document resume ed 369 412 ir 054 992 institution · 2020. 5. 4. · andrea bosch, editor. valerie...

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DOCUMENT RESUME

IR 054 992

Bosch, Andrea. Ed.Development Communication Report, 1993.Agency for International Deveopment (IDCA),Washington, DC. Bureau for Research andDevelopment.ISSN-0192-13129369p.; Only 3 issues were published in 1993. For the1992 issues, .see ED 354 858.

Clearinghouse on Development Communication, 1815North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22209($10 per year for readers in the industrializedworld; others free).Collected Works Serials (022)Development Communication Report; n80-82 1993

MFOI/PC03 Plus Postage.*Agriculture; *Developing Nations;.*DevelopmentCommunication; Distance Education; EducationalChange; Educational Innovation; *EducationalTechnology; Foreign Countries; InformationTechnology; *Interaction; Rural Environment

IDENTIFIERS *Agency for International Development

ABSTRACTThe three 1993 issues of the newsletter "Development

Communication Report" fucus on the use of communication technologiesin developing countries to. educate the people about various socialissues as well as the field of development communication itself.Agricultural communication is the theme of the first issue whichcontains the following articles: "Development Support Communicationand Agriculture: The Road Ahead" (Silvia Balit); "MobilizingVillagers to Action: Communication for Agricultural Micro-Enterprisesin Pakistan" (Frank Byrnes); "Women, Seed, Technology and Change:Communicating with Farmers in Senegal and the Gambia" (Tom Osborn);"Interactive Communication Strategies: Playing Games with Labor"(July Leesberg and Emperatriz Valencia); "Special Farmer Field Daysin Kenya" (Anderson G. Mwaloma); "Sudan Rural Television (RTV):Communicating with Rural People" (M. O. Elsiddig); "Centers ofExcellence: Building Agricultural Communication in India" (Royal D.Colic); and "Being a Good Communicator Doesn't Solve All ofExtension's Problems" (Willem Zijp). The theme of the second issue isinteractivity and learning technologies and contains the followingarticles: "People Based Interactive Instruction: A Workshop byThiagi" (Sivasailam Thiagarajan); "Cutting Edge MultimediaTechnologies: Promise and Pitfalls" (Janice Brodman); "RethinkingInteractivity: Lessons from Interactive Radio Instruction" (JeanneMoulton); "Breaking the Ice: The Karate Kids Mixed Media Package"(Christopher Lowry); "Script Writing for Interactive RadioInstruction" (Esta de Fossard); "Interactivity and Soft Technologies:Peer Group Learning Systems" (Aida Pasigna); "Forum Theater inBurkina Faso: Paving the Way for Dialogue, Interactivity and Change"(Joy Morrison); and "Adult Literacy Is Important...But How Can We UseMore Interactive Methods?"'(Jose Carleton Corrales). Finally,multi-channel learning is the focus of the final issue which containsthe following articles: "Expanding the Vision of Basic Educationthrough Multi-Channel Loarning" (Stephen Anzalone); "Multi-ChannelSolutions: The Prospects of Open Secondary Education" (Paud Murphy);"Multi-Channel Learning in Focus: Project No-Drops and a LearningSystem for All" (Minda C. Sutaria); "Kenya's Rural Press Project:Bringing the Local Reality into Focus" (Usman Jimada); "Multi-ChannelLearning in Practice: Case Studies from India, Costa Rica, South

Africa and Bolivia" (Andrea Bosch); "Internetworking: UnderstandingE-Mail" (Mark Prado); and "Satellite TV Broadcasting: Looking to the

Future of Educational Technologies" (Charles Morrow). (JLB)

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OUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

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To Our Readers:In response to the many re-quests of our readers, this

issue of the DCR focuses on the changing fieldof agricultural communication. Many articleswere submitted by readers and describe theirexperiences with development communcationand how it has benefited their projects Otherarticles talk about the need for new ideas andinnovative organization

This issue also contains the biannual readerssurvey so that you, our readers, can continue to

11 11 1 I " I

offer your insights and let us know yourpriorities We look forward to your feed-back The Editor

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No. 801993/1

Development Support Communication andAgriculture: The Road Aheadby Silvia Balit

e are living in an era which presentsnew trends and challenges to devel-opment communication practitioners

Today, everyone is talking about popular par-ticipation, decentralized decision making andsustainable development. It is more widelyaccepted thai the ultimate purpose of develop-

ment is human development and not onlyeconomic srowth Even the World Bank in arecent publication states that "More thannatural resources, more than cheap labor,more than financial capital, knowledge isbecoming the key factor of production."

continued on p. 2

cl\ Mobilizing Villagers to Action:Lk, Communication for Agricultural Micro-

Enterprises in Pakistanby Frank Byrnes

0 small group of rural developmentspecialists working in the North-WestFrontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan

-Srs has successfully employed communicationstrategies and skills to develop agricultural0 micro-enterprises among rural farmers.

Staff members of the Sarhad Rural SupportCorporation (SRSC), a local nongovernmentorganization, listen carefully when they first

ask villagers to identify and agreeon their most critical needs relatingto increasing agricultural or live-stock productivity and improvinggeneral standards of living. Thenthey help organize dialogue leadingto the establishment of viable localorganizations to carry out commu-nity action.

BESI COPY AVAILABLE

2

continued on p. 5

DevelopmentCommunication Report

Development CommunicationReport, published quarterly bythe Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication,has a circulation of ofer 7,000.The newsletter is available freeof charge to readers in thedeveloping world and at acharge of $10.03 per year toreaders in industrializedcountries.

A center for materials andinformation on importantapplications of communicationtechnology to developmentproblems, the Clearinghouse isoperated by the Institute forInternational Research, inassociation with CreativeAssociates International andsupported by the U.S. Agencyfor International Development,Bureau for Research andDevelopment, Office ofEducation, as part of its programin educational technology anddevelopment communication.

The views expressed in theDevelopment CommunicationReport are those of the authorsand not necessarily of itssponsors. Original material inthe Report may be reproducedwithout prior permissionprovided that full credit is givenand that two copies of thereprint are sent to the Editor.

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication1815 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 600Arlington, VA 22209 USATelephone: (703) 527-5546Fax: (703) 527-4661

Andrea Bosch, EditorValerie Lamont,

Information SpecialistEarlington McLetchie,

LibrarianMariel Escudero,

Circulation Manager

Development CommunicationReport is produced usingdesktop publishing under A.I.D.contract DR-5831-Z-00-8028-00.

ISSN 0192-1312

the road ahead, cont'd from page 1

A changing field

This was not the case when DevelopmentSupport Communication was establishedwithin the U.N. Food and Agriculture Orga-nization (FAO) at the end of the 1960s. De-velopment efforts concentrated on transfer-ring western, industrialised technology todeveloping countries and treated communi-cation as a trickle down of new ideas whichwould then be put into practice. There waslittle experience of using communicationwith illiterate populations for social change.Agricultural extension services saw the roleof communication as limited to the produc-tion of media.materials and the packagingof information from a central source. Andperhaps most importantly, beyond the con-cept of communication, few governments indeveloping countries would provid thepolitical space needed for true participatorycommunication.

Times changed. Over the years FAOimplemented a series of field programswhich led to a number of innovative ap-proaches, taking into account the percep-tions of rural people and more appropriatecommunication technologies. For example:

+ In Latin America, an audio visual train-ing methodology based on the use ofvideo was developed for the large scaletraining of illiterate farmers. Educa-tional programs were produced not onlyon agriculture, but also on health, nutri-tion, literacy, population, habitat andcultural themes. Attention was paid toculture and traditional technologies inorder to provide information and train-ing more in harmony with rural reality.

+ In Africa, radio was used to reach largenumbers of rural audiences. A participa-tory approach to radio was developedwhich enabled rural people to becomethe protagonists of the radio programs.Programs were broadcast in local lan-guages and in accordance with localcustoms and values.

+ In many regions, the use of multi-mediacommunication campaigns to support aclearly defined development priority,such as the eliminaticn of rinderpest inAfrica or pest control in Asia, has be-

Development Communication Report, no. 80

come a successful strategy. Cam-paigns have combined interpersonaland multi-media channels in an or-chestrated and mutually reinforcingmanner. They have also used Market-ing techniques including audienceresearch, formative and ongoingevaluation, message finetuning on thebasis of feedback and individual andgroup psychology.

+ But possibly the most successful ex-ample of an integrated FAO programoccurred in Mexico. TheGovernment's Integrated Rural Devel-opment Program for the TropicalWetlands (Proderith) applied commu-nication interventions systematicallyfor integrated rural development.Strategies were used to involve com-munities in the planning and imple-mentation of local development pro-grams, to support transfer of technol-ogy and training activities, and tofacilitate coordination and informa-tion flow among participating institu-tions. Now, the control of the commu-nication system is being transferred tothe farmers themselves. Young farm-ers, both men and women, are beingtrained to identify the needs of theircommunities and to produce and usecommunication materials with theircommunities autonomously. Mes-sages are produced by the farmers,with the farmers and for the farmers.

Issues unresolved

Indeed, development communicationhas come a long way. However, we stillhave much to accomplish if the disciplineis to be truly accepted by developmentplanners and practitioners as a substan-tive component of the development pro-cess.

Finding DSC an institutional home. l'er-haps the major issue yet unresolved is theidentification of the most suitable institu-tional framework for development com-munication. Generally, developmentcommunication has been placed withinthe framework of a project, a develop-

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ment program, or a ministry. Each subjectmatter ministry has wanted to establish itsown communication unit. This tack hasproven to be expensive and has lead to du-plication of investment in hardware and inpersonnel, especially for rural developmentprograms that cut across and involve manysectors.

FAO's experience suggests that develop-ment communication should be classified asa sector at the national level which wouldsupport all the subject matter ministries,institutions and NGOs involved in develop-ment. Governments could then establishnational communication policies and strate-gies and legislation governing the organiza-tional location of national DSC Units, theirresponsibilities and functions.

National DSC Units could be establishedin national administrations in a locationwhich would enable them to participate insituation analysis, program planning and thedevelopment of national communicationstrategieseither in a planning ministry orin the Office of the Prime Minister. NationalCommunication Units would be able towork with all the partners engaged in devel-opment and provide valuable technical sup-port.

Creating the incentives for funding. If devel-opment communication were established asa multi-disciplinary sector at the nationallevel, it could also become eligible for in-

vestment and lending To in-crease credibility, it is impor-tant to document and quantifythe economic impact of devel-opment communication ef-forts, so that the communica-tion sector could be consid-ered as "bankable" and notonly as a "soft" sector

In Mexico, for example, theProderith integrated ruraldevelopment program hasachieved an internal rate ofreturn that is 7.5% higher thanplanned at a cost for the com-munication system of only1.5% of the total project in-vestmentall related to theactivities of the communica-tion system. This type of harddata is rarely available andarticulated to policy makersand development planners.

Preparing DSC to be self-financing. Anotherimportant lesson learned by FAO recently ina number of countries (Mali, Nepal, Comorosand Nicaragua) is that communication unitsmust be at least in part self-financing if theyare to he sustainable. If they are not, once theinternational assistance finishes, the govern-ment is unable to continue financing the re-current costs. This is especially true now thatthe effects of structural adjustment have

limited the capacityof Governments toprovide all the so-cial services neededby rural areas. FAOis in the process ofassessing the ad-vantages of estab-lishing non-govern-mental units withthe ability to gener-ate and retain rev-enue as a result oftheir services topay for staff, train-ing, spare parts,materials produc-tion, operationalcosts, etc.

Using Video in the Field: Development CommunicationGuidelines by FAO

The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Na-tions has recently published its guidelines for the use ofvideo communication technology within FAO field projectsin French, English and Spanish. This 68 page book includesinformtlon about how to Integrate video into develop-ment projects and where to purchase cassettes andequipment. Written and illustrated In very simple language,these guidelines will be useful to anyone using or planningto use video. For more information about FAO develop-ment communication publications, contact: The Develop-ment Support Communication Branch, FAO, via delleTerme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome, Italy. fax: 5782610.

43

continuM on p.4

Many extension projects failto use basic effectivecommunication strategies likethis one for their illiterateclients.

4


the road ahead, cont'd from page 3

FAO Guidelines for Development Communication Support

In June 1987, FAO organised an Expert Consutta-tion on DSC to analyse the state of the art, identifydirections for the future and formalise the FAO ap-proach to communication for rural development.The following piinciples continue to be valid wgardless of changes in development paradigms:

o Development communication Is a social pro-cess designed to seek a common understand-ing or consensus among all the participants ofa development initiattve, and leading to jointaction. The media are useful tools to help bringabout this process, but their use should not beseen as an end in itself.

* Development communication must take intoaccount the perspecttves of rural people. Agood communicator must first and above allknow how to listen. Time must be taken to con-sult with the intended actors, and to learn fromthen.

Social change, social engineering and educa-tion take time. The durafion of DSC componentsin development projects or of communicationprojects themselves must be sufficiently long toobtain sustainable results, demonstrate theirimpact and create an institutional base.

* Successful development commun;cation callsfor a well defined strategy, systematic planningand rigorous management.

A systematic use of communication also re-quires a holistic approach covering the manyaspects of life in rural areas.

* Communication for development must be in-corporated in the planning stage of develop-ment programmes and not tacked on at thelast moment as an afterthought.

* Broad based, integrated communication strate-gies, using all possible channels In an orches-trated fashion will give better resutts than relyingon one medium only.

Preparing staff for a new era. The lack ofpersonnel specifically trained to carry outdevelopment communication functionsconstrains development efforts. This newkind of professional requires training inthe social sciences, development issues aswell as the art and craft of communicationmedia and technology. Training programsare required at the technical/intermediatelevel, and importantly, at the graduate andpost graduate university levels. The lack ofsufficient academic institutions to providetraining results in an inadequate supply ofproperly qualified DSC professionals tomeet the increasing demands for this disci-pline. Appropriate development supportcommunication curricula must be formu-lated and included in the programs ofstudies of existing academic institutions indeveloped and developing countries.

Creating information sharing systems.Filially, it is important to overcome the ageold boundaries between research, exten-sion and communication. To respond tonew development paradigms, new agricul-tural information and knowledge sharing

5Development Communication Report, no. 80 4

systems which place the farmer first, and en-able rural people to place their needs beforeresearchers, extensionists and other services,are required.

Development communication can play afundamental role by promoting informationexchange between farmers concerning theirproblems and needs, and bringing the resultsto the technicians and the policy makers. Allthe parties in the farmer-extension-researchcontinuum could act as communicationequals, and communication would act as akind of blood line for the new system, facili-tating the flow of information and sharing ofknowledge and skills.

If development communication is to be-come part of the new mainstream of develop-ment, it will require some innovative think-ing, more field testing of new ideas and theo-ries, and more qualitative and quantitativeevaluation of results. It is a challenge whichnone of us can ignore.

Silvm Balit is the Chief of the Development Support Commu-nication Branch at the Food and Agriculture Organization of

United NatiOns. She can be reached at MO. Via dyneTernw di Caracalla, Roma 00100, Halt/. tel: 396-5797-3150;f;sx: 90-5797-5155

Through these groupsmen in villageorganizations (VOs) and women in women'sorganizations (WOs)local people defineand set priorities on needs and establish sav-ings and credit programs that help them fi-nance necessary actions.

When a VO or WO decides on a produc-tive investment project, SRSC personnel, withactive villager participation, may conducttechnical feasibility studies, collect relevantdata, design the project, and monitor imple-mentation. But it is the village men andwomen who implement, operate and main-tain the projects

SRSC management recognizes the criticalrole each staff member plays in establishingrapport with villagers, in counseling them,and in avoiding the development of depen-dency. SRSC recruits staff carefully, trainsthoroughly, and coaches continually. Staffmembers agree that a successful worker lis-tens patiently, communicates clearly, and isinformal, open, friendly, self-confident,empathetic, willing to share, positively criti-cal, relevant and respectfulall in one.

Creating Credit Internally

Despite the need to go slowly, SRSC has

made considerable progress since helping toform the first VO in October 1991. In August1992, 122 VOs and 37 WOs were operating.The savings pools of these organizations hadreached a total of Rs 2,336,996 and were in-creasing rapidly. The associated credit poolshad provided 45 organizations with 59 short-term credits for distribution to 1,363 benefi-ciaries. Most credit was used to buy agricul-

tural inputs.During this period, SRSC had trained 260

VO leaders, 72 WO leaders, and 197 agricul-ture and livestock extension workers (indi-viduals selected by the villagers, those ben-efiting paying for services received).

Each village offers exciting examples ofhow rapidly and effectively villagers respond

and mobilize.

Men and Women Working Together

While the experience is unique, in PurdilKhan Ka ley, the VO and WO are workingtogether. Most of the land in Charsadda Dis-

trict is fertile, yet almost half of the land inPurdil Khan Ka ley, about a 45-minute drive

agricultural micro-enterprises, cont'd from page 1

from the bustlingtown of Charsadda,was not cultivatedbecause the soil wassaline When the vil-lagers formed a VO,they agreed that treat-ment of the soil wasthe pnonty task toundertake

SRSC provided agrant to finance treat-ing the saline landwith gypsum and toinstall a tubewell forirrigation Once theland was in cultiva-tion, the VO foundnew initiatives. SRSChelped train two extension workers (onein livestock, the other in agriculture) andestablished a credit of Rs 80,000 to covervarious VO activities. Now, the credit hasbeen repaid in full.

The interaction of the SRSC Women inDevelopment (WID) staff with the womenof Purdil Khan Kaley produced the mostsignificant change in this conservative vil-lage. The WO decided to start a dairy enter-prise by buying buffalo on credit. As a con-dition of SRSC support, each WO memberwas asked to save Rs 3,000. With some con-tributions from the men, the WO achievedtheir goal.

As operation of the dairy would necessi-tate finding markets outside the village, thewomen included men in further discus-sions relating to the dairy. This was thefirst-instance in the village of men andwomen working together.

It was further agreed that the menwould supervise the purchase of buffaloesand other inputs, reserve land for fodder,and sell the milk. The women would tendthe animals and do the milking. The re-cently trained livestock extension workerprovided women with basic training onhealth care of buffaloes. The training, con-ducted at a nearby government farm, wasthe first case of women travelling outsidethe village for a development activity.

Recognizing the possibility ofdeathsamong the buffalo herd, the women initi-

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Turkha villagers stand in line tomake monthly deposits toaccounts which can he used eitherindividually or collectimly.

5 Development Communication Report, no. 80

agricultural micro-enterprises, cont'd from page 5

ated a self-subscribed insurance scheme onwhich the WO members could draw to re-place a dead animal.

The WO, with income from sales of milk,already has begun to pay back the credit ad-vanced for the purchase of the buffaloes. Withthe dairy now operational, it is estimated thatthe WO earns a net profit of Rs 600 per mem-ber each month. Meanwhile, the women havedecided the buffalo shed built with a SRSCgrant is too small and have on their own ini-tiative begun constructing a bigger shed.

Priorities: Irrigation and Cash Crops

Ongoing activities in Menda Khel, the firstvillage in Kohat District to form a VO, demon-strate what happens when rural villagers dis-cover the potential of working together, earn-ing and saving income, acquiring knowledgeand skills, and obtaining credit.

Of the total village land of 4,430 acres, only125 acres were irrigated and 591 acres rainfed.Much of the uncultivated land could producecrops if water were available. When the gov-ernment gave the village an old lift pumpinstallation, its renovation along with con-

struction of a concrete-lined channel to carrywater to irrigate 100acres inspired VO in-terest.

With a SRSC grantof Rs 167,000, the VOpurchased a motor andpump and a generator(to supply powerwhen electricity wouldbe out), constructedand cemented thechannel, and built asmall bridge. Rs 5,000of the workers wageswent into savings.

The VO secretarycites the followingbenefits to the village:(1) the irrigated landgrosses Rs 300 dailyfrom vegetables pro-duced; (2) with irriga-tion, the land producesthree crops a year in-stead of two; (3) villag-ers are taking loans to

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Development Communication Report, no. 80 6

improve farm production; (4) the VO plansto establish a commercial wholesale marketfor fresh vegetables, and (5) discussion isunderway about building a causeway acrossthe valley to connect four other villages tobroaden the production and marketing area.

Women Buy Goats and Chickens

Pershai I, a small hamlet in the arid beltof Kohat District, reports a variety of activi-ties fostered by its WO of 40 members. Mo-tivated by the prospect of incre*sed income,the women raised Rs 12,000 in savings inthe first 3 months, which they used as collat-eral for a SRSC loan to purchase milk goats.

With SRSC help, the women obtained ahardier strain of poultry. These scavengingbirds require minimum care, are resistant todisease, and produce more eggs, a regularsource of income. One woman, selected bythe WO, was trained in how to inoculatepoultry. Now she provides this service on apay basis.

Successful introductionof kitchen gar-dening also led to a demand by all womenfor seeds the second year. Two women es-tablished commercial vegetable plots. In thesame year, three women obtained loans toinvest in such off-farm enterprises as sewingshops and a grocery store.

Present plans of this active WO includetackling the problem of scarce drinking wa-ter by constructing new water tanks, estab-lishing a vocational center to teach sewingand embroidery skills, and obtaining train-ing for women in livestock management.

These and related experiences in othervillages encourage the SRSC staff to lookahead with confidence, excitement and pro-fessional dedication. As an organizationwhich measures its success by acommunity's ability to function produc-tively without SRSC intervention or sup-port, it will concentrate on how it can com-municate effectively with these groups andwithdraw as quickly as possible.

Dr. Francis C. Byrnes, a specialist in agricultural journal-ism and communication, is a Senior Associate at WinrockInternational institute for Agricultural Development,1611N. Kent St. Suite 700, Arlington, VA 22209. USA.tel: (703) 525-9430; fia: (703) 516-0481. The article isbased on materials he and Mr. Hasan Zaidi, a formerSRSC staff member, developed for a forthcoming SRSCpublication, When Villagers Take Chair.

7 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Women, Seed, Technology and Change:Communicating with Farmers in Senegal and The Gambia

by Tom Osbornmate voluntary organizations(PV0s), non-governmental organi-zations (NG0s), and the PeaceCorps are increasingly concerned

with how to reach women farmers. Histori-cally, national agricultural policy, extensionand technologies have focused on malefarmers and cash crops, largely ignoringfemale tarmers who, in Africa, have primaryresponsibility for tood production and fam-ily tood security As a result, many agricul-tural projects have not had the anticipatedimpact because they do not reach thefamily's primary agricultural decision-makerthe woman.

In many parts of Senegal and TheGa-,nbia, rice is exclusively cultivated bywomen and produced primarily for homeconsumption. Extremely labor intensive,rice production involves land preparation,seeding, weeding, and harvesting withsimple hand tools. Women cultivate smallplots, .5-1 hectare, that yield a meager 300-1,000 kg per hectare in ecologies that rangefrom upland to paddy (submerged duringthe growing season).

Effectively communicating with womenin agricultural extension activities involvesconsideration of various factors. First,extensionists must understand the role ofwomen as agricultural decision makers andassess, respect and build on their indig-enous agricultural knowledge. Secondly, inmost areas, women have low levels of lit-eracy, which means that written communi-cation strategies are not appropriate anddemonstrations must be used primarily.Lastly, male extension agents have workedonly with male farmers and have used adirective communication approach. Towork with female farmers, extension agentsneed to learn, to listen and to carefully com-municate in order to understand their par-ticular needs and situations.

Creating agricultural projects whichbenefit women farmers challenges existingextension programs. A few innovative agri-cultural projects, however, are finding waysto integrate programs into women's com-plex web of daily activities includingchildcare, domestic tasks and cultural obli-gatiors. Most of these are using communica-tion -approaches which stress participation.

The On-Farm SeedProject

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The On-Farm SeedProject(OFSP), hasbeen in op-eration forthe past fiveyears inSenegal andThe Gambiaand usesparticipatory methods with iarmers to pro-mote the adoption of improved methods ofseed production, harvesting, processing andstorage. The project goal is to increase yieldsand reduce labor. The OFSP is implementedby Winrock International in cooperation withthe Center for PVO/Univer5ity Collaborationand Mississippi State University. Field activi-ties are carried out in collaboration with thePeace Corps and NGOs (Save the Children,World Vision, Christian Children's Fund.Freedom from Hunger Campaign). OFSP riceactivities have taken place in more than 100villages with thousands of farmers, primariiywomen. The project aims to identify techni-cally sound changes that fit with both socio-cultural values and farmers' resources. Whilethe OFSP primarily focuses on seed, it uses asystems approach which considers other fac-tors related to how seed and food grains areproduced, such as the division of labor alonggender lines, labor constraints, communica-tion betw een farmers and researchers, andcultural actors.

A Participatory Approach

The aim of agricultural extension has tra-ditionally been to disseminate predeterminedpractices and technologies identified by agri-cultural researchers and communicated tofarmers in a one-way and top down fashion.The OFSP approach, on the other hand, in-volves dialogue with farmers and assessmentof traditional production systems beforemodified practices or technologies are identi-fied and promoted. In the participatory ap-proach, the role of the extension agent is nolonger merely to "transfer technologies" but

F

Women farmers haveresponsihility for food securityin many areas worldwide.


women, seed, technology and change, cont'd from page 7

rather to facilitate a two-way exchange of in-formation and priorities between extensionagents and farmers.

Improving farmers' practices is viewed as along-term process which involves promotingsmall changes, step by step. For example, ini-tial attention is often focused on promotingone improved seed variety along with a fewmodified practices that will increase produc-tion. Farmers only adopt new varieties andpractices which they have observed and be-lieve are advantageous. Only when initial.changes are adopted are other changes pro-posed. The farmers determine the directionand pace of change.

The process used bv the OFSI' involves:

a. determining farmers' problems, needs andresources;

b. developing participatory farmer demon-strations; and

c. soliciting farmers' reactions to demonstra-tion results.

