development and management of land/water resources: the everglades, agriculture, and south florida

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATIONVOL. 34, NO.2 AMERICANWATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION APRIL 1998

DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND/WATER RESOURCES:THE EVERGLADES,AGRICULTURE, AND SOUTH FLORIDA'

D. L. Anderson and P. C. Rosendahl2

ABSTRACT: South Florida and the Everglades have been underintensive development since 1850 by Federal and State govern-ments who encouraged and financed extensive drainage andhydraulic changes, primarily for agricultural settlement. Agricul-tural development of the sugar industry in the northern Evergladesadjacent to Lake Okeechobee rapidly progressed only after the1900s. Political and resource management conflicts have arisenbecause policies which once favored development are now beingreversed by policies and regulation efforts to restore and conservenatural ecosystems. Currently, the environmental and ecologicalimpacts of agricultural land use adjacent to natural wtlands of theEverglades are being assessed. The objectives of this paper are:(1) to outline the historical development of south Florida and thesugar industry (2) to relate this history to political and manage-ment policy changes occurring as it pertains to ecosystem restora-tion and the multiuser competition for water/land resources, and(3) to propose how integrated resource management might be uti-lized for a sustainable Everglades and south Florida. This paperoutlines the historical paradox of urban settlement, land develop-ment, and agricultural production, with efforts in the recent decadeto acquire, manage, and preserve land and water resources for nat-ural areas conservation. Only though the use of integrated resourcemanagement will the defined resource conflicts be mediated.(KEY TERMS: environmental protection/policy; Everglades Agri-cultural Area (EAA); Everglades National Park (ENP); Floridasugar industry; land acquisition; population growth; surface/groundwaters; sustainable agriculture; wetlands.)

INTRODUCTION

The development of south Florida evolved fromover 140 years of Federal and State policies whichactively promoted the utilization of land and waterresources for agriculture, urban growth, industry, andrecreation. Within the last decade, there has therebeen a reverse in policies towards restoration andconservation, and substantial areas of south Florida

have been acquired for both ecosystem restoration(i.e., tidal and freshwater wetlands, upland land-scapes, etc.) and urban development. Today, sugar-cane farming in the upper Everglades conflicts withenvironmental goals which include the restorationof natural ecosystem-linked landscapes from theupper Kissimmee River basin to Florida Bay (Figures1 and 2) for purposes of improving water quality andrestoring historical flows through these landscapes.By understanding historical changes made in thephysical landscape and current changes in resourcemanagement policies, the future position of agricul-ture and other users may be more rationally under-stood. The objectives of this paper are (1) to outlinethe historical development of south Florida and thesugar industry, (2) to relate this history to politicaland management policy changes occurring as it per-tains to ecosystem restoration and the multiuser com-petition for water! land resources, and (3) to proposehow integrated resource management might be uti-lized for a sustainable Everglades and south Florida.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EVERGLADES ANDSOUTH FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES

Little attempt was made to penetrate the interiorof south Florida by early Spanish, French, andEnglish explorers and colonial settlers before the1800s. When Florida was acquired by the U.S. in 1821from the Spanish, little was known about the interiorresources until troops entered the region duringthe Seminole Indian War of 1835-1842. During this

1Paper No. 97045 of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Discussions are open until December 1, 1998. (Contri-bution from the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Journal Series No. R-05449.)

2Respectively, Professor, Everglades Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Belle Glade, Florida 33430-8003; and VicePresident of Environmental Relations, Florida Crystal Corp., Palm Beach, Florida 33480 (E-Mail/Anderson: [email protected]).

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION 235 JAWRA

Anderson and Rosendahi

Figure 1. Landsat Satellite Mosaic Image of Central and South Florida Region(courtesy South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida).

period, urban and agricultural development wasencouraged by the Federal government. Drainage ofthe Everglades began in the 1800s to improve trans-portation/navigation and primarily to encourage agri-cultural development (U.S. Congress, 1911; Table 1).

On September 28, 1850, Congress passed the "SwampLands Act" which transferred the Everglades regionfrom Federal to State control (U.S. Congress, 1911).In an 1855 Florida legislative act (Chapter 610, Lawsof Florida), lands granted to the State in 1845 were

JAWRA 236 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION

Development and Management of Land/Water Resources: The Everglades, Agriculture, and South Florida

Figure 2. General Map of South Florida

put under the control of the Board of Trustees of theInternal Improvement Fund (U.S. Congress, 1911; pp.8, 19). Funds originating from land sales were usedfor drainage of associated wetlands as stipulated bythe Congressional 1850 Swamp Lands Act (Dovell,1947; U.S. Congress, 1911). Between 1879 and 1900,

the State legislature granted 15 million acres (6.1million ha) to railroad companies for development anduse. During 1881-1889, contracts exceeded 9 millionacres (3.64 million ha) for drainage of wetlandsnear the Kissimmee, Peace, and CaloosahatcheeRivers, and construction of a canal south from Lake

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIAT;ON 237 JAWRA

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TABLE 1. Chronology of Significant Water ResoUrce Development Events in South Florida.

Date Event

1824 Federal government initiated survey of Florida lands (Johnson, 1974).1841 Elevations in the Glades found to be 10-15 ft above Atlantic Ocean (U.S. Congress, 1848).1845 Florida Statehood. Florida Legislature enjoined Congress to reclaim the Everglades (U.S. Congress, 1911).1847 Colonel R. Butler, surveyor general of Florida, reports regarding draining the Everglades (U.S. Congress, 1848).1847 Mr. Buckingham Smith determines practicability and expediency of draining the Everglades (U.S. Congress, 1911.1848 General Thomas S. Jesup, suggested lowering surface of Everglades and Lake Okeechobee (U.S. Congress, 1848).1848 Senate bill No. 338, "to authorize the draining of the Everglades in the State of Florida ..." (U.S. Congress, 1848).1850 The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act granted over 20,000,000 acres of swamp to Florida (U.S. Congress, 1911).1856 First authentic description of the Everglades of Florida, with maps, profiles, and levels was made (U.S. Congress, 1911).1863 Internal Improvement Fund(IIF) restricts land sales within 2 mi. of coast. Prices from $0.75 to 2.50/acre, and finally all lands with

