designing and assessing educational objectives

Designing&Assessing

EducationalObjectives

Robert J. Marzano John S. Kendall

Designing&AssessingEducational

ObjectivesApplying the New T New Taaxonomyxonomy

A Joint Publication

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Marzano, Robert J.Designing and assessing educational objectives : applying the new taxonomy/by Robert J. Marzanoand John S. Kendall.

p. cm.A joint publication with the American Association of School Administrators, the NationalAssociation of Elementary School Principals, and the National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4129-4034-4 (cloth)ISBN 978-1-4129-4035-1 (pbk.)

1. Education—Aims and objectives—Evaluation. I. Kendall, John S. II. Title.

LB17.M393 2008370.11—dc22 2007050194

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Contents

About the Authors vii

1. A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 1

2. The New Taxonomy in Brief 9

3. Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 25

4. Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 43

5. Analysis Objectives and Tasks 55

6. Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 93

7. Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 117

8. Self-System Objectives and Tasks 143

9. The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 167

Afterword 179

References 180

Index 181

About the Authors

Dr. Robert J. Marzano is President and founder ofMarzano & Associates in Centennial, Colorado, SeniorScholar at Mid-continent Research for Education andLearning (McREL) in Aurora, Colorado, and AssociateProfessor at Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee,Wisconsin. He is the author of 30 books, 150 articles andchapters in books, and 100 sets of curriculum materials forteachers and students in Grades K–12. His works include

The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, What Works in Schools:Translating Research Into Action, School Leadership That Works, BuildingBackground Knowledge for Academic Achievement, Classroom Management ThatWorks, Classroom Instruction That Works, Classroom Assessment and GradingThat Work, and The Art and Science of Teaching.

During his forty years in public education, Marzano has worked multipletimes in every state as well as in a host of countries in Europe and Asia. Thecentral theme in his work has been translating research and theory into practicalprograms and tools for K–12 teachers and administrators.

vii

John S. Kendall is a Senior Director in research atMcREL. There he directs a technical assistance unitthat develops and provides standards-related servicesfor schools, districts, states, and other organizations.Clients have included Achieve, Inc., The College Board,and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab. He has been with McRELseventeen years as Research Assistant, Program Associate,and Senior Director.

An internationally recognized expert in the development and improvement ofstandards for education, Kendall has consulted for more than fifty school districtsand fourteen state departments of education as well as education agencies in theU.S. territories and abroad. Senior author of Content Knowledge: A Compendium

of Standards and Benchmarks for K–12 Education, he has authored or coauthoredsix books and more than thirty monographs, technical studies, and articles. Hereceived his undergraduate and master’s degrees from the University of Coloradoat Boulder.

Kendall’s current research and technical assistance efforts include working withclients to establish performance standards for the classroom, developing standardsfor principals, and identifying the knowledge and skills that help students learn.

viii Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives

CH A P T E R ON E

A New Perspective on Educational Objectives

ObjectivesThis handbook is a guide to the design and assessment of educational objec-

tives. It is a practical application of The New Taxonomy of Educational(Marzano & Kendall, 2007). While the New Taxonomy has a number

of potential uses, here we focus on designing and assessing educational objectives.As indicated by its title, The New Taxonomy is designed as a replacement forBloom et al.’s taxonomy, published in 1956 (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, &Krathwohl, 1956) Although that work was powerful and enduring, it had someflaws and inconsistencies that can now be reconciled, given the sixty-plus years ofresearch and theory since its publication (for a detailed discussion, see Marzano &Kendall, 2007).

Bloom’s taxonomy made a major contribution to the science of designing edu-cational objectives. Indeed, prior to its publication, there was not much agreementas to the nature of objectives. Bloom adopted Ralph Tyler’s (Airasian, 1994)notion that an educational objective should contain a clear reference to a specifictype of knowledge as well as the behaviors that would signal understanding orskill related to that knowledge.

Like Bloom’s taxonomy and others based on it (e.g., Anderson et al., 2001),the New Taxonomy has a specific syntax for educational objectives. We use thefollowing stem for all objectives: The student (or students) will be able to . . . plusa verb phrase and an object. The verb phrase states the mental process that is to beemployed while completing the objective, and the object is the knowledge that isthe focus of the objective.

