills, motivation, andassistance to choose their own future was quite evident.

The Motivation Program, also, was seen as contributing to stu-dents' awareness of career alternatives and providing active assistancethose students who have the ability and the desire for some form of posthigh school education. Comparison of participating students with a sarisof nonparticipants revealed that it was providing students with experierces which motivated them to seek and obtain higher educational opportunities.

However, in both projects only a relatively small percentage cstudents had the opportunity or motivation to participate.

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elq6

The other two projects in the cluster were found to be facili-tating the School District's goal of providing settings to assist in theimprovement of mental health.

Counselor Aides were perceived to be a valuable adjunct to thecounseling office. Providing a positive atmosphere and giving imme-diate and direct service to pupils, parents, teachers, and others who comeinto the counseling office, they also perform a number of paraprofessionaland clerical duties which enhance their capabilities as vital componentsof the counseling and pupil personnel functions within a school.

The Counseling Services project provides supplementary servicesto parochial schools that are not normally available to them. In addi-tion, it is a chief source of in-service training in child developmentwhich enables teachers to become more knowledgeable.

Conclusions

While most conclusions for this cluster are presented in theindividual project reports which follow, a few comments are appropriatehere.

Title I projects comprise only one portion of the auxiliary ser-vices provided by the School District. Other federal legislation andexisting locally-funded operating programs all make contributions in pro-viding students with needed services in the areas of career development,occupational education, and counseling.

It should be noted, however, that each of the Title I projectsin this cluster contributes to the broad-based goals which have beenestablished. The goals of providing students with (a) an awareness ofcareer alternatives and (b) skills, motivation, and assistance for choos-ing their future careers are both met by the Motivation Program and theSalable Vocational Skills project. The third goal, to assist in theimprovement of mental health, is being facilitated by the Counseling Ser-vices and Counselor Aides projects.

These projects, however, represent only a beginning in terms oftheir impact upon the School District. While each project is achievingits unique goals, additional resources should be brought to bear to extendthe needed services to a larger number of students.

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COUNSELING SERVICES(PERS #111-06-614)

The Counseling Services project (CSP) offers preventive coun-seling services to 14 parochial schools in disadvantaged neighborhoods,by providing educational and community consultants who work with teach-ers, parents, and pupils in Grades K-2.

This project report should be interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "Auxiliary Services to Schools and Pupils," in ear-lier pages of this volume.

The-Project

The transition from home to school for the new kindergartenor first-grade pupil is felt to be critical in his developmental history.Moreover, the success or failure of this transition is deemed to dependupon the degree of disparity between what the child is capable of accept-ing, understanding, and responding to and what challenges and expecta-tions he meets in school. The family is the vehicle which imparts tothe child a sense of self, helps in organizing the child's conceptionsof the world around him, and provides him with the opportunities tolearn and develop.

The success or appropriateness of any particular family's en-deavors with regard to its chfld's ability to move into school cannot bedetermined without considering the school itself. The reciprocity be-tween what the school expects and what the child has been taught toexpect and respond to, determines the outcome of the child's transitionfrom home to school. Viewed in this manner, an Important aspect of thechild's successful movement from home to school could be seen to dependupon the degree of compatibility which exists between the family systemand the school system. If the child has been successful at home, and ifthe family's and school's expectations are in reasonable accord, then heshould find it easy to move into the school environment.

With the goal of enhancing the child's positive experiencesas he enters the school, CSP has developed the following as its princi-pal objectives:

Objective 1. To provide small-group discussions for pupilswithin Grades K-2.

Objective 2. To provide diagnostic and counseling servicesto pupils.

Objective 3. To provide perent-child orientation programsand other services to enhance the involvement of parents in their chil-dren's education.

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Objective 4. To provide teachers with in-service training inchild development.

The work of CSP is carried out in 14 par-Dchial elementaryschools by seven teams of two persons each: an ec.ucational consultantand a community consultant. The former's education and training are inthe field of psychology; the latter's are in the area of social servicesand community projects.

The educational consultant attempts to understand thoroughlythe school as a system. At the same time, he tries to increase theschool staff's understanding of the project's activities z.nd to help thestaff develop the requisite skills to perform these activities.

One of his major -f_Asks is to work out the process(es) by whichhe and the school staff can improve intrafaculty communication patternsand utilize the problem-solving resources of the staff.

Teachers who are concerned about improving the atmosphere forlearning in their classrooms may invite the educational consultant toobserve their classrooms. Later, the consultant and the individualteacher discuss what has transpired during the observational period andtogether seek to devise actions for enhancing the classroom experiencesof children.

As envisioned by the project staff, the results of such consul-tations depend very much upon a collaborative effort between the teacherand the staff member. By combining the project staff's expertise in theareas of mental health, group processes, and learning with the educators'knowledge and experience in teaching, it is hoped that new practices canbe evolved which will enhance the overall atmosphere for learning andemotional-social growth in the schools.

Teachers may also ask the educational consultant to help themwith a particular child who may be experiencing some difficulties in ad-justing to the classroom routines. Where the child is not seriouslydisturbed, the consultant, after observing the child in the classroomand securing all other relevant data, collaborates with the teacher indeveloping various strategies which the teacher can carry out in classto help the child.

Occasionally the educational consultant does some individualcounseling and testing with a child whose problems are more serious thanmost. He may even place the child in a small group of children withsimilar difficulties and work with them. These lines of action, however,are intentionally kept to a minimum in order to conser7e the consultant'slimited time in the school for his primary objective of prevention.

In rare instances where the degree of disturbance is very great,the consultant refers the child and his parents to a local communitytreatment facility for services. Following this, the consultant willhelp the family follow through with the suggested program of treatment.

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The community consultant, also, functions in a preventive maner. He attempts to understand thoroughly the family and the communitas systems and their influences on children's learning.experiences aneemotional-social -7.evelopment. Primarily, he is responsible for imple-menting those programs, both formal and informal, which help TRrentsgain a greater rapport with the school.

From time to time, principals and teachers consult with thecommunity consultants about important school events and seek their asztance in involving parents in the program. Teachers and principals a]regularly call upon the community consultant to assist them in learnirmore about the home-life experiences of various students.

The community consultant seeks to motivate parents to becomEmore interested in school affairs. His particular methods and proce-dures, as well as the various kinds of involvement to be fostered, aradecided upon through the collaborative thinkinc and planning of principals, teachers, parents, and the team.

There are four basic services which are coffered in all theparticipating schools: (a) otiall-group discussions with children,(b) individual diagnostic and counseling services where necessary andappropriate, (c) involvement of parents in the basic education of theichildren, and (d) faculty in-service programs.

In addition, some testing services, referral services, andmore than 50 other psychoeducationally oriented activities have beenundertaken in one or more of the schools affiliated with this project.Some examples of these activities are (a) a "failure prevention" tutozprogram, (b) experience reading as a technique for facilitating motivetion and skills for reading, (c) black history and culture appreciaticclubs for students, (d) use of systematic procedures for reinforcing iclassrooms behaviors and attitudes that encourage learning, and(e) special awards programs to recognize students who are trying to irrprove their school work, regardless of their level of achievement.

It should be clear that the Counseling Services project dif-fers from the more traditional counseling services in most schools. Iemphasis on prevention, and/or working with parents, teachers, principand other adults who significantly influence the behavior of childrenrather than focusing prima-rily upon the child, reflects what most autbities in the field of counseling today acknowledge to be a practical aeffective approach for delivering counseling services within the schoo

Previous evaluations of CSP primArily contributed questionnadata from participating principals and teachers. Because many personnchanges occurred in 1970, both replication and additional evaluationshave been deemed necessary to assess adequately the progress of thisproject.

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Tho

The 1970-1971 evaluation of CSP has focused primarily on theprolect's four objectives. In addj_tion, an attempt was made to measurethe overall effectiveness of the project as perceived by the principalsand teachers in the participating schools. Complementary data were alsogathered concerning the additional activities performed by project per-sonnel in response to needs which varied from school to school.

Major foci of the current evaluation were the followingquestions:

1.

for pupils?How effectively has CSP provided small-group discussions

2. How effectively has CSP providedservices to pupils?

3. How effectively has CSP involveddren's school experience?

teachers?

diagnostic and counseling

parents in their chil-

4. How effectively has CSP provided in-service training to

5. How satisfactory have teachers and principals found theservices provided by CSP?

To answer each of the focal questions, both qualitative andquantitative measures were used.

The qualitative measures included (a) direct observation bythe evaluating team of some of the project's activities in the partici-pating schools, and (b) intarviews with project personnel and school per-sonnel directly involved with the project. The interviews were somewhatstructured so that specific questions concerning each CSP goal could beanswered for all participating schools. Questionnaire data were alsocollected from participating school personnel. For comparison purposes,several questions were asked of principals of non-CSP parochial schools,similar in type of community and school population to the schools par-ticipating in CSP, regarding the kinds of pupil services they provide.

Quantitative data were extracted mainly from the statisticalsummary reports made by CSP personnel as to the number and types ofservices they provided during the school year.

Instruments used were the Observational Checklist, the Teacherand Principal Qpinionnaire, and the School Services Questionnaire.(Copies of all three are on file in the Research Library of the Board ofEducation.)

The Observational Checklist was used to record data duringmonitoring visits and interviews.

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The Teacher and Principal Opinionnaire was sent to all 14principals and 44 teachers of target grades (K-2) of schools participat-ing in CSP. It is an expanded version of the questionnaire devised forand used in the 1969-1970 evaluation of CSP. Each respondent was askedto identify himself only as one of the following: Principal, Teacher(Grade K), Teacher (Grade 1), or Teacher (Grade 2).

The School Services Questionnaire, constructed for the currentevaluation, was sent to a sample of 16 parochial schools chosen fortheir proximity and similarity to the participating schools. The listof schools in this sample (See Appendix) was approved on the basis ofsuch similarity by the Rev. Paul F. Curran, Assistant Superintendent ofSchools for the Archdiocese of Philadelphia.

-Interview and observational data were collected for all CSPpersonnel, as well as all principals and available teachers who weredirectly involved in the project. In addition, several teachers of"nontarget" grades were interviewed in order to augment this report'scomplementary data on CSP activities.

Descriptive summaries were prepared from the observational andinterview data, all responses to the School Services Questionnaire, andresponses to open-end items in the Teacher and Principal Opinion-naire. Responses to the multiple-choice items of the Teacher and Prin-cipal Opinionnaire were tabulated in terms of frequency to permitcomparisons of' teachers' and principals' responses.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. How effectively has CSP provided small-group discussions for pupils?

Twenty-three visits to participating schools were made bymembers of the evaluating team. 7- schools it was reported thatsmall-group discussions were takim, place on a regular basis, usuallydaily so that each child was in a discussion at least once a week.When visited, nine of the 14 schools also reported that small-groupdiscussions were beina conducted regularly by the classroom teachers onthe days when the evaluating team was not present in the school. In 10schools, small-group discussions had been carried out in grades otherthan the target grades; usually Grades 7 and 8, but not always withregularity.

Nineteen small-group discussions were observed by members ofthe evaluating team. The average group included 7.7 pupils. In alldiscussions except one, all children were encouraged by the discussionleader to participate, and all but a few children (three in the largestgroup) appeared to take an active part.

161

16,2

A compilation of data from the weekly statistical reportsfiled by each CSP team revealed that 2,343 small-group discussions wereconducted between September and May. In all, 1,582 children in thetarget grades (K-2) engaged regularly in small-group discussions intheir school.

In interviews at nine of the 14 schools, the teachers and prin-cipals who stated opinions about small-group discussions made very favor-able comments. A typical response was made in December by a first-gradenun who said (a) that she felt more understanding and patient with herpupils, (b) that, as a result of small-group discussions, she had a bet-ter idea of the children's life outside class, and (c) that she hadnoticed less fighting among the pupils since the beginning of the year,a change mentioned previously by the principal as a goal in her school.