drawn from the market on 9/11163 (Blake, 1980).1881 Hamilton Disston and Associates agree to reclaim 4,000,000 acres of swamp/overflowed land (U.S. Congress, 1911).1883 A shallow canal was completed between the Caloosahatchee River and Lake Okeechobee (Leach et al., 1972).1898 Trustees of HF authorize private reclamation of 800,000 acres in the southeastern Everglades (Blake, 1980).1903 Florida Coy. W.S. Jennings addresses Legislature relative to Everglades reclamation (U.S. Congress, 1911).1904 Reconnaissance in the vicinity of Miami for draining a small tract of Everglades (U.S. Congress, 1911).1905 Florida Governor's race of 1905 centered on the drainage of the Everglades.1905 Official route of the first drainage canal adopted by resolution of hF Trustees (Parker et al., 1955; U.S. Congress, 1911).1905-13 North New River and Miami Canal construction period (Dovell, 1947; Light and Dineen, 1994; U.S. Congress, 1911).1906 The dredge Everglades launched at Ft. Lauderdale (U.S. Congress, 1911).1907 Everglades Drainage District was established (U.S. Congress, 1911).1910 The Miami Canal extended 4-ft. miles into the Everglades and was 10 feet deep (Dovell, 1947).1910 J.O. Wright, Supervising Drainage Engineer of the U.S. was engaged as Chief Drainage Engineer of State of Florida, to have charge

of all drainage operations in the Everglades (U.S. Congress, 1911).1910 Senate Bill for Everglades survey(s) (U.S. Congress, 1911).1912 The North New River Canal was opened from Okeechobee to Ft. Lauderdale (Johnson, 1974).1913 Everglades Drainage District (EDD) established with "authority over drainage and reclamation of land for agriculture and sanitary

purposes, public utility, and public benefit" (U.S. Congress, 1913).1916 Royal Palm State Park was dedicated (1920 acres); additional 2080 acres added in 1921 (Blake, 1980).1920 23,000 people living in the EDD and 34,000 acres under cultivation (Blake, 1980).1920s Construction period for Tamiami Canal and other canals near Miami (Blake, 1980; Dovell, 1947; Parker et al., 1955).1921 Hillsboro and West Palm Beach Canals constructed (Parker et al., 1955).1924 St. Lucie Canal opened (construction: 1916-1924; destroyed by 1926 hurricane; rebuilt, 1931) (Parker et al., 1955).1926 F.C. Elliot, Chief Drainage Engineer for the EDD, bid U.S. government aid in reclaiming the Everglades.1926 The "Miami" hurricane struck Dade and Broward Co. passing over Lake Okeechobee (Snyder and Davidson, 1994).1927 Drainage ceased, except for certain maintenance operations, due to failure to sell bonds (Everglades News, 6/17/1927).1928 The Tamiami Trail opened; "Hurricane of'28;" Everglades Drainage Board petitioned; U.S. government aid in protecting Everglades

from floods; Flood Control Act of 1928 (Everglades News, 11/19/1928; Light and Dineen, 1994).1929 Okeechobee Flood Control District established. Congress authorized Secretary of the Interior to investigate formation of a Ever

glades national park (Johnson, 1974).1930 Congress authorizes Caloosahatchee and Lake Okeechobee drainage areas (U.S. Congress, 1930).1934 President Roosevelt authorized Everglades National Park (ENP) with >2 million acres (Blake, 1980).1935 Everglades Fire Control District was created (Dovell, 1947; Parker, 1974; U.S. Congress, 1948).1937 Hoover Dike around southern perimeter of Lake Okeechobee completed (Dovell, 1947).1943-45 Severe drought inducing saltwater intrusion of the lower southeast Florida coast (Parker et al., 1955).1944 State of Florida sets aside 385,693 acres of land and 461,482 acres of water for conservation.1946 EDD designates publicly-owned lands as Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) (Blake, 1980).1947 State of Florida appropriates money to and dedicates the ENP (Blake, 1980; Johnson, 1974; Jones, 1948).1948 Army Board of Engineers report that peat soils have subsided 6 to 3 ft (Jones, 1948).1948 Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SFCD) created by Congress. Flood Control Act

(Public Law 80-858) passed (U.S. Congress, 1957).1950 Over 140,000 acres of WCA-1 leased as wildlife refuge by Fish and Wildlife Service (Johnson, 1974).1953 Levee systems completed along the east edge of Everglades; 20 percent reduction of freshwater flow to ocean (Light and Dineen,

1994).1955 Pumping Station 5-5 A and HGS-5 accepted by the South Florida Flood Control District (SFFCD) (Leach et al., 1972).1956 EDD turned over assets to C&SFCD (Johnson, 1974).1957 Pumping Station S-6 accepted by the SFFCD (Leach, 1972; Leach et al., 1972).1958 Back pumping into Lake Okeechobee instituted to provide flood protection.1960 Levees enclose WCAs 1 and 2 in the northern Everglades (McPherson et al., 1976).1961 Pumping Station S-7 accepted by SFFCD; original operating level at 13 feet (msl) (Leach et al., 1972; SFWMD, 1991).1962 Pumping Station S-S accepted by SFFCD. WCA-3 enclosed by L-29 (915 mi2 total) (Leach et al., 1972).1963 L-28 and L-67A completed. A tieback canal and levee was completed in 1965.1964 Hoover Dike enlargements completed.


Date


TABLE 1. Chronology of Significant Water Resource Development Events in South Florida (cont'd.)

Event

1965 Flood Control Act of 1965 amended Act of 1948. The SFFCD tried a schedule of releases to relieve water shortages during droughtof 1961-65 (U.S. Congress, 1965)

1966 The "pump first" concept derived to deliver water to EN? (Trimble and Marban, 1988).1967 The Everglades Parkway (Alligator Alley) was completed. Completion of L-28 interceptor canal, L-67 extension, and C-ill; western

boundary of WCA 3 completed. Canal built at request of EN? to bring water to park even when the Everglades was dry. C-illconstructed as extension of Atlantic Ridge to provide flow control, drainage, and navigation benefits for the region betweenFlorida Bay and the Tamiami Canal (Heaney and Huber, 1971; U.S. Congress, 1968).

1968 Proposal to enlarge agricultural area canals and to remove the humps in North New River and Miami Canals. S-197 constructed asa salinity barrier (Leach et al., 1972; U.S. Congress, 1968).

