Stahl, S., Heubach, K., & Cramond, B. (1997). Fluency-oriented readinStahl, S., Heubach, K., & Cramond, B. (1997). Fluency-oriented reading instruction. Washington, DC: NRRC.g instruction. Washington, DC: NRRC.

Developing Fluency: Developing Fluency: Theory, Research and PracticeTheory, Research and Practice

Sharon WalpoleSharon Walpole

University of DelawareUniversity of Delaware

Anticipation GuideAnticipation GuideYesYes NoNo Oral reading accuracy is a good predictor Oral reading accuracy is a good predictor

of reading comprehension in grades1-2.of reading comprehension in grades1-2.

YesYes NoNo Fluency intervention should begin as soon Fluency intervention should begin as soon as we measure oral reading fluency.as we measure oral reading fluency.

YesYes NoNo Fluency intervention should employ grade Fluency intervention should employ grade level and challenging texts.level and challenging texts.

YesYes NoNo We should measure silent reading rate We should measure silent reading rate because skilled reading is silent.because skilled reading is silent.

YesYes NoNo Accurate and automatic oral reading is Accurate and automatic oral reading is necessary but insufficient for necessary but insufficient for comprehension.comprehension.

Game PlanGame Plan

What is fluency? Why is it important? What is fluency? Why is it important? How does it fit within models of reading How does it fit within models of reading and reading development?and reading development?

How can we measure it?How can we measure it?

How can we address it during whole-class How can we address it during whole-class and needs-based instruction?and needs-based instruction?

Questions and Answers: FluencyQuestions and Answers: Fluency

What is it? & Why is it important?What is it? & Why is it important?

Definitions, theoretical models and Definitions, theoretical models and developmental models we have already developmental models we have already explored and those described in recent explored and those described in recent fluency studiesfluency studies

Fluency is “reading with expression.”Fluency is “reading with expression.”

Fluency is “making written language sound Fluency is “making written language sound like oral language.”like oral language.”

Fluency is evidence of comprehension? Fluency is evidence of comprehension?

Fluency is a prerequisite to comprehension?Fluency is a prerequisite to comprehension?

What can you actually do with those ideas?What can you actually do with those ideas?

Wolf and Katzir-Cohen’s Wolf and Katzir-Cohen’s Developmental Definition (p. 219)Developmental Definition (p. 219)

In its beginnings, reading fluency is the In its beginnings, reading fluency is the product of the initial development of product of the initial development of accuracy and the subsequent accuracy and the subsequent development of automaticity in underlying development of automaticity in underlying sublexical processes, lexical processes, sublexical processes, lexical processes, and their integration in single word reading and their integration in single word reading and connected text. and connected text.

These includeThese includePerceptual [letter recognition?]Perceptual [letter recognition?]

Phonological [segmentation and blending?]Phonological [segmentation and blending?]

Orthographic [graphemes and spelling patterns?]Orthographic [graphemes and spelling patterns?]

Morphological [grammatical morphemes? Prefixes and Morphological [grammatical morphemes? Prefixes and suffixes?]suffixes?]

processes at the letter, letter-pattern, and word processes at the letter, letter-pattern, and word levels, as well as semantic and syntactic levels, as well as semantic and syntactic processes at the word level and connected-text processes at the word level and connected-text level.level.

After it is fully developed, reading fluency After it is fully developed, reading fluency refers to a level of accuracy and rate refers to a level of accuracy and rate where decoding is relatively effortless; where decoding is relatively effortless; where oral reading is smooth and accurate where oral reading is smooth and accurate with correct prosody; and where attention with correct prosody; and where attention can be allocated to comprehension. can be allocated to comprehension.

Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 211-239.211-239.