In three schools, the.reaction was generally favorable butwith some reservations. One teacher stated that the lack of discussionguidelines left her initially unsure of the goals she should achieve,making her feel inadequat,:lly prepared. However, as the year progressed,she felt more comfortable with the format and was learning to enjoy thediscussions. In another school, the principal felt that the groupsshould not number more than six children so that each child wouldreceive more individual attention. In the third school, the children'sexuberance after discussions was viewed as a disruption of the prevail-ing order and quiet in the school.

The overall reaction to small-group discussions by the princi-pals and faculties of the other two schools was distinctly unfavorable.(In both schools, particular stress is placed on the "traditional" con-cept of order and discipline, and on the academic aspects of education.1In one such school, the principal said in February that the CSP teamconducted the discussions outside the classroom without the teacher(implying that the teacher had '5more important"- things to dol. However,later in the year, while team members continued to conduct discussions,they were frequently in the classrooms with the teachers actively par-ticipating. The principal, commenting on the project's small-groupdiscussions, stated that, while shy, retiring children were "brought out"by such exposure, some children were made overly excited and active,presumably becoming a disruptive element when returned to the ordinaryclassroom setting. In the other school, snall-group discussions werespecifically cited by several teachers as pointless and a waste of time.The discussions were said to disrupt order and discipline with no posi-tive results in the children. One teacher commented that the CSP teamapparently "has no desire" for order and discipline.

A few principals and teachers mentioned the inconveniencecaused by the interruption of normal classroom activity by the teams'trying to conduct discussions (mainly in the higher grades), but thisobjection was directed more to a scheduling problem than to a question-ing of the intrinsic worth of the discussions.

162

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TABLE 1

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEMS ABOUT SMALL-GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Item

GroupRespondingto theIteml

Nuniber of Responses

I. Small-groupdiscussionshave given meinsight intosome problemswhich helpsduring regularclassroom periods.

2. Small-groupdiscussionshave beenvaluableadditions tomy program.

3. Most objectivesof the small-group discussionsin my room (school)were realized.

4. My pupils havegrown sociallyas a result ofour small-groupdiscussions.

5. Children in myclassroom (school)do not have anadequate vocabulafor small-groupdiscussions.

42 Tchrs.

10 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

12 Prins.

38 Tchrs.

10 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

11 Prins.

42 Tchrs.

11 Prins.

Strongly Mildly MildlyAgree Agree Disagree

StronglyDisagree

20 19 0 3

6 4 0 0

19 17 2 3

7 4 0 1

15 16 3 4

2 8 0 0

18 18 3 2

5 6 0 0

3 5 16 18

2 3 3 3

1Some of the 56 opinionnaire respondents omitted items.

164

165

Two principals acknowledged having access to outside resources such assame other school that handles special cases, and the Child GuidanceClinic at Children's Hospital.

The need for counseling services was expressed by some of theprincipals, two of whom replied, "Most unfortunately, we have no facili-ties of this kind," and "We need help in this area."

Asked whether children with problems were referred to appro-priate agencies, all the principals replied "Yes." Some named agenciessuch as Temple, St. Christopher's, and Hahnemann Hospitals, the Compre-hensive Grc -p Health Center, the Child Guidance Clinic, Rebound Clinic,and the diE:rict coordinator affiliated with a nearby public school.Several principals specified that the school frequently advises theparents, rather than school personnel, to take the child to the appro-priate clinic or agency.

In the two CSP schools where the evaluating team found most ofthe teachers and principals unenthusiastic about other aspects of CSP,the most frequently mentioned contribution of the CSP team was its han-dling of individual cases. One teacher felt that the testing of individ-uals was valuable but she would like to receive more definite diagnosesand suggestions of ways to help the children more effectively in theclassroom. Another teacher, in the same school, said that there shouldbe more individual counseling. The remark was also made that the teach-ers, especially the more experienced ones, were sufficiently able them-selves to handle the problems of the children in their classes.

Responses to the item in the Teacher and Principal Opinion-naire pertaining to CSP diagnostic and counseling services are summarizedin Table 2.

165

166

TABLE 2

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEM ABOUT DIAGNOSTIC AND COUNSELING SERVICES

Item

The CSP team hashandled social andemotional problemsof my pupils thatwould not have beentreated otherwise.

GroupResponding

to theIteml

NuMber of Responses

Strongly Mildly MildlyAgree Agree Disagree

StronglyDisagree

41 Tchrs.

12 Prins.

13

4

10

3

9

5

9

0

1Three of the 56 opinionnaire respondents omitted this item.

Data relevant to Question 3. How effectively has CSP involved parentsin their children's school experience?

Several activities were undertaken during the year in conjunc-tion with efforts of the CSP teams in all schools to establish and main-tain contact with parents whose children did not necessarily haveidentified problems.

Parent-child orientation. All participating schools were askedto take part in a three-day program in early September (a) to help intro-duce young children to kindergarten and first grade, (b) to increase theteacher's knowledge of her pupils and their families, and (c) to enlargethe parent's knowledge of and involvement with the school. The childrenand parents met with the teacher, were introduced to their classwork, andwere given some academic tasks which the parents could work on with theirchildren. The teacher could tell the parents her goals for the comingyear and enlist their cooperation.

The orientation was carried out in all 14 schools, reportedlyattended by 99% of the parent-child pairs. In all, 29 classes took partin the parent-child orientation program involving 913 children and 901parents.

In contrast, six of the 13 principals of the non-CS? schoolsreplied "No" to the questionnaire item asking whether their school hadany orientation activities for new pupils and their parents. Of theseven principals who responded "Yes," three mentioned the Title I SummerReadiness Program, one referred to meetings held in her school with par-

166

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TABLE 3

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEMS ABOUT PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Item

GroupResponding

to theIteml

Number of Responses

Strongly Mildly Mildly StronglyAgree Agree Disagree Disagree

1. Parents feel closerto school as aresult of CSP.

2. The activitiesoutside theclassroom thatwere sponsored byCSP personnelwere valuable tothe parents.

3. The PHT programis a valuableprogram to havein the school.

4. The PHT programhas been success-ful in my school.

5. The PHT programhas increasedthe parents'interest in theeducation oftheir children.

41 Tchrs.

12 Prins.

36 Tchrs.

12 Prins.

20 Tchrs.2

8 Prins.2

17 Tchrs.

8 Prins.

19 Tchrs.

8 Prins.

2 21

1 7

9 17

2 8

13 6

6 1

4 9

2 4

5 11

0 7

10

4

7

2

1

1

3

2

2

1

8

0

3

0

1 Some of the 56 opinionnaire respondents omitted items.

2Twenty teachers and 10 principals reported that their schools hadthe PHT program.

168

18 9

Parent as a Home Teacher (PHT) program. Beginning in January1971, the schools were invited by CSP to take part in this program,designed to help parents work at home with their children on academicalrelevant tasks. The children's academic, emotional, and social development might be enhanced through this form of parental involvement.

In a typical meeting at the school, the teacher met with smalgroups of parents, telling them her plans and goals for the children du.ing the next month or two. She then demonstrated tasks which the paren-could try with their children at home. The smallness and informality othe meeting were intended to provide parents with the opportunity to as:questions and to seek guidance from the teacher.

The community consultant visited the home of each parent whoattended a PHT meeting. During these follow-up sessions, he helped theparents implement the tasks which had been demonstrated at the meeting,answered questions, and offered assistance in overcoming various familyproblems.

Of the 42 teachers responding to the Teacher and PrincipalQpinionnaire, 20 acknowledged that the program was being carried out intheir school, 18 said that it was not being carried out, one replied thithe program was not presertly (in May) being conducted but would bestarted soon, and three left the item unanswered. Of the 14 principals10 said that the PHT program was conducted in their school, three saidnot, and one left the item blank. In all, 29 of the respondents saidthat the program was conducted and 21 said that it was not conducted.

According to the CSP statistical report, 27 classes partici-pated in a total of 49 meetings for the parents of 504 children.

The only criticisms of the PHT program voiced by the CSP teamsto the visiting evaluators were (a) that the parents seemed enthusiasticabout carrying out the activities for only a few weeks and then gradual-ly tapered off, and (b) that attendance at the meetings was poor, usual:less then 60% of the parents.

Teachers' and principals' responses to opinionnaire items aboi.the PHT program are summarized in Items 3, 4, and 5 of Table 3.

Data relevant to Question 4. How effectively has CSP orovided in-servictraining to teachers?

The evaluating team learned that in-service faculty meetingswere being held regularly in all 14 schools. They took place as often aneeded, usually once or twice weekly (but more frequently in someschools) with the teachers in the target grades. In one school, meetingwith target-grade teachers took place only once every two or three weeks

In 13 schools, CSP personnel have held general in-service meetings with the whole faculty. These meetings were held less regularly

169

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TABLE 4

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEM ABOUT IN-SERVICE TRAINING

Item

GroupResponding

to theIteml

NuMber of Responses

Strongly Mildly Mildly StronglAgree Agree Disagree Disagre

I have Improved myclassroom (or school)management techniquesas a result of CSP.

41 Tchrs.

9 Prins.

12 16 7 6

3 1 4 1

1 .Smx of the 56 opinionnaire respondents omitted this item.

Data relevant to Question 5. How satisfactory have teachers and principals found the services provided by CSP?

An expression of the success of CSP, as perceived by the prircipals and participating teachers in all 14 schools, was discerned by tevaluating team from both interview and questionnaire responses.

In seven schools, the principals and teachers interviewed wemvery positive in their evaluation of the project and unreservedlydelighted in its progress. In five other schools, the pri37ipals andteachers spoke favorably of the CSP team members personally, but ex-pressed some reservation about certain aspects of the project. Thedegree of their reservation varied considerably from school to school.The overall feeling expressed by the school personnel in two of the 14CSP schools was distinctly unfavorable to the project.

Features of the project that were most frequently praised foxtheir value and effectiveness were the following:

1. Excellence of the teams and their willingness to do morethaa was expected.

2. Teams' role as indispensable resources to whom the facul-ties looked when problems arose.

3. Teams' helpfulness to school personnel in broadening theiview of education and their recognition of children's problems.

schools.4. Teams' success in increasing parental involvement in the

171

172

5. Teams' provision of information and services to parents whowould not otherwise have access to them.

6. Teachers' greater understanding and patience with thechildren.

Negative comments, although much less frequent than positiveones, included the following:

1. Small-group discussions seemed pointless and a waste oftime.

2. Order and discipline were disrupted with apparently nopositive results in the children.

3. The goals of the project did not coincide with those of someschool personnel.

4. Efforts to involve parents seemed inadequate.

5. Some acti-ities seemed to lack thorough planning.

Suggestions made by school personnel for future implementationof CSP included the following:

1. To assign a team full-time to each school, rather thanhalf-time.

2. To assign the same team to a schc,ol in consecutive years,to preserve continuity_

3. To plan a unified program of activities for the whole aca-demic year.

4. To improve communications between the CSP team and schoolpersonnel.

Responses to the items on the Teacher and Principal Opinionnairethat dealt with the overall need for, and effectiveness of, CSP aresummarized in Table 5.