Step 1. Determining farmers' problems,needs and resources. The OFSP began the pro-cess by training the extension agents of col-laborating NGOs in rice agronomy and com-munity data collection. Information was gath-ered from women farmers through groupdiscussions conducted by field staff of collabo-rating organizations, and observations by boththe extension agents and the OFSP agronomist.The OFSP agronomist discussed the informa-tion collected with the collaborating extension

9Development Communication Report, no. 80

agents to verify technical aspects.The data collection with farmers indi-

cated, for example, that traditional seedvarieties are not adapted to the recentdrought conditions. Another finding wasthat rice is traditionally broadcast seeded(as opposed to row seeded) and this prac-tice results in the proliferation of weedswhich rob the rice of light, water, and nutri-ents and contributes to reduced yields. Con-clusions' Following the data collection,OFSP staff concluded that farmers couldpotentially increase their yields by usingearlier maturing varieties and changing torow seeding.

Step 2. Participatory fanner demonstra-tions. Demonstrations are the best way forfarmers to understand proposed innova-tions. They also allow field agents to seehow farmers adopt or adapt the proposedchanges and to observe differences betweenfarmers. Finally, if demonstrations are asuccess, participating farmers can performextension activities themselves.

The OFSP assists its collaborators in thedesign and implementation of the demon-strations. Workshops coupled with fieldvisits were conducted with the extensionagents and program managers before andduring the implementation of the demon-strations. The workshops are a way tomonitor the demonstrations, to conductdiscussions directly with the farmers, andto improve the technical skills of the fieldstaff.

Experience suggests that for a demon-stration to be successful it must be similarto/based on what farmers already do, re-quire comparable or less labor than priorpractices, and provide a noticeable yieldincrease (20%) or other benefit. Unlessfarmers perceive substantial benefits, theywill return to traditional practices.

In the OFSP, demonstrations are con-ducted so that farmers and extension work-ers can together compare traditional variet-ies and practices with improved varietiesand modified practices. The extension agentassists the farmer to select the demonstra-tion plot, explains the changes in practicesand works with her in the demonstrationplot. The agent collects data along withfarmer feedback on the demonstration plotas well as on one of her traditional plots in

order to compare results.

Step 3. Soliciting farmers' reactions todemorstration results. The third and criti-cal st,:p is soliciting the reaction of thewomen to the demonstrafions. Their feed-back is the best indication of the appropri-ateness of the modified practices. What didthey like about it? Was it difficult? Are theywilling to be involved in another demon-stration? Did the demonstration generateinterest among friends and neighbors?Feedback from women farmers helps theproject decide which practices should bepromoted the next season.

Lessons learned

Participation is essential. These activitiesconfirm the importance of a communicationapproach which emphasizes the active par-ticipation of farmers in the entire process oftesting and evaluating new agriculturalpractices. Two-way communication allowsextention agents to understand farmers'priorities, constraints, gender roles etc.-andit allows farmers to learn about alternativevarieties and practices.

Sustainability and long term impact ofdevelopment projects is determined notonly by their technical content, but also bywhether the communication process focuses-on one-way technology transfer or on a par-ticipatory problem-solving with farmers.

Farmers are receptive to innovations ifthey are appropriate to their conditions andresources. The process of change takes time.For example, in Save the Children's work inthe Gambia, it has taken five years for farm-ers to adopt improved varieties and to useanimal traction. Women were graduallyable to persuade the men to help them plantrice in rows with animal traction. This is adramatic change from traditional roles andpractices in rice production, but it tooktime.

When there are options, acceptancegrows. The collaborating organizations of-fered women rice farmers alternative tech-nologies and approaches which could im-prove their production. By proposing anumber of options, farmers can choose toadopt or adapt suggested changes based ontheir personal needs and the rice ecology inwhich they work.

Participatory demonstrations provideconcrete evidence. The demonstrationsprovided many benefits to the women par-ticipants. They were able to try new variet-ies, alternative seeding methods, and modi-fied production practices. They retainedthe seed from the demonstration plots toplant the following year for themselves andto share with others. Following the demon-strations, it has been observed that in manycases the new varieties and practices havebeen diffused to other women through tra-ditional communication networks by par-ticipating farmers.

Collaboration among organizationsstrengthens the effort. The OFSP has helpedthe collaborators to improve their technicalskills and their capacity to use a participa-tory approach in extension activities. Inaddition, the OFSP has helped link the col-laborators to new rice technologies for test-ing in the field.

Program strategies should draw on bothtechnical and field resources. OFSP incor-porates a collaborative effort which usesthe strengths of many organizations. Theproject has benefited from the leadership ofWinrock International and the technicalknowledge provided from the Seed Tech-nology Laboratory of Mississippi StateUniversity and from the field knowledgegained from NGOs and Peace Corps Vol-unteers working with farmers in bothcountries. The Center for PVO/UniversityCollaboration in Development, based inNorth Carolina, USA, provides valuablecollaborative support.

Much remains to be done to ease thelabor burden of women in rice productionand increase their productivity. The On-Farm Seed Project in Senegal and theGambia demonstrates that through a par-ticipatory process and communication,agricultural information and strategies hasa far better chance of reaching womenfarmers.

Tom Osborn is Project Leader of the On-Farm SeedProject. He can be reached at B.P. 3746, Dakar, Senegal.For more information on the On-Farm Seed Project,which is now in its second phase as the On Farm Produc-tivity Enhancement Program (OFPEP) contact the Cen-ter for PVO/University Collaboration in Development,Bird Building, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee,North Carolina 28723-9056, USA. Tel: (704) 227-7492.Fax: (704) 227-7422.

1 09

Many

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no. 8

0

Special Farmer Field Days in Kenya

by Anderson G. Mwalomaubsistence farming and pastoralism provide a. livelihood for an overwhelming majority ofKenyans. Government and nongovernmental

agencies have used extension services in an atterrnt tochange century-old production practices for years. TheKenyan government also provides basic infrastructuresuch as local level farmers' training centers and researchand demonstration stations around the country to helpupdate rural Kenyans on time and money saving tech-nologies.

Unfortunately, only those farmers with better educa-tions and access to credit facilities appear to embrace agri-cultural innovations. They are the ones who try new tech-niques and have made a break-through in their farmingoperations. They appreciate the benefits of applying im-proved techniques because they see through experiencethat the gains justify the risks. Rather than wait for exten-sion personnel to preach to them, they go out to seek forprofessional advice and, if necessary, they pay for it.

Still, the majority of the population rejects anythingother than the most traditional of agricultural practices.Like their more progressive counterparts, extension ser-vices have reached them and they are aware of modernfarming techniques either by observing demonstrationplots or through the media. Why, then, do peasants clingto the hand hoe for tilling the land and burn the cow dungrather than use it to fertilize their barren fields? Why arethe pastoralists reluctant to cross-breed their traditionallivestock with improved stock for better milk or beefyields?

These are difficult questions-to answer as they requiremore than a mere change of attitudes or a provision ofcredit facilities. The information and means to adopt tonew practices are either not realistic to these farmers orthe information is not presented in a meaningful way.

Special Farmers' Field Days

To combat the lack of change, The Agricultural Devel-opment Corporation (ADC), a Kenyan government-owned

44.

-

institution responsible for the production of improved seedand breeding stock for Kenya, decided to play an active role.ADC personnel created a multi-faceted communication pro-gram using special field days aimed at an identified audi-ence.

ADC farms do not enjoy any special preference either ininput prices or marketingin fact, while government-owned, these farms operate as individual entities and mustjustify their existence by undertaking enterprises as effi-ciently as possible. In close liaison with the field staff of theMinistries of Agriculture and Livestock Development, ADCdecided to stage special field days at farms all around Kenyato show the success of certain practices. In contrast to tradi-tional predesigned field days, which are open to the generalpublic and are often characterized by political speeches,ADC special field days were designed to provide a forum forpractical interactive learning.

First, attendance is by invitation. Farmers who confirmare required to meet part of their travel costs to and from thefield day site. This eliminates joy riders.

If the main focus is on horticulture, for example, the fieldofficers identify and contact small scale farmers in their re-spective areas who have been undertaking horticultural en-terprises in a traditional manner. Then, they plan the fieldday on the nearest ADC horticultural farm.

As a rule, the demonstration plots are not specially pre-pared. At the start of the event, farmers are taken around tothe relevant enterprises and the farm manager responsiblegives an explanation about key aspects such as land prepara-tion, husbandry practices, or harvesting and marketing.

Extension officers accompanying farmers are alwayspresent to relate any display or explanation to the actualsituation facing his fellow farmers back home. Farmers an!given opportunities not only to ask questions, but also toshare with others their own personal experiences.

The ADC special farmers' field days are supported byother media programs such as 'Participation in Agriculture'dramatic shows. From.time to time, the Corporation pro-duces special feature programs on farming which are broad-cast on the National Radio and Television stations.


Success of the Field Day Program

When ordinary subsistence farmers or pastoralistsattend large agricultural shows or visit display-models ofdemonstration plots, they often interpret the achieve-ments as being beyond their capabilities. The ADC specialfarmers' field day program, on the other hand, hasyielded tangible benefits. In a follow-up of past partici-pants chosen at random, the level of acceptance of newpractices has improved. Why? Evidence shows that whileextension services and public education programs arecrucial for creating awareness, special field days providetangible examples from peers much closer to the farmers'real world. The success of the ADC farmers has meaning.

2 1 3

Get the Most Out of Radio InterviewsBecause the interview involves enter-tainment through storytelling, it is oneof the most effective means of communi-cation on the radio. In preparing to doan interview, you must know what storyyou want to tell. Through research, youcan decide on the main idea the inter-view is to communicate and structureyour questions so that they relate to thetopic. The following tips can help theinterviewer reach the audience throughthe story his guest tells:

Put the interviewee at ease. Before theinterview starts, have a general chatwith the person to help create a relaxedehvironment. Talk about the person'ssurroundings, office, family or dailywork. Focus on positive things.

Explain your objectives. Before youstart, list the points that you plan toraise during the interview. Intervieweeswill be more comfortable if they knowwhat kinds of questions you plan to askand they will be more focused.

Handle your microphone and tape re-corder properly to get the best sound. Ifyou or the person you interview are toofar away from the microphone, yourvoices may sound distant. Being tooclose will cause distortion.

Do a sound check. Make sure that yourequipment is working properly and thatyou are placed within the proper rangeof the microrlione. Record a short con-versation between you and theinterviewee and listen to it.

Avoid distracting background sounds.Appropriate natural background effectswill enhance an interview. However, be-ware of obsfructive sounds such as tickingclocks, ringing telephones, and yellingchildren. Any of these could spoil the in-terview by diverting the listener's atten-tion from the subject matter.

Control the equipment. If you allow theinterviewee to hold the microphone, it willbe more difficult to control the discussion.

Ask questions which demand more thana yes or no answer. Make intervieweesexplain their points of view. For example,instead of asking "Do you like thismethod?" ask "what are the advan-tages of this method?"

Ask one question at a time. If youask too many questions at once, theinterviewee may respond to all ofthem with one generalized answer,or become confused. Prepare anoutline of ideas in advance.

Understand the answer. If you donot understand the answer, neitherwill the listener. Request definitionsof technical terms that listeners maynot know.

Do not allow scripted answers.Interviewees will not sound as inter-esting of convincing if they readprepared answers. Suggest that theywrite down only the main points, Ifinterviewees answer your qutionswith prepared statements, stop the

The proof is in the behavior change. While Kenyanpastoralists have long been aware ot the existence ot im-proved bulls, especially those suitable for semi-arid areas ofthe country, many did not consider it worthwhile to come toADC. Yet, in one example of success, selected pastoralistswho participated in a recent ADC special field day for ranch-ers were placing large orders for Boran breeding bulls soonafter the event. Demand for the high grade dairy has nowexceeded supply as farmers who have witnessed the highmilk yields during field days sell their traditional cows to buyhigher grade cows.

The demand for other products has also increased. ADChas some ot the best trained farm management personnel inthe country and vet for many years its farm gate,: remainedclosed to other farmers. Before the introduction of the field

interview and ask them to put theirnotes aside. Tell them if they findthey have missed an importantpoint, you can always record theiranswer again.

Adapted from the United Nation's TrainingManual on Farm Broadcasting: a guidebookto basic radio programme production foragricultural extension workers by Voices:Developing countries Farm Radio Network. Thisarticle appears in Voices, nos 24/25, March1992. The manual is available in English, Viet-namese, Thai and Korean and a Khynter versionis being prepared. For information, write: Agri-culture and Rural Development Division,ESCAP, United Nations Building, RajadamnernAvenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

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days, the ADC farms were preoccupied with producing qual-ity seed to meet the nation's demand and to export to neigh-boring countries. Supply of quality seed was more or lesslimited to the established users. But with the opening up ofthe farms, demand has been escalating. Now extension offic-ers whose main job is to educate the farmers come to find outhow ADC managers deal with every day farming problems.Farmers and extension officers who were reluctant to attendthe initial field days now look forward to these and otherevents. In between field days, we receive numerous inquiriesfrom the field officers wishing to find out when the next oneis scheduled.

111

G. A twalonta is the Public Relations Manager ,tor he Agricultural Pay/opulentCorporation. I I. Iwn be reached at P.O. Boy 55ql b, Nairobi, kenua.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 14 Development Communication Report. no. 80

Sudan Rural Television (RTV):Communicating with Rural People

by M.O. Elsiddig

n many ways, the Gezira province: of Sudan had an ideal environ-

ment for an,experimental agricul-tural communication project: it was in astate of flux due to the diversification ofcrops away from cotton/sorghum and to-wards wheat, rice and groyndnuts, womenhad a clear amount of free time, it had ahigh rate of urban migration of youngpeople, an uneasy relationship betweenfarmers and management and a low per-centage of literacy among adult farmerswhich aside from being a problem in itself,was affecting the level of agricultural pro-duction in the area.

A well defined and well managed areawith a relatively homogeneous population,the Gezira province was also more devel-oped than many other areas in rural Sudan.Gezira had basic support services in agri-culture and education and while severalorganizations were involved in develop-ment work, little or no collaboration wasoccurring. RTV could help provide an inte-grated educational program which relatedthe different facets of rural development toeach other.

The initiative to promote economic de-velopment for the Gezira farmers through

an interactiveseries of ruraltelevision showsand viewingclubs came fromthe Ministry ofCulture and In-formation, withtechnical assis-

Ilk tance from theFederal Republicof Germany,British Aid andthe Food andAgriculture Or-ganization of theUnited Nations.By 1974, a staffhad been foundfrom the Minis-

\*_. .

try of EducationSchool of TV

Making TV relevant to the lives of the Sudanese audience Producers andhelps to ensure that messages will be absorbed. the Sudan Rural

Development Communication Report, no. 80 1 4

Television project blossomed in the Geziraprovince.

Preparing for Exposure

Research with the farmers and frompeople who had been working in Gezira fora long time doctors, agriculturalists, ex-tension officers, teachers resulted inthree main criteria. Sudan Rural Television(RTV) was to be:

+ a source of educational information;+ a catalyst for activities among farmers;

and+ an example for other rural regions in

Sudan.

Bv the end of 1975, RTV was establishedas a part of the educational programs divi-sion of Sudan TV. The time table and theprogrammiag format were made flexible tosuit the daily and annual activities of thevillagers. Some TV programs were con-structed in a magazine style to follow thecalendar of agricultural activities. Othersconcentrated on special subjects in a sys-tematic way, such as a series about preven-tive health measures, new agriculturalmethods or new ways to build houses usinglocal materials. Special programs such associal shows, dramas and other forms ofentertainment were also included to con-tribute to program effectiveness.

Audience support, evaluation andoperations

Audience support is divided into twodistinct operational levels. The Madeni TVstation is responsible for program produc-tion, and the TV Liaison Office ensures thatmessages get through effectively to the au-dience. This dual process allows the pro-duction team to concentrate on creatingsuitable programs and appears to be givingthe monitoring and evaluation functionssufficient independence and power to affectprogramming.

The role of audience support of the ruralTV Liaison Office is perhaps the most inter-esting aspect of the project. With the overallpurpose to monitor and evaluate audiencereaction to programs, it performs a diver-

sitv of activities. It installs TV sets and gen-erators in selected villages, trains the TV clubmonitors (discussion group leaders) in howto conduct discussion, communicates withevaluators and operates equipment. It alsoprepares program support materials, such asposters and brochures, for distribution tovillages.

TV viewing clubs and behavior change

Discussion and planned action are thekeys to any participatory project. For RTV,the vehicle was TV viewing clubs. To ensureparticipation, formal conditions were set inexchange for receiving TV sets and genera-tors at half pricewomen must be allowed towatch and TV viewing clubs must hold orga-nized discussions after programming.

In the early 1980s, 300 TV viewing clubswere created to discuss the issues raised inthe program and arrive at suitable action,when the viewers felt the topic affected them.Everyone was invitedalthough the discus-sion group is limited to between ten andtwenty individuals. When a scheduled topicrelated to a particular village's needs, villag-ers selected a representative to attend a moreinfluential viewing club.

All discussions were supported by pam-phlets and other materials to highlight keypoints In every case, however, the group con-trolled the nature of the discussion internally.At the end of each session, group memberscontributed their feedback and preferencesfor future programming.

RTV has changed the way TV program-ming works in rural Gezira. Now, the sameorganizational structure is being used to es-tablish a second rural TV station in Albra, thecapital of the Nile province. Here, the audi-ence consists of workers, so the programmingemphasis is on occupational health, voca-tional and technical training and functional .literacy. Development is also under way toconsolidate All-Sudan Centralized RegionalTV channel programs to serve the differentneeds of other groups of rural people.

Overcoming constraints:making TV homegrown

The project does not function without con-straints. Producing suitable programs is al-ways an issue. In the Sudan, the distinction

between urban andrural is widely felt bothsocially andattitudinally. Tradition-ally, most rural peopleare conservative andresistant to change.Television with its ad-vanced technology doesnot affect their dailylives unless it is made apart of the community,describes their activitiesand emerges from ruralattitudes and socialpatterns.

To reflect the ruralsetting, the productionshould be field ratherthan studio oriented.For example, portableequipment which canbe used in the field is preferable; producersand staff should develop deep interest inthe life of the rural people and, if possible,come from a rural background; and womenshould.be encouraged both to watch andcontribute to discussions.

Financial constraints are also real. RTVcan afford very few permanent prod,:cersand equipment has not always been in topcondition. While this can affect the qualityof the programming, the producers havemade great efforts to produce quality pro-grams and collaborating organizations havecontributed time and interns. With part-time staff and the pressures of weeklyshows, many of the programs can easilylose their reality to rural viewers and, inturn, their educational value.

In the Gezira region, TV programminghas acquired new.meaning for rural farm-ers and their communities despite the manyobstacles. Using the strategies of well coor-dinated TV viewing clubs and activity-provoking discussions, RTV programmingis now carrying social messages, informa-tion and behavior change to areas typicallyneglected by the media.

Dr. Mukhtar 0. Elsiddig is the Director of Research inn!Publication Department at the Sudan Academy for Ad-nimist rative Sciences and one of the founders of SudanRural Television. Ile can be reached at: P.O. Box 200.3.Khartoum, Sudan.

Criteria for Success

Experience at RTV suggests that ru-ral educational programs can be suc-cessful and effective only if:

+ they are produced locally as aresult of locally felt need andpresented to an organized audi-ence;

+ they are supported by a variety ofcommunication methods, so TVis used as the main medium butsupported by printed materials,films, discussion, etc.; and

+ additional educational assistancewhich incorporates two-waycommunication is secured for therural audience.

1 Development Communication Report no. 80

CORRECTIONIN MANOFFARTICLE!!

The key questionand central theme of thearticle, Have We BecomeSurrogates for Failure?by Richard Manofffound on page 24 ofDCR no. 79, can besummed up in the fol-lowing short para-graph: As developmentcommunication profes-sionals, are we a misno-mer? Can such unsatis-factory outcomes bejustified when theyresult from develop-ment efforts that mayhave been foredoomed?Are we, too often, un-witting surrogates forfailure?

Unfortunately, avaluable phrase wasleft out of the articlewhich resulted in achange of the meaning.The final sentence inthe sixth paragraphshould have read, Theseare circumstances pecu-liar to Mauritiusbut wecan extract the simpleintelligence that no coun-try can provide "equalopportunity" without themeans to build a capitalbase for internal develop-ment.

For an accurate un-derstanding of the ar-ticle, please add theabove short paragraphand the corrected sen-tence to the article. Ri-chard Manoff can bereached at: tel: (212)758-7710; fax: (212) 751-1786.

by Royal D. Colle

Centers of Excellence:

he amount of communicationresearch at the G.B. Panf Univer-sity of Agriculture and Technol-

ogy in the state of Uttar Pradesh has in-creased significantly over the past six years.New research programs have emergedaround major topics such as how to commu-nicate with hard to reach groups such asmarginal farmers and women, and how tocreate profiles of Indian villages based onanthropological research. Evidence suggeststhat this burgeoning capacity is the result ofa stronger faculty and communication unitsdeveloped to link researchers and farmers

both the direct consequence of a six yearinstitution-building project conducted bythe Indian Council of Agricultural Researchwith support from the United Nations De-velopment Programme and the Food andAgriculture Organization.

In the 1980s, the Indian Council of Agri-cultural Research embarked on a long rangeplan to build "centers of excellence" in vari-ous agricultural research areas in Indiaranging from post hai-vest technology topoultry science. The centers were generallylocated at the state agricultural universities(SAU) and were the central part of thenation's Post Graduate Agricultural Educa-tion Program a program designed to helpthe country increase food production.

Expected to be a major element in theeffort to link researchers and farmers and toreduce the gap between yields obtained inexperiments and those achieved by farmers,the Centre of the Advanced Study of Agri-cultural Communication (CASAC) was es-tablished.

The creation of the CASAC representedan early attempt to establish communicationas an academic discipline in Indian agricul-tufal universities and to build a continuingresource of communication skills for thecountry. The starting point began withpeople.

Few people in India had advanced aca-demic credentials in communication. There-fore, recruiting or reassigning professorsfrom related disciplines such as a extensionand rural sociology and sending themabroad for training that would strengthentheir competence in communication was a

major step for the University. Each trainingprogram usually combined three ingredi-ents:

+ a consultant from abroad who served asa mentor,a training period at the mentor's institu-tion or agency, anda national seminar in India.

The trainee conducted a visit of from fourto six weeks to study the state-of-the-art in aparticular specialization in the Philippines,the United Kingdom or the United States.Specializations included communicationplanning, distance education, informationscience and documentation, television andvideo production, communication researchand evaluation methods and publications, toname a few.

A formula for training

The CASAC formula for the training wasdesigned to reap maximum benefit fromeach Indian professor's time abroad. Theprocess had four steps:

+ First the professor was expected to con-duct a brief study in India prior to goingabroad. This was designed to help focusthe person's activities during the secordstep the training itself.Once abroad, in addition to taking andobserving courses in the specialized fieldof communication and working with thementor, the professor was expected tocompile a comprehensive bibliographyin the field of study and sometimes de-velop a course syllabus or teaching ma-terials relevant to the Indian context.The third step came upon return to thehome institution. Here, the person orga-nized a national seminar, sometimescombining it with a consulting visit byhis or her mentor. The national seminarwas intended to be a way for CASAC toprovide leadership in communicationfor other agricultural universities in In-dia.

+ Finally, the professor was to teach acourse related to the specialization stud-ied.

Development Communication Report, no. 80 1 6 17

Building Agricultural Communication in India

While the institution-building project was notthe only factor, it was a major facto,- in the intro-duction or upgrading of 38 communicationcourses at the University and the establishment ofadvanced degree programs, including a mastersof science degree and a doctoral degree. The num-ber of female students completing degrees incommunication increased tremendously, therebyincreasing the possibility of having women com-munication specialists available in the existingextension systems.

The increase in communication research con-ducted at the University by Indian researchersalso benefited other agriculture efforts. Thebreadth of information and the resulting data base-made it easier for those wanting to extend system-atic development efforts into areas not generallyreached by intervention projects.

Extension or communication?

While great strides were made in a relativelyshort institution-building period, there remainsmuch to be done. More widespread recognitionfor communication as a legitimate academic disci-pline is needed. While extension is deeply en-trenched in the agricultural university system inIndia, people frequently question whether there isreally a difference between extension and commu-nication.

Noting that historically extensionhas been concerned primarily withtechnology transfer from researchstations to farmers. CASAC mem-bers believe that while communica-tion puts substantial emphasis onobtaining information from farmers,establishing linkages between vari-z.-as actors in agricullural productionand the policy system, and conduct-ing research on a variet\r of commu-nication issues ranging from mediaand channel analysis to the processof communication. Recognition canbest be gained through graduatinghighly competent people who them-selves will take leadership positionsin other universities and inagribusiness and government.

The leaders in CASAC state thatdemonstrating the application of thecommunication methods in majorfield operations serves as an ex-ample. And with appropriate"bridging" funds and collaboration,

institution-building projects will more likelysustain the momentum towards institutional-ization. This goal could be accomplished byphasing out of external funds as ministryfunds for national projects are phased in.

To date, the government has created aninfrastructure of 26 state agricultural univer-sities and 45 research institutes. In this insti-tution-building project, the national projectmandated that CASAC and all the centers ofexcellence strengthen the infrastructure byhelping build their disciplines at other SAUsand institutes through technical assistance.Meanwhile, the spread of satellite and cablesystems into the remote areas of India sug-gests the need to take a careful look at boththe opportunities and the consequences efmodern communication in agriculture andrural development. These changes make it allthe more important that communication cen-ters like CASAC be able to expand communi-cation research in India and help recognizecommunication as a discipline with an impor-tant role for agriculture.

Royal Colle worked with FAO on this project. He is the chairand a professor of Communication at Cornell Universtty,College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 339 Kennedy Hall.Ithaca,NY 14853-4203, USA. tel: (607) 255-2111; fax:(607) 255-7905.

J.°

Royal D. Colic

This local cable system equipment brings both satellite programming and videotapes to

about 200 subscribers.

8BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1 Development Communication Report. no. 80

Resources

zBooks

French-English Agricultural Dictionary, compiled byDO'D Bourke, CAB International, Wallingford,Oxon OX10 8DE, England. Cost: UK29.50

With over 20,000 entries, this dictionary describes scien-tific and popular agricultural terms, literature, and tech-niques emerging from French speaking countries world-wide. It includes words and phrases associated withagronomy, animal husbandry, economics, soil science,statistics, pollution and conservation, forestry, indig-enous terminologies, and other related topics7--an excel-lent tool for the agricultural communicator working inboth French and English speaking countries.

Women, Conservation and Agriculture: A Manual forTrainers, published by the Commonwealth Secre-taria; Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London SW1Y51IX, England, 1992. 199 pages.

This manual shows how women. have had the primaryresponsibility for agriculture throughout Africa andhow that role has affected their knowledge, relationshipwith and sensitivity towards the environment. It dis-cusses why and how women need support to carry outtheir roles and how to communicate with women, learnfrom their indigenous techniques and incorporate newagricultural knowledge into agricultural projects at thelocal level. The manual is structured in a how-to formatand contains diagrams. charts and other key points.

Using Indigenous Knowledge in .4gricultural Devel-opment by D.M. Warren, World Bank Publications,P.O. Box 7247-8619, Philadelphia, PA 19170 USA.Cost: US$6.95 + 3.50 shipping and handling. 46pages.

This Wor'd Bank discussion paper published in coordi-nation with the Center for Indigenous Knowledge forAgriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) reviewsprojects Which relied or incorporated indigenous knowl-edge into their structure and those which did not. Con-clusions are drawn.

Reaping without Weeping: A Guide to Safe Manage-ment in Applications of Chemicals in Agriculture,


Caribbean Network for Integrated Rural Development,40 Eastern Main Road, At. Augustine, Trinidad.

This cartoon booklet graphically illustrates problems relatedto using chemicals in agriculture. The experiences of threefamilies show the consequences of certain risks and the howother family members have avoided sickness and deaththrough cautious behaviors,

Videos

4 Fragile Paradise: the Environmental Challenge of LatinAmerica, Communications Unit, CIAT, A.A. 6713, Cali,Colombia. fax: 57-23-647243. 27 minutes. Spanish,English. Available in most formats.

This video focuses on environmental problems and de-scribes strategies to increase food production in an environ-mentally sustainable manner. It was filmed in Costa Rica,Haiti, Brazil and Colombia and was a joint venture betweenCIAT and AGCOM, an agricultural communication com-pany.

Stringing Out for Change: Puppets in the Hills andSharing Knowledge: Communication for SustainableDevelopment, created by the Food and Agriculture0:3anization, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100Rome, Italy, fax: 06-57953152. Cost: US$40 each. Spanish(NTSC format in VHS or Betamax), French (VHS PALor SECAM formats), English (VHS PAL or NTSC).

These two videos show FAO-supported development com-munication in action and how various projects work. String-ing Out for Change, a twenty-one minute video, depicts howlittle theater has worked as a communication strategy inBurundi, and shows how to adapt plays and train communi-cators to use themedium. SharingKnowledge concen-trates on how com-munication can beused to share infor-mation among ruralpeople, techniciansand planners sothat developmenttakes indigenoustechnologies andpeople's real needsinto account.

1 8 .0P, ;1110P ."10'1 "

Conferences

The Association for the Advancement of Computing intducation (AACE). is sponsoring Ed-Media 93, the WorldConference on Educational Multimedia andHypermedia from June 23 - 26, 1993, in Orlando, Florida,USA The conference serves as a multi-media forum torthe dissemination of information on the research, devel-opment and applications of media for all levels of educa-tion For more information, contact AACE at PO Box 2966,

Charlottesville, VA 22902, USA, tel. (804) 973-3987, fax(804) 978-7449; e-mail. AACE©Virgmia Edu

The International Communication Association an-nounces its 43rd annual conference from Mav 27-31, 1993in Washington, DC, USA. The conference theme, Facesand Interfaces: Communicating Across Disciplines, willconsider the various relationships of communication toother fields through presentations and exchange of re-search and educational strategies. For information, con-tact Akiba A. Cohen, Dept. of Communication and Jour-nalism, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91905 Jerusalem,Israel. tel: 972-2-883052; fax: 972-2-827069; e-mail:KCUACC)HUJIVMLBITNET

The South East Asian Research Review and UniversitiBrunei Darussalam are organizing the conference To-wards Education for All from September 20-23, 1993 inBrunei Darussalam to focus on the progress made in theASEAN region since the World Conference on Educaticnfor All held in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990. For informationor to submit a paper, contact: Organizing Committee,Faculty of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam,Gadong 3186 Brunei Darussalam. tel:(673) 2 427001;fax:(673) 2 427003.

The Asian Network of Women in Communication(ANWIC) is organizing a Forum on Networking and Ad-vocacy in New Dehli, India in September, 1993. The forumwill also discuss the network's participation in the globalconference on Women Empowering Communication to beheld in Bangkok, Thailand in February, 1994. For informa-tion, onctact: ANWIC, 14 Jangpura B, Mathura Road, NewDelhi 110014, India. tel: (11) 619821

Courses

Larenstein International Agricultural College Deventeroffers a midcareer course in rural extension and teachingfor agricultural extension workers. The program has both

a theoretical and practical component and runs from Juneuntil August each year. For more information and entry

What's New, What's Coming

"a

requirements, contact: LIACD, PO Box 7, 7400 AADeventer, The Netherlands. tel: 31 5700-84600; fax: 315700-84608.

The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agri-culture (ILCA) offers courses on development communi-cation including Mass Communication for RuralDevelop-tnent, Planning Communication Projects to Support RuralDevelopment, Video Production and Principles cif DistanceEducation. For information, contact: IICA, Apartado 55-2200, Coronado, Costa Rica. tel: 506-29-0222; fax: 206-29-

348' .

The International Program for Agricultural KnowledgeSystems (Interpaks), a multi-disciplinary program at theUniversity of Illinois ot Urbana-Champaign, is introduc-ing Improving Organization and Management: A shortcourse for Extension Administratoes. The series of shortcourses includes all levels of management, such as ana-lyzing performance, targeting special groups, leadershipand using computers to improve extension management.Dates for 1993 are September 7 - October 13, 1993. Forinformation, contact: Director of Interpaks, University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign, 110 Mumford Hall, 1301West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801 USA. tel: (217)333-5834; fax: (217) 333-5838.

King Alfred's College, University of Southampton hasintroduced a full-time, one year program in Televisionfor Development leading to a masters degree. Thecoursework links television and video production withprocesses of poverty and develop-ment and prepares developmentworkers for work in communica-tion and the media. For informa-tion, contact: The Admissions Of-fice, King Alfred's College,Sparkford Road, Winchester, S02?.4NR England. fax: (0962) 842280.

201 9 Development Communication Report, no. 80

Being a Good Communicator Doesn't Solve all of Extension's Problemsyes tut...

by Willem Zijp

n estimated '600,000 people currently work in ex-tension services worldwide. Ninety percent workfor governments, 80% are field workers and 13%

are women. Since the 1960s, countless extension agents havepracticed their art to communicate new technologies and infor-mation to farmers throughout the world.

But being good communicators has not solved extension'sbasic organizational problems. Indeed, agricultural extensionagencies in the 1990s are beginning to show greater interest indeveloping a more system-wide communication approach toagricultural information where smaller private initiatives areless likely to be crowded out and the supply and demand forinformation are better identified. In order to achieve these goals,agricultural extension projects and organizations need to bealert and willing to confront the symptoms of an outdated sys-tem and look for ways to rebuild it.

Symptoms of an outdated systemThe following basic cracks in extension planning and imple-

mentation continue to impede successful communication strat-egies and well-intentioned extension efforts.

The lack of common ground. Many extension projects havefailed because not enough time was spent building consensusbetween farmers and extension agents and communicatingacross extension efforts. Symptoms include: a) insufficient ex-tension agent knowledge of farmers in terms of gender, farmingsystems and constraints to change; b) a large number of differ-ent and overlapping extension structures; c) insufficient mutualreinforcement of extension, research and education; and d) sup-ply-driven programs which neglect skill gaps among staff.

The lack of accountability with clientele. In many cases, exten-sion projects have lost credibility due to the unforeseen nega-tive consequences of their suggestions. Poor extension designshave included: a) a poor fit between the needs of diverse farm-ers and the messages supplied; b) demonstrations with limitedapplicability for most farmers; c) biased farmer selection; d)concentration on irrigated crops to the detriment of naturalresources management, rainfed agriculture and livestock pro-duction; and e) bad management routines, including a lack ofincentives.

An expanding audience. Farmers are not the only users of in-formation. Policy makers and researchers generate, transfer andutilize information too. Extension has not been very effective inchanging policy makers behavior because, first, extension oftenlacks the diagnostic and editorial skills to uncover farmer'sperceptions, and second, policy makers seldom ask.

Lack of policy consistency. Few national extension servicesand donors have formulated exact policies, objectives, targetclients and expected output. Without explicit extension poli-cies, the debate on methods and approaches has forced choices

Devebpment,Oommunication Report, no. 80

which are not articulated within the rest of the national agricul-tural policy. The result has been confusion or conflict amongfinanciersipolicy makers and extension planners over whatexactly they are trying to achieve.

Recommendations for better extensionAn improvement in efficiency and effectiveness could be

achieved in four ways:

Shared objectives. Organizations where staff and clients worktowards a common goal are more successful. Extension servicesneed to get to know their farmers better. Participatory diagnos-tic surveys, carried out by teams of farmers, researchers andextension staff from the public and private sectors and workingin a limited area for a few weeks, are a start. Priorities for exten-sion and research need to be established from the results, andtasks need to be distributed among all parties to build a com-mon commitment. A follow-up training plan needs to be estab-lished based on a skill gap analysis which compares what isneeded in terms of extension staff levels, gender, experience,skillo and attitudes with what is actually available.

Stronger accountability. Accountability often boils down to theinput farmers have during the period of extension services; forinstance: a) direct control over part of the public extension bud-get; b) contracts between farmers, government and advisoryservices which specify target audience and desired changes infarmer behavior; and c) private or commercial opportunitiesassociated with the new agricultural practice.

A system-wide approach to information. While extension man-agers have learned to be more perceptive of changes in farmer'sneeds, information should also be looked at system-wide, to in-clude education, research, extension and farmers' knowledge.Delivery systems need to shift from an almost exclusive focuson production to providing advice that improves farmers' in-come and quality of life; from recommendations for on-farmactivities to counseling for related off-farm and non-farm activi-ties; and from mostly public extension to a mix of public, pri-vate and farmer organizations.

Comprehensive policies. Comprel ensive policies for agricul-tural information are needed to respond to expanded and dif-ferent information needs from a widening audience. More at-tention needs to be given to information demand and supplyand technologies which facilitate information sharing.

Agricultural communication has challenges ahead. Nolonger can extension agents bear the full responsibility for poorextension. It is time to broaden the vision to include changes inthe organization of extension projects and the parties participat-ing in the communication process.

Zijp ts a Semor Extemwn Specialist at the tVorhl Rank I le can be reachillat:1818 H Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20433 UsA, fax: (202) 334-0473.

20 21

V & CEPANTNENT OF EDUCATION"es Eclucelamet Reeeerch end Improvement

DUCATIONAL RESOU.4:ES INFORMATIONCENTER E NCI

' Thrs dOCuMent hos Won reproduced sreceived from the person Of orpenrzaboncsAlaselasp a

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To Our Readers:This DCR issue focuses on"interactivity" and learning tech-

nologies Translations are available In Frenchand Spanish Educational researchers and education and communication projects around theworld are discovering that interactivity in learn-ing not only increases learning outcomes andretention rates, but also expands students ca-pacity for learning.

This Issue contains articles about severalforms of interactivity from the cutting edge otmulti-media technology to interactive theaterand storytelling.

-N

I 11

People Based Interactive Instruction:A Workshop by Thiagi

v IThiagarajan

;4,1

conducted my first "experimentalstudy" in interactive instruc-tional technology in 1965 in Ma-

t dras, India. Inspired bv an articleby 0. K. Moore about talking typewriters,my students and I created a cardboard mock-up of a computer with wires connecting it toan old typewriter keyboard. We pasted a

selected set of letteis trom the Tamil alpha-bet on the keys

Our "subjects" were preschool children.A child sat in front of the computer andwhen he or she pressed a letter on the key-board, a voice from inside the computerenunciated the sound of the letter. If thechild typed two or three letters in succes-

continued on p.2

Cutting Edge Multimedia Technologies:Promise and Pitfalls

finice Orodinanhe variety, the power, and theflexibility of computer-basedmultimedia training technolo-gies is exploding. Each year, thecapability of the new technolo-

gies increases dramatically. Technologiesthat were "cutting edge" only a year or twoago, today are considered limited.

Nonetheless, it is worthwhile to under-stand the newest multimedia technologiesand their potential for use in both develop-

ing and developed countries, even iftomorrow's technology breakthrough maymake render them obsolete to someusers.

Back to the Future withMulti-media

Once upon a time, "multi-media"meant that a human being usedvideo, slides, and audio tapes as partof his/her presentation. Today,

continued on p.5

22

No 811993/2

Inside this Issue ...

4401Development

Communication Report

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Workshop by Thiagi, cont'd from p.1

sion, the computer pronounced them closeto each other, thereby creating a word.Through a series of exercises, several chil-dren, including my two-year old son,learned basic phonics of the Tamil lan-guage.

An Approach to Interactive Instruction

The secret of our talking computer wasan older student from my wife's third gradeclassroom hidden inside the cardboard"computer." Through carefully hiddenpeep holes in the front, this person, who wecalled the "pseudocomp," saw which keysthe child was pressing. After a sufficientpause, he said the correct sound. We "pro-grammed" the pseudocomp on exactlywhat.to do and hciw to do it. For backup,we trained sever& other third graders to actthe part. Later on, when our cardboard con-traption fell apart, we discovered that itwas not the hardware, but the softwarewhich produced effective learning. Newbatches of children sat in front of the key-board and the unhidden pseudocomp andwent through the interactive process. Thenovelty was not there, but the childrenlearned phonetic Tamil.

This study was the beginning of ourinterest in an approach to learning technol-ogy which we labeled People-Based Interac-tive Instruction (PBII).

Two Secrets of Effective Instruction

For the past 30 years I have been in-volved in designing and delivering PBIIaround the world, frequently under theguidance of Professor Douglas Filson atIndiana University. While many factorshave contributed to the effectiveness of thisapproach, there were basically two impor-tant elements:

People learn most effectively from otherpeople. Several anthropological, sociologi-cal, cultural, and psychological principlessupport this generalization. In most learn-ing situations (especially in basic literacy)people constitute the most cost-effectiveinstructional nwdiurn.

People need a structure to produce opti-mum interactivity in the learning process.

Development Communication Report, no. 81 2.

While inspired teachers may sometimesproduce brilliant results, not every situa-tion can affordor requiresuch an inspi-rational person. But for reliable and consis-tent results, almost anyone who knows thesubject can be an efficient interactive in-structor, provided we "prograin" theirbehavior to provide an interactive struc-ture.

l'hree Components of Effective In-struction

23

Instructional technologists are generallyfond of electronic media and suspicious ofpeople. They are frequently obsessed withusing the instructional system over thehuman element. We agree that in generalpeople are less reliable and predictablethan a microprocessor, but that is why wehave the programming component in PBII.

To understand the rationale for pro-gramming instructional behaviors, let usexplore the three essential events in effec-tive instruction. Independent of one's psy-chological or philosophical frame of refer-ence, everyone would agree on these threeessential elements of interactive instruc-tion:

1) Presenting new information to thelearner

2) Eliciting a response from the learner

3) Giving feedback to the learner

People are very effective in presentingnew information, especially in languagearts and basic skills. They can even providethe information to nonreaders.

People are very effective in elicitinglearner responses. Their mere physicalpresence makes it difficult for the learner toignore the question. People can use severalverbal and nonverbal cues to encourageand prompt the response.

People are very effective in providingfeedback. People can process spoken re-sponses much more efficiently and reliablythan the most sophisticated computer.They can probe for the causes of the learn-ers' error and correct them at the appropri-ate level of difficulty. They can smile,praise, and socially teinforce the learner.

Several studies arot nd the world dem-

al,

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onstrate the effectiveness of PBII. Fieldworkers from the Institute for InternationalResearch, for example, have implementedlarge-scale programmed teaching and pro-grammed learning (two of the most docu-mented approaches to PBII) projects in thePhilippines, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Liberia,and Belize. Other groups have demonstratedthe power of this approach with othergroups of learners in different curricularareas around the world.

Four Types of PM

A successful PBII effort can use one ormore of the following four types of peopleas the key component in interactive instruc-tion:

Teacfiers. Teachers are the most obviouschoice. An PBII approach called pro-grammed teaching has demonstrated itseffectiveness with teachers, especially dur-ing the early years of primary education. Inthis approach, interactive instructional ma-terials consist of two components: contentmaterials and operational materials. Contentmaterials contain information to be presentedto the learners in the form of pictures, let-ters, words. These materials are designed bycurriculum specialists, using the best avail-able information in the subject area. Opera-tional materials tell the teacher exactly whatto show, say, and do to present new infor-mation, elicit learner responses, and to pro-vide feedback. These materials are designedby learning technologists, using the bestavailable information from behavioral andcognitive sciences.

Educators are usually concerned aboutprogramming creative teachers into me-chanical performances. Thirty years ofwork in programmed teaching around theworld reveals very little resistance fromprimary school teachers. Most of them areeager to follow specific directions (in con-trast to the vague guidelines usuallyhanded down to them) because they cansee the'children actually learning.

Tutors. Tutors can provide interactive in-struction to individual learners and tosmall groups. In project PAMONG in thePhilippines, sixth-grade students act astutors for first-grade children. Using spe-cially designed materials that are similar toprogrammed-teaching materials, olderstudents and paraprofessionals can pro-vide mainstream and remedial instructionto learners.

Parents. Parents make excellent tutors andteachers for their children. Wherever moti-vated and literate parents are available,they can provide basic instruction in theclassroom and at home using speciallydesigned Parent-Assisted Learning materi-als. Most parents appreciate the opportu-nity and the tools to help in their children'slearning process.

Peers. Peers can be pro-grammed to deliverinteractive instruction toeach other. In theLiberian Improved Effi-ciency of Learning (IEL)Project, for example,learners in grades fourthrough six use peer-learning materials in allsubject areas. These ma-terials provide the con-tent to be cooperativelystudied by teams oflearners. Different mem-bers of the team taketurns being the leader.Using a leader's manual,the team leaders requiretheir teammates to re-spond to questions andprovide feedback in the

continued on p 4

243

UNICEF/I.Schytte:WE


Workshop by Thiagi, cont'd from p.3

form of the correct answer. Evaluation datafrom the project demonstrate that this ap-proach to PBII retains the demonstratedeffectiveness of peer-tutoring and increasesits reliability.

Five Steps in Designing PIM Materials

The steps in designing a PBII system aresimilar to the steps in the design of anyother instructional system. Here are the keycomponents.

1. Human resources analysis. Begin byidentifying different types of people in thesituation who can be integrated in the PBIIsystem. Determine what role can be playedby teachers, paraprofessionals, older stu-dents, parents, and peers.

2. Curriculum analysis. Identify the instruc-tional content and objectives. Prepare anoutline for the lesson.

3. Content design. Prepare instructionalmaterials, using the most appropriate me-dia, taking into account the needs of instruc-tional objeci'yes, learners, and teachers.Most PBII materials use printed bookletsand poster. Audiotapes and radio broad-casis can provide additional information.

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4. Activities design. Using the content ma-terials, prepare appropriate operationalprograms to guide the teacher, tutor, orteam leader to deliver interactive instruc-tion. Depending on the nature of the task,design a consistent set of steps for present-ing information, prompting the learner,and providing feedback. For example, ifyou are teaching a concept, the standardoperation may involve presenting ex-amples, asking questions about similaritiesand differences among the examples, andpointing out critical features of the ex-amples.

5. Evaluation and revision. Evaluate thePBII system at various stages of its devel-opment and make appropriate revisions:When the content materials are ready, testthem directly with the learners. After revis-ing these materials to an appropriate levelof reliability, test the operational programswith teachers, tutors, or team leaders.Make suitable adjustments to the proce-dures until different people are able toproduce the same consistent results.

Conclusion

To explain the design and delivery ofPBII, Professor Ellson uses the analogy ofcomposers and musicians. A few compos-ers design music which is then played byseveral musicians. Very few musicianshave the talent or the need to composetheir own music. They use their talent tofaithfully reproduce the composer's cre-ation. In the same fashion, a few learningtechnologists and curriculum specialistscan design interactive instructional sys-tems. Several other people can use theirefforts and talents to implement the systemin a reliable fashion.

Millions of people around the worldhave the basic subject-matter knowledge todeliver interactive instruction to millionsof learners. To tap into this vast resource,we need a few learning technologists tocompose the interactive instructional mu-sic and set the stage for reliable implemen-tation.

Sipasailam Thiagareian is president of Work-shops by Thiagi, 4423 East Trailridge Road,Bloomington, IN 47408-9633 USA; tel: (812)332-1478; fax:(812) 332-5701.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Multimedia Technologies, cont'd from p.1

"multi-media" still doeswith graphicsand animation thrown in all presented bya microcomputer-driven system. The aimsare identical: to engage the learner, to pro-vide "life-like" experience and to keeplearners from becoming bored.

Today, "multimedia" technologies in-cludes five major types:

Computer-based training (CBT) usingthe newest machines

+ Compact disc - read only memory(CD-ROM)

+ Interactive videodisc (IVD)

+ Compact disc - interactive (CD-I)

+ Digital video interactive (DVI)

They all offer the following major fea-tures, though not always with the samequality and power.

Multiple media. These media include text,still pictures, sound, graphics, animationand some video, which can range fromcrude to excellent. The expectation is thatthis combination can teach more effec-tively than any single medium alone.

Interactivity. These mkrocornputer-driventechnologies let the learner participate(although participation may mean simplypushing a button to choose from alterna-tives), and they respond to the learner'schoices (e.g., with corrections or furtherinformation).

Self-paced learning. Many multimediaprograms "tailor" instruction to thelearner. The technologies vary in their abil-ity to run such programs, however. Thebest programs test the learner and pace theinstruction to his or her knowledge andprogress.

Independent instruction. Most multime-dia programs are designed to be usedwithout an instructor. As a result, they cansubstitute when there is no instructoravailable to teach a particular topic. Theycan also provide basic instruction, freeinginstructors to teach more complex subjects.This feature also provides a "safe" envi-

ronment where learners can make mistakeswithout worrying that they will be embar-rassed in front of others.

"Instantly available" instruction. Theequipment can be placed in an accessiblearea, e.g., an office or on the factory floor.In this way, workers can take trainingcourses when it is convenient rather thanhaving to leave work for scheduled classes.

Consistent, high quality instruction. Be-cause the programs will be used by a largenumber of learners, it is financially feasibleto spend far more time and money to createhigh quality programs than even the bestinstructor can do.

Skills measurement. The technologies canmeasure competency, monitor learners'progress, and ensure that learners havereached a particular skill level before theyproceed.

Simulated "hands on" experience. Someoffer only very limited "hands on" trainingin computer use. Others, especially IVDand DVI, can provide simulated "handson" training that substitutes for sophisti-cated equipment, complex or dangeroussituations, or trips to the field. Exceptionalprograms even offer experience that couldnot be gained in a real "hands on" situation(see sidebar).

Rugged equipment. Like microcomputersgenerally, multimedia systems are quiterugged, hold up well for long periods, andcan survive considerable variation in cli-mate. Naturally, they won't survive abuse,but if treated reasonably well, multimediasystems will last many years needing littleor no repair.

Ease of use. Multimedia systems are gener-ally easy to use. Programs can be designedeven for learners with little or no literacy ornumeracy skills.

Each of the five types of multimedia hasparticular advantages and disadvantages.In considering the use of multimedia, it isimportant to consider these trade-offs.

continued on p.6

The aims of

multi-media

are to engage

the learner, to

provide "life-

like"

experiences

and to keep

learners from

becoming

bored.

2 6.5 Development CommunIcation Report, no. 81


In India, an

IVD program

provides

engineers with

feedback,

guidance, and

an opportunity

to "try out"

different styles

of working

with water

11.50'5.

CBT

We use the term "computer-based training"(CBT) here to refer to microcomputers alone,without add-on equipment such as CD-ROM,IVD or CD-I players. There are two majortypes of microcomputers: IBM-PC compatible(PCs) equipment and Macintosh equipment.Both types begin at around $900 for the low-end and run up to $6,000 or more for newequipment. Used equipment can be consider-ably cheaper.

Advantages. All Macintosh microcomputers,even the low end, offer sound, animation, pic-tures, and even soine video (though it is verylimited and crude on the low end machines).The new PCs (80486 generation) offer the samemultimedia features, but at a higher price.

If you have access to a good quality tele-phone line, then a major benefit of microcom-puters is their ability to link to electronic net-works. Through them you can access informa-tion, and communicate with other users, in-cluding experts, from all over the world. To doso, you will need a modem.

Disadvantages. Traditional CDT programs tendto be text-intensive, repetitive, andunimaginative. Even newer CBT programsoffer more limited and lower quality visualsthan do other multimedia systems.

How it is used: CBT is usually most effective ifit is part of an instructor-led training programrather than used alone. A wide range of CBTprograms are available today, and even mid-range programs can be impressive. One ex-ample is the "Electronic Workbench," a train-ing program that gives students simulatedhands-on experience with technical equipmentand procedures. There are also many excellentprograms that help improve basic skills(reading, mathematics). Even traditional CBTprograms can be effective for drill and practicetasks because the programs provide consistenttraining and immediate feedback (somethingyou can rarely get in a classroom).

Caution. CBT programs are numerous and varywidely in quality. It is important to be able toidentify high-quality CBT software at reason-able prices.

Development Communication Report, no. 81, 27

CD-ROM

A CD-ROM (compact disc-read onlymemory) system consists of a CD-ROM drivelinked to a microcomputer.