Fluency requires the child to use phonics and spelling knowledge automatically (DIBELS LNF, ISF, PSF, NWF)

Fluency requires the child to automatically integrate phonics and spelling knowledge to recognize entire words (DIBELS ORF)

Fluency requires the child to link recognized words into natural phrases, with appropriate enunciation and emphasis (DIBELS ORF)

Fluency in Connected Text(textual)

Fluency at the Word Level (lexical)

Fluency within Words(sublexical)

What are the implications of the What are the implications of the developmental definition for curriculum developmental definition for curriculum and instruction?and instruction?

How is the developmental definition of How is the developmental definition of fluency connected to theoretical models of fluency connected to theoretical models of skilled reading and of reading acquisition?skilled reading and of reading acquisition?

Rayner, K., Foorman, B. F., Perfetti, C. A., & Pesetsky, D., Rayner, K., Foorman, B. F., Perfetti, C. A., & Pesetsky, D., Seidenberg, M.S., (2001). How psychological science Seidenberg, M.S., (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2,the Public Interest, 2, 31-74. 31-74.

http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111%2F1529-1006.0000410.1111%2F1529-1006.00004

The short answer . . .The short answer . . .

all models of skilled reading all models of skilled reading ANDAND stage stage models of reading acquisition either target models of reading acquisition either target or require fluency.or require fluency.

Automaticity TheoryAutomaticity Theory

Two requirements of reading – automatic word Two requirements of reading – automatic word recognition AND constructing meaningrecognition AND constructing meaning

The more energy spent with decoding, the less The more energy spent with decoding, the less remaining for meaning constructionremaining for meaning construction

Laberge & Samuels (1974). Toward a theory of Laberge & Samuels (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.

Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: MacChall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: MacGraw-Hill.Graw-Hill.

Ages and Stages: Chall’s Ages and Stages: Chall’s ModelModel

4. Comprehension of multiple 4. Comprehension of multiple perspectivesperspectives

3. Comprehension of a single 3. Comprehension of a single perspectiveperspective

2. Fluency2. Fluency

1. Phonological recoding1. Phonological recoding

0. Alphabet knowledge0. Alphabet knowledge Stage 0Birth to K

Stage 1Grades 1 and 2

Stage 2Grades 2 and 3

Stage 3Grades 4 to 8

Stage 4Highschool

.

Stages in Stages in

Word RecognitionWord Recognition

Stages in Stages in

Beginning SpellingBeginning SpellingPre-alphabetic Pre-alphabetic

Uses eUses environmental and visual cuesnvironmental and visual cuesPrecommunicativePrecommunicative

Pictures or letters, but randomPictures or letters, but random

Partial alphabeticPartial alphabetic

Reads words by forming connections Reads words by forming connections between only some of the lettersbetween only some of the letters

SemiphoneticSemiphonetic

Abbreviated spellings, some sounds Abbreviated spellings, some sounds representedrepresented

Full alphabeticFull alphabetic

Reads words by forming complete connections Reads words by forming complete connections because child can segment to the phonemebecause child can segment to the phoneme

PhoneticPhoneticAll sounds representedAll sounds represented

Consolidated alphabeticConsolidated alphabetic

Reads words by chunking (morphemes, Reads words by chunking (morphemes, syllables, etc.)syllables, etc.)

TransitionalTransitional

Long vowels marked, but not always Long vowels marked, but not always correctlycorrectly

Conventional SpellingConventional Spelling

Mostly correct spellingsMostly correct spellings

Ehri, L. (1997). Sight word learning in normal Ehri, L. (1997). Sight word learning in normal readers and dyslexics. In B. Blachman (Ed.), readers and dyslexics. In B. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 163-189). Implications for early intervention (pp. 163-189). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gentry, J.R. (1982). An analysis of spelling Gentry, J.R. (1982). An analysis of spelling development in development in GYNS AT WRK. The GYNS AT WRK. The Reading Teacher, 36, Reading Teacher, 36, 192-200.192-200.

Development of Automaticity in Development of Automaticity in Word RecognitionWord Recognition

Does it happen at the Does it happen at the level of the individual level of the individual word?word?