1968 Ground breaking for jet port for supersonic aircraft 6 miles north of ENP boundary to the Big Cypress Swamp.1968 South Dade County drainage system completed (Leach et al., 1972).1970 Extension of Hoover Dike around northern perimeter of Lake Okeechobee completed.1971 Peat fires in WCA-3A (Schortemyer, 1980).1971 Kissixnmee River straightened (Canal 38); river length reduced from 100 to 52 miles (Storch, 1972).1972 Florida Water Resources Act: SFWMJ) established (State of Florida, 1972).1973 Experimental water draw down from 1973-75 of WCA-2A. Florida Big Cypress Conservation Act of 1973. (Blake, 1980; Worth, 1983,

1988)1975 Environmental Reorganization Act adopted; 1FF abolished; 6,248 acres purchased within Rotenberger township under the

Environmentally Endangered Lands program (Blake, 1980).1978 EN? becomes a Wilderness Park as defined by the "Endangered American Wilderness Act."1980 Interim actions for reducing nutrients to Lake Okeechobee approved by SFWMD; Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission

implemented controlled sawgrass burning in WCA-2A (SFWMD, 1983).1980 Four-year draw down of WCA-2A initiated which coincided with regional drought. Lake Okeechobee regulation schedule was

changed to from 9.5 to 12.5 ft NGVD (Worth, 1983, 1988).1982 "Supply-Side" management techniques during dry season proposed (SFWv1D memo, Z/22/82, Schweigart to Ex. Dir.).1983 Holey Land/Rotenberger Tract acquired with State owning 75 percent of two tracts; the Flow Through Plan for EN? implemented

until 1985 requiring S-12s to remain open to the Shark River Slough (Neidrauer and Cooper, 1989).1984 Warren Henderson Wetlands Act (SFWMD, 1989).1987 Florida legislature passes the SWIM Act (Sec. 373.451-4595, Fla. Stat.).1988 U.S. vs. SFWMD and FDER (U.S. Supreme Court, Case No. 88-1886-CIV-Hoeveler).1989 Everglades Protection District created as a special taxing district by legislature (SFWMD, 1989).1990 2nd, 3rd, and 4th SWIM drafts written (SFWMD).1991 5th SWIM draft (SFWMD) written. Executive Order by the Office of the Governor of Florida (No. 88-25). Maiory Stoneman

Douglass Everglades Protection Act (Sec. 373.4592, Fla. Stat.) passed.1992 Lawsuit settled, (U.S. District Court, 1991). 6th, 7th, 8th SWIM drafts written. SWIM Plan adopted (SFWMD, 1992a,b).1993 Principals identified pursuant to resolution and mediation of the Everglades SWIM litigation.1994 Everglades Forever Act (State of Florida, 1994a).1994 P loads leaving the EAA reported reduced by 17 percent (Whalen and Whalen, 1996).1995 P loads leaving the EAA reported reduced by 31 percent (Whalen and Whalen, 1996).1996 P loads leaving the EAA reported reduced by 68 percent (Whalen and Whalen, 1996).1997 P loads leaving the EAA reported reduced by 50 percent (SFWMD, 1997).

Conversion: 1 acre = 0.4047 ha; 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 ton = 0.907 Mt.

Okeechobee into land referred today as the Ever-glades Agricultural Area (EAA). By 1905 the Ever-glades region was surveyed and an official map wasadopted by the Trustees of the Internal ImprovementFund. Drainage tax districts were established, and inMay 1907, the Everglades Drainage District wasdefined and charged to promote drainage for agricul-tural development. Numerous drainage projectsencouraged an increase in Everglades landownersfrom 12 to more than 15,000 between 1909 and 1911.In 1913, engineering plans were recommended toexpand drainage south of Lake Okeechobee throughthe Miami Canal, the proposed West Palm BeachCanal, and the eastern boundary of the Drainage

District. Construction of the St. Lucie Canal and addi-tional arterial canals was also recommended, andbetween 1913 and 1931, 440 miles (273 km) of canals,47 miles (29 km) of levees, and 16 locks and damswere constructed (Dovell, 1947; Jones, 1948).Throughout this period primary canals defining thecurrent day EAA were constructed (Miami, NorthNew River, Hillsboro, and West Palm Beach Canals;Table 1).

Severe physical and natural damage from the 1926and 1928 hurricanes coincided with a period of dismalnational economic conditions which resulted in sharpdeclines in construction and maintenance by theTrustees of the Internal Improvement Fund until the



1940s (Jones, 1948; Table 1). During this time, mostlandowners were tax delinquent.

In 1929, the Florida legislature created the Okee-chobee Flood-Control District, in response to thesevere loss of life and property from the 1928 hurri-cane (Bottcher and Izuno, 1994; Dovell, 1947; Jones,1948; Snyder and Davidson, 1994). The new flood con-trol district was responsible for construction andimprovements needed for flood control and navigationthroughout southern Florida, which included LakeOkeechobee, the Everglades areas, the Caloosa-hatchee River, all of the Everglades Drainage District,and Collier, Glades, Hendry, Lee, Martin, Okeechobee,and Monroe counties (excluding the Florida Keys). Inaddition, between 1930 and 1937, the United StatesCongress authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-neers to construct levees and flood control structuresaround Lake Okeechobee and to provide a navigablechannel from Stuart to Ft. Myers, through the St.Lucie Canal and Caloosahatchee River (Light andDineen, 1994).

The drought of 1938-1939 resulted in severe firesin the Everglades region which destroyed manyorganic soils to existing water tables and parent rock(Dovell, 1947). Consequently, the Florida legislaturecreated the Everglades Fire Control District in 1939.As a result of public concern for conserving soils andwater in the Everglades, the U.S. Geological Surveyand Soil Conservation Service initiated soil studiesand surveys from 1939 through 1948 (Jones, 1948).During the mid-1930s through 1947, the EvergladesNational Park (ENP) was established. The U.S.Congress created the Southern Florida Flood ControlProject (FCP) in 1948. The goals of the FCP were toimprove and maintain navigational waterways for theKissimmee River, St. Lucie Canal, Lake Okeechobee,and the Caloosahatchee River; to construct and main-tain levees and locks around Lake Okeechobee tomaintain water levels and prevent flooding; and toimprove other associated works to ensure protectionof the EAA from flooding (Dovell, 1947; Jones, 1948;Light and Dineen, 1994; Parker, 1974). In addition,strategies were implemented to retard salt waterintrusion along the lower east coast urban areas bydecreasing over drainage. In response to these Feder-al actions, the Florida legislature created the Centraland Southern Florida Flood Control District (FCD) in1949 to manage the project works established by theFCP (Blake, 1980; Izuno and Bottcher, 1994; Izuno,1989).

Large-scale drainage projects were accompanied byextensive development of agriculture and urban com-munities utilizing Federal, State, and private fund-ing. The EAA was officially created (U.S. Congress,1948) and subsequently surface water management

was extensively planned and developed from 1949through 1963 by the Central and Southern FloridaFlood Control and Other Purposes Project (C&SF Pro-ject). During this time, canals, pump stations, andother structures were constructed to provide watersupply to urban areas along the coast and to provideflood protection for agricultural development withinthe EAA. Five Water Conservation Areas (WCAs),designated as WCA-1 [142,212 acres (57,551 ha)],WCA-2A [105,528 acres (42,706 ha)], WCA-2B [28,016acres (11,338 ha)], WCA-3A [491,051 acres (198,721ha)], and WCA-3B [102,097 acres (41,317 ha)] weredeveloped and by 1963 regulation plans were estab-lished (Figure 1; Heaney and Huber, 1971). TheWCAs to this day are utilized to aid flood control forLake Okeechobee and the surrounding regions as wellas to preserve and protect wildlife (Light and Dineen,1994).