Advantages. A CD-ROM system lets you tostore a huge volume of informationequal toan entire encyclopediaon a single compactdisc. The information can be in the form ofcomputer graphics, animation, text, sound,still pictures, and low quality video. If youalready own a microcomputer, adding theCD-ROM drive is relatively cheapabout$200.

Disadvantages. CD-ROMs are slow comparedwith other multimedia systems. They alsooffer very limited and primitive motion video.This makes them inappropriate for sOme ap-plicationssuch as training in a medical pro-cedure, which depends on showing clearvideo of the actions taken.

How it is used. CD-ROM programs often pro- .

vide instruction via text enhanced by pictures(graphics, animation or photos) and sound.For example, CD-ROM instruction on enginerepair might provide a text explanation, alongwith a graphic image of the enginethe visu-als to illustrate the malfunction, and thesound to represent the engine malfunction.

There is a huge number of "off-the-shelf"training and education CD-ROMs from whichto choose, available at prices from $14 to over$300.

Caution. Make sure the CD-ROM drive youare purchasing actually plays the programs ofyour choice.

INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC

Interactive videodisc (IVD) combines ex-cellent video, still frames, text, graphics, ani-mation, and sound. IVD systems consist of amicrocomputer, a laserdisc player, and mayhave a special monitor.

Advantages. IVD provides far better qualityvideo than CD-ROM or CDT and has quickresponse time. It can handle more complexprograms than can CDI. It is better establishedthan DVI.

In general, U.S. companies that want amultimedia training technology with goodvideo tend to choose IVD rather than thealternatives.

IVD can provide excellent simulated"hands on" training, building problem-solv-ing and decision-making skills that learnersneed in "real life" situations.

Evaluation results of IVD in the U.S. con-sistently show that people learn faster andretain information longer with IVD thanwith conventional training methods.

Disadvantages. IVD systems are generallymore expensive than CBT, CD-ROM andlow-end CDI. If you already own a micro-computer, adding IVD will cost from $750to $4,800, depending on the components.

Another disadvantage of IVD is the lackof standards. As a result, some IVD pro-grams (especially older programs) will onlyrun on certain IVD systems; they must be re-programmed to run on others.

How it is used. IVD is often used when"hands on" experience is important and isdifficult, dangerous, or expensive to pro-vide.

There is a large number (over 2,000) of"off-the-shelf" videodiscs in various skillsareas. In the U.S., IVD is most widely usedin medical training, industrial training, pro-fessional training, and training in safe prac-tices. For example, IVD programs can putmedical students in life-like situationswhere they learn to make rapid, accuratedecisions, without endangering the lives ofreal patients. IVD can substitute for equip-ment for which damage would be expen-sive, e.g., teaching truck driving under haz-ardous conditions, or teaching weldingskills. IVD has been used by companies inseveral developing countries, includingIndia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt,Mexico, and others to provide industrialskills and safety training.

Caution. Be sure that the IVD system youpurchase will run the programs that youwant to use.

DIGITAL VIDEO INTERACTIVE

Digital video interactive (DVI) offersvideo, still frames, graphics, animation,

Interactive Videodisc in India:High Tech Options for Development

Communication

In India, a pilot project was conducted by Education DevelopmentCenter, under contract with the U.S. Agency for International Develop-ment, to see whether interactive videodisc (IVD) could help train thethousands of irrigation engineers India will need in the coming decade.

The project developed five IVD programs on irrigation managementand trained Indian trainers in IVD development. The IVD programscovered topics ranging from technical content to "interpersonal skills."Programs "take" the engineers to the field without the expense oftransportation. They provide training from top experts. They offer fea-tures that could not be provided in any other way.

For example, the program "Working with Water User Associations"lets engineers interact with water users over different issues, and seehow farmers respond to the engineer's behavior and communicationstyle. The program provides feedback and guidance, and gives engi-neers an opportunity to "try out" different styles of working with waterusers and see the response.

The program "Diagnosing Maintenance Problems and TheirCauses" sharpens engineers' ability to identify maintenance problemsand their causes in irrigation systems. The program lets the trainee"travel" along three irrigation canals, and diagnose maintenance prob-lems in over 100 sites. The trainee can examine the canal both "wet"(with water flowing) and "dry" (without water) by simply clicking a but-tona valuable experience that would be difficult to provide even withtrips to the field. The trainee diagnoses the problems, gets informationfeedback for correct and incorrect answers, and a score that mea-sures his/her diagnostic skills.

The response to the IVD programs has been enthusiastic on thepart of the Indian training institutes and the Ministry of Water Re-

sources. Upon reviewing the IVD programs, the Central Water Com-mission decided to house systems in Delhi in order to make themmore accessible to engineers from all over India.

sound, and text. A DVI system typically in-cludes a microcomputer (80386 with at least25 MHz or 80486), a DVI board in the com-puter, and a hard drive of at least 200 MB or aCD-ROM.

Advantages. DVI offers many of the same ad-vantages as IVDmotion video, quick re-sponse time, complex programs. in addition,MI stores video digitally, on the computerrather than on a videodisc. As a result, it ischeaper for producers to modify the videoand pictures on DVI than on IVD.

Disadvantages. A major disadvantage is DVI'srelatively recent development. Unlike IVD,there are no "tried and true" DVI systems. As

continued on p.8

28

BEST COPY AVAILABLF



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a result, it canbe difficult, timeconsuming, andexpensive to puttogether a DVIsystem that windo what youwant. There areother disadvan-tages: DVI videois not as good as

that of IVD. DVI programs with a lot of videorequire microcomputers with very large harddrives. Unlike IVD, DVI does not have thelarge number of "off-the-shelf" programsfrom which to choose.

DVI systems are also expensive, generallysomewhat more expensive than IVD systems.In addition to the cost of a microcomputer, aDVI system components cost about $2,500 (forthe DVI board and a large hard drive or CD-ROM drive). However, those prices are ex-pected to drop considerably this year.

I: 1. DV1 programs are generallyused for technical training or as kiosks forgetting information. For example, in SaudiArabia and Egypt DVI kiosks are placed inschool lobbies and provide information tostudents on health practices, such as AIDs-related behavior and illegal drugs.

.;;,t; IN If you are considering purchasing aDVI system, be sure that the particular DV1system you are buying can actually do every-thing claimed by the vendor.

CD-I

Compact Disc-Interactive (CD-I) systemswere originally conceived and designed to bea single unit entertainment system.

;:uI., Low-end CDIs are usuallycheaper than IVD, DVI, CD-ROM, or CBTsystems (as low as $800) and deliver text,graphics, animation, sound, still pictures, andsome video.

; . Low-end CD1 system providelimited, video game-like capacity, with lessinstructional complexity than typical 1VD,DVI, CD-ROM or CBT programs. In general,CD1 is less appropriate than 1VD or DVI for


"hands on" training, especially if video isimportant. Low-end CDI systems can notmeasure student competency. More powerfulCD-I systems do exist, but they are also moreexpensiveapproximately the same as a Mid-range videodisc system (approximately$2,200).

Note that if yOu already own a microcom-puter:

It is cheaper to add CD-ROM than to buya CD-I system

It may be cheaper to add an IVD systemthan to buy a high-end CDI system -- andyou'll get more power

i.CDI is generally used for kiosk-type public information delivery, as well asfor other relatively sfmple training programs.Many of the existing CD-I discs are simplyelectronic databases.

CD-1 appears to be most appropriate forprograms that require a combination ofsound, photo images, limited video, text andgraphics, and are relatively simple in contentand design.

Low-end CD-I might provide value fordeveloping countries in two ways:

As a multimedia storage medium instruc-tors can use to illustrate material dis-cussed in the classroom, or to demon-strate material or examples that cannot becovered in the classroom.

As a delivery system for "public informa-tion," or for simple training.A final notemultimedia offers exciting

training options for developing countries. Butthe impact of any technology depends onpeople. A talented designer creates programsthat bring out the best in a particular technol-ogy. A talented teacher uses the technology sothat it enhances learning. An innovative edu-cation system provides incentives that en-courage teachers to use the technology effec-tively. In sum, only human beings determinewhether multimedia will be powerful learn-ing tools, or simply bulky bookends.

fanice Brodman is Director of the Center forInnovative Management Technologies at EducationDevelopment Center, 55 Chapel Street, Newton,MA 02160 USA. tel:(617) 969-7100; fax: (617) 332-6405.

Rethinking Interactivity:Lessons from Interactive Radio Instruction

by Jeanne Moultonjinteractive Radio Instruction hasgained worldwide attention as a low-cost means of helping children learnin schools with poorly trained teach-

ers and few additional resources. Yet the"interactive" character of this strategy hastaken new forms as new programs have beendesigned in different subject areas, for differ-ent groups of students, and using differentmedia.

In the Radio Mathematics program intro-duced in Nicaragua in 1974, interactivity wascharacterized as a "conversation" betweenthe radio teacher and the students. The radioteacher posed questions to which studentsresponded in chorus at a rapid pace. Sincethen, interactive radio instruction has beingused to teach children and adults basic lan-guage and science, to instruct them in goodhealth practices, to promote environmentalprotection, and to train teachers.

Limits of "conversation"At each stage of its adaptation from one

use to another, program designers havefaced different kinds of learning objectives,resulting in new challenges. They have en-countered limitations in using "interactivity"and "conversation" interchangeably andhave looked for ways to adapt the model:

+ Designers of the Radio Language ArtsProgram piloted in the early 1980s inKenya had to find ways to allow studentsto express a range of answers to a singlequestion. While many questions in basicmath have only one correct answer ("twoplus two is four;" "three times four istwelve"), even simple questions in lan-guage arts are likely to have more thanone right answer ("What are you doing?""I'm talking with you." "We're learningEnglish."). The fast-paced conversationdoes not work as well in teaching lan-guage.Mastery of basic math and languageskills require that students spend manyhours learning numbers and letters andthe most fundamental operations andconcepts. But the designers of Radio Sci-encea project undertaken in PapuaNew Guinea in the late 1980swanted to

encourage inquiry and problem solvingskills To reach their objectives, theyneeded to help students explore naturalphenomena and ask open-ended ques-tions.The Radio Health and Radio Environ-mental Education projects introduced inBolivia and Costa Rica respectively inthe 1990s are aimed not only at teachingknowledge but also at changing behav-ior. The radio teachers need to help stu-dents apply what they learn in the class-room to their lives at home and in thecommunity. A series of rapid-pacedquestions and answers does not go farenough in promoting behavior change.Fortunately, the initial characterization of

interactive radio instruction as "conversa-tion" has long since been expanded to in-clude other kinds of interactivity. For ex-ample, Radio Language Arts used the radioas a "door" to an imaginary world in whichEnglish was spoken. Radio Science used theradio teacher to guide students and teachersin conducting hands-on demonstrations andin answering open-ended questions. RadioEnvironmental Education supplements thebroadcasts in the classroom with broadcaststo the community.

Learning Principles of Radio Math

In adapting these projects, designers maybe tempted to diverge from the originallearning principles that were the foundationof Radio Mathematics and that gave rise tothe "conversation" mode of interactivity:

continued on p.10

These Bolivian schoolchildren are learning math through interactive radio instruction.

Development Comrnunlatkin. Report, no. 81

Rethinking Interactivity, cont'd from p.9

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Students learn best from active engage-ment in the tasks they do.

Students learn best by practicing newskills in short lessons distributed overdays, weeks, or months.

0.. The instructional design must be rigor-ous.

t Correct student responses must be rein-forced immediately.It appears that we need to reexamine the

usefulness of defining "interactivity" as sim-ply a conversation, and look again at thevalue of interactivity in Radio Mathematicsas well as in subsequent interactive radioinstructional programs. For this purpose, it isuseful to look at a broader definition of"interactivity" used in the design of distancelearning materials and at the progress madesince the time of Radio Mathematics by edu-cational psychologists interested in howpeople learn.

The value of interactivity

Although interactive radio instructionmay not always "look and sound like" RadioMathematics, it can be an effective course ofinstruction as long as it adheres to a broaderdefinition of interactivity. Distance learningmedia, including radio, television, comput-ers, and print materials, often incorporateinteractive formats. The pedagogical value ofthese interactive programs is their ability to:


actively engage the students in thelearmng materials, and

: present highly structured lessons thatallow the radio teacher to control thesequence and pace of learning activities

Contributions of recent learningtheory

Recent advances in learning theory canoffer guidance in adapting interactive radioinstruction to the challenges of teachinglanguage, science, and social studies Cog-nitive learning theories focus on the struc-ture and processes of the mind These theo-ries have replaced some behaviorist theo-ries which focused only on observable be-havior and which served as foundations forRadio Mathematics.

Psychologists now believe that the mindis a dynamic organ divided into long-termmemory and working memory. While long-term memory has an unlimited capacity tostore information, working memory has alimited capacity and a limited duration.

The processes of the mind are learning,remembering, and thinking.

is the process of adding tolong-term memory. , Jana u.cis moving information from workingmemory into long-term memory. .:iirai v.arii:):; is the process of trans-forming a deliberate, step-by-step pro-cessing activity into an automatic pro-cessing activity.

Remembering is the process of activatinga previously stored memory representa-tion.

Thinking is the process of the mindlearning from itself. Thinking involvessolving problems, forming new con-cepts, and making decisions.

The implications of this model of themind support the principles on which Ra-dio Mathematics was based: active engav-ment of the learner, distributed learning,rigorous instructional design, and rein-forcement of correct responses.

Additional learning guidelines

Cognitive learning theory also offersnew guidelines that can guide the develop-

ment of interactive instruction in subjectslike science and social studies as well as inmath and language: The guidelines that wehave derived from these principles are to:

Teach procedural knowledge and learningstrategies as well as declarative knowledge.In all subjects, students master the ma-terial better when the basic proceduresrequired for problem solving comewith little effort. Similarly, studentswho learn well in a subject do so inpart because they have developedlearning stategies.

Help students to recognize their existingconstructs and to modify those constructswith the acquisition of new information.Recent learning theory emphasizes thatwe must "unlearn" representations ofknowledge already in the mind so thatthey can be replaced with more accu-rate representations. Lessons shouldinclude activities that encourage stu-dents to state aloud or write downwhat they know about a concept beforeit is taught in order to help them relatethe new knowledge to the existing con-cept.

Provide ineaningful links between nayknowledge and real problems, concepts,and decisions. Designers- of interactiveradio programs have recognized thatmost of their students would end theircareer in school after five or six years,and that therefore their basic skillsshould be developed with practicalrather than academic applications inmind. Cognitive learning theory givesus another reason for linking lessons inthe classroom to real-life situations:Acquiring skills and strategies, no mat-ter how good one becomes at them,does not make one a competent reader,writer, problem solver, or thinker.Throughout the course of instruction,students must be given occasions tostretch their understanding of theirnewly acquired knowledge throughconfrontation with meaningful prob-lems to solve and decisions to make.

Make use of the social dimensions of learn-ing. Although psychologists are notsure why it is so, students appear to

increase their mastery of a subjectthrough discussing problems with oth-ersoften their peers and their teacher.Cognitive theorists see two possibleexplanations for this: 1) when they talkaloud in solving the problem, studentsreveal to themselves and to others theirthinking processes. Those that lead tosuccess are gradually adopted by otherstudents to solve later problems; and 2)when students work together to thinkthrough problems, thinking becomes anactivity with social value.

More recent interactive radio programshave made use of these guidelines. Radiolanguage programs in Guatemala andSouth Africa are designed to help studentsbegin by constructing their own utterancesrather than mimicking correct ones. RadioHealth has done extensive preliminary re-search and formative evaluation to ensurethat lessons start from what students thinkabout health matters. Radio Science hasdesigned lessons that link students' real-lifeexperience to concepts presented in class-room lessons. And Radio Science andteacher training programs have exploredusing peer interaction to teach material.

Educators who are struggling with thedesign of new interactive instructional pro-grams should benefit from considering theprinciples of cognitive learning theory andfrom consulting the materials developed ininteractive radio instruction projects sinceRadio Math and in other basic educationinstructionalprograms de-rived fromcognitivelearningtheory.

111Jeanne

Moulton is aconsultant andwriter on educa-'tion around theworld. She canbe reached at:319 AddisonAvenue, PaloAlto, California.tel: (415) 327-4282.

Distance

learning media,

including

radio,

television,

computers, and

print materials,

often

incorporate

interactive

formats.

T. Tilson

In this interactive health program, the children worktogether to solve problems.

32ill Development Communication Report, no. 81

Bre

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rcin

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tess

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s to

bec

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sexu

al h

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tato

rs r

ho. n

eed

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mat

enal

that

can

hel

p th

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lk to

thei

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ient

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uden

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out s

e.s.

IIIV

AID

S. c

ondo

ms.

and

rel

ated

issu

es s

uch

asiip

liiita

t101

1 am

.1 in

trav

enou

s dr

ug a

buse

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ate

Rid

s to

rmon

atte

mpt

, to

addr

ess

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e is

sues

(w

ith th

e ex

cep-

tion

ot IV

dru

g us

e, b

ut th

is s

ubte

ct is

dis

cuss

ed o

n th

e vi

deo

slee

ve a

nd in

the

kara

te R

ids

Roo

k th

at c

omes

with

the

vide

o)I h

e ca

rtoo

n is

des

igne

d as

a d

isC

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iOn

-trig

ger-

vid

eo -

a to

olth

at e

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e au

dien

ce a

nd p

rovo

kes

ques

tions

. It c

an b

eus

ed to

talk

abo

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ll th

ree

mai

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pect

s ot

adt

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ent s

exua

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alth

with

you

ng a

udie

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trol

of

ID 1

Sex

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Tra

ns-

mitt

ed D

isea

ses)

incl

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g III

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pla

nnin

g op

ecitn

ally

,ond

om u

se).

and

the

prev

entio

n in

sex

ual a

buse

thro

ugh

is M

elte

., pe

er lo

Val

tV. a

nd s

eli.r

espe

i

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ld E

valu

atio

n

Atte

r th

ree

year

s in

dis

trib

utio

n. h

eld

eval

uatto

n ha

sA

lms

n th

at th

e gr

eate

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tren

gth

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rate

had

s vo

l.° Is

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to s

timul

ate

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uss

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otte

n w

here

no

disc

ussi

on u

s as

taki

ng p

lace

bef

ore

ldui

Mor

s In

O. C

anad

a. Ia

n/a

nia

and

!hol

land

rep

ort t

hat t

he c

arto

on tr

igge

rs !n

ets

dia.

.1o

gue

abou

t sex

ual h

ealth

, str

eet l

ite, a

nd A

IDS

. ofte

n to

r th

etir

.4 h

me

CA

RT

wor

kers

in E

thio

pia

repo

rt. t

or e

xam

ple.

that

user

s ai

s m

ow is

tilin

g to

par

ticip

ate

in c

ondo

m d

enio

nstr

,1-

.ton,

alte

r tte

emg

the

cart

oon

Sin

ce th

e m

aten

al is

exp

lic it

. it i

sho

we5

yr.

mos

t use

till i

n th

e ha

nds

of e

dui M

ors

who

are

coi

n-lo

itabl

e is

oh

the

solic

it m

atte

r

.41

BE

ST

CO

PY

AM

PLE

otei

tistit

i

Kar

ate

Kid

s ha

s pr

ovok

edso

me

criti

cism

tirst

. tro

m a

u-th

oriti

es w

ho d

o no

t acc

ept t

hene

ed fo

r th

is k

ind

of s

ex e

duca

-tio

n to

r yo

uth,

and

sec

ond,

fron

tpe

ople

who

tel t

hat i

t sho

uld

stan

d al

one

as a

com

preh

ensi

veA

IDS

edu

catio

n "le

ctur

e" o

nvi

deo,

One

es

alua

tion

stud

s. o

tth

e im

med

iate

impa

ct 0

1 th

e ca

r .

toon

on

know

ledg

e,an

d at

titud

esof

chi

ldre

n in

dica

tes

that

Kar

ate

Kid

s al

one

doe,

not

pro

vide

aco

mpl

ete

AID

S e

duca

tion

less

onO

n th

e ot

her

hand

, a t

ross

-cul

-tu

ral P

artic

ipat

ory

Eva

luat

ion

Sur

vey

indi

cate

s th

at s

igni

fican

tim

pact

on

knot

s-le

dge

and

attit

udes

is a

chie

ved

whe

n th

ere

isop

port

unity

tor

a di

scus

sion

atte

r sh

owin

g th

e vi

deo.

A s

ubtle

but

sig

ninc

ant c

ontn

butio

n ot

this

pro

tect

tode

velo

pmen

t com

mun

rcat

ion

is m

it on

ly th

at it

teac

hes

stre

et k

ids

alua

ble

tnto

rmat

ton

they

nee

d tin

kno

w, b

ut a

trol

ls th

em iv

ithre

spec

t. in

a v

oice

that

thee

can

rel

ate

to o

n th

eir

own

term

s. It

as k

now

ledg

es s

tree

t chi

ldre

n as

act

ors

rath

er th

an v

ictim

s, w

ithle

gitim

ate

need

s an

d rig

htsi

nd r

ende

rs th

em 5

istb

le ti

t a ts

orld

that

too

otte

n ig

nore

s th

em

ShO

wirt

g th

e V

ideo

Reh

ire s

how

ing

hara

te R

ids

to o

ther

s, e

duca

tors

are

enc

our-

aged

to lo

ok a

t the

vid

eo m

ore

than

onc

e, a

nd to

rea

d til

l` m

stru

stio

n sh

eet t

hat i

s pn

nted

on

the

vide

o sl

eeve

. The

edu

cato

r sh

ould

aiso

rea

d th

e m

anua

l tha

t com

es w

ah th

e vi

deo.

The

Kar

ate

Ras

OA

*, W

hat W

r N

eed

to R

note

Abo

ut A

IDS

I lie

man

ual i

s w

ritte

n in

ery

sim

ple

lang

uage

With

goo

d ill

ustr

atio

ns, a

nd p

rovi

des

aco

mpl

ete

rete

renc

e gu

ide

tor

talk

ing

abou

t 111

V. A

IDS

. It i

s co

-w

ntte

n by

Dr.

Dav

id W

erne

r. in

tern

atio

nally

kno

wn

tor

his

heal

th c

are

hand

book

. Whe

re T

here

I: N

o O

odor

. It m

ay a

lso

be a

good

idea

to ta

lk a

bout

the

mat

enal

with

frie

nds

and

co-w

orke

rsto

bec

ome

mor

e co

mto

rtab

le w

ith th

e st

orvl

ine.

The

adv

entu

rest

ory

in K

arat

e K

ids

deal

s w

ith d

ay-t

o-da

y su

rs te

al, a

nd th

edr

ama

Meo

ws

on th

e th

reat

in s

exua

l exp

lotta

ttun

that

man

y po

orki

ds, n

ot lu

st s

tree

t kid

s, m

ust t

ate

ever

y da

v.I h

e cr

eato

rs In

thy

(-an

oint

hav

e al

way

s sa

id th

at K

arat

e K

ids

is e

ttect

ive

in a

nyon

e's

hand

s, b

ecau

se it

has

its

own

imm

une

syst

em. h

umor

. Ibi

s is

bas

ical

ly tr

ue. b

ut th

ere

are

som

e w

ays

that

kar

ate

Kid

s ca

n be

use

d le

ss e

ffect

ivel

y A

com

mon

mis

take

educ

ator

s m

ake

with

any

hig

h-im

pact

vid

eo is

to b

egtn

sho

win

git

with

out r

eally

dev

elop

ing

thei

r ow

n ab

ility

to ta

lk a

bout

the

1-su

es th

at it

rai

ses.

Som

e pe

ople

thin

k th

at a

sid

e° s

houl

d re

lieve

the

educ

ator

, and

they

try

to U

se K

arat

e R

ids

as a

dis

trac

tion

oran

AID

S le

sson

. On

the

cont

rary

, the

vid

eo "

brea

ks th

e ic

e" fo

rdi

scus

sion

of i

ssue

s su

ch a

s se

xual

dis

ease

s, c

ondo

m u

se, a

ndex

plon

atio

n (it

thild

ren

t5 a

dult,

If a

n ed

ucat

or d

oes

not

beco

me

tam

iliar

with

thes

e is

sues

from

the

kids

poi

nt o

l vie

w,

then

he

or s

he m

ay b

e ill

-equ

ippe

d to

res

pond

to th

e ne

eds

that

the

cart

oon

reve

als

BE

ST

CO

PY

AV

AIL

AB

LE

.16.

mos

41.

/FA

.-

34

Dig

nity

and

Won

der

One

ot t

he b

est

scre

enin

gs o

t the

vid

eoth

at I

have

atte

nded

was

in G

uada

laja

ra,

Mex

ico.

Mau

i() R

ojel

iol'a

dilla

had

see

n th

evi

deo

and

was

ver

yco

mto

rtab

le s

yrth

the

subl

ect m

atte

r. H

esh

owed

the

cart

oon

toa

grou

p ot

25

stre

etbo

vs. a

ged

Iron

, 810

17

ears

Old

. AM

.(ls

arm

but s

enou

s m

trod

uc-

holt,

he

put o

n th

e ta

pean

d st

eppe

d as

ide

tow

atch

it s

s ith

the

kids

.T

wic

e du

nng

the

show

ing,

at v

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no. 8

1

Script Writing for Interaciive Radio Instruction

By Esta ue rocsaro

nteractive radio instruction (IRI) hasproven to be a valuable and relatively

. inexpensive learning strategy in for-mal classrooms, informal classrooms,community learning projects and

other educational settings. The success of theradio program, however, depends in large parton the success of the script.

Across learning sites and project goals, radioscripts have some fundamental needs in com-mon. The following guidelines might help en-sure that radio scripts are covering the funda-mental needs.

Guidelines

I ;mrotollt u C.11'4.1111 1`1,111illill7 Script writ-ers, content specialists and the project directortogether must establish absolutely clear objec-tives for each program. There must be explicitdetails of content needed to allow these objec-tives to be taught.