Does it happen at the Does it happen at the level of the orthographic level of the orthographic feature?feature?

Either way, it happens Either way, it happens through repeated, through repeated, successful exposures to successful exposures to wordswords

Share’s Self Teaching Hypothesis:

Decoding Process

Development of Orthographic

Representation

Fluency

Accuracy Automaticity Prosody

StressSight Word Recognition

Decoding Pitch PhrasingGuessing

from context

How well do the teachers, coaches, and How well do the teachers, coaches, and administrators with whom you work administrators with whom you work understand fluency? understand fluency?

Which concepts are new?Which concepts are new?

What do you think we need to do to increase What do you think we need to do to increase their understanding?their understanding?

How should we measure fluency?How should we measure fluency?

Fuchs, L. S. Fuchs, D., Hosp, M.K., & Jenkins, J. Fuchs, L. S. Fuchs, D., Hosp, M.K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). R. (2001). Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 239-239-256.256.

Good, R. H., Simmons, D.C. & Kame’enui, E.J. Good, R. H., Simmons, D.C. & Kame’enui, E.J. (2001). The importance of decision-making utility (2001). The importance of decision-making utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high-foundational reading skills for third-grade high-stakes outcomes. stakes outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 5, 211-239.211-239.

Harris, A. J., & Sipay, E. R. (1990). How to increase reading abilitHarris, A. J., & Sipay, E. R. (1990). How to increase reading ability (9th Ed.). New York: Longman.y (9th Ed.). New York: Longman.

Reading Rates (WPM)Reading Rates (WPM)Grade 1Grade 1 60-9060-90 Grade 6Grade 6 195-220195-220

Grade 2Grade 2 85-12085-120 Grade 7Grade 7 215-245215-245

Grade 3Grade 3 115-140115-140 Grade 8Grade 8 235-270235-270

Grade 4Grade 4 140-170140-170 Grade 9Grade 9 250-270250-270

Grade 5Grade 5 170-195170-195 Grade 12Grade 12 250-300250-300

Rasinski, T. R. (2003). The fluent reader. New York: Scholastic PrRasinski, T. R. (2003). The fluent reader. New York: Scholastic Professional Books.ofessional Books.

Fluency Norms: WCPMFluency Norms: WCPMGradeGrade FallFall WinterWinter SpringSpring

11 6060

22 5353 7878 9494

33 7979 9393 114114

44 9999 112112 118118

55 105105 118118 128128

66 115115 132132 145145

77 147147 158158 167167

88 156156 167167 171171

NAEP Oral Reading Fluency ScaleNAEP Oral Reading Fluency Scale44 Large and meaningful phrase groupings. Large and meaningful phrase groupings.

Preserves author’s syntax and includes Preserves author’s syntax and includes expressive interpretation.expressive interpretation.

33 Three- and four-word phrases. Mostly Three- and four-word phrases. Mostly appropriate and preserving syntax. Little or no appropriate and preserving syntax. Little or no expressive interpretation.expressive interpretation.

22 Two-word phrases. Occasional larger Two-word phrases. Occasional larger groupings, but awkward and unrelated to larger groupings, but awkward and unrelated to larger context.context.

11 Word by word. Occasional two-word or three-Word by word. Occasional two-word or three-word phrases.word phrases.

In GARF, how is fluency measured?In GARF, how is fluency measured?

KindergartenKindergarten

DIBELSDIBELS

Letter-name fluencyLetter-name fluency

Initial sound fluencyInitial sound fluency

Phoneme segmentation fluencyPhoneme segmentation fluency

Nonsense word fluencyNonsense word fluency

First First

DIBELSDIBELS

Phoneme segmentation fluencyPhoneme segmentation fluency

Nonsense word fluencyNonsense word fluency

Oral reading fluencyOral reading fluency

Second and Second and

Third GradeThird Grade

DIBELSDIBELS

Nonsense word fluencyNonsense word fluency

Oral reading fluencyOral reading fluency

How do teachers react to this notion of How do teachers react to this notion of automaticity with basic processes and oral automaticity with basic processes and oral reading fluency taken as indicators of reading fluency taken as indicators of overall reading competence? overall reading competence? Why don’t we just continually measure Why don’t we just continually measure

comprehension, since it comprehension, since it isis reading? reading?