In teachers' and principals' responses to an open-end questionabout the ways CSP had helped them, the following were most frequentlynamed:

1. Helping with problem children (11 teachers, 6 principals).

2. Helping teachers to focus attention on children as individ-uals (23 teachers, 2 principals).

3. Being a sounding board, building morale, being open, honest,helpful,and understanding (7 teachers, 5 principals).

172

TABLE 5

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEMS ABOUT THEGENERAL VALUE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF CSP

Item

GroupResponding

to theItem 1

Number of Responses

Strongly Mildly Mildly StronglyAgree Ar-ree Disagree Disagree

Need for CSP

1. Most schools are inj 38 Tchrs. 17 12 7 2need of a change inJthe direction 12 Prins. 4 3 2 3emphasized by CSP.

2. Only schools like 42 Tchrs. 0 1 10 31mine should haveaccess to CSP's 13 Prins. 1 0 5 7techniques andpersonnel.

3. Schools in better 42 Tchrs. 22 14 1 5socioeconomicneighborhoods need 12 Prins. 7 5 0 0pinjects such asCSP.

School's Reaction

4, CSP personnel were 42 Tchrs. 17 16 8 1well received inmy school. 13 Prins. 6 5 2 o

5. My pupils did not 40 Tchrs. 2 S 17 16respond positivelyto the new prac- 12 Prins. o 0 a Atices of CSP.

Respondent's Reaction

6. As a teacher (principal) I have cometo value the CSPpersonnel in myschool.

42 Tchrs.

14 Prins.

173

22 12 4 4

8 5 1

TABLE 5 (Continued)

RESPONSES TO OPINIONNAIRE ITEMS ABOUT THEGENERAL VALUE AND ErT'ECTIVENESS OF CSP

Item I

GroupResponding

to theIteml

Nrimher of Responses

Strongly Mildly Mildly stronglyAgree Agree Disagree Disagree

7. I feel "good"about workingwith CSP personnel.

8. It wouln be a lossto my school if CSPdid not return nextyear.

Effects of CSP

9. .There have been somchanges in my schoosince September asa result of CSP.

10. My pupils arebetter behavedbecause of CSP.

11. I have gained somevaluable insightsas a result ofCSP.

12. I am able to see mychildren in a morepositive fashionas a result of CSP.

13. The CounselingServices Projectlived up to myexpectation thisyear.

42 Tchrs.

12 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

14 Prins.

39 Tchrs.

13 Prins.

40 Tchrs.

11 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

14 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

11 Prins.

41 Tchrs.

I13 Prins.

21

5

19

8

7

3

1

2

20

7

16

4

11

3

1Some of the 56 opinionnaire respondents

174

115

14 5 2

6 0 1

13 7 2

4 2 0

16 11 5

9 1 0

10 19 10

3 5 1

16 3 2

5 2 0

18 4 3

2 3 2

16 7 7

6 3

omitted items.

4. In-service help, giving insights into education and psychol-ogy (10 teachers, 3 principals).

5. Showing great interest in and encouragement to children (6teachers, 2 principals).

6. Parental contact, home visits, community work (6 teachers,4 principals).

7. Little or no help (2 teac':.ters, 2 principals).

In teachers' and principals' responses to an open-end questionabout the ways the schools could help CSP, the following were most fre-quently named:

1. Following CSP advice, being more responsive, cooperating(14 teachers, 1 principal).

2. Being open and honest with the CSP team (8 teachers, 2 prin-cipals).

3. Scheduling more time and giving more space to CSP team (3teachers, 2 principals).

4. Having more meetings with faculty of other schools and withproject administrators (4 teachers, 1 principal).

In teachers' and principals' responses to an open-end questionabout the ways they would like to see CSP changed or worked differently,the following were most frequently named:

1. Satisfied with project as it is now (3 teachers, 2 princi-pal).

2. Having the CSP team spend more time in the school (4 teach-ers, 2 principals).

3. Giving more help to individual children (5 teachers, 2 prin-cipals).

4. More work in the community by community consultant (8 teach-ers, 1 principal).

5. Defining roles of CSP personnel more precisely, especiallythat of the community consultant (2 teachers, 2 principals).

6. Team members to have teaching experience and show morerespect for teachers' opinions; knowledge of theory good, but practicalclassroom experience lacking (3 teachers).

7. More in-service training (9 teachers).

175

176

Eighteen respondents added comments at the end of the question-naire. Following is a categorization of such comments:

1. Grateful for support and encouragement of team; intending touse many CSP ideas permanently (7 teachers).

2. Small-group discussions a great benefit (5 teachers).

3. In-service faculty training valuable (2 teachers).

4. 141re community involvement needed (3 teachers).

5. PHT program should be structured for the beginning of nextyear (2 teachers).

As further indication of the image of CSP held by teachers andprincipals, Table 6 shows the CSP activities that teachers and principalsthought best described the program.

TABLE 6

CSP ACTIVITIES DESIGNATED BY SCHOOL PERSONNEL ASMOST DESCRIPTIVE OF CSP AS THEY HAVE KNOWN IT

Activity

Number of Citations1 by

Teachers Principals

1. Individual counseling servicesand referrals 16 4

2. Small-group discussions 33 13

3. Community involvement 4 2

4. Staff development (in-servicetraining) 6 1

5. Othez (Write-ins):

Reading techniques 3

Incentive to faculty 1

1 Some respondents checked more than one activity.

176

Complementary Data

Additional activities of CSP teams. All CSP teams engaged inactivities designed to meet specific needs that arose in their schools inaddition to tlaose directed toward the project's primary objectives.Twenty-six sucb activities were reported, of which the following receivedmost frequent mention:.

1. Small-group discussions in non-target grades--almost allschools.

2. Referrals from teachers of upper grades and individual test-ing and counseling of older pupils--almost all schools-

,

3. Expanded reading methods programs, especially language experi-ence approach--11 schools.

schools.4. Discussions and workshops for pupils of upper grades-6

5. Career development programs--5 schools.

In addition, the CSP personnel had 934 conferences with repre-sentatives of community agencies, made 130 contacts with other school per-sonnel and specialists, met with parish pastors on 255 occasions, andorganized four parish team meetings with representatives of the pastor'soffice, the school, and parents.

Opinions expressed by CSP team members. When visiting theschools, the evaluators interviewed the CSP team members for their opin-ions about (a) how successful they presently considered the project intheir schools, and (b) how they thought the project could be successfullycarried out in the future.

The teams in the schools where the project was favorably re-ceived reported different types of experiences from those of the teams inthe schools where CSP was not well received.

In schools where the project was well receiVed, all teams foundthe principals to be very positive toward CSP and coaperative with theteams' efforts. In every school where the principalfelt openly favor-able toward CSP, the teachers.followed her lead, being receptive, coop-erative, and willing to try. In these schools, the faculty membersseemed close and usually communicated well among themselves, althoughsame distance was noted between the religious and lay teachers. Theteachers have been seen by the teams to change during the course of theirexposure to CSP, "opening up" so that children have come to relate moreto them. The teams have felt that they were an integral part of theirrespective schools, although not necessarily considered members of thestaff.

177

178

In schools where the project was not well received, nearly allthe teams mentioned that the strict e.forcement of order and diE.ciplineinterfered with the freedom they needed to carry out CSP activities.Although principals voiced no objection, they were at most just passivelycooperative, and were seen by the teams as "getting in the way." Theprincipals, and the teachers following their example, considered theproject of value insofar as it provided "traditional" counseling and diag-nostic services to individual pupils. Small-group discussions were seenas having dubious value at best, and as being a source of disruption anda waste of time at worst. The "preventive" nature of CSP therefore couldnot be stressed. The teams noted that the faculties of these schoolswere not united; little communication went on within the faculties, andgaps between older and younger teachers and between religious and layteachers were mentioned. These were the faculties which considered them-selves able to handle most problems encountered in the classroom, so thatthey felt little need to consult outsiders like the CSP team members.These same teachers were found by CSP personnel not really to understandthe children's life outside school. In these schools, the priorityplaced on academic achievement was so high that a program serving otheraspects of the children's development (like CSP) tended to be treated aslittle more than a "frill."

Continuing needs cited by CSP teams included the following:

1. The need for full understanding and acceptance of the proj-ect's goals and activities by the school principal. This is essentialto the success of the program.

2. The need for a similar acceptance by all teachers desig-nated to participate.

3. The need for CSP team members to have more authority andautonomy in carrying out activities, so there is less need to persuadereluctant school personnel taccept them.

4. The need for less frequent transfer of tea , ers with whomthe CSP teams had worked.

Conclusions

Question 1. How effectively has CSP provided small-group discussions forpupils?

An overwhelming majority of the respondents found the discus-sions to be valuable additions to their ongoing program, providing themwith insight into ways to treat some problems in the classroom.

More than 80% of the teachers and principals considered thechildren to have grown socially as a result of the discussions, and

178

179

most (many more than last year) felt that the children had an adequatevocabulary for participating in the discussions.

Question 2. How effectively has csp provided diagnostic and counselingservices to pupils?

Referrals have been made in all schools; in at least nineschools such referrals have been made with great frequency. More than590 pupils received this service as a result of CSP.

Question 3. How effectively has CSP involved _parents in their children'sschool experience?

To a limited degree. However, each school's location or neigh-borhood situation has had a significant effect upon parent involvement.In areas where parents are available during the day, a greater degree offlexibility for day or evening meetings has been possible. There arpearsto be ai need for the role of the community consultant to be defined moreprecisely.

Question 4. How effectively has CSP vrovided in-service training toteachers?

In-service training of teachers has been conducted in allschools and has been generally considered indispensable by the teachersand principals.

Question 5. How satisfactory have teachers and principals found the ser-vices provided by CSP?

In general, quite satisfactory. Some teachers and principalshave expectations that differ from the goals of the project. Schoolswhere rigid discipline and order are emphasized (traditional approach)tend to view CSP as having as its main purpose the furnishing of tradi-tional remedial counseling services (i.e., diagnostic testing and coun-seling of individual children with problems) rather than fulfilling theproject's intended role in prevention of problems. Failure of a princi-pal and her teachers to make a commitment, when accepting the project intheir school, to cooperate with the team and give it autonomy in carryingout its activities, can seriously restrict the project's long-rangeeffectiveness in that school.

In many schools, maintaining regular contact with parents isdifficult at best. In schools where CSP is not endorsed wholeheartedlyby the principal and faculty, this difficulty is compounded, with a con-sequent loss of valuable contact for the team--mainly in areas where itis most needed.

179

180

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1.4 I 1

COUNSELOR AIDES(PERS #111-03-508)

The Counselor Aides (CA) project provides 28 paraprcfession(counselor aides) who assist counselors in 14 senior high schools andjunior high schools.

This project report should be interpreted in the context ofthe cluster report, "Auxiliary Services to Schools and Pupils," in ealier pages of this volume.

The project

The CA project is a response to recent federal legislationwhich has created greatly increased demands for personnel to providerelevant services and has resulted in the development of a new group 1personnel positions which are variously referred to as auxiliary, tec:nical, nonprofessional, paraprofessional, or support personnel.

A critical issue in Philadelohia schools today is the needprovide adequate counseling service, both to help all pupils in theireducational and career planning and to give intensive service to thosipupils who have problems in school adjustment. The proportion of chi:dren with social and emotional problems is very high in urban areas,particularly in low-income neighborhoods.

In an attempt to meet the increasing demand placed on profe:sional counselors, the School District has assigned counselor aides tcsecondary schools where the pupil-counselor ratio is high. Through t3use of the counselor aide, the counselor is relieved of same parts ofthe job which can be carried out by a person without professional tra:ing so that the professionally trained counselor will be able to offe3more Intensive help to more disadvantaged children.

The activities of support personnel differ from the work ofthe counselor in several basic respects (Stewart, 1968) :

1. The counselor performs the counseling function describeeby professional policy statements, while support personnel may perfornother important and necessary activities that contribute to the overalservice.

2. The work of the counselor involves synthesis and integration of interrelated parts of the total range of services with and inbehalf of the counselee, while the work of support personnel tendstoward the particular and becomes an integral part of the larger wholEonly as this is developed under the leadership of the counselor.

181

182

3. The counselor bases his performance on the use of relevanttheory, authoritative knowledge of effective procedures, and evaluationof the total endeavor, while functions of support personnel are charac-terized by more limited theoretical background and specialization in oneor more support functions.