The following objectives, for example, arenot clear enough to act as guidelines for thescript writer:

Teachers will know:

the importance of using resources in theclassroom;

how to arrange resources correctly in theclassroom.

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11/


The writer cannot write an effective scriptwithout knowing:

what is meant by the word "resources"

are these resources provided for the teacher,or must the teacher or the students make orprovide them

should the script tell the teachers HOW tocollect resources

what is meant by "the correct arrangement"

whether the script should talk only aboutprinciples of correct arrangement, and notprovide any examples at all

Many other questions need to be answeredbefore the writers could write an appropriatescript to meet those vague objectives.

Writers should never begin work on a scriptif they have any doubts about what they shouldinclude.

2. LJandard Format. Before beginning to writethe first script in a series, the writers shouldestablish a standard format and standard char-acters. Writ,n.s are sometimes tempted to thinkthat using a standard format throughout a se-ries will be boring for the audience. Confusion,however, is considerably more boring thanstandardization. Consider daily news broad-casts on television or radio. We all expect thesebroadcasts to follow the same format everyday. The format does not bore us, because thecontent within that format is different everyday.

Like newscasts, the educational broadcastformat can contain a number of different seg-ments which always appear in the same order.The contents of each sgment, however, varyfrom program to program and provide variety.A standard format is not boring if the contentswithin it are not boring.

'-:tanclard tt!acherist never more th,in ';\ o.The same principle of standardization appliesto the "teacher(s)" to be used in the series. Itshould be clear to the audience, from the out-set, who the voice(s) of authority are. In gen-eral, it is more successful if one person onlyspeaks directly to the listening audience. Oftenthere is a temptation to use two teachers -- aman and a womanto provide variety. Theuse of one teacher is less confusing, and neverboring if that teacher is an interesting person.

4. Limit the number of other characters.While there should be only one teacher in aninteractive radio script, there may be othercharacters in the program but the numbershould be limited. Let your audience get toknow a small group (3 or 4) people well.Provide these people with clearly identifi-able characteristics. Bring in other occa-sional characters if you need to, but don'toverdo it. A small group of intimate friendsis more comfortable than a constant streamof strangers in our lives.

5. Teach, Try, Test. In every script be surethat you:

alert the students to the lesson topic inthe beginning.TEACH the concept thoroughly (even ifsubtly)

+ give students a chance to TRY (practice)what you have taught through drills,activities, questions, etc.

+ TEST only what has been taught andtriedAfter testing, provide immediate rein-forcement of the correct answer.

6. Keep your teaching objective in mind atall times. Be sure your teaching point is notoverwhelmed by your story line. Keep acheck on yourself by providing a list of listen-ing objectives for your students before thestory or drama begins. These objectives willdirect the students' attention to the points theyshould listen for in the story. For example,

CLARA: Students, listen to find out how manychildren the farmer and his wife have, and tofind out why they are having trouble raisingtheir children.

Such listening objectives will assist yourstudents to concentrate on the story, and willhelp ensure that you keep the objectives inmind as you write. At the end of the story,ask questions related to these objectives.

7. Present small amounts of information atone time. A good educational script.whether for formal or informal educationshould present no more than 3 discrete objec-tives. In a 15-20 minute timeframe (the usuallength of an educational broadcast), it is hardfor a student to absorb, practice and learnmore than three objectives.

Interactivity and Interactive Radio Instruction

The word "interactive" in the term "Interactive Radio Instruction" (IRI) hasnumerous interpretations. Styles of interactivity which can be employed toencourage students to give responses to radio instruction include:

I. Immediate, continuous response. Students respond to radio-di-rected questions as often as once every 20-30 seconds throughout theprogram. This is most valuably employed in formal education and isparticularly suited to subjects such as mathematics and language wheredrill learning is effective.

2. Listen-to-find-the-answer response. Students listen to a specificpiece of informationperhaps in story or dramatic form -- in which theyare asked to fmd answers to particular questions. The careful listeningis part of the interactivity. Students are advised in advance what tolisten for, and given three or four carefully structured questions at theend of the information piece.

3. Written assignment response. Students have print assignmentswhich they read prior to the broadcast. During the broadcast, they listenfor answers to particular questions posed in the print assignment.Where the broadcast is given in conjunction with a school, the answermay be sent to that institution for grading. Alternatively, the answers tothe written assignment can be given during the broadcast program.

4. The program newsletter. This works well with adult programming,such as teacher training. Listeners are invited to submit letters, com-ments and questions to a weekly or monthly newsletter (print or broad-cast) in response to lessons and questions raised during the program.

S. Listeners' letters. Useful for various types of community and informaleducation, listeners are invited to respond by letter (or by telephonewhere it is available) to questions and problems discussed in the pro-gram. Listeners may be invited to give opinion responses, or they maybe asked to research specific facts as part of the response.

8. Ask the right questions. Questioning is animportant part of interactive instruction. Thetype of questioning that can be used in IRI is,in some instances quite different from thatused in the regular classroom. The classroomteacher can hear responses and correct themimmediately if they are wrong. If a listeningstudent gives an incorrect response, however,the radio teacher cannot correct it or guide thestudent to the correct answer. It is important,therefore, that the radio presents both the in-formation and the questions about it in such away that it is almost impossible for thelistener's answer to be off-track.example:

RUDI: In that story we heard how trees are im-portant to human life because they providepeople with shade and timber, because theybind the soil and keep it from being lost, andbecause they absorb carbon dioxide from theatmosphere. Listeners, tell me what twothings do trees provide for us?

PAUSE FOR RESPONSE

36continued on p.16

la*Development Commu Report, no, 81

Script Writing, cont'd from,p.15

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RUDI: Shade and timber; trees provide shadeand timber. Now listeners, tell me. what twothings (10 trees do for soil?

PAUSE FOR RESPONSE

RUDI: Bind it and keep it from being lost. That'sright. Now listeners, tell me, what do treesabsorb from the atmosphere?

PAUSE FOR RESPONSE

RUDI: Carbon dioxide. Correct.

The questions are based on informationalready clearly given. Moreover, the informa-tion has been presented close to the asking ofthe question. It is hard for students to be askedto provide answers from information givenmany minutes earlier in the script.

Questions must be clear and unambiguous.Avoid the following:

Questions that require more than one an-swer. For example,."Students, why isCarlos lost in the woods? Or do you thinkhe will still find his way out?" In this ex-ample, the students will not know whichquestion to answer, so probably they willanswer neither.

Questions that require only "Yes" or "No'for an answer. Very little, if any, learningis done by answering a question of thattype.

Questions that require sentence comple-tion. "The right way to brushyour teeth is..." Students may notbe sure when they should begin toanswer. Open-ended questionscan be used, provided they covermaterial within a limited range.For example: "Tell me ten thingsyou would buy in a supermar-ket." This question is non-specificbut the answers are limited to aparticular range of possibilities.

It is not helpful in IRI to ask acompletely open question such as,"How do you think electricityworks?" The problem with thistype of question is that the radioteacher cannot hear the responsesand therefore cannot respond tothem, or offer helpful suggestionsif the answers are too far off.

The radio teacher should useexactly the same CUE every timea question is to be asked, so stu-

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dents know exactly when to respond. For ex-ample, the radio teacher can say, "Students,please tell me..." every time he wants the stu-dents to answer. This cue must be followedimmediately by the question; then a pause forthe listeners to answer. Then, immediately afterthe pause, the radio teacher must provide thecorrect answer. If you wish to reinforce the stu-dents with words such as "Good," "Yes,""Thank you," put these words AFTER the cor-rect response. For example:

TEACHER: Students, please tell me...what is theEnglish word for "mesa"?

PAUSE FOR RESPONSE

TEACHER:"Table." That is correct.

Do not give the reinforcement words beforethe answer. If your students have given an in-correct response, you do., not want to reinforce itaccidentally.

(). Avoid negative models. If you are using astory or a drama to illustrate a teaching point, itis better to use a positive model that demon-strates what you DO want the audience to learnthan to use a negative model showing the be-havior which you expect the audience to shun.

10. Try out your script. Make a habit of readingyour scripts aloud to colleagues, and askingthem to respond every time you come to a ques-tion. If they are quite unable to answer cor-rectly, you should revise either the questions, orthe material on which they are based.

11. Avoid over-use of your medium. Be carefulthat you do not rely unduly on such things assound effects and music in your script. They areoften more confusing than helpful. It is better touse too few sound effects than too many. Usemusic sparingly.

12. Keep the writing style simple, especially int he beginning. The main point of your script isto assist someone to learn. Keep your audiencein mind at all times and write as simply andclearly as you can to make your point. Onceyou are confident that your scripts are really

for your audience, you can begin toadd more details of character and drama.

AEsta de Fossard is an educational media consultant

at 10326 Eclipse Lime, Great Falls, VA 22066 USA.tel: (703) 759-6521; fax: (703) 759-4047.

Interactivity and Soft Technologies:Peer Group Learning Systems

:w Aida Pasignahe school looked just like any of the over

11 30,000 other primary schools in Thailandwith the flag waving high over the well-

kept schoolyard. With the flag-raising ceremoniesand the morning prayers to Buddha complete, theorderly queues of students move briskly into theirrespective classrooms. But when an observerfollows a queue of fifth graders into their class-room, the observer soon realizes that this is not a"typical" classroom with desks positibned in neatrows facing forward towards the teacher.

Inside the classroom, the children gather ingroups of four to six pupils around small tables,get their books out and begin working together ona lesson started the previous day. Even withouturulerstanding Thai, it is clear that each grouphas a leader and a secretary. The leader of OWgroup instructs the members to read the text on agiven page and discuss answers to questions onanother. A lively discussion ensues as some stu;dents seem to have differing opinions about an-swers. After a few minutes, the secretaryscribbles away on a sheet of lined paper whatappears to be the group's answers a consensushas been reached.

All the other small groups are similarly en-gaged. The teacher moves from one group.to thenext, responding to children's questions. Finally,the teacher stops the activity and the group lead-ers take turns going to the front of the class andreading their "group report." Each report is fol-lowed by a comment from the teacher and around of applause from the rest of the class.

The classroom described above belongedto one of Thailand's more than 10,000 "smallschools" only a few weeks after they openedin 1988. These schools used specially-de-signed instructional materials and a manage-ment system developed under the "ReducedInstructional Time" (RIT) Project to improvethe quality of education in small ruralschools. This classroom scene demonstrateshow innovative soft technologiesiii thiscase, peer group learning (PGL) can andhave changed teaching-learning behaviors inmany primary schools of third world coun-tries.

Low-Cost Learning Systems

In the mid-seventies arid the eighties, sev-eral Third World countries undertook na-tional and regional projects designed to solve

common problems of poor qual-ity of instruction in their pri-mary schools Efficiency-ori-ented alternative instructionalsystems were thus developedand later referred to as "Low-Cost Learning" (LCL) systemsIn many cases, the alternativeLCL Systems produced andimplemented interactive softtechnologies such as peer grouplearning which have proven tobe highly effective in reachingeducation goals

Soft technologies, or theknow-how and tools that can beapplied without computers,radios and other hard technolo-gies, can alter the style of inter-action between teacher and stu-dentsand indeed, between thestudents themselves Examplesof soft technologies include in-structional design techniques,organizational and managementmethods, peer tutoring, interac-tive systems of instruction, con-ventional devices such as chalk-boards, textbooks, posters, pro-grammed learning materials,programmed teaching modules,instructional games, and simula-tion and role-playing materials. Some softtechnologies focus totally on providing guid-ance to the teacher, such as ready-made lessonplans, teacher's manuals that accompany text-books, and various job aids.

Innovative soft learning technologies usedin the LCL systems were designed to makeprimary education both effective and eco-nomical in view of the tight budgetary con-straints within which these countries have tooperate. The LCL systems include: (a) thePhilippines' IMPACT (Instructional Manage-ment by Parents, Community and Teachers),(b) Indonesia's PAMONG (Pendidikan Anakoleh Masyarakat, Orang tua Murid, daNGuru), (c) Liberia's IEL (Improved Efficiencyof Learning), or PEP (Primary EducationProject), and (d) Thailand's RIT (ReducedInstructional Time). Adaptations of soft learn-ing technologies used in these systems havebeen used bv other countries, such as Malay-sia, Jamaica, Belize, Honduras, and

cvntinued on p.18


Soft Technologies, cont'd from p.17

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Swaziland, to improve their own educationalsystems.

Interactivity Essential toPeer Group Learning

Interactivity is a key feature of the softlearning technologies used in the LCL sys-tems. The best learning strategies are guidedby logically sequenced instructional contentand systematically designed teaching-learn-ing activities and they almost always play offwell-coordinated interaction in the class-room. Peer learning systems, for example,optimize the use of interactivity in the fol-lowing ways:

Stimulus-response loop maximized (i.e.,frequent student responses required).

Interpersonal skills enhanced (e.g., lead-ership and membership skills are devel-oped and refined by the group study pro-cedures).

Social/communication skills enhanced(i.e., frequent discussions required).

Leadership opportunities maximized (ie.,all students take turns in assuming theleadership role).

Leadership roles are no longer the exclu-sive privilege/right of the smartest kidsin the class.

Time on task maximized.


3918

Student involvement in education pro-cess maximized

Systematic instructional design appliedin the development of programmedlearning modules used in PGL ensuresmeaningful interaction among learnersand between the learners and theirfacilitator(s)

Inclusion of immediate "suggested"feedback followed by group discussionoptmuzes learning guidance withoutimposmg ngid limitations to otherpossible "correct" answers

Provision of instructions and groupstudy procedures provide structurewithout limiting interaction

Like ItIany Interactive Strategies, PGLMust Be Monitored!

When used with primary school stu-dents, PGL should be closely monitoredand supervised by the teacher or at least bya teacher aide such as a paraprofessional,older student, or community volunteer. Ifleft unsupervised for a long time, peergroup activities might be disrupted byunruly behavior among students, or stu-dents may not be able to proceed if theyhave unresolved questions.

Peer group learning, like most othersoft technologies, must be structured inorder to be effective. One cannot leave peergroups completely to their own devices.Systematically designed instructional mod-ules which have been successfully used inLCL systems, such as the Liberian IEL/ PEPsystem, allow the students many chancesto experience different types of discussionsby controlling the types of questions asked.Students are given sufficient opportunitiesto ask their own questions and discussanswers to open-ended questions that haveno "right" or "wrong" answers but whichrequire the students to draw upon theirown specific situation and experience.Throughout the modules students are sys-tematically guided through the learningexperience by questions that graduallyprogress from the factual to those that re-quire higher level intellectual processingand practice in the use of more sophisti-cated cognitive strategies.

Other Applications of PGL

Teacher Training. Peer group learn-ing strategies were recently found tobe effective for providing activitiesand delivering initial training toprepare Swaziland's primary schoolteachers and head teachers for theimplementation of a new educa-tional program. Given the vast num-ber of teachers and head teacherswho were to be trained over a two-week period and the small pool oftrainers available, the use of pro-grammed learning modules and peergroup learning strategies proved tobe the best alternative to the purelecture method of delivering train-ing. Greater participant involvementin the actual training activities madeit possible for ten to twelve trainersto successfully train more than 250workshop participants over a two-week period in each of the country'sfour school regions. Systematically-designed, self-contained pro-grammed learning modules whichguided group leaders and membersas they learned new concepts, pro-cesses, methods, and techniquesmade the difference.

Distance Education. If it is builtinto programmed learning modulesfor use in distance education, PGLcan help minimize feelings of isola-tion that tend to lower motivationlevels among students who mightotherwise progress faster if theycould get together with others work-ing on the same module, even With-out the presence of a tutor. PGL willgive them a structure within whichthey can discuss insights and experi-ences among themselves that couldmake learning more meaningful andlong-term retention stronger.

Aida L. Pasigna is a Testing andRernediation Specialist on the EducationalPolicy, Management, and Technology(EPMT) Project in Swaziland. She can be

reached through the Institute for Interna-tional Research, 1815 N.Fort Myer Drive,Arlington, VA 22209 USA. (703) 527-5546.

The Change-makers: Women and Media

'A woman at a conference may ad-dress a thousand people; that women'svoice amplified by the media can ad-dress a million.'

(Media Mentor Group for the GlobalAssembly on Women and the Environ-ment, 11/91)

We know that media in all theirformsradio, print, video, mass alter-native, popularcan educate, mobilizesupport, and initiate action. Now thereare women's information networksdesigned to give women a voice andthe opportunity to share knowledge.

The cover of an issue of The Tribunefocusing on 'Women Moving Appro-priate Technology Ahead,' showed aThai woman riding a bicycle. Thegroup who had produced the newslet-ter received a letter from the man inThailand who had drawn a similarillustration featuring a man, fromwhich the cover had been adapted,saying that the graphic was 'interestingbut unrealistic' as women in Thailandnever ride bicydes. But the group alsoheard from Thai women who said thatthe image reminded them that womenriding bicycles was indeed a possibil-ity. On a trip to Thailand some yearslater, a member of the group noticedmany women riding bicycles.

Although The Tribune does not takecredit for women in Thailand begin-ning to ride bicycles, the story doesillustrate that something as simple as apicture can communicate a revolution-ary idea about a e potential uses oftechnology. Once you have seen a pic-ture of a woman on a bike, it is easier toimagine riding one yourself.

Women are adapting media to fittheir work, whether it be basic educa-tion and communication or politicalaction and advocacy, demystifyinglegal and technical resource infor-mation, or the translation oftechnical language into aform accessible to women.Innovative uses of media bywomen include:

0 Women's FeatureService (WFS), aninternational newsservice, investigates

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1 9

women's activities overlooked bythe mainstream press and sendsstories to mainstream news outlets.WFS plans to use video whenworking with groups with limitedreading abilities.

NGONET, a Southern informationclearinghouse, collects and editsenvironmental and developmentinformation from NGOs and thendisseminates it globally via elec-tronic networks. NGONET is notwomen-specific, but seeks to im-prove women's access to electronicnetworks. NGONET has plans tomake information more availableusing community radio and othermeqia.

COMULHER, a women's videogroup in Brazil, makes videos by,

. for and about women.

WOMENET, a recently establishednetwork of women's media groups,is linked by phone, mail and fax.WOMENET members 'faxnet' on amonthly basis to share informationon new initiatives and activities.

TAWMA, the Tanzanian Women'sMedia Association, is an associa-tion of media women involved inprojects such as gathering women'sindigenous knowledge of medici-nal plants.

Excerpted from Appropriate Technology,vol 19, no. 2, 9/92. It highlighted ideasshared at a session called The Change Mak-ers: Women and the Media organized by theInternational Women's Tribune Centre(IWTC). For information about thesegroups, contact IWTC at 777 United Na-tions Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.

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Forum Theater in Burkina Faso:Paving the Way for Malogue, Interactivity and Change

;1. loy Morrisonillagers in Burkina Faso, West Africa love performances, andwhile learning and providing entertainment for the village, theycommunicate many things to rural healthcare workers.

Forum theater, a unique form of rural performance, is onemethod used to communicate new-ideas. It is highly participatory and isspecifically designed to permit and encourage active feedback from audi-ences. The theater group Atelier Theatre Burkinabe (ATB) ofOuagadougou in Burkina Faso practice forum theater and because of thesuccesses they have had, other countries in West Africa have begun usingforum theater as a vehicle for development communication.

The ideas of the Brazilians Paulo Freire and Augusto Boal havestrongly influenced the development of forum theater. Boal developed itas a mechanism for self-liberation of oppressed peoples in San Paolo, Bra-zil, and in Lima, Peru, and Paolo Freire has used this interactive theater asa process to encourage dialogue in education. While forum theater is di-dactic in its aim to make a critical analysis of a social or political problem,it should be stressed that the primary goal of forum theater is to transferinformation that empowers people.

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Let the Show Begin

Forum theater perfor-manc,=!s contain three distinctelements.

1) The actors perform aplay, in which social problemsare depicted in waysintendedto provide a negative reactionfrom the audience.2) A moderator invitesaudience members to re-enactparts of the play that they didnot like. Scenes are then re-done and spectators engage inrole-play, proposing changesin action and dialogue.3) A verbal exchangetakes place between audience,actors, and health officialswith the aim of clarifying in-formation.

The role of the moderatoris crucial in forum theater. Heor she controls the forum, andoccasionally interrupts thescene being replayed in orderto ask the audience if theyagree with the particular pointof view being voiced. If theaudience disagrees, another


4120

volunteer ph-, it a different way. Thiscontinues until the audience is satisfiedwith the words and actions. The samerole could be played several times until agenerally acceptable solution is found.

The primary aim of forum theater inBurkina Faso is to engender feedback ofall kinds. Participation is the key ele-ment to success. When audience input issolicited and received, this two-way flowcontributes greatly to its acceptability asa medium of communication. The opin-ion of healthcare recipients is thus solic-ited and received in a constructive envi-ronment. Spectators, usually children,are also asked to respond to questionsconcerning the content of the play.Through this feedback, recall can bemeasured.

"Fatouma, the Baby Machine": ADramatic Family Planning Project.

ATB performances are a developmentcommunication success story. In 1986,the Government of Burkina Faso decreeda five- year plan to promote birth controlto lower the high birth rate. In 1988, theBurkinabe Ministry of Health and SocialAction (MHSA) obtained funding for afamily planning play as part of a publiccampaign. "Fatouma, la machine auxenfants" (the baby machine) was per-formed from January until May 1989.The formal performance lasted an hourand the forum was anywhere from onehiur to three hours long.

The play was a collective creation ofthe ATB and concerns Fatouma andTanga, a young couple who marry andproduce a child who is welcomed andcelebrated. In the second year of mar-riage, another child is born and a thirdthe following year. After eight years andeight children, the marriage is in ruinsdue to problems created by Fatouma'srefusing Tanga's sexual advances.

The children are in rags and food isscarce. Still, Tanga's father convinceshim to continue enlarging his familybecause of the extra labor provided bychildren and the status gained by largefamilies. The topic of AIDS is intro-duced when the husband seeks out pros-

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

titutes, thus making the connection be-tween contraception and sate sex Fmally, ahealth care worker visits Fatouma and dis-cusses various contraceptive options ingraphic detail Her husband however re-fuses to talk about this with her Instead, heseeks a contraceptive "belt" for her from alocal healer for her to wear during sex withhim. He then expels her from his housewhen she becomes pregnant, accusing herof infidelity The play ends with her expul-sion from the compound, a physicallyweak and broken woman.

How Does Forum Theater Work?

Forum theater works for developmentcommunication because:

It has the ability to deal with sensitivetopics through role-playing and discus-sion. This combination makes certaintaboo subjects allowable.

+ The theater-in-the-round spatial ar-rangement that the ATB employs whenperforming is conducive to participa-tion. The non-threatening nature of theforum encourages input.

The forum offers an opportunity forexpressing public opinion rarely of-fered in village setfings. It assumesequality among and between partici-pants, with all having equal access tothe "stage."

There is equal treatment of men andwomen. It offers a rare opportunity forwomen to speak to their reality withinthe hypothetical environment of a play.

In the family planning forum presenta-tion, people had a unique opportunity todiscuss a normally private topic -- sex.Although sexuality in the cities has movedfrom the private to the public realm, this isnot true in the rural areas. The tensionbetween men and women around the sub-ject of sex and procreation results in a needto air this publicly.

ATB performances have promoted dis-cussion and activity beyond family plan-ning. In 1988, the topic of ATB perfor-mances was dehydration and oralrehydration. In 1989, besides "Fatourna,"

they also per-formed a playabout corruption ingovernment ior amanagement work-shop in BurkinaFaso. In 1990, ATBproduced a dramaabout the problemsof female circumci-sion Plays arealways sponsoredby a partner, usu-ally an NGO or aUN agency

EvaluationResults

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An analysis and evaluation of the effectiveness of the forumtheater's communication was conducted three to four months after theperformances. Each village where the play "Fatouma" was per-formed, healthcare workers, medical personnel and villagers wereasked to recall information about family planning. Teenagers in par-ticular were able to recall most of the scenes, and every respondentwas aware of the availability of contraception, and the reasons for itsintroduction. Although there was not total agreement on adoption of

family planning, sales of contraceptive devices had increased every-where. Villagers in general had new insights into the problem of over-population, and the wisdom of birth spacing. There was also unani-mous approval of the performance and the forum as a teaching tool.

Healthcare professionals also indicated they had learned a greatdeal about the feelings and attitudes of rural people concerning familyplanning. The communication officer for UNICEF reported that"when audience members take positions vis-a-vis the problem, expos-ing their divergent feelings and opinions, their feedback provides asynthesis of ideas which emerges as a system of dominant thought.This information forms the basis for subsequent healthcare and othersocial information campaigns."

The ATB forum theater and other forms of traditional participatorymedia are extremely popular, and therefore, remain effective methodsof achieving interaction. The oral traditions of African peoples, theirgeneral preference for interpersonal communication, and the traditionof performance are easily conducive to theater as a medium of educa-tion and communication. In Burkina Faso, it provides an opportunityfor dialogue between people who are powerful and powerless, edu-cated and uneducated, urban and rural, and men and women a

necessary steppingstone for empowerment and development.

Joy Morrison is an Assistant Professor of Mass Communications at the Uni-

versity of Alaska at Fairbanks. She can reached at: 4410 Woodriver Drive,

Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA. Tel: (907) 474-8328. Bitnet: FFIFMOALASKA.Internet: FFJFM(afai.alaska.edu. Fax: (907) 474-5634.



ADDRESSCORRECTION

The address list;c1for the DevelopingCountries FarmRadio Networkin our last issue,page 13, is outdated.The corrected articlefollows:

The DevelopingCountries Farm RadioNetwork is an infor-mation exchange net-work for rural com-municators in devel-oping countriesfunded by the Cana-dian InternationalDevelopment Agencyand donations fromthe public. It suppliessimple, practical, in-formation aimed atincreasing food sup-plies and improvingnutrition and health atthe grassroots level.Network participantsreceive packages ofradio scripts fourtimes per year in En-glish, Spanish andFrench. There is nocharge for this service,but participants areasked to comment oneach package and sug-gest scripts topics. Formore information con-tact: 40 Dundas StreetWest, Box 12, Suite227B, Toronto,Ontario, Canada M5G2C2. Telephone/ fax(416) 593-3752.