Why don’t we measure silent reading rate?Why don’t we measure silent reading rate?

Why don’t we measure prosody?Why don’t we measure prosody?

How might these automaticity and fluency How might these automaticity and fluency assessments work together as a system for assessments work together as a system for

monitoring student achievement?monitoring student achievement?

PhonologicalAwareness

AlphabeticPrinciple

Accuracy and Fluency

High StakesTest

One thing is certain . . . readers develop One thing is certain . . . readers develop reading fluency through reading practice.reading fluency through reading practice.

Let’s try some. Let’s try some.

How can we support fluency How can we support fluency development? development?

Stahl, S. A. (2004). What do we know about Stahl, S. A. (2004). What do we know about fluency? Findings of the National Reading Panel. fluency? Findings of the National Reading Panel. In P. McCardle & V. Chabra (Eds.), In P. McCardle & V. Chabra (Eds.), The voice of The voice of evidence in reading research evidence in reading research (pp. 187-211). (pp. 187-211). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 3-21.3-21.

Some GeneralizationsSome Generalizations

ORF programs and strategies work within a ORF programs and strategies work within a specific developmental window – late first grade specific developmental window – late first grade through early third gradethrough early third gradeIncreasing the volume of children’s reading is Increasing the volume of children’s reading is what all approaches have in commonwhat all approaches have in commonDifferent forms of assistance and modeling may Different forms of assistance and modeling may make more difficult (even grade-level) texts make more difficult (even grade-level) texts accessibleaccessibleFluency work develops fluency and Fluency work develops fluency and comprehension, but not word recognition in comprehension, but not word recognition in isolationisolation

Guided Oral ReadingGuided Oral Reading

But why can’t we just do what we’ve always done But why can’t we just do what we’ve always done

Round Robin Oral ReadingRound Robin Oral Reading

Each child reads too little;Engagement is low

Teacher-provided feedback is of low quality

Instructional time is wasted

Four Simple AlternativesFour Simple Alternatives

Choral Choral

ReadingReading

The teacher leads the entire class or The teacher leads the entire class or group reading aloud in unison.group reading aloud in unison.

Echo Echo

ReadingReading

The teacher reads a sentence and The teacher reads a sentence and then the class rereads it aloud.then the class rereads it aloud.

Partner Partner

ReadingReading

Pairs of readers alternate reading Pairs of readers alternate reading aloud by a set protocol.aloud by a set protocol.

Whisper Whisper ReadingReading

Each child reads aloud (but not in Each child reads aloud (but not in unison) in a quiet voice.unison) in a quiet voice.

What can teachers do with the What can teachers do with the whole class?whole class?

Distributed PracticeDistributed PracticeFluency Development LessonFluency Development LessonPeer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)Fluency-Oriented Reading Instruction (FORI)Fluency-Oriented Reading Instruction (FORI)

(For reviews of supplemental fluency curricula, (For reviews of supplemental fluency curricula, consult consult http://fcrr.orghttp://fcrr.org and and http://http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/SIprograms.phporegonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/SIprograms.php))

Distributed PracticeDistributed Practice

Children developing phonemic awareness Children developing phonemic awareness and the alphabetic principle need short, and the alphabetic principle need short, frequent, targeted practice sessions.frequent, targeted practice sessions.

How can teachers facilitate this?How can teachers facilitate this?

