diabrotica spp description and organic pest management
TRANSCRIPT
Word count: 2290
Assignment #6: Organic Pest Management
For SOIL 342, ORGANIC SOIL FERTILIZATION, Professor Joann Whalen
Jane Sorensen, 119447640
Contents
Overview: Diabrotica species and economic importance ......................................................... 2
Spotted Cucumber beetle/Southern Corn Rootworm and Banded Cucumber Beetle............ 4
Life cycle................................................................................................................................ 5
Monitoring of pests ................................................................................................................ 6
Pest management with biocontrol organisms......................................................................... 7
Other pest management techniques........................................................................................ 8
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 9
References................................................................................................................................ 10
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Overview: Diabrotica species and economic importance
Corn rootworms are one of the most economically destructive pests in the United States, and
therefore, a serious problem in Canada.
Diabroticina are chrysomelid beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Subfamily Galerucinae:
Tribe Luperini : Diabroticina) that includes two major pest genera: Cerotomites and
Diabroticites. These genera are endemic to the Americas. The 350 described species of
Diabrotica are divided into three series: virgifera, fucata and signifera. (Toepfer et al 2009)
In North America, the Virgifera group feeds primarily on corn with a few other grasses; its
species include the Northern (Diabrotica barberi), Western (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera), and
Mexican (Diabrotica virgifera zeae) corn rootworms. The Western and the Northern rootworm
species are the most devastating pests in Iowa, a major corn-growing area, and it goes to show
that these pests can affect organic sweet corn and organic commodity corn. Found throughout the
United States and southern Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, the northern populations
migrate north and south as seasons change, travelling up to 800 km in a few days. (Bradley p
262)
The Fucata group comprises important pests of horticultural and field crops of cucurbits
(melon, pumpkin, squash, and cucumber), peanuts, sweet potatoes, leafy vegetables and flowers.
This group is comprised of the banded cucumber beetle, Diabrotica balteata, and three varieties
of the Spotted cucumber beetle (a.k.a. Southern corn rootworm), D. undecimpunctata howardi,
Western spotted cucumber beetle, D. undecimpunctata undecimpunctata, and the Western
cucumber beetle, D. undecimpunctata tenella. This paper will assume these three varieties
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function as one spotted cucumber beetle, whether they are Southern or Western. (Toepfer et al
2009, Wikipedia)
Diabrotica spp. was unknown in European countries until the 1990s, when it appeared to have
entered Europe multiple times (Toepfer et al 2009) from the United States during the Yugoslav
wars. (Wikipedia, Kiss et al 2005) There has since been a lot of research and intervention of
these pests in the European context.
There is a third species of cucumber beetle (and very possibly more than that), of which this
paper does not discuss. The Striped cucumber beetle’s genus is Acalymma and its species is
vittatum. It superficially resembles the adult Western corn rootworm, and it is equally important
to D. undecimpunctata in its effects on organic vegetable production. (Toepfer et al 2009)
In the 2006 OMAFRA census1, 3.1% of Ontario farms (=1,769) grew vegetable and melon
crops, while 22.8%, or 13,056 farms, were oilseed and grain production – which means that there
will be plenty of opportunities for Diabrotica species to infest from one type of farm to another.
The 2006 Canadian total2 of certified organic farms producing fruit, vegetables, and greenhouse
products was 916, with 208 of these farms in Quebec and 174 in Ontario. 358 of these farms are
in British Columbia; there, however, the D. undecimpunctata range is not so extensive. In
addition, there are twice as many non-certified organic farms in all categories of farms across
1 http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/stats/census/naics.htm accessed on 27/11/2011 7:17 PM 2 Table 1: Organic but not certified producers by product type, 2006 http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/96-325-
x/2007000/t/6000060-eng.htm, Table 3: Farms reporting certified organic fruit, vegetables or greenhouse products, Canada and provinces, 2006 and 2001 http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/96-325-x/2007000/t/6000062-eng.htm
Accessed 11/27/11 5:50 PM
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Canada. (Kendrick 2009) Wherever there are extensive cornfields or cucurbit crops, Diabrotica
will be a concern for organic farmers.
Spotted Cucumber beetle/Southern Corn Rootworm and Banded Cucumber Beetle
D. undecimpunctata, the spotted cucumber beetle, causes much economic damage in Canada,
but in the United States alone, current estimates show that 30 million acres (120,000 km²) of
corn, out of 80 million acres (320,000 km²) grown, are infested with corn rootworms, and the
number of infested acres is expected to grow over the next 20 years3. Larvae of these insects feed
on roots of corn, often killing young plants; older plants are weakened and stalks topple easily.