Conferences

The World Assocation for Christian Commu-nication (WACC), Isis International and theInternational Women's Tribune Centre(IWTC) are organizing a global conference onWomen Empowering Communication to beheld February 12-17, 1994 outside of Bangkok,Thailand. The conference will include commu-nication models, case studies, drama, danceand cultural presentations and working discus-sions. The conference is open to representativesof womens' groups involved in communicationand networking, but is limited to 350-400 par-ticipants. To register, contact: WACC, 357Kennington Lane, London SEll 5QY, UK. tel:(071) 582 9139; fax: (071) 735 0340. Fee: US$250.

The international Conference on Computer-Assisted Education and Training in DevelopingCountries will take place October 1994 inPretoria, South Africa. The conference will con-sist of exhibits, papers by experts in the field,and workshops on interactive video technologyand CD-ROM, the development of quality com-puter-based lessons, creating computer graph-ics and hypermedia. For information, contact:Johan van Staden, Gold Fields Computer Cen-tre for Education, University of Pretoria,Pretoria 0002, South Africa. fax: 27 (12) 43 6867;e-mail: [email protected]

Courses

The United Nations DevelopmentProgramme's Development Training andCommunication Planning (UNDP/DTCP) is

offering short training courses in plan-ning, management, evaluation, training,audio-visuals and communications. Thecourses are 3-6 weeks in duration and arescheduled from August to December,1993. For information, contact: The Train-ing Coordinator, DTCP/UNDP, 5th Floor,Bonifacio Building, University of LifeCampus, Meralco Avenue, Pasig, MetroManila, The Philippines. tel: 631-1271; fax:631-1275.

The Xavier Institute of Communication(XIC) offers a variety of part-time degreecourses in journalism, public relatins,science communication, advertising andmarketing, and film and video produc-tion. The academic year runs from July -April. XIC also conducts hands-on work-shops for media professionals, commu-nity workers, school teachers and chil-dren. For more information, contact: XIC,St. Xavier's College, Mahapalika Road,Bombay 400 001 India. tel: 262-13-66.

The International Institute of Rural Re-construction (IIRR), an organization en-gaged in sustainable development fieldwork, research and training, is introduc-ing a new four week course called MediaUse in Developnwnt beginning September1993. The course will take place in Silang,

,Cavite, the Philippines and will focus oncommunication principles and strategies.For more information, contact: Ms.Rowena Hidalgo, Division of Interna-tional Training and Outreach, IIRR, Silang4118, Cavite, Philippines. fax: (632) 522-24-94.

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Resources

Books

The Empowerment of Culture: Development Communicationand Popular Media, edited by Ad Boeren and Kees Epskamp.The Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Coun-tries, P.O. Box 90734, 2509 LS The Hague, The Netherlands.Cost: Dfl. 25,- or US$12.50.

This 247 page book deals with various media in developmentsupport communication projects. It touches upon problems ofthe effectiveness of the media, its impact, Media choices,multi-media approaches and other issues of media use forsocial change. The media reviewed include pictures, cartoons,photographs, film, music, theater, radio, television and video.Case studies include examples from Indonesia, Zimbabwe,Ghana, the Philippines and countries in the Andes region.

Nutrition Communication in Vitamin A Programs: A ResourceBook, International Vitamin A Consultative Group, The Nu-trition Foundation, Inc., 1126 16th Street, NW, Washington,DC 20036 USA. Single copies available free of charge to pro-fessionals in developing copies. For others, US$3.50.

This resource book uses examples and full color photographsto present experiences, visuals and textual information aboutvitamin A deficiency and communication strategies. The booksummarizes basic methods associated with planning, develop-ing and implementing nutrition communication activities andoutlines successful efforts in Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Indone-sia, Mauritania, Nepal and Thailand. English translations ofradio and television scripts are included.

Growing Multi-purpose TreeS on Small Farms, Agribookstore,Winrock International, 1611 N. Kent St., Suite 600, Arlington,VA 22209 USA. US$19.95.

This diverse communication package contains a trainingmanual, eight training modules and over 50 glossy species factcards with photos and facts about different Southeast Asianplants. The cards and modules were designed to provide un-derstandable technical information to help extension workersrespond to farmers' questions on how to grow and managetrees for household uses or for local markets. This and otherexcellent reso.rces for agricultural communicators are avail-able throughthe Agribookstore.

Appropriate Media for Training and Development, byJonathan Zeitlyn. TOOL Publications, Sarphistraat 650, 1018AV Amsterdam, The Netherlands. tel: 020-626-4409; fax: 020-627-7489. Cost: US$13.50.

Taking the position that the appropriate media for ThirdWorld training and development are people, this book teacheshow-to have effective face-to-face communication. Differentmethods of direct training, media use and interactive teachingstyles are explored. Elaborate flow-charts, diagrams and draw-

ings help the reader to visualize the information. Easy toread and useful to communicators at any level.

Controlling Crop Pests and Diseases: A Cartoon Hand-book, by Rosalyn Rappaport, Macmillan Press, Ltd.,Houndmills, Basinstoke, Hants RG21 2XS UK. Cost:US$6.99.

Written for communicators and practitioners of agricul-ture, this cartoon handbook presents the backgroundknowledge necessary for understanding pests and disease,the agents that cause them and practical control methodsin an African village context. The strip cartoons are madeto be handouts for trainees or farmers and serve as startingpoints for the readers own plays, stories or other commu-nication strategy.

Technology

The Sounds of English, by Irvine Interactive, Inc. 4521Campus Drive, Suite 236, Irvine, CA 92715 USA. tel: (619)431-8860. Requires: Macintosh Computer-Plus or above.2 Mb RAM, and a hard disk. US$45 per module. (twomodules: Consonants and Vowels).

This computer software was designed.to be used with aMacintosh computer with Hypercard. The softwareteaches English through animation, sound, games andgraphics. The basic Hypercard program (standard on mostMacintosh computers) allows the computer to pronouncethe sounds of English alongside an image of moving lipson the screen. The games help the learner to distinguishbetween difficult sounds and vocabulary. With the addi-tion of Apple Microphone, the user can record his/herown voice. Excellent for universities, schools, trainingprograms, or individuals.

Development Communication Digest, by the Clearing-house for Development Communication, 1815 N. Ft.Myer Drive, Arlington, VA 22209 USA. tel: (703) 527-5546; fax: (703) 527-4661. Requires: IBM compatible PC.(HyPlus software not needed).

The Digest is a synopsis on diskette of information andlessons learned from 135 development communicationprojects. It uses HyPlus software and the complete set isavailable on one high density 3 1/2" disk. The Digest al-lows users to search through projects by sector, technol-ogy, communication strategy and region. Each projectanalysis includes the project type (sector), country, agen-cies involved, media used, project duration, the problem,objectives, target populations, strategy, overview, resultsand bibliography. A useful resource guide for planners,practitioners and researchers.

a 4 4Development CommunIcition Report, no. 81

Adult Literacy is Important...But How Can We Use More Interactive Methods?

t.-, but...

by Jose Carleton Corrales

dult literacy is essentially a third world problem.Although there are illiterate people in industrial-ized nations, 95% live in developing countries.The failure rate of adult education programs issaid to be about 90%. Good research and well

designed, funded and evaluated programs are scarce.Nevertheless, stimulating and promising research is being

conducted. All studies seem to confirm that female literacy ishighly correlated with child survival, child spacing and de-creased birthrates, schooling success, and reduced poverty. Ahigh correlation also exists between the level of literacy andproductivity with relatively fewer job related accidents and lessabsenteeism. The relationship between the degree of thecountry's economic development and its level of schooling hasalways been assumed to be high, but it is only recently, withstudies of the level of skills required in the labor force to sustaingrowth, that this issue has become more widely recognized.

Where can we turn to increase adult literacy?

Experience shows that media development communicationprograms designed to promote interactivity can change behav-ior in adults. The best example is the cholera epidemic. At thesame time, radio education programs designed to be instruc-tional can increase learning and literacy in children. Why, then,is it that adult education programs do not use these more mod-ern, interactive methods? And when they do, how should theybe they different from similar programs targeted towards ayounger audience?

Inspiring Interactivity in Adults:Some Lessons Learned

The Learn Tech/ Adult Basic Education Project in Honduras,funded by the Agency for International Development, has ex-perimented with using interactive radio instruction for adultliteracy. With local people as radio monitors and the participa-tion of local authorities in program promotion and coordina-tion, the project has been able to promote the interactive partici-pation of adults in radio lessons using the radio lesson as themain medium of instruction. Lessons learned include:

1. Do not replicate formal schooling. With financial constraintsand a lack of well tested alternatives, attempting to replicateformal education is perhaps the most common mistake in adulteducation. Instead, a systematic approach which eliminatesemergency or one shot literacy campaigns and concentratesmore on alternative systems for adults must be planned fromthe onset. Interactive radio instruction, a well developed radiomethodology, and the widespread availability of radios world-wide makes this path worth considering.

2. Develop basic research as a tool to be in close contact withthe target audience. The best judges of the quality, effective-ness, appeal and attractiveness of a program are the users. Inorder to collect and analyze their feedback and learning levels,


24

formative and summative evaluations are critical. Evaluatorshelp project monitoring and ensure quality radio lessons. Theyalso serve as a system of accountability on the effective use andmanagement of the resources.

3. The old ways of doing things are not always the best.Rather than sticking to old methods of funding, the decentrali-zation model, community participation, student payment ofpart of their education cost, private company participation insharing the costs, forms of packaging that might increase theappeal or acceptance of the project, and social marketing for"selling" alternative approaches may increase success. Adulteducation programs have tended to rely too much on govern-ment funding.

4. Long term sustainability should be a concern from the be-ginning. Project institutionalization, the development of goodquality media and instruction (printed materials, radio, etc.), agood delivery system, and a well defined source of paymentand future growth help provide the basis for sustainability.

5. Adults will become interactive when given the opportunity.When education programs are designed to guide a learnerthrough an activity and give him or her concrete choices andtime to respond, an adult learner will become involved andinteract. Evidence in Honduras suggests that adults will answera prepackaged radio question aloudperhaps even more oftenthan the same question asked by a real person. This type of at-tention and practice is the foundation for active learning.

6. Like children, adults need structure in learning. Whileadults may have stronger abilities conceptually, they, like chil-dren, still need structure in learning specific tasks. Therefore,the LearnTech/Honduras radio lesson is divided in two parts:About 75% of the lesson follows an interactive radio instructiondesign. This methodology is highly structured and is quite effec-tive in mathematics and reading and writing. Usually the radiocharacter mimics a regular classroom teacher. Every step ishighly predictable to the student. The remaining 25% of thelesson is dedicated to social values. The methodology followsthe design of a mini drama series. The series models new valuesin the family, the environment, the role of women and the careand rights of children, and then asks questions at the end ofeach show.

7. Investment in education pays off. Although middle classparents have been strong advocates of upward mobility througheducation, not until recently has this perspective begun to filterdown to the illiterate population. Although there may be somequestions about why these trends are taking place, the fact re-mains that there is increased motivation in adults who invest intheir own education. With adults making investments in their Ieducation, educational designers need to be creating moderninteractive systems that work.

Jose Cdrleton Corrales is the Depuhj Director of LearnTech at theAcademy for Educational Development. He can be reached at 125523th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037 USA. tel: (202) 862-1900.

U E. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONot Edocanonef fimosecn end Improvement

CAnONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

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To Our Readers:This DCR concentrates onmulti-channel learning, an

innovative approach to education for all whichemerges from the integration ot research andexperiences in educational retorm, distanceeducation and development communicationAlso included are articles on the rural press inKenya, understanding e-mail, and the resultstrom the 1993 Readers Survey

The Clearinghouse is currently undergoinga transition which may slow down ,Ielivery otyour DCR Please be patient with us We'llkeep you posted'

At),

Expanding the Vision of,Basic Educationthrough Multi-Channel Learning

o serve the basic learning needs of allrequires more than a recommitment tobasic education as it now exists. Whatis needed is an "expanded vision' that

surpasses present resource levels, institutionalstructures, curricula, and conventional deliverysystems while building on the best in currentpractices. New possibilities exist today whichresult from the convergence of the increase in

information and the unprecedented capacity tocommunicate. We must seize them with cre-ativity and a determination for increased effec-tiveness.

World Declaration on Education for All

Over three years ago, representatives ofthe international educational communitymeeting in Jomtien, Thailand, committed

continued on p.2

Multi-Channel Solutions:co The Prospects of Open Secondary Education

he demand for good quality low-cost secondary schools in devel-oping countries is growing. If thegoals set forth for education for all

are achieved and more and more studentsgraduate from primary schools, the competi-tion and pressure for scarce places in second-ary schools promises.to increase even further.Governments, international organizationsand communities must begin to look at inno-

vative and low-cost solutions to fulfillthe expanding need for secondaryeducation. Looking at diversifying thechannels used for education is oneviable approach.

The Need for NewEducational Channels

The movement towards educationcontinued on p.5

46

Inside this Issue...

Survey results and listof free publicationsinside!!

Supported by the Moe of Education,Bureau for Research and DevelopmentU.S. Agency for International Development

A'

DevelopmentCommunication Report

Development CommunicationReport, published quarterly bythe Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication,has a circulation of over 7,000.The newsletter is available freeof charge to readers in thedeveloping world and at acharge of $10.00 per year toreaders in industrializedcountries.

A center for materials andinformation on importantapplications of communicationtechnology to developmentproblems, the Clearinghouse isoperated by the Institute forInternational Research, inassociation with CreativeAssociates International andsupported by the U.S. Agencyfor International Development,Bureau for Research andDevelopment, Office ofEducation, as part of itsprogram in educationaltechnology and developmentcommunication.

The views expressed in theDroelopment CommunicationReport are those of the authorsand not necessarily of itssponsors. Original material inthe Report may be reproducedwithout prior permissionprovided that full credit is givenand that two copies of thereprint are sent to the Editor.

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication1815 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 600Arlington, VA 22209 USATelephone: (703) 527-5546Fax: (703) 527-4661




Circulation Manager

Development CommunicattonReport is produced usingdesktop publishing under A.I.D.contract DR-5831-Z-00-8028-00.

ISSN 0192-1312

expanding the vision, cont'd from page 1

themselves to an "expanded vision" of basiceducation. Today, the vision remains justthat--a vision. Without being fullyoperationalized, it has not made significantmark on the educational experiences in de-veloping countries. The time has come to geton with it.

Until now, visions of educational reformhave been marked by an often unrewardedfaith in the potential impact of one or twokey educational ingredients doing thenew x in place of the old y, training teachersto acquire a set of new and allegedly moreeffective behaviors, getting the right text-books (or even getting textbooks) intoschools, translating curriculum into appeal-ing media, and so on. Unfortunately, untilnow it has often made good sense to adhereto these simple recipes for change.

We can do more than affirm the need andpossibilities for an expanded vision of basiceducation. We can offer a perspective thatwill assist in infusing this vision into moreproductive educational practice.

A Multi-Channel LearningApproach

Multi-channel learning is founded on twomajor types of knowledge and experience:(a) focusing on learning and (b) bringingforward and combining insights and capa-bilities achieved from experience in educa-tion, communication and distance education.It is founded on the conviction that thechances for effective learning are increasedwhen more than one learning channel is usedand when educational delivery is deliberateand well-planned. Multi-channel learningencourages a greater integration of educa-tional programs and materials for children,youth, and adults whether they are learningin school, at a distance, or in programs unre-lated to school.

Learning Channels

Learning channels are the various meansthat connect learners with sources of knowl-edge, skills, and information in the commu-nity and beyond. They permit connection,with teachers near and tar, other learners,instructional materials, family members, and

Development Communication Report, no. 82 2 4 7

distant ideas and technologies. Some learn-ing channels rely on channels of mass com-munications and other educational media,while others are the more customary meansof exchanging knowledge employed in for-mal and nonformal education.

, Efforts to improve basic education typi-cally aim at providing textbooks or otherinstructional materials. Knowledge is meantto pass through the learning channel ofprinted materials mediated by the teacher.The student is expected to "acquire" thecontent either by reading the material or byhearing the teacher's orai rendition of it.The student essentially is provided one av-enue towards understanding. The odds ofsuccess are greatly diminished if there is alack of necessary prior knowledge, poorlywritten text materials, or a poor teacher.Chances for success are further reducedwhen materials are not well-written or arein a poorly understood second language.

Learning through multiple channels, onthe other hand, enhances educational ac-cess, quality, and equity. Strategies for edu-cational reform that continue to rely exclu-sively or predominantly on one learningchannel are not likely to offer much change.We must prepare to hurdle these obstaclesto learning by integrating and diversifyinglearning channels perhaps through radioprograms, group work, discussions, games,stories, contacts with community members,visual aids, or additional printed materials.

Focusing on Learning

Through research and experience, we aregaining a much better understanding of theprocess of learning. For example, growingevidence shows that students tend to bemakers rather than receivers of knowledge.Much of one's ability to construct newknowledge depends on what he or she al-ready knows. Those who are rich in knowl-edge are better able to solve problems andapply it to new situations. There is also in-creasing evidence that cognitive learning isshaped by the social circumstances in whichnew knowledge and skills are being con-structed.

Our growing understanding ol the learn-ing process means that learning channel,

must not be seen asconduits for a one-way flow of knowl-edge from the havesto the have-nots withonly occasional op-portunities for feed-back. Rather, learn-ing channels mustoperate in a mannerthat helps the learnerbecome actively in-volvedin construct-ing new knowledge.

We surmise that deficiency in priorknowledge is one of the major obstacles tolearning especially in developing coun-tries where the culture of the school and thecontent of education is often at great oddswith the culture of the home and commu-nity. The use of multiple channels, espe-cially when there is a purposeful alignmentof educational content and activity acrosschannels, increases the opportunities toactivate knowledge learners already haveand to provide information learners mightneed in order to construct new knowledge.

Key elements of the expanded visionof basic education include:

universalizing access and promotingequity;

focusing on learning;

broadening the means andscope of basic education;

enhancing the environment forlearning; and

strengthening partnerships.

Combining Insights andCapabilities

In the past five years, the field of dis-tance education has grown and diversifiedat an astonishing rate. Now much morecredible in the eyes of policy makers andthe public, distance education provideseducational opportunities for millions ofstudents worldwide and has developed abreadth of research and expertise.

Although much of distance educationhas been undertaken at the level of highereducation, insights and capabilities thathave grown through the years will be im-portant in designing programs for basiceducation. Increasingly, distance is no longerthe only issue. Many distance educationprograms are evolving into systems of openlearning, and the boundaries between con-ventional and distance education are crum-bling.

Growing student age populations andrising costs will continue to make distanceeducation an attractive option for delivering

education at alllevels. One of theconsequences ofeducation for all,as Paud Murphyreports on page 1,will be the in-creased demandfor secondaryeducation whichcannot be metthrough expand-ing conventionalsecondary

schools. The use of distance or open learningsystems offers an option. And given that thestudents that would be attracted to theseprograms are often the least well prepared tofunction as independent learners some-thing demanded by distance and open learn-ing the case for utilizing multiple learningchannels is inescapable.

Much has also been learned from experi-ence in using educational media, both for in-school and out-of-school use. For example,the growing number of countries using theinteractive radio approach shows that radiois becoming a reliable tool of basic education,important in many multi-channel learningefforts. Furthermore, experience in develop-ing educational media messages in health,nutrition, agriculture, population, and envi-ronmental protection shows the power of thediscipline of development communication.

The multi-channel learning approachcontinued on p.4

Distance education techniques, such as radio or postal delivery systems, can be

integrated into other more com,entional education techniques.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 4$ Development Communication Report, no. 82

expanding the vision, cont'd from page 1

draws upon the media professionals' grow-ing maturity in their outlook on what mediacan and cannot do. The overselling of mediaof the past is giving way to more balancedviews. We have learned that it is importantfor media developers not to propose "betteralternative" instruction and then try to per-suade decisionmakers that it should be in-serted into the curriculum as an addition oras a replacement for what is conventionallyoffered. The multi-channel approach mustplace development of media in the educa-tional mainstream. Their efforts must be-come part of larger, ongoing processes ofschool organization and management, cur-riculum development, teacher education,supervision, and textbook and materialsdevelopment. This is a messy world thatmany of us have avoided in the past.

We have also learned from successfuluses of educational media that it is possibleto design programs that make it possible toreach more than one audience at once.Adults may learn in an inoffensive andsometimes unconscious manner from pro-grams designed for children and young

4110P

people. Often the reverse is also true. Thislearning can be mutually reinforcing.Multi-channel learning will try to encour-age applications that break down the oftenartificial walls between formal andnonformal education, between educationfor adults and the young.

Looking Forward

Multi-channel learning will not, wehope, come to be seen as but one more inan endless series of new fixes promisingthat one right solution to educational prob-lems near and far. First, multi-channellearning is not new. Second, multi-channellearning is not itself a fix in that it does notprescribe new content or means of delivers'.Rather, it is a means to make new or exis'.-ing programs achieve greater quality oroutreach by diversifying the paths to learn-ing. Third, multi-channel learning offers anopportunity to reach those groups whoseeducational needs are traditionally unmeteither because they are too remote or toounusual.

The International Multi-Channel Action Group for Educationis a newly formed international partnership of institutions seeking toencourage the incorporation of multi-channel learning approachesinto efforts to achieve Education for All. It was formed in October1992 at a meeting convened at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris.For more information contact:

Raider RollSecretary General, IMAGEclo International Council for DistanceEducationGlerdrums vel 12N-0486 OSLO, Norway

Development Communication Report. no. 82

Stephen AnzaloneChair, IMAGE Steering Committeeeo Institute for InternationalResearch1815 North Fort Myer Drive,Suite 600Arlington, VA 22209, U.S.A.

The days remaining forus to achieve the goals setforth at Jomtien are quicklyslipping awav. We need toreview our efforts to shapethe expanded vision of basiceducation. The multi-chan-nel learning approach offersan appropriate means to-ward implementing the ex-panded vision. Getting fromvision to reality is an im-mense challenge but notan impossible one.

Steve Anzilone is Vice Presi-dent of Institute tor InternationalResearch and Chair of the Steer-* Committee .for tlw Intenia-tional Multi-Channel ActionGroup for Education. He can hewached at IIR, 1815 N. FortMiter Driz,e, Suite t)00ArlinN-ton, l'A 22209. LISA. tel. (703)527-554o: tat: (70.3) 527-4t,o1

for all is likely to increase the pressure onthe demand for secondary school places fora number of reasons. As primary schoolingbecomes more efficient, a larger percentageot those students starting school are likelyto complete their primary education. Thenumberin the age range is likely to alsocontinue to increase. This growth is world-wide, vet most dramatic in Africa where therelative population of pupils completingprimary schools is increasing each year.

A variety of barriers frustrate the grow-ing demand for secondary education.

Education for All. The education for allfocus is likely to divert any additionalgoVernment resources, and perhapseven some resources currently going toother levels, into primary schooling.

Cost per student. Government expendi-ture per student in general secondaryschool is on average 3.5 times more thanper student expenditure for primaryschool (UNESCO, 1992).

Cost per school. The cost of buildingand equipping a secondary school issignificantly more than the cost of build-ing and equipping a primary school.

Equity. Private secondary schools mayalleviate the demand for secondaryschooling among the more wealthy, butdo nothing cor poorer, newly graduat-ing students.

Some Observations on Solutions

It is not difficult to envision theoreticalsolutions which do not include buildingand staffing traditional secondary schools.One solution might involve determining thefinancial resources available in Country Xfor secondary education and utilizing thesein a creative and constructive way to pro-vide distance education programs includ-ing: a national curriculum, self-instructional

. prospects, cont'd from page 1

materials covering the curriculum,some face-to-face teaching andother support for students study-ing the materials, and an indepen-dent assessment system whichcertifies successful students. Thismight be organized by a nationallearning center which would pro-vide training and support for thepeople providing the teaching andother support and assistance tostudents to become independentlearners. Those students/ parentswho did not opt for this systemcould establish private schools.

It is clear that this solutionwould not be approved by many.Government secondary schoolsalready exist and, even in coun-tries like Tanzania or Malawiwhere less than 10% of the agerange participates in these schools,the solution is not seen to lie in alternativemodes of provision. Rather, the solution isseen in the provision of the same despite therelative expense. The inability of countries oroutside agencies to "cut the cloth accordingto the measure" is only equalled by the in-ability of many citizens to see that, whereresources are constrained, there is a directrelationship between the per-person cost ofservice provided and the number of peoplewho can receive that service.

And there would be other objectors. Edu-cators would point to the need to providesupport for the many who would not be in-dependent learners in the short term. Parentswould not be happy to have teenage childrennot directly supervised. University facultywould be concerned about knowledge ofscientific concepts. Teachers' Unions mightnot welcome the changing role of the teacherand the increased student-teacher ratio.

There.are other less radical alternatives.For example, the expansion of secondaryeducation provision can utilize some of theabove techniques to provide secondary edu-cation for those who are not able to get aplace in those traditional secondary schoolscurrently in operation, (The two systemswould operate in tandem; all provision forincreasing numbers is through the alternative

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Traditional secondary schools may not beable to keep up with the demands forsecondary education in the future.

5.0-5 Development Communication Report, no. 82

prospects, cont'd from page 5

system.) A small number of countries havetried this (Malawi, South Africa, Zambia,Zimbabwe, Mexico) but the results havealmost invariably been disappointing.These initiatives do not have what hasbeen called "parity of esteem" with tradi-tional secondary schools. They are consid-ered a second-best, second-rate alternativeto the schools and most students and par-ents if given the choice between the alter-native and the school would choose theschool. The choice is not surprising giventhe peer pressure, the better results, theparental expectations and allocation ofresources.