Principal objectives of the CA project are the following:

Objective 1. To give immediate and direct service to pupils,parents, teachers, and others who come into the counseling area.

Objective 2. To respnd appropriately to telephone calls intothe counseling office.

Objective 3. To gather and organize pupil information neFtdedby other school services or counseling agencies or for preparation ofsummaries and recommendations.

Objective 4. To assist counselors in accomplishing particularcounseling program objectives.

Objective 5. To assist in organizing, maintaining, and dis-tributing resource materials on educational, occupational, and recrea-tional opportunities for students.

Twenty-eight counselor aides are assigned to 14 senior highschools and 7 junior high schools (See Table 1). They assist counselorsby acting as receptionists, by answering requests for routine informa-tion, by giving direct service on routine matters assigned by the coun-selors, and by performing clerical activities related to the counselingjob. In general, they were selected on the basis of these aualifica-tions: high school graduation, liking for children, ability to estab-lish good relationships with people, intelligence, integrity, and typingskills. The counselor aides normally work in or very close to thecounselors' offices, and have their own desks, chairs, and typewriters.

Evaluations in the years 1966-1968 indicated that counselorswith aides engaged in a significantly smaller number of clerical andadministrative activities and tasks than counselors without aides. Nosignificant differences were noted.between counselors with and withoutaides in number of contacts made with pupils and parents or in time siDentin dealing with individual pupil problems Counselor aides were seen asmature clerk-receptionists who were capable of carrying a major portionof the counselors' clerical load.

In 1968-1969 it was found that, while aides did relieve coun-selors of routine duties, counselors spent a large portion of their"freed" time directing the activities of the aides. Ratios of counselorsto aides ranged from 2:1 to 8:1. No significant differences were foundin services to pupils or in =parental contacts by counselors with andwithout aides.

182

183

TABLE l

LOCATION OF COUNSELOR AIDES

DistrictSenior High Junior High

School Aides School Aides

1 Bartram 2 Catto 1

West Phila. 2

2 Franklin 1 Audenried 1

Wm. Penn 1 Barratt 1

3 South Phila. 2

Bok 2

4 Dobbins 2Gratz 2

Overbrook 2

5 Edison Stetson 1

Kensington 1 Wanamaker 1

Mastbaum 1

6 Germantown 1 RooseveltWagner 1

7 Frankford 1

The evaluation of 1969-1970 indicated that high ratios(greater than 3:1) of counselors to aides reduced the efficiency of theservice. A high turnover of aides has occurred over the past two yearsMore than half the ex-aides have been transferred to other positionswithin the School District.


This year's evaluation was focused on the activities performeby the counselor aide and their effect on the overall counseling procesAnswers to two questions were sought:

1. To what extent have counselor aides been performing theirtasks as stated in the project's five objectives?

123

184

2. To what extent have counselor aides facilitated students'and adults' access to counseling services?

Question 1. To what extent have counselor aides been performing theirtasks as stated in the project's five objectives?

During the 1970-1971 school year, there were 39 counseloraides in the School District. Twenty-eight of the 39 positions werefederally funded. Monitoring was systematically conducted on 19 of the28 federally funded counselor aides in 15 schools, with the help of theObservational Checklist. (P, copy of the checklist is on file in theResearch Library i the Board of Education.) Three randomly selectedreports by counse.;.ors and principals on the activities of their aideswere examined.

Observational data were summarized in terms of frequency.Other data were summarized descriptively.

Question 2. To what extent have counselor aides facilitated students'and adults' access to counseling services?

The evaluation team observed counseling offices of the partici-pating schools at different times during the day and recorded clients'waiting times and the disposition of their cases. The Counselor AideRecording Form, a time checklist developed by the evaluation team, wasused. (A copy is on file in the Research Library of the Board of Educa-tion.) The form provides space for the observer to record (a) the timewhen a person entered the counseling office, (b) the type of client(student, parent, or other) , (c) whether the visit was made with or with-out an appointment, (d) the reason for the visit, (e) total waiting time,and (f) final disposition made-_

These data were gathered during the same visits which proiiideddata relevant to Question 1.

A review was made of the data to determine the number of per-sons served by the counselors and the number of persons provided withcounseling services by the counselor aides. A frequency distribution wasmade to determine the median in reference to waiting time of clients.

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. To what extent have counselor aides beenperforming their tasks as stated in the project's five objectives?

Nineteen visits to participating schools were made by membersof the evaluation team between NoveMber, 1970, and May, 1971. Thirteen

184

of the visits were made to senior high schools and six were made to

junior high schools.

Six of the visits lasted for one hour each and two lasted foran hour and a half. In no case did a visit last less than 30 minutes.

On each visit, the evaluation team observed counselor aidesperforming some phase of the stated objectives. In in5tances where cer-tain activities were not observed, personal interviews revealed that theactivities were performed at some other nr7)int durina the day (See

Table 2).

The reports of counselors and principals on their counseloraides indicated that the aides regularly engaged in a variety of ac-tivities, depending on the needs of their particular schools. However,the reports agreed on a core of activities which were regularly per-formed by all three of the aides:

1. Serve as secretary/

2. Serve as receptionist

3. Make counseling appointments

4. Answer telephone

5. Make telephone calls for counselors

6. Provide information

7. Maintain records

8. Type reports and general correspondence

9. Perform general clerical duties.

In addition, the aides in senior high sch-,ols perform the fol-lowing activities:

1. Arrange early dismissals

2. Distribute emergency lunch funds and tokens

3. Assist counselors in special programs

4. Assist in orientation of new students.

185

TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS DURING 19 VISITS

Aide Activity

Answer phone

Make phone calls for counselor

1Receive incoming clients

Make counseling appointments forclients

Do typing for counselor

Process special forms

Maintain college informationservices

Process late students

Send forms to parents

Maintain file for early dismissal

Compile absence reports

Maintain test-score rec3rds

Handle information on specialprograms

Order office supplies

Handle scholarship applications

Handle tran.script requests

Number of Observation V:sits

ActivityPerformed

ActivityLacking

Activity notAppropriateduring

Observation

17 0 2

17 0 2

17 0 2

17 0 2

17 0 2

17 0 2

10 6 3

12 4 3

11 5 3

9 4 6

1 13 5

3 10 6

14 0 5

10 3

8 6 5

9 5 5

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SchoolMotivation Participants Nonparticipants

No. in Sample No. Accepted No. in Sample No. Accepted

Gratz 15 15 15 13

Edison 15 15 7

Overbrook 15 11 15 6

So. Phila. 15 10 15 3

Bok 15 13. 15 1

Franklin 15 14 15 5

Bartram 15 15 15 8

Total 105 89 105 43

In both grades, with the sole exception of Grade 11 at SouthPhiladelphia High School, the Motivation students had better attendancepatterns than did the non-Motivation students.

Patterns of punctuality favored Motivation students to aneven larger extent. The school sample3 ' average numbers of latenessesfor motivation students ranged from 6 tc 23 for the school year. Fornon-Motivation students, the range was from 14 to 81.

Data relevant to Question 3. To what extent does the project's mode ofoperation vary from school to school?

Thlry-two visits were made to seven schools in which the proj-ect lOcated. The following activities were either observed or re-ported in interv:!.:-.:ws with Motivation coordinators in each of the sevens;hools: (a) parent/community involvement, (b) collc -a visits andrepresentatives to the school, (c) weekly "rap" sessions, (d) culturalactivities, (e) tutoring, and (f) summer institutes at colleges. Co-operative plans with colleges and host visits were observed in all casesexcept at Edison High School.

193

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Question 3. To what extent does the project's mode of operation varyfrom school to school?

The project varies little from school to school in terms ofthe basic activities reported by the director of the project. With theexception of one specialized activity subsumed under a broad aeneralcategory, each school maintains and participates in the activities sospecified.

Within the specialized Motivation classes themselves, however,considerable variation exists. Some classes are conducted on an informalbasis, ungraded and often dealing with subjects not tattght as pa=t ofthe regular curriculum (e.g., humanities, including bacteriology andpsychology, and remedial mathematics and Engli.sh). In other schools,classes are more structured and operate in a more formalized way.

196

1,96

SALABLE VOCATIONAL SKILLS(PBRS #111-04-507)

The Salable Vocational Skills (SVS) project makes facultymembers and facilities of the Mastbaum Area Vocational-Technical HighSchool available to students on Saturday mornings.

This project report should be interpreted in the conteJizt of thecluster report, "Auxiliary Services to Schools and Pupils," in earlierpages of this volume.

The Project

Disadvantages of inner-city youth in seeking employment axemagnified in this inflationary period when Philadelphia is near the topof the list of cities with high unemployment rates. SVS was developed asa vehicle for placing more emphasis on the career leeds of youth, partic-ularly in the field of vocational education.

SVS seeks to enhance the vocational preparation of disadvan-taged youth specifically through the following objectives:

Objective 1. To enable students to improve skills they havealready learned in the classroom.

Ob.ective 2. To give students an exploratory experience in anoccupational area which might be considered for future training.

Objective 3. To provide specific occupational training forthose students who do n)t have such an opportunity during theil regularlyscheduled school day.

The mock.. of operation for this year's SVS project was similarto that of the previous two years. In 1970-1971, an.average of 325students in secondary grades elected to participate in one of the 14classes held on Saturday mornings at the Mastbaum Area Vocational-Technical High School. These students were primarily from Mastbaum orneighboring parochial schools. The classes were four hours in lengthand ran from October through May.

Previous evaluations of SVS revealed that, in the areas of in-struction which were sampled, students who remained in the program prof-ited from instruction. Test scores in auto servicing and tailoringindicated that the participants had improved their job-entry proficiency.In elementary data processing and elementary typewriting, the test scoresindicated substantial gain.

197

197


The evaluation this year was descriptive in that it soughtanswers to the following Tiestions:

1. How consistent is student attendance at SVS classes?

2. Which of the SVS objectives has attracted most studentparticipants?

Question

accounts

1. How consistent is student attendance at SVS

The project administrator was designated toof monthly attendance rates for each class at

classes?

descriptivecenter.

The monthly attendance rates (available from February throughMay) provided an estimate of the average number of students participating.

Question 2. Which of the SVS objectives has attracted mostparticipants?

student

The students were interviewed by the project administrator toascertain their reasons for attending SVS classes. Percentages were com-puted to answer this question

Results

Data relevant to Question 1. How consistent is student attendance atSVS classes?

In terms of monthly averages, students maintained reasonablyconstant attendance in eight courses: commercial art (14 students),cosmetology (25), data processing (23), electricity (22), machine short-hand (16), sheet metal (7), Gregg shorthand (12), and wood shop (17).

In five courses attendance dropped consistently over the four-month period: auto maintenance (50 to 31), electronics (31 to 31),machine shop (19 to 13), beginners' typewriting (51 to 39), and advancedtypewriting (27 to 18). Students in the drafting course followed anirregular pattern of attendance (from 24 up to 29 and down to 20).

Data relevant to puestion 2. Which of the SVS objectives has attractedmost student participants?

Students' reasons for attending classes,obtained from inter-views,are summarized in Table 1.

198

198

TABLE 1

REASONS CITED BY 355 STUDENTS FORTHEIR PARTICIPATION IN SVS

Reason (Related to Percentage of StudentsSVS Objectives) Cting the Reason

1. Improvement of skills orgrades, or make-up ofregularly assigned shop 39%

2. Exploratory experience 22%

3. Preparation for a voca-tional objective 39%

Thus, reasons covering s1ill improvement and specificoccupational training were most fr liently listed, with exploratoryexperience the least frequently lis,ed.

Conclusions

Question 1. How consistent is student attendance at SVS classes?

In general, the pattern of attendance over all courses wasfairly stable. Monthly attendance reports by project personnel in-dicated only minor attrition occurring over a four-month period.

Question 2. Which of the SVS objectives has attracted most studentparticipants?