The New Taxonomy can be represented as depicted in Figure 1.1. The rowson the left-hand side of Figure 1.1 represent three systems of thought and inthe case of the cognitive system, four subcomponents of that system. The columnson the right-hand side of Figure 1.1 depict three different types or domains of

1

2 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives

Figure 1.1 The New Taxonomy

Level 6

Self-System

Level 5

Metacognitive System

Level 4

Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)

Level 3

Analysis (Cognitive System)

Information

Mental P

rocedures

Psychom

otor Procedures

Level 2

Comprehension (Cognitive System)

Level 1

Retrieval (Cognitive System)

Domain

s of K

nowledge

Levels of Processing

Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)

knowledge: information, mental procedures, and psychomotor procedures. Ineffect, the New Taxonomy is two-dimensional. One dimension addresses threedomains of knowledge; the other addresses levels of mental processing.

One of the defining differences between Bloom’s taxonomy and the NewTaxonomy is that the New Taxonomy separates various types of knowledge fromthe mental processes that operate on them. This is depicted in Figure 1.2.

As shown in Figure 1.2, Bloom included knowledge as a component of histaxonomy. About this, Bloom and his colleagues (1956) noted,

By knowledge, we mean that the student can give evidence that heremembers either by recalling or by recognizing some idea or phenome-non with which he has had experience in the educational process. For ourtaxonomy purposes, we are defining knowledge as little more than theremembering of the idea or phenomenon in a form very close to that inwhich it was originally encountered. (pp. 28–29)

On the other hand, Bloom identified specific types of knowledge within theknowledge category. These included

Terminology

Specific facts

Conventions

Trends or sequences

Classifications and categories

Criteria

Methodology

Principles and generalizations

Theories and structures

Thus within his knowledge category, Bloom included various forms of knowl-edge as well as the ability to recall and recognize that knowledge. This mixing oftypes of knowledge with the various mental operations that act on knowledge isone of the major weaknesses of Bloom’s Taxonomy since it confuses the object ofan action with the action itself. The New Taxonomy avoids this confusion by pos-tulating three domains of knowledge that are operated on by the three systems ofthought and their component elements. It is the systems of thought that have thehierarchical structure that constitutes the New Taxonomy.

We consider the specifics of the New Taxonomy in Chapter 2. Here we brieflyintroduce the framework to demonstrate the nature and format of the educationalobjectives that can be designed and assessed using it. To illustrate, consider Figure 1.3.

A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 3

Figure 1.2 Knowledge as Addressed in the Two Taxonomies

Self-SystemEvaluation

Metacognitive SystemSynthesis Cognitive System

Analysis

Application

Comprehension

KnowledgeKnowledge

Bloom’s Taxonomy New Taxonomy



Figure 1.3 General Form of Educational Objectives for Each Level of the New

Taxonomy

New TaxonomyLevel Operation General Form of Objectives

Level 6: Examining The student will be able to identify how importantSelf-System Importance the information, mental procedure, or psychomotorThinking procedure is to him or her and the reasoning underlying

this perception.

Examining The student will be able to identify beliefs about his orEfficacy her ability to improve competence or understanding

relative to the information, mental procedure, orpsychomotor procedure and the reasoning underlyingthis perception.

Examining The student will be able to identify his or her emotionalEmotional responses to the information, mental procedure, orResponse psychomotor procedure and the reasons for these

responses.

Examining The student will be able to identify his or her overall levelMotivation of motivation to improve competence or understanding

relative to the information, mental procedure, orpsychomotor procedure and the reasons for this levelof motivation.

Level 5: Specifying The student will be able to establish a goal relative toMetacognition Goals the information, mental procedure, or psychomotor

procedure and a plan for accomplishing that goal.

Process The student will be able to monitor progress toward theMonitoring accomplishment of a specific goal relative to the

information, mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Monitoring The student will be able to determine the extent to whichClarity he or she has clarity about the information, mental

procedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Monitoring The student will be able to determine the extent to whichAccuracy he or she is accurate about the information, mental

procedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Level 4: Decision Making The student will be able to use the information, mentalKnowledge procedure, or psychomotor procedure to make decisionsUtilization in general or make decisions about the use of the

information, mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Problem Solving The student will be able to use the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure to solve problems ingeneral or solve problems about the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Experimenting The student will be able to use the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure to generateand test hypotheses in general or generate and testhypotheses about the information, mental procedure,or psychomotor procedure.


New TaxonomyLevel Operation General Form of Objectives

Investigating The student will be able to use the information,mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure toconduct investigations in general or conductinvestigations about the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Level 3: Analysis Matching The student will be able to identify importantsimilarities and differences relative to theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.

Classifying The student will be able to identify superordinateand subordinate categories relative to theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.

Analyzing Errors The student will be able to identify errors in thepresentation or use of the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Generalizing The student will be able to construct newgeneralizations or principles based on theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.