The Florida Water Resources Act of 1972 estab-lished five regional water management districts creat-ed along hydrologic boundaries with mandates tomaintain water supply, ensure adequate flood control,and protect water quality. Prior to this time, the Cen-tral and Southern Florida Project for Flood Controland Other Purposes (C&SFCD) was created by theCongress in 1948, primarily to study and controlextensive water control problems faced during thisperiod (Table 1). The South Florida Water Manage-ment District (SFWMD) is one of five regional dis-tricts responsible for about 18,000 square miles(46,600 km2) within 16 counties of south Florida. Thisarea covers a region from Orlando south to Key West,including the ENP and the Everglades ProtectionAreas (Figures 1 and 2).

The Florida Environmental Reorganization Act of1972 combined the state's numerous environmentalprotection programs under the centralized direction ofthe Florida Department of Environmental Regulation[now the Florida Department of Environmental Pro-tection (FDEP)] which assumed the regulatoryresponsibility for air and water pollution control,while the water management districts retainedresponsibility for water supply and flood control (Aus-ness, 1987). The Act provided the means for regionalgovernments to prevent water pollution through regu-lation of land use and required the preparation of astate water plan. The Growth Management Act(GMA) of 1985 established a statewide comprehensiveland use plan. The GMA required that land use deci-sions be consistent with available facilities for pre-venting water pollution. The State Water Policy Act of1981 and 1991 established policies for water conser-vation and preservation, restoration, and enhance-ment of natural water systems. Each of these lawsprovided a basis for surface and ground water quality



improvement, but none of these laws provided a com-prehensive approach to restoration and enhancementof specific water bodies.

The Surface Water Improvement Management Act(SWIM) was enacted by the State of Florida in 1987.This Act mandated that water management districtsprioritize, develop, and implement water manage-ment plans for all waters within district boundaries.The SWIM Plan for the EAA and Everglades Protec-tion Area was described by Florida Statutes (State ofFlorida, 1987; State of Florida, 1989); rules and regu-lations of the Florida Department of EnvironmentalProtection (State of Florida, 1990); and an ExecutiveOrder by the Office of the Governor of Florida (Stateof Florida, 1988). The Everglades Protection Area con-sists of Water Conservation Areas (WCA) 2A, 2B, 3Aand 3B, the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee NationalWildlife Refuge (WCA 1), the ENP (including most ofFlorida Bay), and the ENP expansion area in DadeCounty. The SWIM planning includes additional sur-rounding areas of the EAA, Barnes Sound/ManateeBay, the urban fringe of Dade and Broward Counties,and areas west of the Everglades.

The SWIM Act was modified several times to pro-vide specific direction to the SFWMD in completion ofthe Everglades SWIM Plan (SFWMD, 1989; 1990;1992a,b; 1993). Development was interrupted due tolitigation initiated by the Federal government againstthe SFWMD and the State of Florida regarding pro-tection of environmentally-sensitive lands of the ENPand Everglades Protection Area. Although a settle-ment of the lawsuit with the Federal Governmentgroups was mediated in 1992, private landowners inthe EAA were not included in the settlement. In 1993,negotiations with private landowners were concludedand an EAA regulatory program emerged with a pri-mary mandate to establish and enforce EAA basinphosphorus load reductions. The SWIM plan for theEverglades (SFWMD, 1992b) was legislatively setaside, and in 1994, the Everglades Forever Act (Stateof Florida, 1994b) was passed. The Everglades Forev-er Act addressed intent, SWIM adoption, land acquisi-tion, storm water utility funding, permitting,regulation, and revenue bonding. This Act authorizedimplementation of Everglades ecosystem restoration.The Everglades Forever Act (State of Florida, 1994a)stated that no SWIM plan for the Everglades wouldbe required for the next 20 years, but directed specificguidelines for restoration. A detailed summary ofevents is given in Table 1.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLORIDA SUGARINDUSTRY IN THE EVERGLADES

The Spanish were responsible for bringing sugar-cane into the "New World." Encouraged by colonialismand warm climate, many small growers and millswere established throughout Florida in the 1600-1800s (Table 2). Between 1850 and 1860, the GambleMill in Tallahassee was erected and operated untilthe Civil War ended production. In the 1860 Floridacensus, "2,002,800 pounds of sugar" (908 Mt) wasrecorded, most likely produced from the Gamble Mill,which was the largest mill in Florida at this time.There was little expansion of sugar production up to1900, after which commercial crop production of sug-arcane ceased in north Florida and rapidly progressedinto the Everglades.

The generally frost-free climate and rich soil condi-tions in the Everglades attracted much interest foragricultural development. The early sugar industry,however, found it difficult to survive in conditionsranging from flood to fire, and many ventures faileddue to natural adversity. Federal and State supportfor "swamp lands reclamation" from 1850- :1960s, sug-arcane variety development, and soils research madeit possible to overcome problems encountered duringthe early years of development.

From 1959-1962, the ascension to power of the Cas-tro government in Cuba led to a mass exodus of sugartechnologists to Florida. The United States also liftedacreage restrictions and disallowed an import quotaof sugar from Cuba, thus permitting expansion of thesugar industry (Alvarez, 1978; Polopolus and Alvarez,1991). The result was an expansion of l)rOduCtionfrom approximately 50,700 acres (20,500 ha) in 1960to more than 148,200 acres (>60,000 ha) in 1963, tomore than 438,400 acres (177,420 ha) in 1996-1997using previously undeveloped or pasture lands. Overthe last five years, the area under sugarcane produc-tion has stabilized because acreage in the EAA hasreached its limit. Other crops such as rice, sod, andvegetables are also grown in rotation with sugarcane.Current acreage in vegetables has been reduced com-pared to the past because of increased market compe-tition. In addition, further land acquisitionspreviously discussed will potentially remove 40,000 to50,000 acres of sugarcane from production in thesouthern areas of the EAA.

Continued prosperity of the Florida sugar industryas well as the rest of the agricultural community isdirectly related to the sustainability of the environ-ment (soil, water, air) to maintain high yields andremain in environmental compliance to existing regu-lations. In recent years, the Florida sugar industry

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES AssociATioN 241 JAWRA


TABLE 2. Summary of the History of the Florida Sugarcane Industry."