Preparation for vocational objectives and improvement of skillsor grades each accounted for 39% of the students' reasons for attendingthe SVS classes. Only 22% stated that they were using SVS as anopportunity to explore an unfamiliar trade.

199

199

REFERENCES

Roe, A. The Origin of Interests. Washington, D. C.: American Personneland Guidance Association, 1964.

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Digest of ESEA, Title I Projects for Title I Allocation M:?.et-ings. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia,.1971.(A digest of evaluations prier to 1970-1971)

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Interim Reports, 1971, Department of Instructional SystemsResearch. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia,February 1971.

Stewart, L. H. Increasing the Academic Achievement of CulturallyDisadvantaged Youth. Research in Education, 1968, 3 (2).

Super, D. E. The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper, 1957.

Super, D. E. Career Development: Self-Concept Theory. New York:College Entrance Examination Board, 1963.

Tiedeman, D. V. Research Explorations in the Realm of Choice. Journalof Counseling Psychologi_, 1961, 8 (3).

Tiedeman, D. V. Career Development: Choice and Adjustment. New York:College Entrance Examination Board, 1963.

201

200

OTHER TITLE I PROJECTS

"Other" Title I projects are those which are not specificallyincluded in the three preceding clusters. More general in their con-cerns, they seek (a) to provide preschool and lower school children withadditional personnel, activities, and care so that their initial exposureto learning will be enriched, (b) to provide target-area children withthe opportunity for cultural enrichment in the fields of art, music, andcreative dramatics, and (c) to help children gain a greater understandingof themselves, their environment, and interpersonal r,alations.

Projects in this group are Art Specialist Teachers (AST),Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV), Creative Dramatics (CD), InstructionalMaterials Centers (IMC), Music Specialist Teachers (MST), Special Mathe-matics Project (SMP), Walnut Center (WC), and Youth Serving Youth (YSY).1

With the exception of Walnut Center, descriptive evaluationswere used during the 1970-1971 school year, assessing the current statusof the projects with respect to their goals. Extensive project monitor-ing was conducted by the District Research Associates in Districts 1through 7 between December and May, using the Title I ObservationalChecklist. Findings, which are summarized in the individual reportswhich follow, permit these generalizations:

1. The schools in the Title I target area are receiving theservices of the projects reported in this cluster.

2. The practice of sharing personnel among several buildings ex-tends services in name only. In reality, this technique dilutes concen-trated efforts required by compensatory programs. Issues and policiesconcerning the assignment of projects to schools may need reexamination.

3. The common practice of leaving one's class after the arriva/of the specialist teacher diminishes the possibility of meaningful follow-up lessons by the regular teacher.

1 The following Title I projects are not reported in this volume: Dis-trict reading projects, Learning Centers, Affective Education, Computer-Assisted Instruction, Pennsylvania Advancement School, and certain Dio-cesan projects. District reading projects and Learning Centers will bereported by personnel in the Department of Field Operations Research. Re-ports on Affective Education and Computer-Assisted Instruction will be pre-pared by the respective resident evaluators. The Pennsylvania AdvancementSchool report will appear as a separate publication of the Department ofInstructional Systems Research. Reports on the Diocesan projects will beforwarded directly to the project directors,

201

The evaluation of the Walnut Center projectwas designed, conducted, and reported by Bruce J.Yasgur, Research Assistant. With that exception, theevaluation of the "Other Title I Projects" was con-ducted by the District Research Associates and re-ported by Stephen H. Davidoff.

ART SPECIALIST TEACHERS(PBRS #111-02-513)

The Art Specialist Teachers (AST) project provides instructorswho teach art and art appreciation in target-area elementary schools.

The Project

AST rationale focuses upon providing a variety of experiencesdesigned to enrich the environment of economically disadvantaged chil-dren. The project aims to give the children enjoyment and skill in artactivities as well as to provide contact between the professional artistand the child.

The objective of this project is to improve the pupil's abili-ties in the handling of art materials and to develop within each childan appreciation of art.

Sixty-four instructors serve 111 Title I schools. They areallocated to each district on the basis of percentage of underprivilegedchildren. Each instructor teaches tuo morning and two afternoon classesdaily for a total of 20 periods every week. Specific classes areassigned by the school principal within this schedule. Staff developmentsessions for the teachers are conducted on a district level by AST super-visors.

In past evaluations, children in this project were found tohave a better attitude toward art than other children, manifested by theirclaimed participation in various art activities and their satisfactionwith their art teachers.


A descriptive evaluation was used during the 1970-1971 schoolyear, assessing the current status of the project with respect to itsgoals.

Extensive project monitoring was conducted by the DistrictResearch Associates in Districts 1 through 7 between December and May,using the Title I Observational Checklist. Findings were summarized interms of frequency and percentage.

Results

Data obtained from use of the Title I Observational Checklistare summarized in Table 1. The lessons observed were characterized by

205

203

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF MONITORING DATA BASED ON 46 OBSERVATIONS

Percentage of Observations*

Condition Monitored by ObserverConditionPresent

ConditionLacking

Art supplies present for lesson. 72% 8%

Sample of technique on display. 70% 15%

Pupils using materials for lesson. 78% 4%

Pupils participating in discussion. 60% 15%

Classroom teacher present. 24% 76%

No. of visits to group per week by Art Specialist Teacher: I visit

No. of minutes per visit by Art Specialist Teacher: 50 minutes

*Where total is less than 100%, responses were omitted from theObservational Checklist by the observer.

the presence of appropriate supplies, art samples commonly on display,active pupil participation, and the absence of the regular teacher.

Conclusions

While the individual lessons observed were of high quality, thequantity of exposure was quite limited (e.g., one 50-minute period perweek). Although the vast majority (80%) of the classes were described asinterested, cooperative, and participating, what happens after the ArtSpecialist Teacher leaves? The potential for meaningful follow-up les-sons existed in only 24% of the classrooms. In the other 76%, the regularclassroom teacher left the class after the arrival of the AST. While itis the teacher's legal right to do this, it should be recognized thatthis action diminishes the possibility of meaningful follow-up lessons.

206

204

CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELFIVISION(PBRS #111-19-511)

The Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) pJ_ujuct involves studentsin the use of CCTV eqpipment and the production of CCTV programs for usein target-area schools.

The Project

The primary original objective of this project was to videotapeopen-circuit ITV so that its programs would be available to target-areaschools and thus would offer them f1-3xible viewing choices.

Currently, the major objective is to develop, produce, andbroadcast CCTV programs designed to meet specifically selected problemsof pupils in areas such as behavior and task proficiency.

Past evaluations of this project indicated that the equipmentwas primarily employed for ITV taping in grades K-8. Grades 9-12 usedthe equipment for pupil-directed activities. The difference by grade-level effect was shown to be directly related to the availability of ITVprograms most of the programs were geared to a K-6 audience).More recently, use of CCTV with disruptive senior high school studatswas found to produce group interest and ceoperation, and a decrae inpink-slips, suspensions, cuts/lateness, and absenteeism.


A descri7Dtive evaluation was used durimj the 1970-1971 schoolyear, to assess the current status of the project with respect to itsgoal. Extensive project monitoring was conducted 1)7 the DistrictResearch Associates in Districts 1 thl-:ough 7 between. December and May,using the Title I Observational Checklist. In addition, reports fromCCTV aides were examined and relevant descriptions were noted. Findingswere summarized in terms of frequency and percentage.

Results

Data obtained from use of the Title I Observational Checklistare summarized in Table 1. Most equipm',7..nc was found to be in workingorder but some of the antenna sl;stems are in poor condition. Failure torectify this conditio7, adversely affects a school's entire CCTV effort.

207

20,5

TABLE 1



Condition Monitored by Observer

Equipment in working order.

Classroom available as a studio.

Program being taped for later use.

Classroom teacher present.

Aide showing students how to useequipment.

No: of service calls per month:

No. of students using CCTV equipment:

ConditionPresent

ConditionLacking

70% 30%

65% 35%

41% 52%

29% 61%

35% 58%

200

*Where total is less than 100%, responses were omitted from theObservational Checklist by the Qbserver.

Complementary Data

The following information has been provided.by CCTV Sul)ervisorsas examples of the type of programs found in many schools. Although notnecessarily representative of the entire project, the descriptions doreveal that creative efforts are being attempted within target-areaschools to develop, produce/and broadcast CCTV programs designed to meetspecifically selected problems.

Elementary School. The neighborhood librarian visited theschool and was videotaped. The purpose of her visits was to stimulateinterest in using this facility. The tape was replayed at various timesso that the entire student body became more aware of both the school andthe neighborhood libraries.

One elementary school experimented successfully with a story-

participants via UCTV.

Junior High/Middle School. As an integral part of the EnglishDepartment curriculum, ten classes were assigned television script-writingexercises. When students completed their assignments, thev becameactively involved in the production of the various plays. This procedureprovided the opportunity for each student to participate in and to becomefamiliar with many areas of TV production.

Staff development benefited from the use of CCTV in demonstrat-ing to teachers, in one district, how to administer the CaliforniaAchievement Tests. Two District Research Associates produced the programwhich was then aired over a commerdial station. The tape was then madeavailable to all the schools in +,e district to instruct teachers priorto administration of the tests. Thus, an entire district was able toshare the expertise of the Research Associate despite the geographicallimitation posed by such an undertaking.

Senior High school. Vocational Education conducted a coursedesigned to give students a working knowledge of minor maintenance andrepairs for television hardware. The students also learned the operationof a complete television studio. While the course of study was techni-cally oriented, many academic areas were included in the curriculum,e.g., English composition, mathematics, and graphic arts. Several grad-uates cf this program have become employed as full-time televisionmaterials assistants in the School District.

College Guidance Services in a high school invited representa-tives to discuss opportunities made available to students who would ..-Lotnormally apply for college entrance. Sinificantly, among those invitedwere representatives of the United Negro College Fund. As a directresult of their counseling via television, young people were encouragedto take the college entrance examinations.

Conclusions

The data collected during the 1970-1971 school year indicatethat varied positive activities are being carried out in target-areaschools. The activities reported require both student and teacher par-ticipation.

There were some cpnstraints which hampered the implementationof this project. Monies have never been specifically allocated forservice to antenna systems. Without this service the CCTV operation isextremely handicapped. In addition, videotape-recorder failures haveseriously hampered many programs. Much of the problem stems from ex-tended use and age. Revised videotape-recorder specifications mayreduce the incidence of this problem.

209

207

It is anticipated that through the cooperation of CCTV person-nel, measures of pupil product will be attempted during the 1971-1972school year.

210

CREATIVE DRAMATICS(PBRS #111-02-548)

Creative Dramatics (CD) is a staff development project whichattempcc to provide experiences designed to enable participants tobecome wo:7e effective teachers.

The Project

TkRi.. importance of in-service programs for all educationalpersonnel is recognized throughout the teaching profession. Muchemphasis is being placed upon the need for programs to upgrade theeffectiveness of teachers. Thus the CD program came about.

CD teachers are responsible for attending workshops and othermeetings which assure a continued growth through discussion of problemsand presentation of new materials.

The main objective of this project is to afford children theopportunities of growing by overcoming language and social problems viateacher familiarization with the techniques of creative dramatics.During the current year 70 schools and 271 personnel were served.

Past evaluations indicate that as a staff development programCD has been achieving its objective.


A descriptive evaluation was used during the 1970-1971 schoolyear, to assess the current status of the project with respect to itsgoal. Reports from the project director were studied, and the CreativeDramatics Workshop Questionnaire (described in the 1969 evaluation ofthe project) was used to assess the perceptions of all available particpating teachers. Findings were summarized in terms of frequency andpercentage.

Results;

A summary of CD activities and participants is shown inTable 1. This display is not all-inclusive but is representative of thtype and extent of services rendered across the entire school system.