Multi-Channel Solutions:Combining Strengths ofTraditional and DistanceEducation

Any solution which provides second-ary education for all needs to capitalize onthe economic strengths and flexibility ofprovision of distance education while at-tempting to retain the status of the tradi-tional secondary schools. The followingare likely to be features of any successfulmodel:

+ Students attend daily in buildingswhich are simply and basicallyequipped for learning;

Trained adults assist students to learn;

+ High-quality attractive self-instruc-tional materials are available for eachstudent;

+ Regular monitoring and assessment ofstudent achievement i5 provided by anational agency ministry; and

All students spend some of their educa-tional time in the system.

Clearly, problems can be expected.These might include low-expectation lev-els of pupils and teachers, higher dropoutrates, materials supply problems and


6

lower achievement levels than might beexpected under the traditional secondaryschool model. However, if all students werein the system then the thrust would be toimprove the system and not to dismiss itentirely.

How Would It Work?

It is possible to imagine two extremeexamples of this model. In the first, the em-phasis is on the learning materials. Thetrained adults are not secondary schoolteachers and they do not teach. They assistthe students to work through the instruc-tional materials. The buildings are basic andthe main expenditure is on the instructionalmaterials. Students are assisted to workthrough the materials and given remedialassistance when needed. An outside learn-ing agency monitors quality and providessupport.

The second model is much more like thetraditional secondary school and the empha-sis is on the teacher as instructional leaderand on the school as monitor of quality andinstructional progress. The instructionalmaterials are used by trained (and retrained)secondary school teachers to supplement theinstruction that they provide and to helpthem to reach many more students thanthey normally do. (Another alternative is tohave the good math and science teachers inshort supply reach many more studentswhile the teachers in other subjects handletraditional classes.) The building and facili-ties are in use for most of the day and theevening and look like traditional secondaryschools.

Given the current scarcity of places andthe anticipated increased pressures on sec-ondary schools, it is time to look at newstrategies for integrating what we knowabout traditional and distance learning toreach those students with the desire andability to continue education beyond pri-mary school.

Pond Alurpliu works with the World Bank 7 heviews in this article are his own. 1-le can be reachedat ED1HR. Room No. AI 4049, The World Bank.

H Washinton. D.C. 20431t tin: (2(12) 67o-09bl.

Multi-Channel Learning in Focus:Project No-Drops and a Learning System for All

igh student dropout rates con-tinue to waste both educationalresources and student potentialall over the world. In the Phil-ippines, however, Project No

Drops is developing an innovative no drop-out learning system which integrates for-mal, nonformal, and informal educationalsystems, and multiple teaching and learn-ing strategies in a multi-channel approach.One educational system with multiple de-livery systems and learning opportunities,this approach aims to provide access toquality basic education and to improve theinternal efficiency of primary education torespond to the needs of students.

Funded by the International Develop-ment Research Centre of Canada andUnesco, Project No Drops is a three yearresearch and development project imple-mented by SEAMEO INNOTECH. In thefirst phase of the project, No Drops is de-veloping and field testing the LearningSystem for Education for All (LSEFA) in thePhilippines to determine if integrating for-mal education, forms of nonformal educa-tion and distance education, and recentresearch findings about teaching and sup-port strategies can make a difference. Dur-ing the second phase, Project No Drops willbe expanded to two other Southeast Asiancountries.

Why Do Students Drop Out?The reasons for school dropout are di-

verse and individual. One primary reasonis lack of sutficient interesting, relevant andchallenging experiences to stay in school.In one study conducted in the Philippines,teacher behaviors which were identified tocontribute to student dropout were termed"hostilities in the classroom." The list ofhostilities included the teacher's unrespon-siveness to the varying needs of the learn-ers, the failure to give encouraging feed-back or progress reports, and the lack ofteaching skill or motivational teachingstrategies.

Other children drop out because of dis-tance to school, responsibilities at home, orlack of support from others. Reasons forshort term dropout may include illness,

nomadic lifestyle, calamity, or lack of eco-nomic resources, among many. When thesechildren drop out, the likelihood of their re-entering formal schools and experiencesuccess after their absence is low. Subse-quently, students who drop out even tem-porarily experience great difficulties catch-ing up.

If children's experience in school wasinteresting, rewarding, and responsive andforgiving of their outside needs, fewer stu-dents would drop out. In Project No Drops,the quality of formal education, nonformaleducation, and informal education isstrengthened as they are linked together ina consistent and new learning system. Knit-ting these multiple channels of learningtogether with innovative practice is seen asa viable way to eliminate dropping out andto improve the quality of learning out-comes.

Main features of Project No-Drops:The Diagnosis and the Cure

There are two distinct components of thenew learning systemthe diagnosis andthe cure. The diagnosis involves identifyingchildren at risk of dropping out at an early

continued on p.8

Feeding programs are also integrated into the the School-based Student LearningSupport Services of Project No-Drops.

52BEST COPY AVAILABLE 7 Development Communication Report, no. 82

project no drops, cont'd from page 7

".1,1,WIN

Tutoring by parents and other community members ispart of the Comniunity-based Student Learning SupportServices of Project No-Drops.

stage and deter-mining whetherthey are achievingaccording to setstandards. Re-search aboutthese children isthen used to ex-plore the types ofremedies whichwould keep themin an educationalprogram longerand encouragethem to learn andimprove achieve-ment levels learn-ing alternatives.

The cure isLSEFA. The multi-channel LearningSystem for Educa-tion for All(LSEFA) offersformal, nonformal

and informal education through providevarious delivery system for children whocannot report to school regularly, or areforced to leave school before completinggrade six.

Reinforcing Formal EducationThe project believes that the formal pri-

mary school is still the main vehicle forproducing functionally literate citizens. Ifthe quality of formal education is high, at-tractive, and beneficial to all children, fewerchildren will drop out and achievementscores will increase.

The main thrust of formal primary edu-cation in the new learning system is greatereffectiveness achieved by introducing strat-egies which will make the learners moreactively involved in their learning.

Expanding and Reinvigorating NFEChildren who cannot keep up with

school because of difficulties which theschool cannot overcome, such as prolongedillness, distance from school, calamity, etc.,should not necessarily lea ve school. Analternative learning program will help themto continue until they can return to school.

53Development Communication Report. no. 82 8

If they are forced to stay out of school, thealternative delivery system can sustainthem until they acquire functional literacyand are appropriately certified in basic edu-cation.

The curriculum for this NFE program iscomparable to that of the formal school andwill include materials tested in otherprojects. These materials will also be avail-able in the formal school for use as self-instructional remedial and enrichment ma-terials.

Broadening and Strengthening IFEInformal education consists of planned

informal learning opportunities for meetingbasic learning needs for survival, develop-ment and life. The new learning systemprovides opportunities.for the developmentof these skills and attitudes in the schoolsand community and supports the educationavailable in the formal and nonformal ar-eas.

The key to learning in informal educa-tion is maximum exposure to good modelsand active participation of the learner. Op-portunities may include activities whichparents and their children may get in-volved in together, such as helping to makethe school environment more conducive tolearning, assisting the teachers in the schoolfeeding program, keeping the school pre-mises neat and clean, or managing schoolextra-curricular activities, such as literacycontests, science clubs and camps.

The project provides opportunities forthe parents of children enrolled in school tomaximize their contribution by organizingvarious school committees and encouragingparents to work with the children.

The teacher plays an important role inthe informal educltion of the learners. Heor she must take particular care to demon-strate positive behavior and to utilizemulti-media, eg., cassette, TV, etc., andother forms of communication, such asplays dramas, and other novel forms thathave potential for educating learners infor-mally.

Implementing the Research ofOthers

Project No Drops integrate,, more than

different forms of educational media. Italso borrows materials, strategies and prac-tices found effective in other educationalprojects. For example, Project No Dropshas adopted self-instructional technology,peer teaching strategies and learning mod-ules from SEAMEO INNOTECH's Instruc-tion Managed by Parents, Community andTeachers (IMPACT) project. From theUNESCO-funded project, Parent LearningSupport System (PLSS), Project No Dropshas discovered strategies for increasingpupil achievement through parent andcommunity support systems. Finally,Project No Drops has adopted schemesdeveloped in the Unesco-funded StudentLearning While Absent from School(SLAC) project, which demonstrated thatrural children who were absent from for-mal classes for long periods of time due toneeds on the farm can be saved from drop-ping out through distance-type catch uplearning activities and materials.

In Sum, How Does It Work?As early as the first

weeks of school, the teacher uses an instru-ment developed by Project No Drops toidentify children at risk of dropping out.

Since research has indicated that childrenwho have reading difficulties and who aredeficient in mathematical skills are morelikely to drop out, the formal andnonformal curriculum is fortified in theseubject areas.

Theteacher and supervisor-reorientation pro-gram provides training in approaches toeffective teaching and learning, such asintegrated learning, cooperative learningand interactive learning. (eg., guidelinesprovided for effective teaching includedeveloping thinking and problem solvingskills, maximizing the learners active in-volvement in their own learning, providingfor interactive learning and giving appro-priate feedback on pupils' responses.)

Through research done in otherprojects, No Drops adopts proven re-

The LSEFA methodologyincludes:

a learning continuum for dropouts enrolled in anonformal education program;

an instrument for identifying potential primary schooldropouts;

learning materials that develop thinking and func-tional literacy skills as well as the ability to learn howto learn;

training packages including the role of parents in theirchildren's education, how to tutor children at home,how to monitor and supervise children's learning,livelihood skills and income generating projects, andhealth and environmental sanitation and protection;

a set of evaluation materials and prototype trainingpackage for adopting or adapting the no dropoutlearning system to other school sites; and

choices among formal, nonformal and informal chan-nels of education.

sources and teaching strategies to supple-ment and complement learning in all of itscomponents.

Through researchon other projects, Project No Drops willimplement community and parent supportsystems for the students.

Teachers and principals are taughtabout educational alternatives within themulti-channel approach and what to recom-mend when a potential drop out problem isidentified.

For children at risk of dropping out, orwho drop out because of nonschool factors,such as ill health, distance from school, pov-erty, armed conflict, nomadic habits, andethnicity, immediate remedies may be em-ployed, such as distance education strate-gies, school feeding, and income-generatingactivities for parents.

Children who will be absent from school for

continued on p.I0


no drops, cont'd from page 9

a long period of time or permanentlyare shifted to an alternative learningsystem whose curriculum is based onthe essential aspects of the formalschool curriculum. The parallelnonformal curriculum is intentionallycreated to make their education com-parable to children who remain in theformal school.

Children who use thedesignated alternative learning sys-tems have access to the Philippine edu-cational placement test (PEPT),a sys-tem for accreditation which provides abasis for re-entry to the formal schoolor a certification that they have ac-quired basic education or functionalliteracy.

With the development of theLSEF A and parallel curricula, childrenwho drop out of the stream may re-enter school when Circumstances al-low. If they cannot return to school,they may continue learning throughthe alternative learning system and becertified in basic education or func-tional literacv.

SEAMEO INNOTECH is one of twelveSoutheast Asian,Ministers ot EducationOrganization (SEAMEO) rqional centers,three of which are based in the Philippines.SEAMEO member countries consist of thesix ASEAN countries (Brunei, Indonesia,Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thai-land) and the three Indochinese countries(Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam).The RegionalCenter for Educational Innovation and Tech-nology (hNNOTECH) pursues the goals ofSEAMED by fostering regional cooperationamong Southeast Asian countries througheducation .for human resource development.

Minda C. Sutaria is the Director ofSEAMEO INNOTECH in the Philippines.She can be reached at tio 207., U.P.Dilnnan, Quezon City, 1101. The Philip-pules. tel: 63-2-98-52-22: taA: 63-2-96-21-24

Development CommunicatIon Report, no. 82

Kenya's Rural Press Project:

n many African countries, not only is the press confinedto the cities, its contents tend to focus only on an urban,sophisticated and educated population. But over 70% ofthe African population resides in the rural areas, and aconsiderable proportion of those remain largely illiterate.

As literacy advances and the desire to communicate through readingand writing increases, the press can assume an ever greater roleprovided it can be brought closer to rural communities.

Kenya is one of the few countries in Africa currently experimentingwith a rural press project. After placing emphasis on the developmentof a communication infrastructure, the Kenyan Government createdDistrict Development Committees to identify development projectsand prioritize them. The result was not surprising. Local newspaperprojects were identified as priorities for bringing rural areas into thecommunication mainstream and inspiring and reinforcing literacy.

The History of Kenya's Rural PressIn 1974, the Kenya Government approached Unesco for assistance

to establish the first rural newspapers as part of a pilot project to de-termine the feasibility of establishing rural newspapers throughoutthe country. In 1975, the first rural paper KISOMO was established inMurange district of the Central Province. The paper was punlished inKikuyu language, one of the dominant languages in Kenya. A popularpaper, KISOMO immediately enjoyed wide circulation. Today, it con-tinues to be circulated to over 10,000 readers.

Following the success of KISOMO, the Kenya Government decidedto expand rural newspapers throughout the country. Under an agree-ment signed with Unesco and the Federal Republic of Germany, theKenya Government established the Kenya Rural Press ExtensionProject.

The Kenya Rural Press Extension project was established in threephases. In the first phase three rural newspapers were established:"Sauti Ya Kericho", based at Kericho town and serving readers in theKericho district, "Sauti Ya Gusii", located in Kisii town for readers inthe Kisii district, and "Sauti Ya PwaW" 'lased at Mariakani in Kwaledistrict and covering the entire Coastal province.

During the second phase, four additional rural newspapers wereestablished: Nyota Ya Mashariki, based at Machakos and servingLotui and Machakos districts; NYOTA YA MA GHARIBI, based atVihiga and serving the entire Western Province; JICHO, based atSiaya and serving Siaya, South Nyanza and Kisumu districts; andNURU based at Isiolo and serving Isiolo, Meru, Marsabit and Emdudistricts.

Now in the third phase, newspapers are expected to proliferatearound Kenya: NYOTA YA KATI located at Muranga for Centralprovince; NGAU located at Naivasha to serve Nakuru, Narok andKajiado; HABARI based at Garissa to cover the North Eastern Prov-ince; and MWANGAZA, a zonal paper which went into circulation inMay 1988 and caters to readers in Turkana, West Pokot, Samburu,Elgevo Mara Kwet, Baringo, Vasin Gishu, irans Nzoia and Nandidistricts.

Unlike the newspapers established under Phase I and II, the papersin PHASE III use a sophisticated and rugged German printing ma-chine called the Heidelberg Pres,

5510

RI.SUI I S FM 199 I)( R RFADI R SUR

Thank you to all who responded to the 1993 DCR Readers' Survey. We appreciate the time everyone took tocomplete the survey. The results are an important tool in our long-range planning. Because we received such a highvolume of responses, we included the free resource guide as an insert to this issue rather than mail it separately.

Following are preliminary findings of the responses based on almost half of the questionnaires received to date

Quantity of coverage of the DCR on certain topics

In response to the question asking if the quantity of coverage on certain topics was sufficient, we received a range ofreplies.

More than half (60%) of the respondents feel that there are not enough contributions from authors from developingcountries. Readers, please help to alert us of interesting projects and perspectives and submit article proposals!

Regarding the questions on adequacy of coverage of high-technology communication approaches (radio, satellite)and low-technology communication (interpersonal, folk media), the response was that there is too much coverage of high

technology communication (61%), and not enough coverage of low technology communication approaches (77%).

Readers felt that the DCR presents sufficient amount of space to coverage of community projects (70%), and inproviding practical information such as case studies, "how-to" articles, and resources (60%).

How the DCR is used

The results in this section are consistent with the results of the previous survey.

The DCR is used by our readers in the areas of acquiring ideas on the application of communication technology(75%) and monitoring trends and developments in the field (70%). A moderate number use the DCR to gain tools forproject design, implementation or evaluation (63%), and ordering resources (55%).

Smaller numbers (12%) use the DCR to prepare for professional meetings and for teaching or research.

These results again suggest the need for the DCR to keep abreast of new and emerging trends, and continue itstraditional emphasis on communication applications in the field, as well as continue to provide practical, useable informa-

tion to our readers.

Spanish and French editions

Selected issues of the DCR are available in French and Spanish Only 10% of the respondents were aware of itsavailability in French and 17% were aware of its availability in Spanish. We need to make sure this information is avail-able and perhaps periodically provide a brief description of our documents available in French and Spanish.

Access to electronic communications

In our efforts to not only keep abreast of available communications technologies, but to actually use them and findout what our readers are using, we asked about readers' familiarity with and access to electronic mail (e-mail). We foundthat 90% do not have access to e-mail, although 55% are familiar with the technology. About a third would like more

information about this form of communication.

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58

Mothers and Children (Tri-annual)Bulletin on Infant Feeding & Maternal NutritionClearinghouse, American Public Health Assoc.1015 15th Street, NWWashington, DC 20005 USA

Moving Pictures Bulletin (Quarterly)Television Trust for the Environment (TVE)46 Charlotte StreetLondon W1P 1LX,UNITED KINGDOM

Network (Quarterly)Family Health InternationalPO Box 13950Research Triangle ParkNorth Carolina 22709, USA

Our Planet (Bi-monthly)United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)PO Box 30552Nairobi, KENYA

OUTREACH (Quarterly)Dr. James Connor, OUTREACH DirectorTeaching & Learning Center NYU200 East Building239 Greene StreetNew York, NY 10003, USA

People & the Planet (Quarterly)International Planned Parenthood FederationRegent's CollegeInner Circle, Regent's ParkLondon NW1 4NS, UNITED KINGDOM

Population Reports (Quarterly) .

Population Information Program, Center forCommunication ProgramsJohns Hopkins University527 St. Paul PlaceBaltimore, MD 21201, USA

Safe Motherhood (Quarterly)Division of Family HealthWorld Health Organization1211 Geneva 27, SWITZERLAND

Soundings '(Biennial)An idea exchange in rural developmentcommunicationsWorld Neighbors .

4127 N.W. 122 StreetOklahoma City, OK 73120 , USA

Source (Biennial)UNDP-World BankWater and Sanitation ProgramOne UN PlazaNew York, NY 10017, USA

The TribuneA Women and Development QuarterlyInternational Women's Tribune Centre777 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017, USA

UNESCO Adult Education (Quarterly)UNESCO SecretariatAdult Education Section,Division of Primary Education7, Place de Fontenoy75700 Paris, FRANCE

UNESCO Sources(Monthly)7 Place de Fontenoy75352 Paris 07 SP, FRANCE

World Food Programme Journal (Quarterly)Via Cristoforo Colombo, 42600145 Rome, ITALY

World of Work (5 x year)ILO Bureau of Public Information1828 L Street, NW Ste. 801Washington, DC 20036, USA

World Neighbors in Action (Quarterly)A Newsletter for Project Personnel4127 NW 122 StreetOklahoma City, OK 73120-8869, USA

5 9

Bringing the Local Reality into Focus

The rural newspapers areprinted every two weeks and rangein circulation from 2000 to 8000copies. MWANGAZA, which wasestablished recently, has the high-est circulation rate of 8,000 copies.

A People's ForumThe rural press is a people's

forum. It is meant to let peopleread more about themselves andthe development activities sur-rounding them. With its emphasison local content and down-to-earthnature, rural Kenyan are discover-ing a powerful new medium fore pression and communication.

The editor of MWANGAZA,Mr:John Chemaringo, attributesthe high sales of his newspaper torelevant and interesting featurearticles and local stories for the eight districts which thepaper covers. Teachers, extertsion workers and informa-tion officers all contribute to the newspaper and highlightdevelopment projects and social /cultural activities fromthe perspective of "Wananchi", ie., rural dwellers, as op-posed to government elites and functionaries. News, fea-ture articles and photographs of the local people and ac-tivities such as construction work, tree planting plough-ingetc, bring the stories home.

Readers in Busia, a town situated between the Ugan-dan and Kenyan border, expressed delight at having ac-cess to information which contains real events about theirneighbors and their conditions. A successful small scalefarmer, Mr. Wafula, has proudly appeared twice in hislocal paper, the NYOTA MAGHARIBI both articlesabout the success of his farming practices.

Sharing Local and National NewsThe rural papers tend to give priority to agriculture

and livestock, local news, social issues, education andbusiness, and carry few stories on international news.Yet, local and national newspapers do share and ex-change news items. For example, some of the rural news-papers publish and provide stories to the Kenya NewsAgency (KNA).

In other cases, Government development activitieswhich ordinarily may not be given prominence in thenational dailies, are published in the rural newspaper.Editors have found that while they may be vital to urbandwellers, some Government stories are interesting to dis-trict dwellers. These two-way processes introduce a com-munication between the people and development agen-cies.

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Paper boys are a frequent sight in the cities of Africa. Now in Kenya, ruralnewspapers are being sold by the thousands.

Creating Dialogue and Inspiring ThoughtThe creation of rural newspapers does more than

reinforce literacy. As national and local languagesreceive increasing recognition, the appearance of ruralpapers in these language symbolizes significantprogress towards national integration.

Rural newspapers also inspire conversation aboutissues in people's lives. In a survey conducted toevaluate the rural press, Dr. Joseph Mbindyo of theSchool of Journalism, University of Nairobi has re-vealed that the rural press in Kenya is popular becausereaders can access locally relevant information at anaffordable cost. Moreover, the messages carried by therural newspapers are retransmitted bv word of mouth.In fact, 77.6% of the readership discussed the contentsof the papers with others.

In an effort to gain financial independence afterUnesco-funding tapers off, the papers are discoveringa large market of advertisers in the local government,local classified and local business community largescale firms, development agencies, NGOs and the Dis-trict Development Committees to support the newspa-pers. While the surveys show that the newspapers areunder-utilized by advertisers or other paying organi-zations, the Kenya Rural Press Extension Project hasgained a popularity and a purpose it wishes to main-tain.

Usman limada is a Senior Lecturer and Head of Communi-cation Studies at University of Maiduguri in Nigeria. He canbe reached at: New Nigerian Newspapers, Ltd., PO Box 254,Kaduna, Nigeria. fax: (62) 215752.

tiO Development Communication Report, no. 82

Multi-Channel Learning in Practice:Case Studies from India, Costa Rica, South Africa

heories of education come and theories of educationgo. At what point do we decide that a particular styleof teaching and learning or approach to educationalreform is actually more effective than those of lastyear or worthy of extra attention? And which ones

are new really and not simply disguised in new and untatteredclothing?

For those wary of pop learning theories and learning gad-gets, multi-channel learning approaches are not shiny and new.They do not pretend to be the latest coined theory of how edu-cation for all can be reached, but instead they are an integrationof educational processes that have worked and can mutually

reinforce each other toreach similar goals.While not new, they arethe result of collabora-tion on a new level.

Researchers, theoristsand practitioners fromfields closely related butoften considered distinctand mutually exclusiveare now sharing more oftheir successes. The typeof intellectual and disci-plinary turfdom that haskept fields like commu-nication, education re-form and distance edu-cation from mutuallysupporting each others'approaches is at lastdrying up. It is time torevisit what has beenlearned and come upwith comprehensiveapproaches to overcomeeducational con-straints approacheswhich might, for ex-ample, borrow a deliv-ery system common inone field, academic re-sources found in anotherand methods ot commu-nication used to reach anaudience isolated bydistance or social con-straints in a third. Thebetter one system orchannel reinforces an-other, the more effectiveis the whole.

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These South African children arefollowing audio directions given overcassette and bu the teacher. Writtenintormatwn is also given on thechalkboard and in workbooks

Development Communication Report. no. 82 12

Young or old, urban or rural, sedentary or nomadic, con-straints to getting an education can be enormous. If a stu-dent lives in a remote region and speaks a native tongue notused in the formal system, the constraints increase. If educa-tional or information channels are not available to one'sgender, economic level, lifestyle, or age (the list goes on),the situation worsens still. If there is an accessible educa-tional channel or materials, but it is not well-monitored,well-delivered or up to par pedagogically, it can fall short ofoffering needed educational gains or opportunities.

By integrating delivery systems and approaches to com-munication and learning, the types of opportunities thatmulti-channel approaches can offer are expanded.

Without necessarilychanging the curriculum, a multi-channel approach canenhance or offer new learning materials through deliv-ery systems such as radio, television, audio cassette, orpost to teachers, students or other community members.

Multi-channel ap-proaches can create new systems which borrow effectiveeducational principles but deliver them in a culturallyviable framework, such as self-instructional resourcecenters, educational radio programs for women they canlisten to while they do household work, or cassettes andtexts that can travel with families as they migrate.

Multi-channel approachescan help to link existing formal and nonformal systemsso that they better support each ether, such as parallelaccreditation, parallel curricula and materials, or paral-lel teacher training programs.

Multi-channelapproaches can use theory and resources used in onefield to create more effective materials and teachingstrategies in another, such as peer group learning strate-gies and motivational techniques in formal school set-tings.

Multi-channel ap-proaches can often reach hard-to-reach audiences moreeffectively as they offer new ways to cut across culturalor environmental barriers. Examples include programsor materials that are self-paced and can be used duringunusual hours, programs or materials that can reachinto the community and therefore be perceived as saferfor women or more accessible to individuals where trav-elling is difficult, or programs that reach populationswho need to take time off of school for short periods oftime due to work schedules or illness, and who would,in more traditional programs, fall behind and drop mit.

61

and Bolivia

.4.14, AfK,

It is easier to understand the application and diversity ofmulti-channel learning through real examples. Project NoDthps, described on page 6 by Minda C. Sutaria, is a clear ex-ample of a multi-channel approach which links the formal edu-cation system with distance education strategies. Paud Murphyoutlines another approach in the possibility of open secondaryschools beginning on page 1. The case studies below will pro-vide more detail about how multi-channel theory can be playedout in practice.

The India National Open SchoolThe India National Open School (NOS) is a distant education

system which reaches more than 230,000, over-fourteen studentswith.courses in basic literacy and numeracy, practical job-re-lated skills and vocational education in various parts of India.Distributed primarily through the mail system, the NOS usesintegrated course materi-als including text, audio-cassette and video toteach and reinforce itslessons. Study centers areavailable to use the self-instructional materials.