D. balteata, the banded cucumber beetle, is nearly omnivorous, and in addition to attacking
numerous plants, injures all parts of the plant: damage may occur to foliage, blossoms, corn silk,
kernels and grains. Adults feed on leaves and sometimes petals of cucumber, squash, beet, bean
and soybean, pea, sweet potato, okra, corn, lettuce, onion, and cabbage, other vegetable crops,
and flowers, and seem to prefer plants from the family Cucurbitaceae, Leguminoseae, and
Crucifereae:. Rosaceae fruits are also susceptible. (Capinera 2007)
D. undecimpunctata adults are greenish yellow, 5 to 6 mm in length, with 11 black spots or
three transverse bands across the elytra (wing covers), and also can have a red head and black
thorax, and a thin green band running down the center of the insect's back. The banding pattern is
variable, and sometimes almost absent. (Capinera 2007) Compare the image on the left of
D. undecimpunctata with that of the banded cucumber beetle, D. balteata, on the right:
3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabrotica
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Larvae are white, ½ inch grubs with brown heads and brown patches on first and last
segments.
Both larvae and adults can transit cucumber mosaic virus and bacterial wilt. (Bradley p 262)
Larval feeding might increase the incidence and severity of Fusarium wilt. (Capinera 2007)
Life cycle
Overwintering adults emerge from under
crop residues in spring. (Bradley p 262) Adult
longevity is 17 to 44 days, but averages 26
days. About six days after adult emergence
(from overwintering or pupae), copulation
occurs, with egg deposition beginning about
16 days later. Oviposition takes place at two
to three day intervals, for two to eight weeks.
Females normally deposit two to 15 egg
clusters of up to 100 eggs each. A female can produce a total of 850 eggs (Capinera 2007). The
eggs are yellow or orange in color, oval in form, and measure about 0.6 mm in length and 0.35
mm in width. Banded cucumber beetle (D. balteata) eggs are deposited in cracks in the soil
12-spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardii) larva, pupa and adult http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/Sweetpotato%20Diagnotes/Media/Html/TheProblems/Pest-Root&StemInsects/Wireworm/wireworm.htm
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(Bradley et al 2009), and spotted cucumber beetles (D.
undecimpunctata) lay orange egg masses on the underside
of leaves. 4
Eggs require five to nine days to hatch. The larval
development time is usually 11 to 17 days and is
temperature dependent. For instars 1 to 3, the range is about 4-8, 3-11, and 4-15 days
respectively. Pupation, of four to six days, occurs in the soil. (Capinera 2007)
D. balteata does not enter diapause. It remains active as long as the weather remains
favorable. Under optimal conditions, D. balteata’s life cycle can be completed in 45 days.
(Capinera 2007)
Monitoring of pests
To follow the activity of pests and beneficial insects, make regular weekly checks in the field
with a hand lens and a sweep net, inspecting the underside of foliage for the first signs of insect
activity. Using these tools as well in cover crops, field edges, and adjacent crops to help
determine which beneficial insect species or pests may have potential to move into the crop.
(Fouche et al 2000) Alternatively, or in addition to inspection, use sticky traps to monitor
populations. For example, in the late 1990’s, in response to the invasion of Western corn
rootworm (D. virgifera), a permanent monitoring/trapping for containment and control program
on became operational in Hungary, Croatia, Romania and Bosnia-Herzegovina. It used
Hungarian pheromone traps to capture males, and Multigard™ yellow sticky traps were used to
4 http://gardening.about.com/od/gardenproblems/ig/Insects-and-Diseases-of-Plants/Cucumber-Beetle-Eggs.htm
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capture both males and females. It was hoped that this trapping method would slow down or
possibly stop the build-up of smaller isolated D. virgifera virgifera populations. (Kuhlmann &
van der Burgt, 1998)
Pest management with biocontrol organisms
The nematode Filipjevimermis leipsandra affects Diabrotica, and Hexamermis spp.
parasitizes the adults. Natural infection levels in South Carolina were reported to be in the range
of 20–40% from May through October. (Capinera 2007) Studies have indicated up to 90% of a
population of cucumber beetles being infected by the nematodes. Apply nematodes to the soil,
mulch, seed furrows and around plant roots5 on a weekly basis to control larvae (Bradley p 262),
and to kill the adults.
Except for parasitic nematodes, the natural enemies of D. balteata are not well known. Ants
have been shown to be important egg predators in the tropics, and likely are important elsewhere.
(Capinera 2007) Lacewings and ladybugs eat eggs deposited on leaves.6 Natural enemies would
be useful elements of a strategic approach to the control of Diabroticina pests, and it is suggested
to encourage Tachnid flies, soldier beetles, and braconid wasps to prevent or treat an infestation.