The key findings provided by the respondents to the CreativeDramatics Workshop Questionnaire are summarized in Table 2. Theresponses of the participants were very favorable. The questionnairecontained 29 items which could be answered either positively, neutrallyor negatively. Of the 1,508 responses (52 persons X 29 items), 1,268(84%) were positive, 161 (10%) were neutral, and 79 (6%) were negative.

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2119h

1

CD SERVICES GIVEN TO PHILADELPHIA SCHOOLS

Dis-trict

No. ofSchools

No. ofPersons

Type of PersonsServed

Exmples ofServices

1 7 7 EIP leaderTeachersLibrary aide

2-hour workshopContinuing staffworkshop

2 17 67,

EIP leaderReading teacherSupervisorsTeachers

12-week workshopsContinuing staffworkshop

Teenage CD workshopAfter-school program

3 15 40 Special Ed. staffVolunteer coordinatorsTeachersLibrary aides

Florida EducatorsFollow-Through Modelworkshop

12-week workshops

4 15 70 Parents of RT pupilsTeenagersTeachersBehavior Analysispersonnel

12-week workshopsAfter-school programs2-hour workshops

5 3 30 Bank Street personnelRE teacherClassroom aides

As above

6 9 43 Counseling servicesEDC personnel

As above

7 3 4 ILC personnel As above

8 1 10 Students 12-week workshop

Total 70 271

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TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF 52 PARTICIPANTS' RESPONSES TO THECREATIVE DRAMATICS WORKSHOP QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire Item* No. of Responses

1.

2.

3.

5.

6.

Workshop well organizedPositive gain from workshopDesire to use CD in classroomCompleted independent readingDevelopment of original materials

Yes No

5051523137

2

1

0

2115

Agree Disagree Undecided

9. CD should be available to more teachers 51 0 I10. CD should have citywide workshops 50 0 2

11. CD should be part of elem. curriculum 50 1 112. CD gave me many new ideas 43 2 7

13. My pupils are more eager to learn 37 2 1314. CD is excellent for pupils with

learning disabilities. 49 1 9

15. I gained much. . . 49 1 2

16. I learned new techniques (basic skills) 48 2 2

17. I have better rapport with my pupils 31 3 1818. I feel freer and more creative 40 4 819. I have better insight into content 37 7 820. I gained sense of each child's worth 38 3 1121. CD adds zest to my classroom 50 1 122. I'm more sensitive to people 42 2 823. CD opened lines of communication 46 . 2 424. I feel more creative 41 2 q

25. I feel more relaxed 39 1 1226. I'm more aware/imaginative 43 1 827. I encourage pupils to listen, think,

and verbalize 48 1 328. CD helps independent thinking 44 1 7

29. CD gives self-confidence to children 48 0 430. CD gives meaning to content 48 0 431. CD causes greater pupil involvement 42 1 932. Desire to participate in future meetings 33 2 17

*See text for special comment on Items 4, 7, and 8. The responses tothose items were different in format (i.e., multiple choice) from thosedisplayed here.

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Analysis of responses to Workshop Questionnaire Items 4(Perception of value of CD), 7 (Receptivity of pupils), and 8 (Presentation c.,f ideas to your faculty) revealed that 17 of tlie participants hadpresented CD techniques at faculty meetings or in other classes, 21tended to consider CD a part of the curriculum, and all 52 reported thaCD techniques were accepted by their pupils.

Complementary Data

A meeting was held at the end of the school year between the"ongoing CD staff" and the project evaluator. The following recammendations for 1971-1972 were generated via this interaction:

1. Invited speakers should conduct staff development workshatype activities showing how their innovative programs relate to CD.

2. As many staff meetings as possible should bo geared tosharing of activities and ideas of the CD participants. (This was feltto be the most urgent need for the Creative Drmatics 1971-1972 staff.)

3. The guide should be explored during staff neetings and usas a framework for personal growth.

4. A certain amount of time per meeting should be devoted toexploring areas of the CD sequence. Example: sense memory--what newideas can be added to those already in the handbook.)

S. There are definite areas in CD that need to be developed.(Examples: story dramatization', children's literature, music.)

6. More ideas are needed about how CD is directly related tothe curriculum (reading, social studies, science, etc.).

7. More concentration on "one school" participation is neede.

8. Research and the CD staff should work together to tailorsome devices to see reactions, etc., in given situations.

Conclusions

The current project provides a variety of in-service activiti.across the entire school system. The participants tend to be very favonable toward its ideas, techniques, activities, and materials. There issome evidence that participants tend to disseminate their newly learnedCD techniques to their faculties.

This year's evaluation confirms earlier findings which indi-cated that, as a staff development program, CD has been achieving itsobjectives.

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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CENTERS(PERS #111-02-503)

Instructional Materials Centers (IMC's) , as repositories ofinformation, are resource facilities containing books and audiovisualinstructional materials. The rich diversity of print and nonprintmaterials in IMC's makes them more than just tradi.cional libraries.

The Pro ect

Th, IMC might be effectively used as an extension of theclassroom insfructional units. Pupils could be brought into direct r.;ortact with important ideas and experiel.ces in such a manner that learnirbecomes a self-initiated process of seeking further knowledge throughmultimedia presentations and individualized instruction. The projectserves gradas K-12.

The chief objectives of this project are to provide libraryservices to teachers and pupils, to instkuct children in basic libraryskills, to maintain books, hardware, and software for the instructionalneeds of the school, and to provide teachers with needed instructionalmaterials.

Past evaluations indicated that IMC's were linderstaffed andexperiencing difficulty in providing services to teachers and pupils.As an overall observation, the development or utilization of IMC's hasbeen limited to updating and maintenance functions.


A descriptive evaluation was used during the 1970-1671 schoolyear, assessing the current status of the proiect with respect to itsgoals.

Extensive project nonitoring was conducted by the DistrictResearch Associates in Districts 1 through 7 between December and May,using the Title I Observational Checklist. Findings were summarized irterms of frequency and percentage.

Results

Data obtained from use of the Title 1 Observational Checklistare summarized in Table 1.

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TABLE 1


Condition Monitored by OLserver


Condition ConditionPresent Lacking

IMC has study area without distractionfrom browsers.

IMC has adequate storage spaCe.

DAC lacks materials for specificreading levels.

IMC lacks printed materials for amajor curriculum area.

60% 38%

50% 48%

30% 62%

26% 64%

Full-time librarian present.** 44% 52%

Library staff helping the teacher. 30% 60%

Parental/community volunteer present. 14% 80%


**In 62% of the observations, a library aide was available.

Conclusions

The findings for the current school year mirror the evaluation!done in 1968-1969 and 1969-1970. Shortage of professional staff (e.g.,only 44% of the IMC's observed had full-time librarians) has fostered areduction of services (e.g., library staff observed helping faculty only30% of the time).

Although suggested Ul the 1968 Annual Evaluation, the use ofparental/community volunteers has not yet become a widespread techniquefor expanding IMC services. If parental/community volunteers could betrained in the updating and maintenance functions, the professionallibrarians .tight have time to provide more extensive professional serviccto pupils and teachers.

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MUSIC SPFCIALIST TEACHERS(PERS #111-02-514)

The Music Specialist Teachers (MST) project providez ins:tors who teach music and music appreciation in public and nonpublictarget-area elementary schools.

The Project

MST provides specialized music instruction in disadvantacareas to bring enjoyment, develop skills in music activities, and ]vide interaction with professional.musicians.

The major purpose of this project is to afford childrenopportunity of acquiring proficiency and confidence in some music-]activities and to allow for regularly scheduled musical activities

Each Music Specialist Teacher is assigned to work with s:classes by the school principal, and instructs two morning and twonoon classes daily for a total of 20 periods per veek. Staff deve_is conducted at district levels by the Music Specialist Supervisor.

Past evaluations Indicated that children with MST scoredslightly but not significantly higher than children without the MS'the Colwell Music Achievement Test. Vocal performances of MST pupwere rated higher than those of comparison groups. The EquipmentSurvey revealed that 84% of the instruments listed were available .

were frequently used.


A descriptive evaluation was used during the 1S70-1971 syear, assessing the current status of the project with respect togoals.

Extensive project monitoring was conducted by the DistriResearch Associates in Dil,tricts 1 through 7 between December and :using the Title I Observational Checklist. Findings were summarizterms of frequency and percentage.

Results

Data obtained from use of the Title I Observational ChecEtre summarized in Table 1. The pupil activity most frequently obswas singing, noted in 61% of the observations. Instruction about :cians (55%) and listening to music (53%) were also noted in a majo

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215,

of the observations. The least frequently observed activity was instru-mental instruction.

TABLE 1


Condition Monitored by Observer


Condition ConditionPresent Lacking

Students using musical instruments 41% 35%Student:, singing 61% 14%Students listening to music 53% 23%Students instructed about musicians f7,5% 20%Classroom teacher present 2iist 80%

No. of visits to group per week by Music Specialist Teacher: 1 visit

No. Of minutecs per visit by Music Specialist Teacher: 50 minutes


Conclusions

While the individual lessons observed were of high quality, thequantity of exposure was quite limited (e.g., one 50-minute period perweek). Although the vast majority (75%) of the classes were described asinterested, cooperative, and participating, what happens after the MusicSpecialist Teacher leaves? The potential for meaningful follow-up les-sons existed in only 20% of the classrooms. In the remaining 80%, theregular teacher left the class after the arrival of the Mu.3ic SpecialistTeacher. While it is the teacher's legal right to do this, it should berecognized that this action diminishes the possibility of meaningfulfollow-up lessons.

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21

SPECIAL MATHFMATICS PROJECT(PBRS #111-02-797)

The Special Mathematics Project (SMP) provides college instrutors with comprehensive mathematics background to teach fourth-, fifth-and sixth-grade elementary suhool children various mathematics conceptsfor 40 minutes a day, four days a week, for the entire school year.

The Project

The depressing effects of cultural deprivation on schoolachievement in mathematics has been documented in several investigatiorThe ability to count, to recognize symbols, and to demonstrate under-standing o7 the concept of ordinal numbers was significantly less amoncthe culturally deprived than among middle-class first-grade children(Dunkley, 1965). Furthernore, the evidence indicates that where nospecific interventici) bakes place, the target-area children tend todeviate negatively from national reference groups by increasingly largEamounts during the period of nonintervention (Unkel, 1965).

SMP is designed to counteract or reverse the trend towarddrastic underachievement in arithmetic frequently found in Titleschools. The project's key objectives are the following:

Objective 1. To iprove understanding and basic computa-tional skills in arithmetic.

Objective 2. To develop a positive self-image with respectto the pupil's ability to learn mathematics.


A formative evaluation was conducted during the 1970-1971school year. With emphasis on long-range planning, procedures wereestablished for obtaining longitudinal assessment of,pupi::. per-formance. At the request of the project administrators, assessmentof student performance in mathematics was eferred during the initialevaluation. It is anticipated that pupil gtiin will be measured insubsequent school years in a longitudinal (i.e., repeated measures)design. The Arithmetic sUbtests of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skillswill be used to evaluate the cognitive obje;ctive of this projectdurina the summative stages.

A modificatior of the "Faces" Attitude Inventory was selecteto evaluate the affective objective. In order to establish its

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217

reliability, 60 pupils were retested with the same instrument 90 daysafter the initial administration. A test-retest correlation coefficientwas computed and compared with a desired minimum of .70.

Results

The test-retest correlation coefficient for the "Faces" in-ventory was found to be .57. This was considerably below the desiredreliability coefficient of .70. The mean score on the inventory droppedfrom 12.11 t() 11.88 over the three-month period. The slight change isbetter intepreted as resulting from the inadequate reliabilitl (e.g.,possible ir3ensitivity) of the instrument than from any characteristicof the project itself. Because of,the lack of acceptable reliability,no test of the inventory's validity was attempted this year.