Materials are providedin English and Hindi andtutors and support sys-tems are available region-ally for the students. TheNOS is also looking intousing radio to assist in thedelivery of educationalprograms and e-mail toassist in the integration ofadministrative functions.

The whole program isan interesting example ofa multi-channel approach,

vet two qualities make it stand out: its priority and suc-cess in reaching a female audience over the age of four-teen, and the linkages of its accreditation to the formaleducation system.

Equihy. NOS acknowledges that some populations aremore likely to be excluded from formal schools thanothers, and caters to women and handicapped indi-viduals. As an incentive, for example, NOS offerslower fees to female students. With that advantageand the option of working on self-instructional materi-als when it is most convenient, more than 60% ofparticipantsare women or handicapped students.

Accreditation. NOS provides more than just a certifi-cate of completion for distance courses. Graduatesreceive the same accreditation from the open schoolthat they would have received at formal school. Thisallows students with special needs or time and dis-tance constraints to achieve a respectable degreerather than one thought to be second best.

Multi-media self-instructional materials. NOS'smain thrust is on self-learning print materials, butother media are also available. Materials are designedby subject expertsand graphics designers to makereading easy.

Linkages with formal schools. NOS has developed anetwork with more than 300 formal institutions,mostly accredited schools, which provide student sup-port centers and act as study centers. NOS in turn isalso making the audio and video resources availableto formal schools.

In Costa Rican primary schools, children arc learning math with helpfrom a computer program called Logo.

62

Computers in CostaRican schools

Not every schoolcan provide comput-ers for its students touse. But in Costa RicaFundación OmarDengo is experiment-ing with the use ofcomputers in ruralschools to teach fun-damental math skillsand is learning aboutlearning strategies inthe process. The pro-gram the childrenlearn uses simplemathematical formu-las to draw pictures.The children are


case studies, cont"d from page 13

Ai.

In Bolivia, women are learning how to stimulate young children ingames and activities through interactive audio-cassettes, posters andtrannng in child development.

stimulated by the visual application of their calculations andconsequently learn the math as well as they overcome fear ofthe technology. In the process of learning how to facilitatethe computer labs, rural teacher are learning these skills aswell.

Two qualities of the project are:

Gender equity. They are finding that, like the India OpenSchool, when the traditional barriers are broken downthrough new technologies or channels of instruction,more girls are motivated and sustain involvement longer.Computer hardware is not gender sensitive.

Self-instructional materials. The program is also to alarge degree self-instructional and amenable to work ingroups. Therefore, the teacher can pair off the children,who then confer on how to solve different problems, andwalk around and assist pairs as needed. Self-instructionalmaterials are allowing the teachers to provide more indi-vidualized instruction and reach more students.

Radio for Teacher Training in South AfricaThe Open Learning Systems Education Trust (OLSET) is

experimenting with interactive multi-media approaches toteacher training in poor underserved areas in South Africa.In the process of airing pilot radio programs in math andEnglish as a second language to children in formal schools,OLSET discovered that the teachers themselves needed sup-port. Teachers needed training on strategies which promotelearning through interaction between teacher and studentrather than just student and radio program.

Now a model is being developed which combines video-based classroom workshops and inservice audio-cassette orradio programs with print packages. The teachers can see,hear and interact with concrete examples of learning strate-gies and then adapt them to their own styles and pace. Sup-port materials such as wallcharts, flashcards and newspapersupplements are planned to reinforce the teacher training.


Teacher focus groups are also planned.While none of these inputs is unusual, it is more com-

mon to see such an integrated approach in a communica-tion project than in an education project. And in compari-son to more traditional teacher training, no one trainingmethod is proposed in isolation. For longevity and to in-crease cost-effectiveness, various teacher training channelswill be used at once and will then become available for uselong after the resources are created. Unique qualities of thisproject include:

Multi-media delivery system. The project plans to setup learning situations through various reinforcing de-livery systems.

Bolivia Early Child DevelopmentIntegrated early child development programs are prolit-

erating around urban areas in Bolivia, thanks to a largeGovernment project and a loan-from the World Bank. Keep-ing the "madres educadoras," as the caregivers are referredto within the project, aware of activities and approacheswhich stimulate children in all areas of development, andways they can manage a large home-based program withyoung children, is quite a large task. To help out, a smallpilot project implemented by Education Development Cen-ter and funded by A.I.D. is developing an audio-cassette /poster series which models and guides simple interactiveactivities, and then suggests ways the mother educator cancreate similar activities on her own.

Targeted to the adult and child at once, the approachuses the following multi-channel qualities:

Multi-media approach. It uses audio, visuals and printtogether.

New learning strategies. It incorporates diverse learn-ing strategies and management techniques in anonformal setting.

New audiences. It targets hard to reach audienceswomen providing important early childcare in thehomes, and children who are just beginning to developself-esteem and early preschool skills.

Conclusions

Multi-channel approaches are becoming more prevalentas researchers and implementors see the value of integrat-ing and reinforcing learning channels. When the researchdata come in, we will see how often collaboration acrossfields and experienceswhile not always easy pays offfor the learner.

Andrea Bosch is a Program Associate with the Lducation Devel.()Innen! Center and the editor ot the VCR. She can reached at1250 24th St, Suite .300. WasInngton. DC 2007, USA. tel: (202,4h0-0540.

63

internetworking: Understanding E-Mail

n the 1980s, the emergence of personal computers(PCs) ushered in a new era of human productivityand interactivity. In the 1990s, the popularity, easeand low cost of electronic mail, or "e-mail", are trans-

forming development communication.If you have never seen e-mail, imagine software on a PC

which prompts you to fill in a couple of blanks at the top ofthe screen for the recipient's name and e-mail "address," andthen allows vou to type your message in the screen below inthe same manner as a word processor. The main differenceoccurs after you save the message. Instead of printing a mes-sage on your printer and faxing or mailing it, you can insteadjust send it to the recipient's hard disk electronically usingregular telephone lines and a "modem," at the mere punch ofa button. The recipient can read the message on their screenalmost immediately, using their e-mail software.

To send electronic mail, vou need a PC, e-mail soft-ware, a device called a modem, and somewhere for yourmodem to call.

An "external modem" is a device the size of asmall book which interfaces between Your telephone lineand vpur PC. It has a regular telephone jack where youplug in a phone cord, and has a cable which you pluginto th e. back of your PC. An external modem also has apower plug. You can also install an "internal modern"inside N;our PC, whereby all vou have is a phone jack onthe back of your PC and no other cables.

A user does not need to know how themodem actually works. Once the modem is plugged in,all a user needs is some user friendly communicationssoftware which %HI operate the modem for you "behindthe scenes". Different software packages are discussedbelow.

Once vow modem and software are running, you need ahost system to call. There are two kinds of host system: inter-active and store and forward.

In this system, you prepare e-mail messages using your message editor while the modem isturned off. After you are finished and save your messages,you turn on your modem and then punch the software com-mand to deliver your mail. Then you can walk away whileyour PC automatically delivers your messages through thephone lines to your hub or another user's system, and picksup any pending messages for you. Usually, you can attachfiles to messages, e.g., a Lotus spreadsheet file, a WordPerfectdocument, or any other kind of file.

The other type of system, interactive,requires that you call and interact "live" with a host system.You tell your software to dial a number, it connects with theremote modem, and the remote site sends menus to yourscreen. You send e-mail by typing the messages on-line, i.e.,while connected by modem.

Store and forward e-mail is les, expensive on your phonebill if one has to call long distance, and is more user friendly.You use the same message editor for all networks, and themessage editor is like a word processor, which is more user-friendly than the limited on-line message editors of interac-tive systems.

CompuServe, Prodigy, and America On-Line are ex-amples of commercial interactive systems. They typicallycharge a monthly fee plus hourly usage. Commercial storeand forward e-mail systems include MCI Mail, SprintMail,EasyLink (AT&T), and Dialcom (British Telecom). They typi-

Bulletin BoardsThousands upon thousands of noncommercial interactive

Bulletin Board Systems (BBS's) exist around the world,

usually run on a PC in someone's home or office. The

Clearinghouse on Development Communication (CDC)

has a section on the PerMantlet BBS at (703) 715-9806

(modem). (This is a free service, and you can call using

your modem without any prior arrangements.) The CDC

BBS offers information such as upcoming conferences,

new resources, and selected articles by development practi-

tioners. Everyone has access, and anyone can contribute.

cally charge by the number and size of your messages.With virtually all commercial systems, you must arrange

an account in advance of using their system. However, thereare many noncommercial systems which will allow limiteduse without setting up an account in advance.

Noncommercial store and forward NETWORKS includeFidonet (30,000 nodes worldwide run on PC) and Internet e-mail systems. A user becomes a node on a store and forwardnetwork by making arrangements with any site already con-nected on the network, and obtaining compatible software.The user uses that one "uplink" site to relay all mail to/ fromthe user. PerManNet also offers this service for the Internet,Fidonet, FedNet, and a development-related network called

continued on p.I6


lntlDev.The PerManNet BBS allows users to post messages to

people anywhere in the world who have an Internet address.After the BBS user saves the message, it is automatically re-layed to its destination via the Internet, an elaborate networkmost of which uses devices other than modems.

For example, a user can log into the PerManNet BBS andsend and receive messages to/from any user(s) on MCI Mail,CompuServe, Peace Net, BITNET, Fidonet, USAID Internetusers, and any other user of any other Internet-linked net-work in the whole world. Users on the PerManNe: BBS areautomatically given their own unique Internet address whenthey log on. (For example, if you log on as Joe Smith, thenyour Internet address becomes joe.smithmpermanet.org andyou will be given any new mail upon your next login.)

The "Internet" is a worldwide cooperative network tiedtogether by a vast decentralized assortment of comrnunica-tions devices. Most communication is not by modems but isb,' "hard wiring"cables, satellite links, microwave relays,and regular phone lines. New sites are periodically added toan electronic "map" by circulation of update files among ma-jor relay sites. The Internet is imperfect, but works more than99% of the time in relaying messages to their proper destina-tion.

Understanding HOW a message gets to its destination isnot important to using e-mail. All senders needs to know isthe recipient's Internet address and how to use their own soft-ware or host system.

Mainly used for store and forward mail, Internet can alsobe used for remote logins, accessible through the Internetcommunications system. This process is called "telnet". Uni-versities usually offer telnet menus, and you can usually re-trieve files from public directories on the university's comput-ers for a small fee.

While one of e-mail greatest virtues is its low cost, some-times it is difficult to find local Internet access in developingcountries. Most users in developing countries use a store andforward system (e.g., Fidonet) to send and receive e-mail andfiles to/from Fidonet, private networks, and the Internet.(Fidonet is a member of the Internet.)

Development practitioners should keep in mind that moststore and forward e-mail packages will communicate onlywith sites which use the same package. A typical example iscc:Mail by Lotus, which offers a basic package for a privatenetwork. All users on the network must purchase cc:Mailsoftware. cc:Mail also sells "gateway modules" which you canadd on, one per network, e.g., to link one's private network toa site on the Internet. However, before buying a package likecc:Mail, make sure they have a module for your futureInternet uplink, and make sure you shop around for that up-link to make sure it ofters the most appropriate combinationof cost, features, and support.

One way to access e-mail in remote areas is throughFidonet software. Fidonet-compliant software is popular indeveloping countries, because it uses ordinary phone linesand the connect time is minimized. Fidonet-compliant soft-ware exists for running on any MS-DOS compatible PC's(XT, 286, 386, 486, P5) as well as the Macintoshes, Unix,and other operating systems.

Indeed, Fidonet SOFTWARE has been used for hun-dreds (if not thousands) of private and public networkswhich are completely independent of the Fidonet NET-WORK. Many projects operated by USAID use this soft-ware, e.g., Famine Early Warning Systems (FEWS), South-ern Africa Famine Information and Resources Exchange(SAFIRE), and VITANET. In addition, Fidonet-compliantnetworks are used by the United Nations, the Red Cross,ex-YugoNet, Emergency Net, the Association for Progres-sive Computing (APC), IntlDev, and many other globalhumanitarian and private networks.

Notably, most store and forward software allows one toattach files to messages. For example, you can attach a Lo-tus 123 spreadsheet file to a Fidonet message and send it toan associate on another continent, and they will find thatfile in their hard disk's inbound directory exactly as it ex-ists on your hard disk.

In contrast to using Fidonet software, e-mail that isrouted via the Internet will not accept files attached to.mes-sages. One must undergo a process of decoding. Thus, theInternet presents a technical complication if one wishes toroute system files. It works, but it's more complicated thanFidonet software.


Besides e-mail, the most widely used resource onFidonet networks and the Internet is "conference mail"also called "Usenet newsgroups" or "mailing lists" on theInternet and "echomail" on Fidonet. Conference mail ispublic discussions on specific topics. Conferences occur forall kinds of dikiplines and general discussions. When one"joins" a conference, one is requesting that the networkforward to your mailbox a copy of all new messages postedby others in that conference. (They are usually sorted byyour software so that vou can jump from conference toconference in your mail reader.) Any message you post isautomatically circulated to all other participants.

In conference mail, people from different places all overthe world report and discuss various issues, ask others forhelp or leads to information and resources, and make pro-fessional contacts.Participants can read and write messagesat their own convenience. Conference mail has sometimesbeen dubbed as a substitute for expensive in-person confer-ences; however, common experience is that it leads to

65

highly productive conferences and business networks.News wires can be obtained in conference mail

form for a fee. You just choose the news categories youwish to start receiving. While some of this news ap-pears in the newspaper, much of it is passed over bythe newspaper editors.

Finally, there are many ways to search for informa-tion (e.g., files, databases) besides using conferences.Some search operations can be performed by store andforward messages addressed to machines instead ofpeople, with properly search criteria. However, some-times one needs an agent who is properly connected to

an interactive Internet node, such as a university.Overall, e-mail is a diverse medium which can be used to

accomplish many different kinds of things. E-mail is notonly the fastest, least inexpensive and most convenientmeans of communication, but is becoming vital for keepingup in one's field.

Indeed, if you don't have an Internet e-mail address, thento enter and keep up in the information age, "you need toget connected!"

Mark Prado is President of PermaNct, Inc., 11425 South LakesDrive, Reston, VA 22091; tel: (703) 715-8473; (703) 715-7982 fax:(703) 775-9806; e-mail: mark.pradoo.permaNet.org Internet.

vi riy, cid rrNirlition:; 1 H 11) uryb rj

ri ihrDiigh hrllChildren learn more from stories than meets than eye.They learn to listen carefully to details and events,they learn to read and associate ideas withlanguage, and they learn to appreciate theculture and morals in the plot. In Nairobi,Kenya, Jacaranda Designs is creating aseries of illustrated storybooks which helpchildren to do all these things throughlegends that have been told orally in Kenyafor generations.

Most of the educational storybooks around theworld tell stories complete with pictures anddescriptions of animals, houses and lifestylesimported from only a few of the world's regions.In an effort to keep these oral stories alive,Jacaranda Designs has brought together localartists and storytellers to create and publishbeautiful storybooks in English and Swahili. Eachstorybook is written for a particular age groupand has educational activities listed in theback. The Early Learning series is structured forbeginning kindergarten learners. Other booksare tailored to an older audience.

11146-1--e

Recommended for children in Kenya andeverywhere, these books are availablethrough the following address: JacarandaDesigns, Ltd., P.O. Box 76691, Nairobi,Kenya.

66

.14-4.

ii this beautifzuly-illustrakd stiny, theGreat Greedy Ogre eats everything in thevillage until finally, he blows up.


Resources

Multi-Media Kits

UNESCO, CommunicationDivision, Attn: Gervasio Kaliwo, 1 Rue Miollis, 75015Paris, France. fax: 331-4567 4234.

Created for group training or individual study, this develop-ment communication kit contains print, graphic, audiovisualand computer disc materials. It introduces basic theoreticalunderpinnings of development communication and elabo-rated case studies in action from around the world. It alsocontains a directory of agencies and institutions concernedwith communication and a data base on computer disk forfuture reference.

Ryerson InternationalDevelopment Centre, Ryerson Polytechnical Institute,350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3.tel: (416) 979-5026; fax: (416) 979-5352. Cost: US$150for organizations in the North, US$100 for organiza-tions in the developing world.

Using an interactive, learner-center approach, Broadcastingfor Development covers topics such as theories of develop-ment broadcasting, skills for broadcasters, planning and pro-duction strategies and research and evaluation of broadcastingprojects. The training package includes print notecards, amanual, five case study video programs, users' guides andnotes for the video programs, a training syllabus and a train-ing methods handbook.

Books and Audiovisuals

byLuis Felipe Ulloa, Editorial Guaymuras, P.O. Box 1843,Tegucigalpa, Honduras. tel: (504) 375433. Spanish. 91pages. 1993.

This communication guide was written for writers and train-ers who work for rural people but do not belong to that com-munity themselves. It reviews styles of communication whichpromote maximum retention, interactive methods of training,how to simplify language for greatest impact and the use ofillustrations to accompany text. In simple Spanish and filledwith graphics, it practices what it preaches and is useful to avariety of readers.

by Heidi


Noel Nairmen, Greenwood Publishing Group, 88Post Road West, Box 5007, Westport, CT 06881USA. tel: (203) 226-3571. 184 pages. 1993. Cost:$47.95.

Using examples from Mexico, the author discusses thetheory, practice and evaluation involved in using soapoperas for education and entertainment. Psychologicaltheory is introduced alongside the process and results offormative and summative research of various successfulMexican programs. While it is tailored for a particularaudience, it is a useful tool in assessing research modelsand designing programs using this media.

by Frangois Ouerre, The Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Via le delle diCaracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. fax: 5793152. Frenchand English.

This manual describes the use of rural radio from researchto evaluation. It uses case studies to exemplify each facetand proposes a interactive approach which establishesdialogue with rural communities, allowing them to com-municate among themselves as well as with decision mak-ers. The anecdotes are charming and effective in bringingreal obstacles and solutions alive. Interesting and enter-taining, this manual will be useful to governments andpractitioners alike.

edited by Renata E. Seidel, HEALTHCOM,Academy for Educational Development, 1255 23rdSt, NW, Suite 400, Washington, D.C. 20037 USA.Cost: $15 or free for use in developing countries.

This 250 page collection of 24 case studies and anecdotesillustrates different aspects of promoting health practicesamong parents, communities, healthcare providers andpolicy makers. It is well illustrated and includes charts andstep-by-step communication methods for behavior changein health.

by Ranjit Singh, D.K. Publishers Distributors, Ltd1, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002,India. tel: 3261465.

This book identifies steps in planned change through com-munication and an adoption process which facilitatesthem, Concentrating on rural areas, the particular audi-ences ot women and youth, and communication channelsand technology, the book provides a solid understandingot available communication technologies and their appli-cations in a very organized and easy-to-follow was .

67

Conferences

The Universiti Sains Malaysia is organizing the

December 6-9, 1993 in Penang, Malaysia. Theconference themes include cultural action and the limits tosolidarity, the capitalist challenge, and communication andculture in a changed international order. For information, con-tact The Conference Secretariat, Communication Programme,School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800Penang, Malaysia. fax: (60-4) 877736.

Freie Universität Berlin will stage an international conferenceon

from November 19-20, 1993 inBerlin, Germany. For information, contact Manfred Oepen,Freie Universität Berlin, FE. Kommunikationswissenschaften,Projekt Kommunikation und Entwicklung, Malteserstr. 74-100, 12249 Berlin. fax: (030) 7761 046.

The 1995 International Association of Agricultural Informa-tion Specialists Congress will hold its Ninth World Congressat the University of Melbourne January 22-27, 1995. Thetheme is

For information, contact: Dr. H.S. Hawkins, President,AGRIA A, School of Agriculture and Forestry, The Universityof Melbourne, Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia. tel: (61) 3 3445012; fax: (61) 3 3445570.

The Fourth SEAMEO INNOTECH International Conferencewill take place February 23-25, 1994 in Manila, Philippinesand will focus on

Major topics of the conference include multi-channel learning, and communication and alternative tech-nologies. For information, contact: Minda C. Sutaria, SEAMEDINNOTECH, PO Box 207, U.P. Diliman, Quezon City, ThePhilippines. teli fax: (632) 9210224

The SEAMED Regional Language Centre Isannouncing a call for papers and an invitationto participate in its conference on

April 18-20, 1994 inSingapore. For information about topic areasand registration forms, contact The Director,SEAMED Regional Language Centre, 30Orange Grove Road, Singapore 1025. tel: (65)7379044; e-mail: GBORELC@NUSVM


The conference willtake place in Bangkok, Thailand, February 12: 19, 1994.The conference themes and working groups centeraround women, the media and communication. For moreinformation please contact: International Women's Tri-bune Center, 777 United Nation's Plaza, New York, NY,10017, USA. tel: 212-687-8633; fax: 212-661-2704

The New Zealand Correspondence School, the Interna-tional Council for Distance Education and the DistanceEducation Association of New Zealand are cosponsoringthe 1994 Pacific Conference

May 8-12, 1994 in Wellington, NewZealand. The themes will include roles and appropriatetechnologies of distance education. For information,contact:The Conference Organizer, The New ZealandCorrespondence School, Private Bag, Wellington, NewZealand. tel: 64-4-473-6841; fax: 64-4-499-4717.

Courses

Cornell University will join with Singapore's NanyangTechnological University to offer the annual Communica-tion Planning and Strategy program June 15-July 5, 1994in Singapore. The program is designed for professionals inany sector whose organizations need to communicate effec-tively with various kinds of target populationsrangingfrom villagers'to policy makers. The course fee for the threeweek program is US$2250. For information, contact CPS/Cornell/NTU, Dept. of Communication, Cornell Univer-sity, Kennedy Hall, Ithaca, NY, USA 14853, fax: 607-255-7905, or in Singapore, fax: (65) 791-3082.

The International Extension College announces DistanceEducation for Development, an intensive practical courseApril 11 - July, 1994. The course provides a thoroughgrounding in all aspects of distance teaching and its rel-evance to developing countries. For more informationplease contact: Short Course Assistant (IEC/ SC2), Dept. ofInternational and Comparative Education, University ofLondon Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Wav, LondonWC1 HAL, England. tel: 4471-6126606; fax# 44-71-6126632

The London F,chool of Economics is offering a one yearMSc program in Media and Communications. For infor-mation about courses, facilities, costs, financial aid, accom-modations and admission, please contact: Graduate Ad-missions Office, London School of Economics, HoughtonSt., London WC2A 2A E, England. tel: 44-71-955-7159/60,fax: 44-71-831-1684

68BEST COPY AVAILABLE 19 Development Communication Report, no. 82

Satellite TV Broadcasting:Looking to the Future of Educational Technologies

Reuters news -Agency dispatch datelined NewDelhi reports that "millions of Asians now knowAmerican newsmen Ted Koppel and Dan Rather"

more intimately than their own local newsreaders."Satellite Television blamed for Indian riots," headlines the

Indian Express newspaper on another day, reportingclaims bv politicians that broadcasts by CNN and the BBChelped trigger communal riots by showing violentscenes usually suppressed on Indian's gov-ernment TV channel.

These reports illustratethe growing impact of satel-lite television systems in de-veloping countries. While sat-ellite broadcasting is fastestgrowing in Asia, where it isestimated that more than 4(1broadcast satellites now cover atleast parts of the region, (AsianMass Communication Bulletin, Jan.-Feb., 1993), satellite-delivered televi-sion is also gathering new viewers inAfrica and systems have long beenavailable in the Caribbean and parts ofLatin America,

The prospect of satellite television penetrating poor,rural areas of many developing countries is both good andad news. It is good if it offers new viewers broader per-

spectives on the world and an opportunity to view diverseprogramming. including those produced within their owncultures. It is bad if it promotes and raises aspirations to-wards the consumer lifestyle and values depicted in mostimported television programming from the North.

would be provided to southern independent televisionproducers who today have great difficulty finding airtime or production funds for their programs. Throughthese efforts, WETV hopes to provide an outlet for cul-tural expression to and for societies often marginalized,even within their own region.

Officially, the objective of WETV is to support agreater global understanding of issues of envi-ronmental sustainable development as definedby the 1992 United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED).But the service.would provide not only topquality documentary programming, butdrama, music and other cultural program-ming celebrating the diversity of theworld.

Looking Towards the Future

The rapidly-falling cost of broadcast satellite time andtechnologies such as digital video compression have madeit possible to conceive of a global television channel withan objective other than delivering consumers to advertis-ers. Media entrepreneurs with deep pockets may now bechallenged by other groups concerned with the use of thispowerful technology for educational and developmentpurposes.

That is the intention of the global access television ser-vice called WETV, an initiative of Canada's InternationalDevelopment Research Centre (IDRC) and a number ofnonprofit partners.

WETV's backers intend to create a system which wouldoffer a balance of programming originating in both theSouth and the North. Financial and technical support

Development Communication Report. no. 82 20

Funding WETV And GlobalTelevision

At a time when investment fundspublic or private - are scarce, ques-

tions mav be asked about the financial vi-ability of such a service. The formula devised is

unique, its organizers believe. It will include offering"partners" the opportunity to purchase blocks of air timefor programming they create or commission. These couldinclude the major United Nations agencies concernedwith environment and children or national broadcastnetworks seeking a wider audience for their shows. Prof-its from such time-sales would be re-invested in produc-tion of the service's own programming, which might alsobe commercially sponsored.

The Service would start on a modest basis, in 19%,with four hours of programming daily and a limitednumber of partner countries in North and South.

The not-for-profit corporation.would be headed by aninternational board of directors including leading figuresin international development.

Its partners believe services such as WETV, dedicatedto the developmental use of satellite television, can be apowerful means of raising awareness - worldwide - onissues of sustainable development and the environment.But they stress that there is a window of opportunity nowfor the development of such a service. Once commercialsatellite operations flourish, and create a taste for pro-gramming produced originally for audiences in industrial-ized countries, it may be difficult to find viewers for thetype of programming envisioned.

Charle:. A lorron, can be reached at: International DevelopmentResearch Centre, 250 Albert ,street, Box 8500, Otnne.a. Canada

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