Fluency Development LessonFluency Development Lesson15 minutes 4xs per week15 minutes 4xs per week1.1. Teacher selects short text (100-200 words) and Teacher selects short text (100-200 words) and

prepares two copies for each childprepares two copies for each child2.2. Teacher reads the text aloud several timesTeacher reads the text aloud several times3.3. Class reads the text chorally several times with the Class reads the text chorally several times with the

teacherteacher4.4. Students work in pairs to reread the text 3 times eachStudents work in pairs to reread the text 3 times each5.5. Teacher sends text home for work with parentsTeacher sends text home for work with parents6.6. Several pairs perform for the classSeveral pairs perform for the class

Rasinski, Padak, Linek, & Sturtevant (1994). The effects of Rasinski, Padak, Linek, & Sturtevant (1994). The effects of fluency development on urban second grade readers. fluency development on urban second grade readers. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 158-164.Journal of Educational Research, 87, 158-164.

PALS PALS 3 xs 35 minutes each week, high-low pairs3 xs 35 minutes each week, high-low pairs

Text is appropriate for weaker readerText is appropriate for weaker reader5 minutes: strong reader reads aloud5 minutes: strong reader reads aloud5 minutes: weaker reader rereads5 minutes: weaker reader rereads2 minutes: weaker reader retells2 minutes: weaker reader retells5 minutes: strong reader reads paragraph by paragraph, 5 minutes: strong reader reads paragraph by paragraph,

stopping at each to tell the main ideastopping at each to tell the main idea5 minutes: weak reader uses same summarization 5 minutes: weak reader uses same summarization

procedureprocedure5 minutes: strong reader predicts content of next half 5 minutes: strong reader predicts content of next half

page, reads it aloud, and revisits predictionpage, reads it aloud, and revisits prediction5 minutes: weak reader uses same summarization 5 minutes: weak reader uses same summarization

procedureprocedureThis procedure has been used with students in grades 2-6This procedure has been used with students in grades 2-6Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons (1996). Peer-assisted learning strategies in Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons (1996). Peer-assisted learning strategies in

reading: A manual. (Box 328 Peabody, Vanderbilt Univ. Nashville, TN reading: A manual. (Box 328 Peabody, Vanderbilt Univ. Nashville, TN 37203)37203)

Stahl, S., Heubach, K., & Cramond, B. (1997). Fluency-oriented reStahl, S., Heubach, K., & Cramond, B. (1997). Fluency-oriented reading instruction. Washington, DC: NRRC.ading instruction. Washington, DC: NRRC.

FORIFORIRedesigned whole-group basal lesson, grade 2Redesigned whole-group basal lesson, grade 2

1.1. Teacher reads story to children; they discussTeacher reads story to children; they discuss2.2. Echo and partner readings over the course of the Echo and partner readings over the course of the

weekweek3.3. Rereadings at home (15 minutes)Rereadings at home (15 minutes)4.4. Free reading (SSR) 15-30 minutesFree reading (SSR) 15-30 minutes

This procedure has been effective for second graders This procedure has been effective for second graders especially for those who began second grade at especially for those who began second grade at least at the primer level.least at the primer level.

What do these classroom programs What do these classroom programs have in common?have in common?

There is some form of modeling and There is some form of modeling and assistance, either by the teacher or a peerassistance, either by the teacher or a peer

Repetition is planned and organizedRepetition is planned and organized

There are varied “performances” over timeThere are varied “performances” over time

Current PracticeCurrent Practice

Whole-class fluency workWhole-class fluency work

What are the strategies?What are the strategies?

Are they assisted or unassisted?Are they assisted or unassisted?

How consistently are they used?How consistently are they used?

What evidence do you have of their What evidence do you have of their effectiveness?effectiveness?

Where are teachers struggling?Where are teachers struggling?

What about in needs-based What about in needs-based groups?groups?