5 http://www.ghorganics.com/CucumberBeetles.htm accessed 11/27/11 5:50 PM
6 http://www.ghorganics.com/CucumberBeetles.htm accessed 11/27/11 5:50 PM
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Other pest management techniques
An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy is likely to enhance the natural enemy
populations, and accelerated exploration of biological control options may provide the advances
in Diabroticina pest management that Europe, with its non-transgenic agricultural policy,
urgently needs. (Toepfer et al 2009) IPM includes the following recommendations:
Remove and destroy crop residues where adults overwinter;
Rotate garden crops with cover crops such as alfalfa;
Hand pollinate covered squash family plants;
Cover seedlings or plants with floating row cover (a spun-polyester row cover,
permeable to water and to light, which protects the crop from pests and shortens or
extends the harvest period due to its thermal properties);
Apply kaolin clay to uncovered plants, especially to leaf undersides, and reapply after
rain;
Handpick or vacuum beetles;
As a last resort, spray infested plants with pyrethrin (Bradley p 262)
Plant pest-resistant varieties, or “trap” varieties that will attract the pest away from the
crop you are growing for market
Diversify your crops as much as possible, so that if an infestation hits one crop
particularly badly, you will have other crops to sell. (Fossel 2007)
Crop rotation works very well to control larval damage. In most cases, adult damage is not
severe enough to warrant control, unless rotation of corn is not practiced in or near an organic
sweet corn field. (Caldwell)
Make sure that crops are well fertilized with compost and free from environmental and
nutritional stresses, so that should a pest stress the plant, it has a good base from which to
develop its own defenses. (Fossel 2007)
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Heavy mulching can deter cucumber beetles from laying eggs in the ground near plant stems
and may hinder feeding by larvae migrating to fruits. Companion plant with oregano, radish,
tansy, and nasturtium,7 and also try broccoli, calendula, catnip, goldenrod, and rue, as they are
suggested to be repellent to the cucumber beetle. African, French or Mexican marigolds are
pungent and may be used to repel the insects, alternatively, common marigolds may attract them,
therefore could be used as a trap crop. 8
Conclusion
In reviewing the material for Diabrotica species, it became apparent that one organic practice
needs amending for the crops that are affected by pests: organic matter cannot be left on the field
at the end of the growing season, but instead must be thoroughly thermally composted to kill the
pupae, overwintering adults, and eggs left in the litter. The organic farmer will need to conduct a
thorough literature review and consult with his or her extension department to find out which
varieties of crops in the area are susceptible to Diabrotica, and which crops are ideal trap crop
candidates to make the job of manual monitoring and control a little easier for the farmer. The
farmer should try planting allelopathic or repellent companion plants, and report the results of
these efforts to the extension offices to promote information availability on what works, and
what doesn’t. Lastly, farmers and researchers should pay particular attention to literature coming
out of Europe regarding its new programs to contain D. virigifera and any D. undecimpunctata
co-invasions, as Europe’s agricultural practices are more akin to organic farming than North
American conventional practices that rely on genetic manipulation in favour of toxic production
7 http://www.weekendgardener.net/garden-pests/diabrotica-060806.htm accessed 11/26/11 8:24 PM
8 http://www.ghorganics.com/CucumberBeetles.htm accessed 11/27/11 5:50 PM
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or toxicity resistance. Research of the new invasion should yield interesting applications on an
aggressive natural response to Diabrotica cucumber beetles, within an organic context.
References
Bradley FM, Ellis BW, & Martin DL. 2009. The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control: A Complete Guide to Maintaining a Healthy Garden and Yard the Earth-Friendly Way. New York, NY: Rodale
Caldwell BA, & New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. (2005). Resource guide for organic insect and disease management. Geneva, N.Y: New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. Accessed at http://web.pppmb.cals.cornell.edu/resourceguide/cmp/corn.php on 11/27/11 7:03 PM
Capinera JL. 1999. Banded Cucumber Beetle, Diabrotica balteata LeConte (Insecta: Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Latest revision: November 2007. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN25000.pdf accessed on 11/25/11 2:36 PM
Fossel PV (2007). Organic farming: Everything you need to know. St. Paul, MN: MBI. Fouche C, Gaskell M, Koike ST, Mitchell J, Smith R. 2000. Insect Pest Management For
Organic Crops. The Organic Vegetable Production in California Series Publication 7251, available at http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/ Accessed on 11/26/11 8:36 PM
Grabowski M, 2009. Diseases of Cucurbits. University of Minnesota. http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1172.html
Kendrick J, & Statistics Canada. (2008). Organic: From niche to mainstream. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Kiss JE, Berger CR, Cate HK, Cean P, Cheek M, Derron S, Festić J, Furlan H, Igrc-Barčić L, Ivanova J, Lammers I, Omelyuta W, Princzinger V, Reynaud G, Sivcev P, Sivicek I, Urek P, Vahala G. 2005. Monitoring of western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) in Europe 1992-2003. In: Western corn rootworm: ecology and management, Eds.Vidal S, Kuhlmann U, Edwards CR. CABI
Kuhlmann U & van der Burgt WACM. 1998. Possibilities for biological control of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, in Central Europe. BiocontrolNews and Information, 19(2):59N–68N
Toepfer S, Haye T, Kuhlmann U, et al. 2009. A review of the natural enemies of beetles in the subtribe Diabroticina (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): implications for sustainable pest management. Biocontrol Science & Technology, 19(1):1-65..