Conclusions

The neecl for a valid and reliable affective measuring deviceis crucial for the evaluation of this project. Once a suitable affectiveinstrument is developed Cr>.70), scores on it may be examined in relationto scores on cognitive instruments, in order to explore the relatior-ships of positive self-image and arithmetic achievement. scores on theITBS Arithmetic subtests should be used in the project's 1971-1972evaluation.

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c1.t

WALNUT CENTER(P8RS #111-01-517)

Walnut Center (WC) is a racially and socioeconomically inte-grated early childhood center which serves 173 children in a publicschool educational program and 56 in a day care program.

The Project

WC brings together children from a variety of socioeconomicand ethnic backgrounds to participate in shared learning experiences.This practice is consistent with a number of recent studies whichreport that, when pupils from varied social, ethnic, and educationalbackgrounds are placed together In a common learning situation, achievement rates of pupils from more deprived backgrounds tend to increase,while those of more privileged children continue to increase as expect-ed. Not only is academic achievement higher for deprived childrenplaced in an integrated setting early in their academic careers, but attitudes of all children toward other ethnic groups tend to be morepositive the earlier they begin school in such an environment (Coleman,1966; Henderson, 1969; Pettigrew, 1968; St. John, 1969, 1970).

Established in 1967, WC provides a prekindergarten throughfirst-grade program which emphasizes both cognitive and affectiveelements of learning. Project objectives include the following:

Objective 1. To improve general intellectual functioning.

Objective 2. To improve academic functioning, particularly ilanguacle and arithmetic skills.

Objective 3. To improve pupils' self-images.

Objective 4. To foster interaction among pupils from differEbackgrounds.

Objective 5. To foster positive attitudes toward school.

Objective 6. To ease problems of transition from kindergartEto first grade, and from WC to other schools.

Objective 7. To increase parent and community involvement irthe school's program.

In the summer of 1970, WC moved from 39th and Walnut Streets,on the campus of the University of Pennsylvania, to 38th Street andLancaster Avenue, in a highly integrated area between the universitydistrict and Mantua, a predominantly black ghetto area. Nevertheless,

221

the Center seeks to continue to attract a racially and socioeconomicallyintegrated "clientele." Enrollment is voluntary, and families of allpupil applicants are interviewed by social workers, whose recommendationsfor acceptance are made in a way that will insure a reasonable balanceamong various racial and socioeconomic groups. The pupil population ofthe Center as of April 1, 1971, is described in Table 1.

TABLE 1

WC ENROLLMENT CLASSIFIED BY RACIAL AND SES GROUPS 1

SES Group2Racial Group

Black White Other Total

Upper 9 26 9 44

Middle 30 31 12 73

Lower 83 19 10 112

Total 122 76 31 229

1Enrollment on April 1, 1971, consisted of 173 children in thepublic school program and 56 in the day care program.

2Classification was done by the WC social workers. In th evalua-tion, upper- and middle-SES groups were combined into a single "higher-SES" group.

Methods of instruction at WC vary with the teacher, fromgenerally structured to generally unstructured classrooms. Neverthe-less, all pupils receive individual and small-group instruction.Possibilities for variation in teaching methods are enhanced by thelarge adult-to-pupil ratio at the Center. Because of, an actively in-volved community, parents and other community volunteers are often foundin the classroom, observing or working with the class. A teadher aideor assistant teacher, often supplemented by a student teadher, isassigned to each classroom. Particularly in the first-grade classes,the teacher is free to work with individual pupils or to present a lessonto the entire class, while one or more of the other adults either super-vises the class or works with individual children needing additionalhelp.

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220

As achievement levels for each student are ascertained, anincreased emphasis is placed on small-group instruction. As theautonomy of these groups increases, adults tend to serve them moreand more as supervisors and consultants. In this manner, pupils areprovided with the opportunity not only to work independently, but toengage in a variety of face-to-face relationships with peers fromdiverse backgrounds.

Previous evaluations have indicated that WC's goals haveconsistently been achieved in both cognitive and noncognitive spheres.In 1968-1969, WC pupils were found to be on a par with, or ahead of,nonparticipant peers in development of cognitive skills as measuredby the Preschool Inventory, the Associative Vocabulary Test and theNumerical Concept Formation Test. In 1969-1970, WC was found to haveinvolved many segments of the community in its program, particularlyparents, who have all along played a major role in the project. Al-though a certain amount of intergroup bias continued to exist amongCenter pupils, a high degree of interaction was observed among pupilsfrom different backgrounds. A follow-up of children who had attendedWC showed that they had, in most cases, made a better-than-averageadjustment to second-grade classes in their new schools.


This year's evaluation has been in part an extension of pre-vious WC evaluations, and in part an attempt to seek previously un-sought information. Academic achievement has been monitored on acontinuing basis. Since no direct measure of pupil attitudes had pre-viously been obtained, such a measure was included in the presentevaluation. In addition to'clata gained through direct measurement,information on the Center's operation was obtained through regularmonitoring of WC classes.

This year's evaluation has sought answers to the followingquescions related to the project's objectives:

1. How do the academic readiness skills of WC kindergartenpupils compare with those of all kindergarten pupils in Philadelphiapublic schools?

2. How do the readiness skills of lower-SES kindergartenpupils at WC compare with those of higher-SES kindergarten pupils atWC?

3. How well do WC first-grade pupils perform in reading andarithmetic?

4. How does the performance of lower-SES first-grade pupilsat WC compare with that of higher-SES first-grade pupils at WC in read-

223

ing and arithmetic?

5. Do WC first-grade pupils display a generally positiveattitude toward school?

6. Do lower-SES first-grade pupils at WC differ from higher-SES first-grade pupils at WC in attitude toward school?

Question 1. How do the academic readiness skills of WC kindergartenuils com are with those of all kinder arten uils in Philadel hiaEublic schools?

A mean score of 20.0, based on a maximum possible score of27.0, on the Philadelphia Readiness Test (PRT) was established as theachievement goal for WC kindergarten classes. This target score wasderived from the citywide mean (20.1) and the District 1 (the districtin which WC is located) mean (19.6) as of the latest citywide adminis-tration of the PRT, in May, 1969.

In the current year, the PRT was administered in May to al]7% WC kindergarten pupils (48 in half-day public school, 25 in daycare) by their teachers, in groups of four or five at a time.

Sumilv,ry data were organized in tabular form.

Question 2. Haw do the readiness skills of lawer-SES kindergarten pupilsat WC com are with those of hi ler-SES kinder arten usils at WC?

The design, instrumentation, and subjects were the same as forQuestion 1. A Kruskal-Wallis two-by-three (2 SES groups X 3 kindergartenclasses) analysis of variance was performed on the data to determinewhether differences between PRT scores of lower- and higher-SES pupilswere statistically significant. The "higher-SES" group was defined asencompassing those pupils classified as middle- and upper-SES.

Question 3. How well do WC first-grade pupils perform in reading andarithmetic?

Continuous Progress Primary (CPP) adhievement levels in read-ing and arithmetic were reported by teachers and charted for all WCfirst-grade pupils in November and again in April. The minimum achieve-ment level expected by project personnel for first graders by April ofeach school year is Level 2 in both reading and arithmetic. A minimumachievement criterion of Level 2 in both subject areas was thereforeestablished for WC pupils. The tasks which a child must successfullyperform to achieve Level 2 are as follows:

Reading. Read pre-primers and charts; learn a specified listof words by sight; read aloud and silently; understand and remember what

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is read; learn simple study skills, such as following directions.

Arithmetic. Read, write, and count numerals from 1 to 50;add and subtract numbers with sums through 5, using vertical andhorizontal forms; recognize coins; solve number problems orally; rec-ognize plane geometric figures such as circle, square, and triangle;

tell time to the hour.

Data charting CPI' achievement levels were summarized

graphically.

Question 4. How does the performance of lower-SES first-grade pupils

at WC compare with that of higher7SES first-grade pupils at WC in read-

ing and arithmetic?

The design, instrumentation, ani subjects were the same asfor Question 3. Because of the disparity in numbers between the twoSES groups, no formal statistical analysis was applied to the data.

Question 5. Do WC first-grade pupils display a generally positive

attitude toward school?

The Children's Attitudinal Range Indicator (CARI) was adminis-

tered in March, by the project evaluator, to all WC first-grade pupils,

in groups of six at a time. The instrument consists of four subscalesof eight projective items each, which measure attitudes toward school,

peers, home, and society. (A copy of CARI is on file in the ResearchLibrary of the Board of Education.)

Mean scores of WC pupils were computed for the full scale

and each subscale. CARI scores were obtained from a comparison group of20 first graders participating in a special reading program in anotherdistrict, and mean scores were computed for this group. Since the com-parison group was composed exclusively of lower-SES pupils, a multivari-

ate analysis of variance was applied to the data to determine whatdifferences in attitude, if any, existed among (a) higher-SES WC pupils,

(b) lower-SES WC pupils, and (c) the lower-SES comparison pupils."Higher-SES" was defined to include middle- and upper-SES.

question 6. Do lower-SES first-grade pupils at WC differ from higher-

SES first-grade pupils at WC in attitude toward school?

The design and instrumentation were the same as for Question 5.

However, a multivariate analysis of variance was performed on the full

scale score, as well as that of each subscale, for only the two SES

groups from WC.

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kindergarten pupils compare with those of all kindergarten pupils inPhiladelphia public schools?

Performance of kindergarten groups on the PRT is shown inTable 2. The 1971 mean score of WC kindergarten pupils was above the

TABLE 2

KINDERGARTEN PERFORMANCE ON PHILADELPHIA READINESS TEST

Group MeanScore

Percentage ofPupils Scoringat or above 20

WC Kindergartens (1971) 73 21.9 I 78.1%

Lower-SES Pupils 42 20.8 71.4%Higher -SES Pupils 1 31 23.4 90.;,3%

District 1 Kindergartens (1969) 19.6

City Kindergartens (1969)2 - 20.1 62.2%

1Middle- and upper-SES groups combined.

2Source: Division of Testing, May 1969.

established criterion of 20.0, and above the 1969 mean scores of bothDistrict 1 and the city. The percentage of WC pupils scoring at orabove the criterion in 1971 exceeded the corresponding percentage forthe city as a whole in 1969 .by 15.9 percentage points.

Data relevant to Question 2. How do the readiness skills of lower-SESkinder arten uils at WC com are with those of hi her-SES kinder artenpupils at WC?

The reader is again referred to Table 2, which indicates thatthe higher-SES group's mean score on the PRT exceeded that of the lower-SES group by 2.6 points. The percentage of higher-SES pupils scoringat or above the criterion exceeded the corresponding percentage of lower-SES pupils by 18.9 percentage points. Despite the difference between

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the two SES groups of WC kindergarten pupils, both groups scored higher

than their counterparts in District 1 and the city.

The Kruskal-Wallis two-by-three analysis of variance indicatedthat the difference between the mean scores of the two SES groups wasstatistically significant at the .05 level of probability. It is,

then, at least 95% certain that ;74. real difference in attainment ofreadiness skills existed between the loer-SES pupils and the higher-

SES pupils, with the latter group attaining higher scores.

The SES-group difference was apparent also in each of the

three WC kindergarten classes, although not to a statistically signif-

icant degree (See Figure 1) . The difference was most pronounced in the

half-day classes.

25-244.

23-22-21-20-19-18-17-164-

El 15-144.

13-0 12-

M 110 10-M

H.H.

H.

9-8

7-

4-

3-

D.

H mean,all classes = 23.4

L mean.all classes = 20.8

H = Higher-SES Pupils

L = Lower-SES Pupils

K-2 K-3

No. of H Pupils 11 a 12

No. of L Pupils 15 14 13

CI.AASS

Fig. 1. Mean PRT scores of lower- and higher-SES pupils in the

three WC kindergarten classes.