Date Event

1493 Sugarcane spread to Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere by Columbus and other explorers.1518 Approximately 40 grinding mills found in Hispaniola.1553 Sugar commonly used as ship ballast to Spain.1572 The Spanish explorer Menendez cultivated sugarcane on San Felipe Island off St. Augustine Bay.1763 English acquisitioned Florida from the Spanish, encouraging sugar development along St. Johns River.1764 Sugar plantation developed at Charoltia by Denys Rolle.1767 Sugar plantation developed at New Smyrna, 60 miles south of St. Augustine by Dr. Andrew Turnbull.1771 Sugar plantation developed on the Halifax River.1775 Sugar plantation developed at Lang Lake some 30 miles away from New Smyrna.1800 Th the 1830s sugarcane grown by small farmers for syrup and sugar; ruins of mills at Mosquito Inlet near Smyrna, Indian River,

Port Organce, and DeLeon Springs have been found from this era.1827 Sugarcane plantings recorded in Gadsden Co. at the Malo Campo Plantation along the Matanzas River.1836 Indian warfare destroyed many small plantations.1840 275,000 lbs of sugar produced in Florida.1849 2,750,000 lbs of sugar produced in Florida.1859 1,669,000 lbs of sugar produced in Florida.1881 Hamilton Disston initiated sugarcane plantings in the Everglades region (Disston Drainage Co); 15,000,000 acres of 'Swamp &

Overflow Lands" were specified for drainage and development.1886 St. Cloud Plantation established with yields averaging 35 tons/acre. The plantation was bought and reorganized by Disston as the

Florida Sugar Manufacturing Co.1891 Dr. Harvey W. Wiley (U.S. Dep. Agr.) studied sugarcane production in the Lake Okeechobee area.1892 1,200,000 lbs of sugar produced at the St. Cloud Mill.1895 1,500,000 lbs of sugar produced at the St. Cloud Mill.1896 Disston died, St. Cloud Mill sold, and the plantation dissolved later.1899 325,000 lbs of sugar produced in Florida.1902 Southern States Land & Timber Company acquired 2,000,000 acres along Lake Okeechobee.1908 7,000 lbs of sugar produced in Florida.1915 Southern States Land & Timber Company built syrup mills at Canal Point and the S.S. Ranch on the St. Lucie Canal. Sugarcane

grown at Canal Point, Loxahatchee, S.S. Ranch, and Indiantown.1919 Pennsylvania Sugar Company purchased 75,000 acres on the Miami Canal.1920 Judge John C. Gramling planted sugarcane in Moore Haven; syrup venture failed.1920 Florida Sugar & Food Products Company acquisitioned 4,000 acres in Canal Point.1921 The Everglades Experiment Station established in Belle Glade.1922 Moore Haven Sugar Corporation established a 200 ton capacity mill; by 1925 operations had ceased.1923 Florida Sugar & Food Products Company began grinding cane with a 400 ton capacity mill.1924 Pennsylvania Sugar Company began grinding cane. Because of over investments, poor water control, and crop nutritional

problems, the company diverted lands to cattle and vegetables.1925 Bror G. Dahlberg, president of Celotex Company of Chicago, took over holdings of the Florida Sugar & Food Products Company.

Dahlberg purchased and leased over 35,000 acres south and east of Lake Okeechobee for sugarcane production under theSouthern Sugar Company.

1926 September hurricane killed over 300 persons in Moore Haven and area; the hurricane also destroyed and flooded many farms andproperty.

1926 U.S. Cane Testing and Breeding Station at Canal Point finished; B.A. Bourne, Director (Everglades News, 6/20/1926).1928 September hurricane killed over 2,400 persons in Belle Glade and Pahokee; the hurricane also destroyed and flooded many farms

and property; Southern Sugar Co. harvests over 5,000 acres of sugarcane. (Figure 3).1929 Dahlberg combined Florida Sugar & Food Products Company mill and Pennsylvania Sugar Company mill at Clewiston; the milling

capacity was 1,500 tons/day.1930 Southern Sugar Co. went into receivership.1931 The United States Sugar Corp. under Charles S. Mott in Clewiston acquired the Southern Sugar Co.1933 Fellsmere Sugar Co. organized 80 miles north of the Everglades.1937 Fellsmere Sugar Producers Association organized by 11 growers.1947 Okeelanta mill created by Gulf& Western Industries, Inc., 8 miles south of South Bay.1952 Okeelanta mill sold to Okeelanta Sugar Refiner Inc.1959 Fellsmere Sugar Producers Association sold to Okeelanta Sugar Refinery, Inc.1961 Florida Sugar Corp. built to produce liquid sugar 12 miles east of Belle Glade.1961 Osceola Farms Co. started by the Flo-Sun Land Corporation east of Pahokee.1962 Mesa Mill near Clewiston started; bankrupt the same year.1962 Bryant Sugar Mill started by U.S. Sugar Corp.1962 Glades Co. Sugar Growers Cooperative Association started in Moore Haven.1962 Sugarcane Growers Coop. of Florida started in Belle Glade.1962 Talisman Sugar Corporation started 17 miles south of South Bay.1963 South Florida Sugar Co. produced raw and refined sugar (see 1965).


Date Event

Sugarcane spread to Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere by Columbus and other explorers.Atlantic Sugar Association cooperative and mill started 15 miles east of Belle Glade.Okeelanta Mill sold to South Puerto Rico Sugar Co.; Mill was acquired same year by Gulf & Western Industries, Inc.South Florida Sugar Co. acquisitioned by the Talisman Sugar Corp.Fellsmere Sugar Producers Association consolidated by Gulf & Western Industries, Inc. to the Okeelanta Mill.Everglades Sugar Refinery, Inc. built by Savannah Foods & Industries, Inc.Florida Sugar Corp. acquisitioned; later closed by Talisman Sugar Corp.Glades Co. Sugar Growers Coop. Association purchased and closed by Gulf & Western Industries, Inc.Okeelanta Mill and other holdings of Gulf & Western Industries, Inc., acquisitioned by the Flo-Sun Land Corp.1.725 million tons of raw sugar produced in Florida with approximately 443,900 acres in sugarcane production.1.771 million tons of raw sugar produced in Florida with approximately 436,700 acres in sugarcane production.1.679 million tons of raw sugar produced in Florida with approximately 438,400 acres in sugarcane production.

After Davis (1943), Davis etal. (1994), Dovell (1947), Izuno (1989), Jones (1948), Salley (1985), Sitterson (1953), Snyder and Davidson (1994),and U.S. Congress (1911).