Repeated ReadingsRepeated Readings

Assisted ReadingsAssisted Readings

TutoringTutoring

Repeated ReadingsRepeated Readings

1.1. Teacher selects a passage that is challenging Teacher selects a passage that is challenging for the child.for the child.

2.2. The child reads it aloud while the teacher times The child reads it aloud while the teacher times and notes word recognition errors.and notes word recognition errors.

3.3. The teacher charts time and errors.The teacher charts time and errors.

4.4. The teacher reviews the challenging words.The teacher reviews the challenging words.

5.5. The child rereads (with continued charting) to a The child rereads (with continued charting) to a criterion of rate or repetition.criterion of rate or repetition.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of Times I Read the Same Passage

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Number of Times I Read the Same Passage

Week 1, Passage A

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Number of Times I Read the Same Passage

Week 1, Passage A

Week 2, Passage B

Assisted ReadingAssisted ReadingNeurological Neurological

ImpressImpress

Choral reading technique with Choral reading technique with teacher tracking and reading into teacher tracking and reading into child’s dominant ear.child’s dominant ear.

Reading while Reading while ListeningListening

Children listen to a taped reading Children listen to a taped reading while they track. They practice and while they track. They practice and perform a selection.perform a selection.

Closed-Closed-caption TVcaption TV

Closed captioning activated while Closed captioning activated while children watch regular programs. children watch regular programs. They then practice and perform.They then practice and perform.

Computer-Computer-assisted assisted

Children read text in a digital Children read text in a digital environment with the option of environment with the option of listening to words or portions.listening to words or portions.

Paired Reading with a TutorPaired Reading with a Tutor

Child chooses a bookChild chooses a book

Child and tutor begin to read chorallyChild and tutor begin to read chorally

Child signals desire to read aloneChild signals desire to read alone– Tutor provides words that child miscallsTutor provides words that child miscalls– Child and tutor reread sentence chorallyChild and tutor reread sentence chorally– Child continues reading aloneChild continues reading alone

Current PracticeCurrent Practice

Needs-Based Fluency WorkNeeds-Based Fluency Work

What are the strategies?What are the strategies?

Are they assisted or unassisted?Are they assisted or unassisted?

How consistently are they used?How consistently are they used?

What evidence do you have of their What evidence do you have of their effectiveness?effectiveness?

What about fluency intervention?What about fluency intervention?

Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 211-239.211-239.

Connectionist ModelsConnectionist Models

Reading WritingReading Writing SpeechSpeech

MeaningProcessor

Phonological Processor

OrthographicProcessor

ContextProcessor

““The unsettling conclusion is that reading The unsettling conclusion is that reading fluency involves every process and fluency involves every process and

subskill involved in reading.”subskill involved in reading.”

(Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001, p. 220)(Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001, p. 220)

An intensive fluency intervention is likely to An intensive fluency intervention is likely to attend to more than one component of attend to more than one component of fluency.fluency.

What next?What next?

Consider Your FocusConsider Your Focus

What do the available data tell you about What do the available data tell you about children’s fluency achievement?children’s fluency achievement?

What materials are available for use in What materials are available for use in fluency instruction?fluency instruction?

What do the available data tell you about What do the available data tell you about teachers’ fluency practices? teachers’ fluency practices?

Anticipation GuideAnticipation GuideYesYes NoNo Oral reading accuracy is a robust Oral reading accuracy is a robust

predictor of reading comprehension.predictor of reading comprehension.

YesYes NoNo Fluency intervention should begin as Fluency intervention should begin as soon as we measure oral reading soon as we measure oral reading fluency.fluency.

YesYes NoNo Fluency intervention should employ Fluency intervention should employ grade level and challenging texts.grade level and challenging texts.

YesYes NoNo We should measure silent reading rate We should measure silent reading rate because skilled reading is silent.because skilled reading is silent.

YesYes NoNo Accurate and automatic oral reading is Accurate and automatic oral reading is necessary but insufficient for necessary but insufficient for comprehension.comprehension.