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225:

When the mean scores of the three classes were compared with-out regard to SES, no statistically significant difference was found.

The fact that the mean score of one lower-SES group wasslightly higher than that of one higher-SES group signals an inter-action effect between SES and kindergarten class. In other words,attainment of readiness skills by WC pupils seems to be relatedto a combination of factors: the class in which they are enrolledand their socioeconomic background.

Data relevant to Question 3. How well do WC first-grade pupils performin reading and arithmetic?

In reading, the median CPP level for all WC first-grade pupilsas of April, was Level 4. This was two levels above the minimum expect-ed achievement level. All attained at least Level 2; 44 of the 48achieved a higher level (See Figure 2).

2423

22

21

20

19

181716151413

0 1211

4.1

10

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CPP LEVEL

Fig. 2. Number of WC first-grade pupils (1q=48) at each ContinuousProgress Primary level of reading achievement, April 1971. Level 2 wasset as the minimum expected achievement level.

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23

22

21

20

19

1C

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

2

1

0

1 2 3 4 5

CPP LEVEL

Fig. 3. Number of WC first-grade pupils (N=48) at each Continuo,IsProgress Primary level of arithmetic achievement, April 1971. Level2 was set as the minimum expected achievement level.

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Data relevant to Question 4. How does the_performance of lower-SESfirst-grade pupils at WC compare with that of higher-SES first-gradepupils at WC in reading and arithmetic?

Reading. In April the median CPP level for both lower-and higher-SES WC pupils was Level 4. Fourteen (93%) of the 15 lower-SES pupils and 30 (91%) of the 33 highar-SES pupils achieved abovethe expected Level 2. Twenty-six (79%) of the higher-SES pupilsattained Level 4 or dbove, while 11 (73%) of the lower-SES pupilsachieved at or above this level. The chief difference between thetwo groups in reading achievement was in their upper limits of achieve-ment: 13 (39%) of the higher-SES pupils attained CPP Levels 5 and 6,while one (7%) of the loweI.SES pupils attained Level 5 and none attain-ed a higher level.

Arithmetic. In April-the modal CPP level of lower-SES WCpupils was Level 3, while that of the higher-SES pupils was Level 4.However, the median for both SES groups was Level 3, one level abovethe criterion. Twenty-seven (82%) of the higher-SES pupils performedabove Level 2, as did 11 (73%) of the lower-SES pupils. Of the 33higher-SES pupils, 14 (42%) attained Level 4 (the upper limit of achieve-ment for 1971 WC first-grade pupils), while two (13%) of the 15 lower-SES pupils attaineu this level of adhievement.

Data relevant to Question 5. Do WC first-grade pupils display a generallypositive attitude toward school?

Results of administering the "Attitude toward School" subscaleof CARI are summarized in Table 3. The mean score for WC first-gradepupils on this subscale was 2.48, approximately midway between a "neutral"attitude score (2.0) and a "happy" attitude score (3.0). WC pupilsscored slightly higher in attitude toward school than the comparison groupof non-WC pupils, although the difference was not demonstrated to bestatistically significant.

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TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF RESULTS ON ATTITUDE-TOWARD-SCHOOL SUBSCAIE OF CARI

Group Mean Score Difference

WC First-Grade Total

Higher-SES PupilsLower-SES Pupils

WC Higher-SES minus Lower-SES*

Comparison Group

WC First-Grade Totalminus Comparison Group*

2.48

2.502.46

2.28

+0.04

+0.20

*No statistically significant differences were found.

Data relevant to Question 6. Do lower-SES first-grade pupils at WCdiffer from higher-SES first-grade pupils at WC in attitude towardschool?

The reader is again referred to Table 3, which indicates thatno significant difference was found between the attitudes toward schoolof lower- and higher-SES WC first-grade pupils as measured by CARI.

Complementary Data

Thirty-eight monitoring visits were made to WC between October1970 and May 1971: 18 to kindergarten classes, 20 to first-gradeclasses. The average length of an observation was 20 minutes.

In first-grade classes, teachers placed a heavy emphasis onreading and arithmetic skills. Pupils were generally subgroupedaccording to activity and achievement level. Basic skill-buildingactivities (working on puzzles, drawing, listening and responding, etc.)were used widely in kindergarten classes.

On all visits, teachers were observed talking to individualpupils as well as to larger groups. Teachers, as well as the otheradults present in the classroom, were generally observed to move aroundthe room, rather than to maintain a stationary position. On 16 occa-sions, a parent or othex community volunteer was observed in the class-

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room; on 11 of these occasions, she (or he) was observed interacting withpupils. On every visit, at least one other adult was observed in theclassroom: a teacher aide, an assistant teacher, or a student teacher.

On 97% of the visits, teachers were observed to encourageactive participation by the class.

On 87% of the visits children from different racial and/or eth-nic backgrounds were observed interacting. Nevertheless, children weremore often observed associating with members of their awn race.

The average daily attendance at WC for the 1970-1971 schoolyear was 88% of enrollment. This figure was the same as for allDistrict 1 elementary schools (excluding special remedial centers) forthe year.

Conclusions

Question 1. How do the academic readiness skills of WC kindergartenu'ls com are with those of all kinder arten uils in Philadel hiapublic schools?

Academic readiness skills of WC kindergarten pupils comparefavorably with those of all kindergarten pupils in Philadelphia pUblicschools. In May 1971, WC kindergarten pupils achieved a PRT mean scoreof 21.9-1.6 points higher than the 1969 citywide mean, and 2.3 pointshigher than the 1969 District 1 mean.

Question 2. How do the readiness skills of lower-SES kindergartenu ils at WC com are with those of hi her-SES kinder arten uils atWC?

WC kindergarten pupils of higher SES scored.an average of2.6 points higher on the PRT than did WC kindergarten pupils of lowerSES. This difference was found to be statistically significant. How-ever, scores of many lawer-SES pupils overlapped those of many higher-SES pupils. Not only was this the case within each class, but themean score for the lower-SES pupils in one class was almost identicalto that of the higher-SES pupils in another class.

Question 3. How well do WC first- rade u ils erform in readiarithmetic?

By April all WC first-grade pupil; had attained at least Level 2on Continuous Progress Primary ratings (the criterion achievement levelestablished at the beginning of the school year) in both reading andarithmetic.

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In reacing, 92% of the pupils were above Level 2. The medianCPP reading level was L-wel 4.

In arithmetic, 79% of the WC first-grade pupils were ratedabove the criterion Level 2. The median CPP arithmetic level wasLevel 3.

puestion 4. How does the performance of lower-SES first-grade pupilsat WC compare with that of higher-SES first-grade pupils at WC inreading and arithmetic?

.5

Both SES groups of WC first-grade pupils performed above theCPP Level 2 criterion in reading and arithmetic. However, in bothskills the tendency has been for higher-SES pupils to achieve at higherlevels than lower-SES pupils.

Question 5. Do WC first-grade pupils display a generally positiveattitude toward school?

Yes, WC first-grade pupils have displayed a generallypositive attitude tuaard school. On the subscale of CARI measuringattitudes toward school, WC pupils scored slightly higher than acomparison group of non-WC first graders, although the difference wasnot statistically significant.

Question 6. Do lower-SES first-grade pupils at WC differ from higher-SES first-grade pupils at WC in attitude toward school?

No statistically significant difference in attitude towardschool was found between lower- and higher-SES pupils, as measured byCARI.

Evaluator's Comment

It is evident that the WC program has succeeded in preparingpupils to meet the academic requirements which will be placed upon themin subsequent years. Many WC first-grade pupils are already reading ona second-grade level. Although higher-SES WC pup.as, as a group, con-sistently perform on a level higher than that of their lower-SES class-mates, the tendency for both groups is to achieve at levels Above thoseexpected of children in the same age/grade group.

Attitudes of WC pupils toward school, and toward life in

general, are quite positive. This is true regardless of their respec-tive socioeconomic backgrounds.

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One could hypothesize that the positive results of theWC program may be attributed, in large part, to four major ingredients:(a) the large adult-to-pupil ratio in every WC classroom; (b) theactive interest in WC's program taken by parents and other communitymembers; (c) the intentional racial and socioeconomic balance maintainedby the Center; and (d) the independence-fostering methods employed byWC teachers.

A longitudinal study is proposed for future evaluations, inwhich the academic achievements and at-Fitudes of WC "alumni" will befollowed. It is anticipated that, given an academic environment whichcontinues to foster independence, WC alumni will continue to performat high levels throughout their school careers.

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YOUTH SERVING YOUTH(PBRS #111-02-782)

Youth Serving Youth (YSY) is a tutorial project in which under-achieving teenage students tutor underachieving elementary school chil-dren.

The Project

A great deal has been written regarding the beneficial impactof tutorial programs. A review of the literature indicates that tutor-ing programs have not consistently produced positive changes in pupilacademic performance that were commensuzate with the programs' expecta-tions.

Cloward (1967) examined the impact of tutoring on both thetutee and the tutor. Tutoring by community people who had receivedpreliminary training was found to be as effective in raising studentachievement scores as tutoring by specialists. In addition, utilizingcommunity residents as tutors was seen to have the advantage of puttingmoney into the community and increasing community involvement in theschools.

The objective of the YsY project is to provide tutorial ser-vices to elementary pupils in order to improve performance in basicskills. In addition, it is anticipated that the junior high schooltutors also will benefit in terms of improved performance in schoolsubjects.

Since this was the first year of funding, no past evaluationresults were available.


A descriptive evaluation was used during the 1970-1971 schoolyear. Information obtained from the project's Summary Report was notedand summarized in terms of frequency.

Results

Data obtained from the YsY Summary Report are summarized inTable 1. Tutors improvement was measured by report-card grades.Tutees' improvement was measured by grades indicated on the SummaryReport. The ratio of tutors to tutees was 1:1.4.

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TABLE 1

PARTICIPATION AND IMPROVEMENT FROM DECEMBER UNTIL MAYAT EIGHT YSY CENTERS

Group

Tutors

Number Participating Number Improving in

64

English Citizenship

39 37

Tutees 90

Reading Work Habits

57 53

Conclusions

Progress was made by both tutors and tutees who participatedin YSY on a regular basis. The program provided opportunities for elemen-tary school children to improve their basic skills and work habits, and,at the same time, helped many tutors to improve their own scholasticachievement. In addition, the program provided dignified and constructivepart-time employment for 88 teen-age students.

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REFERENCES

Cloward, R. D. Studies in Tutoring. Journal of Experimental Education,1967, 36, 14-25.

Coleman, J. S. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, D. C.:United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, -

1966.-

Dunkley, M. E. Some Number Concepts of Disadvantaged Children.Arithmetic Teacher, 1965, 12, 359-361.

Henderson, R. W. Positive Effects of a Bicultural Preschool Program onthe Intellectual Performance of Mexican-American Children.Paper presented at meeting of American Educational ResearchAssociation, Los Angeles, February 1969.

Pettigrew, T. The Case for School Integration. Address presented atecial Training Institute on Problems of School Desegregation,

Columbia University, July 1968.

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Digest of ESEA, Title I Projects for Title I Allocation Meet-ings. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia, 1971.(A digest of evaluations prior to 1970-1971)

School District of Philadelphia, Office of Research and Evaluation.Interim Reports, 1971, Department of Instructional SystemsResearch. Philadelphia: The School District of Philadelphia,February 1971_

St. John, N. H. Minority Group Per.c._;rmance and Economic Integration:A Review of Research. ERIC Clearinghouse for Urban Disadvan-taged, 1969.

St. John, N. H. Desegregation and Minority Group Performance. Reviewof Educational Research, 1970, 40, 111-133.

Unkel, E. A Study of the Interaction of Socioeconomic Groups and SexFactors with the Discrepancy between Anticipated Achievementand Actual Achievement in Elementary S.:hool Mathematics.Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, 1965.

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