Conversion: 1 acre =0.4047 ha; 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 ton = 0.907 Mt; 1 lbs = 0.453 kg.

has seen much change. For instance, there has been arapid shift from a hand-harvested crop that onceannually employed 10,000 to 11,000 cane cutters to afully mechanical harvest system. Also, pump dis-charges are monitored for water quality and all grow-ers are now mandated to participate in bestmanagement practices to reduce nutrient dischargesfrom their farms into primary canals of the EAA.These changes have led to more than a 51 percentreduction of total phosphorus loads discharged fromthe EAA into the Everglades Protection Areas in aperiod of 1995 through 1997 (SFWMD, 1997; Table 1).Protection of organic soils from subsidence, fires, andwind and water erosion also continues to be a con-cern. A political and policy question is how can boththe sugar industry and a growing urban populationexist adjacent to the Everglades? Equitable distribu-tion of natural resources (especially water) amongurban, agricultural, recreation, and industrial sectors,with the Everglades is essential. The future is uncer-tain, and further change is inevitable.

WATER AND LAND RESOURCE CHANGES

The amount of public lands in 11 counties in southFlorida were surveyed (Table 3). The public lands setaside for preservation, conservation, or wildliferestoration purposes approximate 50 to 58 percent ofthe total area of south Florida. Acquisitions of publiclands have increased 15 percent within the last fiveyears in some counties, and future public acquisitionis expected to continue [Save-Our-Rivers (SOR),1996]. At the same time, water demands in theEAA will decrease in time. More than 40,000 acres of

agricultural land in the EAA will be usedi for stormwater treatment areas (STAs), and additional landscould be purchased for water storage.

Urban development is rapidly expanding alongFlorida's lower east and southwest coasts on formerwetlands, tidal flood lands, and agricultural lands.The official population projections for south Florida(11 counties, Table 3) indicate an increase fromapproximately 5.5 million people to more than 10 mil-lion people by the year 2020 (Figure 3). These esti-mates are based upon U.S. Bureau of the Census datafor each county and calculation techniques assuminglinear and share-of-growth for five year periods(Smith and Nogle, 1997). Population demands forwater (for recreation, drinking, industrial) will pro-portionately increase and the competition with otherusers for diminishing water and land resources willcause future conflicts.

Using unofficial estimates of population for 1996,slightly less than 7 million people (Anderson andRosendahl, 1997) could be used for purposes of calcu-lating highly conservative water demands to the year2020. In Florida, annual population increases fromthe base declined every 10 years: 7.9 percent (1950-60), 3.7 percent (1960-70), 4.3 percent (1970-80), 3.3percent (1980-90), and 1.4 percent (1990-1996) (S. K.Smith, 1997, Personal Discussions, Bureau of Eco-nomic and Business Research, University of Florida,Gainesville, Florida). Unfortunately, predictions insouth Florida are different and difficult to assess dueto migration, tourism, land use changes, etc. UsingLee County as an example for south Florida (datafrom Lee Co. Planning Office), annual populationincreased 6 percent per year between 1978-85, 4 per-cent per year between 1985-89, and 3 percent per yearbetween 1989-95. Although percent increases in the

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES AsSOcIATIoN 243 JAWRA

Development and Management of LandlWater Resources: The Everglades, Agriculture, and South Florida

TABLE 2. Summary of the History of the Florida Sugarcane Industry* (cont'd.)

149319641964196519651965197119771984199519961997


TABLE 3. Distribution of Public Lands in South Florida.


Public Ownership Areas Acres Public Ownership Areas Acres

Allapattah Ranch (CARL'Save-Our-Rivers)Atlantic Ridge Ecosystem (Save-Our-Rivers)Bahia Honda State Recreation AreaBarley Barber SwampBelle Mead Cons./Rec. Lands Project (CARL)Big Cypress National ParkBig Pine Key (SFWMD, Save Our Rivers)Biscayne Bay Nat. Pres. (171,925C)Biscayne Bay — CardSound State Aq. Pros.Blowing Rocks Nature PreserveBroward County Regional & Local ParksBroward County Parks/Activities AreasBrown's FarmCarroll Property (in EAA)Catfish Creek (Save-Our-Rivers)Charlotte County Parks/Activities AreasCollier County Parks/Activities AreasCollier Seminole State ParkCorkscrew Swamp SanctuaryCorkscrew Regional Ecosystem WatershedCoupon Bight State Aquatic PreserveCoupon Bight Buffer State PreserveCowpen's Rookery PreserveCREW Trust (Save-Our-Rivers)Curry Hammock CARL ProjectDade County Parks/Activities AreasDelnor-Wiggens Pass State Rec. AreaDing Darling National Wildlife Refuge

Pine Island National Wildlife RefugeMatlacha Pass National Wildlife RefugeIsland Bay National Wildlife RefugeCaloosahatchee National Wildlife Refuge

Dry Tortugas National Park (land/water)DuPuis Reserve (Save-Our-Rivers)East Coast Buffer (Save-Our-Rivers)East Everglades National ParkEverglades Buffer Strip N. (Save-Our-Rivers)Everglades National ParkFakahatchee Strand State PreserveFisheating Creek (Save-Our-Rivers)Florida Keys Trust (private preserves)Florida Panther National Wildlife RefugeFrog Pond (Save-Our-Rivers)Ft. Zachary Taylor State Historical SiteGlades Co. Parks/Activities AreasHendry Co. Parks/Activities Areaslobe Sound National Wildlife RefugeHoley LandHorrs Island (Deltona Settlement Lands)Indian Key State Historical SiteJensen Beach-to-Jupiter Inlet Aquatic Pres.John D. MacArthur Beach State ParkJohn Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park (53,661C)Jonathan Dickinson State ParkJ.W. Corbett Wildlife Management Area

22,560a12,300a

32b450

19,500728,866

1909,075b7,080C

113

6,398260

4,4601,2335,00O

418e916

6,42310,56011,2656,000b,c

94b165

55,968a365b

12,124e166

6,3545485122040

64,65721,87558,300a

107,6001,654a

1,506,53965,010

37026,40010,6oo

50b949728963

35,31274929b

128C

4402,350b

11,38360,224

Key Largo Hammock State Bot. SiteKey Largo National Marine SanctuaryKissimmee Prairie Ecosys. (Save-Our-Rivers)Kissimmee River — Lo. Basin (Save-Our-Rivers)Kissimmee Prairie Sanc. (Audubon)L-31 NLatt Maxcy Lands (Save-Our-Rivers)Lee County Environ. Sens. LandsLee County Port AuthorityLee County Recreational/Activities AreasLignumvitae Key State Aquatic PreserveLignumvitae Key State Bot. SiteLooe Key National Marine Sanc.Long Key State Recreational Area(117C)Loxahatchee Nat. Wildl Ref. (Arthur R. Marshall)

& Stazzula Marsh LeaseLoxahatchee River (Save-Our-Rivers)Loxahatchee Slough (Save-Our-Rivers)Martin County Parks/Activities AreasModel Lands Basin (Save-Our-Rivers)Monroe County Recreational/Activities AreasNational Wildlife Key Deer Refuge (land/water)Great Wht. Heron Nat. Wildl. Refuge (185,086c)Key West National Wildlife Refuge (206,289C)

Crocodile Lake National Wildlife RefugeNicodemus Slough (Save-Our-Rivers)Okeechobee (Lake) RidgeOkaloacoochee Slough (Save-Our-Rivers)Okeechobee County Parks/Activities AreasOkee-Tantie Recreational AreaPal-Mar (Save-Our-Rivers)Palm Beach County Env.-Sens. Lands Acq. Prog.Palm Beach County Parks/Activities AreasPalm Beach County Private Preserve Veg. ProgramParadise Run (Save-Our-Rivers)Port Bougainville, Key Largo (274C)Pratt Whitney PreserveRookery Bay Nat. Estuarine Res. Reservea

Cape Romano, 10,000 Island Aq. Res.,Rookery Bay Aquatic Reserve.

Pratt Whitney PreserveRotenberger TractRoyal American PropertySan Pedro Archaeologic Aquatic PreserveSandhill Nature PreserveSavannas State Preserve (FDEP; 4,790)Sea Branch State PreserveSix Mile Cypress (Save-Our-Rivers)Six Mile Cypress II (Save-Our-Rivers)S. Fork St. Lucie River (Save-Our-Rivers)Southern Glades (Save-Our-Rivers)S. Golden Gate Est. (Save-Our-Rivers)St. Lucie Inlet State PreserveSTA-1ESTA-1W

1,039b73,649b,c45,000k

lol,433a7,700

8645,00040415,5502,7578,320C

5869,o3b,c

g9b2,550e1,sSse1,936a

13,900k3,521e

42,138a158

8,152t,7,407b2,019b6,558b2,219a

24522,500a

180137

37,314a3,585a6,8841,0474,265a

2491,302

107,000

1,30228,833

58272b,62

8004,8301,741a

225k184

37,600a65,000k

4,8305,3506,670

5Acreage estimates for 1996, values not certifiable due to currentifuture land acquisition uncertainty. Conversion: 1 acre = 0.4047 ha.bConsidered part of the management plan of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary which composes of 2,774 m2 ((>1,775,360 acres).Aquatic acreage not included in subtotal.dLoxahathhee NWR total acreage (146,357 acres) includes WCA-1; reported acreage is outside of WCA-1 with lease land from the StazzulaMarsh. Acreage not counted twice.

eUpland and submerged lands from the ENP Big Cypress Nat. Preserve, and Dry Tortugas Nat. Park included in total.Acreages confirmed from Federal/State census, FDEP (Rec. Parks Man. Inf. System, Tallahassee), or county planning offices.


TABLE 3. Distribution of Public Lands in South Florida (cont'd.).

Public Ownership Areas Acres South Florida Counties Total Acres

STA-2 6,430 Broward 775,040STA-3/4STA.5aSTA6a

16,6604,850

812

Charlotte

Collier441,600

1,276,160Talisman Sugar 32,0008 Dade 1,578,034The Conservancy, Inc.Twelve Mile Slough (Save-Our-Rivers)

134

3,3008Glades 488,320

U.S. Army Corps Engineers 747 Hen dry 744,320WCA 1WCA 2AWCA 2B

142,212105,52828,016

Lee

Martin519,457

355,200WCA 3A 491,051 Monroe 1,200,344eWCA 3BWindley Key State Geol. Site

102,09736 Okeechobee 493,440

10,000 Island Nat. Wild!. Refuge 19,6208 Palm Beach 1,275,520

Subtotal (uplands-Mangrove only) 4,572,668dTotal (uplandssalt water aquatic) 5,280,936 County Totals 9,lt7,435f

49.99 % and 57.13%, respectively,of total county areas

aAcreage estimates for 1996, values not certifiable due to current/future land acquisition uncertainty. Conversion: 1 acre = 0.4047 ha.bConsidered part of the management plan of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary which composes of 2,774 m2 ((>1,775,360 acres).CAquatic acreage not included in subtotal.dLexahatchee NIATR total acreage (146,357 acres) includes WCA-1; reported acreage is outside of WCA-1 with lease land from the StazzulaMarsh. Acreage not counted twice.

eUpland and submerged lands from the ENP, Big Cypress Nat. Preserve, and Dry Tortugas Nat. Park included in total.Acreages confirmed from Federal/State census, FDEP (Rec. Parks Man. Inf. System, Tallahassee), or county planning offices.

• —

—

• —

Figure 3. South Florida Population Growth Expectations Based on SeveralMethods of Calculation (after Smith and Nogle, 1997).


1

14

1

• ——

4%

3%

high

medium

low

2015 20201995 2000 2005 2010Year


population base decreased for each period, if annualincreases of 3 to 4 percent per year in south Florida(using exponential calculations) and higher popula-tion figures are assumed, then substantially morepeople can be expected to live in south Florida by theyear 2020 than the official estimates predict. Rebuild-ing of coastal urban centers (higher density) are rea-sonable to assume, trends currently observed in DadeCounty (single family to multiple family dwellings).Also desirability of urban growth in counties withlower population growths (Glades, Hendry, Okee-chobee) may migrate growth away from coastal urbancenters. Factors promoting continued urban growth insouth Florida are: land availability, low taxes, desir-able climate, housing availability, infra structuralcommunity/urban planning, industrial planning,health-care facilities, schools and universities, energyavailability, transportation, municipal water supply,etc. Current leadership must recognize that these fac-tors are actively changing if the rising populationdemands for limited resources are to be met. Themajor two factors that may limit population growthare availability of water and land resources. There-fore, water demands calculated on higher expecta-tions more reasonably assure that managementresources are in place should official population esti-mates not be realized in the near future, yet certainlyto the year 2050.

MANAGEMENT AND POLICY

In south Florida, restoration and conservation ofthe Everglades and adjacent natural areas involveboth ground and surface water issues. Evergladesprotection and restoration has affected water useplanning for urban and recreation uses, drinkingwater, industry, agriculture, and natural areas in bothurban and non-urban settings. Ground water aquiferissues are focused on storage and usage affecting salt-water intrusion along coastal areas, deep well injec-tion of low solid wastes, and use of stored water forirrigation and urban drinking waters affecting freshwater delivery to the Everglades and other naturalareas (e.g., mangroves, Florida Bay). Historically(< 100 years), 80 percent of the hydraulic flow of sur-face water passed into Lake Okeechobee, overflowingsouth and southwest through to the Everglades andFlorida Bay. With construction of water control struc-tures throughout South Florida, 80 percent of thehydraulic flow of surface water was diverted into theAtlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico (Larsen, 1995).Environmental protection of public lands throughoutthe region (Table 3) has led to the setting of inflowwater quality standards based on impact on "flora

and fauna" (SFWMD, 1997), and in some areas, waterlevel standards (e.g., Lake Okeechobee). Therefore,developing and implementing policies that balanceand sustain water resource needs for all users havebecome increasingly difficult.

Historically, management of ground and surfacewaters has been the business of the FDEP andSFWMD. Although both agencies monitor water qual-ity, users are responsible for the costs of monitoringpollutants in order to maintain user permits. TheSFWMD manages extensive water control networkfacilities in south Florida, implements policies set bythe FDEP, and monitors/controls regional water quali-ty and quantities. In addition, the effects users haveon the ecological health of natural areas (e.g., wet-lands, State waters, etc.) are also monitored by theSFWMD. Working with regional water managementdistricts throughout Florida, the FDEP sets waterquality standards, implements resource policy, andmonitors ground water pollutants and point-sourceproblems.

Water resources must be protected for long-termutility, despite the fact that each user may impacteach other. For instance, recreational use of water(e.g., swimming, fishing, boating, sailing) requireswater of high quality and quantity that may directlyaffect how the same water will also be utilized andreturned by industrial, urban, or agricultural users.Thus, policy depends upon the minimum standardssatisfying and sustaining all users using the sameresource. When several users compete for the samewater resource, management of one user may affectothers. For example, in times of long-term short watersupply (i.e., drought), hydro period stabilization ofwater within natural marshes may have low priority,whereas maintenance of city and irrigation watersupply wells affecting salt water intrusion will have ahigh priority during the same time period. In southFlorida, nature conservancies and Federal/State wet-lands (Table 3) are bounded by urban, agricultural,and other users. All users impact each other in somemanner along these boundaries. The Everglades con-troversy is largely based upon perceived "risks" and"impacts" of private and public water use on the eco-logical degradation to the ENP, Florida Bay, and otherrestoration or public land areas. Currently, theacceptable "risks" and "impacts" have not been deter-mined. In addition, the consequences of sustaininglong term resource users must also be sociologically,economically, ecologically, and aesthetically analyzed.

For the last 100 years, Federal and State policieswere directed toward resource development of theEverglades and coastal regions. Population growthand agricultural expansion were encouraged byhydraulic changes made throughout the natural land-scape by Federal and State initiatives for purposes of



flood/fire/drought protection, economic prosperity, andnavigation. Today, Federal and State policies are nowdirected away from development toward restoration,protection, and conservation. Since acquisition of eco-logically protected areas has reached 50-58 percent ofthe total area in south Florida (Table 3), continuationof land acquisition policies are questionable in view offinite land/water resources and diminishing tax rev-enues available to purchase and manage public lands.For this reason, a sustainable balance between natureand other users should be sought with current landacquisitions and environmental restrictions in place.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

Political and resource management conflicts havearisen because State and Federal policies whichfavored development of south Florida are now beingreversed by policies and regulation efforts to restore,protect, and conserve natural ecosystems. Multiuserdemands for water and land resources in south Flori-da are increasing. If management policies are princi-pally driven to restore, protect, and conserve naturalecosystems, other user needs of the water system canbe overwhelmed. Water authorities' greatest responsi-bility will be to prioritize water use and set acceptableimpact standards, although it may be impossible toreconcile all user concerns within a limited area andtime. Within the framework of integrated water man-agement, prioritization of water use is the responsibil-ity of both policy makers and managers afterweighing one user demand against the other. Basedon potential population growth projections alone,water use will be increasingly shared by an urbancomponent. Therefore, rational water use decisionswill have far-reaching effects, especially whereassigned functions to past established users havechanged irreconcilably. This is especially true in southFlorida, where acquisition of public lands haveincreased to more than 58 percent of the landscapearea (Table 3). In these cases, policy may take prece-dence over management until problems are solvedthrough research, development, and application.Unfortunately, some policy decisions are not economi-cally centered. Management of public land and waterresources may not be fully possible with short rev-enues and personnel.

In consideration that environmentally sensitiveland acquisition and population have both increasedat similar rates during the last five years, prioritizingwater resources for all users will be increasingly more

difficult and essential. The Florida sugar industryis facing these challenges. Sugarcane productionacreage as of 1996-1997 reached 438,400 acres. How-ever, some of these lands will be converted to wetlandmarshes, reducing future production acreage. OtherFlorida agricultural interests have faced similar prob-lems, such as loss of agricultural land to urban devel-opment, loss in production resulting from competingmarkets, or potential loss of future lands for the pro-vision of "wildlife corridors" (Cox et al., 1994; Harrisand Atkins, 1991; Noss, 1987). The later point isextensively promoted by conservation groups and spe-cial interest organizations.

The current State legislation governing the waterquality entering Everglades Protection Areas statesthat surface waters shall not impact "flora and fauna"(State of Florida, 1994a, 1994b). In essence, this legis-lation has been interpreted as a "zero tolerance" lawdemanding "zero impact" between intensive users andnature. Surface water drainage and runoff fromurban, industrial, and agricultural endeavors areintensive. Whereas natural areas are normally non-intensive because surface water conditions are basedon natural cycles of supply and internal quality.Therefore, there shall always be a water quality!quantity conflict between intensive and nonintensiveboundary neighbors. To eliminate this conflict, one orall of the boundary neighbors would need to be elimi-nated. Should "zero impact" conditions be set alongboundaries between lands set aside for natural pro-tection and other land uses, such as urban, industrial,and agricultural areas, then all other water resourceusers could be deemed incompatible with naturalecosystems. Resource conflicts will only be mediatedafter development of rational Federal and State poli-cies for sustainable management systems that protectand guarantee that all users have equitable andfuture access to water and land resources in southFlorida (e.g., integrated resource management).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Wossenu Abtew (SFWMD, WestPalm Beach, Florida), Bradley G. Wailer (Hydrologic Assoc. USA,Inc., Miami, Florida), Greg Hendricks (Nat. Res. Cons. Ser.,Wellington, Florida), Robert L. Hamrick (SFWMD, West PalmBeach, Florida), and Dr. Leo C. Polopolus (Professor Food and Res.Econ. Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida) for theireditorial assistance and manuscript suggestions.



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