Specifying The student will be able to identify logicalconsequences of the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.

Level 2:Comprehension

Integrating The student will be able to identify the basicstructure of the information, mental procedure,or psychomotor procedure and the critical asopposed to noncritical characteristics.

Symbolizing The student will be able to construct an accuratesymbolic representation of the information,mental procedure, or psychomotor proceduredifferentiating critical and noncritical elements.

Level 1: Retrieval Recognizing The student will be able to validate correctstatements about features of information,but not necessarily understand the structureof the knowledge or differentiate critical andnoncritical components.

Recalling The student will be able to produce features ofinformation, but not necessarily understand thestructure of the knowledge or differentiate criticaland noncritical components.

Executing The student will be able to perform a procedurewithout significant error, but not necessarilyunderstand how and why the procedure works.


The rows of Figure 1.3 represent the various levels of the New Taxonomy. Thethird column of Figure 1.3 portrays a generic form of the objectives that might begenerated for each level of the New Taxonomy. Subsequent chapters provide spe-cific examples of educational objectives, along with tasks that might be used toassess those objectives, for each level of the New Taxonomy across the threedomains of knowledge. To obtain a sense of the objectives that might be generatedand assessed using the New Taxonomy it is useful to start with retrieval objectives—the bottom of the New Taxonomy.

Retrieval objectives involve the recognition, recall, and execution of basicinformation and procedures. These are very common in education and wereaddressed in Bloom’s “knowledge” level.

Comprehension objectives involve identifying and symbolizing the criticalfeatures of knowledge. These too are quite common among educational objec-tives. Comprehension in the New Taxonomy is similar to comprehension inBloom’s taxonomy; however, Bloom’s taxonomy does not contain a process akinto symbolizing knowledge.

Analysis objectives involve reasoned extensions of knowledge. They aresometimes referred to as higher order in that they require students to make infer-ences that go beyond what was directly taught. The New Taxonomy involves fivetypes of analysis processes: matching, classifying, analyzing errors, generating,and specifying. Matching in the New Taxonomy is similar to what Bloom refersto as analysis of relationships within Level 4.0 (analysis) of his taxonomy.Classifying in the New Taxonomy is similar to what Bloom refers to as identify-ing a set of abstract relations within Level 5.0 (synthesis) of his taxonomy.Analyzing errors in the New Taxonomy is similar to what is referred to as judginginternal evidence within Level 6.0 (evaluation) of Bloom’s taxonomy. It is alsosimilar to analysis of organizing principles within Level 4.0 (analysis) of Bloom’staxonomy. Generalizing and specifying in the New Taxonomy are embedded inmany components from Levels 4, 5, and 6 of Bloom’s taxonomy.

Knowledge utilization objectives are employed when knowledge is used toaccomplish a specific task. Such objectives are frequently a part of what someeducators refer to as authentic tasks. The New Taxonomy includes four knowledgeutilization processes: decision making, problem solving, experimenting, and inves-tigating. The overall category of knowledge utilization is most closely related tosynthesis (Level 5.0) in Bloom’s taxonomy.

Metacognitive objectives address setting and monitoring goals. Although theimportance of these behaviors is recognized by educators, it is rare that specificobjectives are written that involve metacognition. The New Taxonomy includesfour types of metacognitive processes: specifying goals, process monitoring, mon-itoring clarity, and monitoring accuracy. No obvious corollary can be found inBloom’s taxonomy.


Self-system objectives address attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that controlmotivation. As is the case with metacognition, self-system processes seem to bevalued by educators but are rarely addressed in terms of explicit objectives. TheNew Taxonomy includes four types of self-system processes: examining impor-tance, examining efficacy, examining emotional response, and examining overallmotivation. No obvious corollary can be found in Bloom’s taxonomy.

CONCLUSIONS

As illustrated in very general terms in Figure 1.3, the New Taxonomy can be usedto generate and assess a wide range of objectives covering three domains ofknowledge (information, mental procedures, and psychomotor procedures) andthree categories of processes (cognitive, metacognitive, and self-system). This isnot to say that schools and districts should include objectives for all six levels ofthe New Taxonomy at all grade levels. As we demonstrate in Chapter 9, we recommend that metacognitive and self-system thinking be considered a comple-mentary and supportive curriculum to the first four levels of the New Taxonomy(retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and knowledge utilization), which are consid-ered more traditionally academic in nature.


CH A P T E R TWO

The New Taxonomy in Brief

WThis chapter briefly describes the various components of the New Taxonomy

as a foundation for understanding the discussion in subsequent chapters.e strongly recommend that readers become familiar with the book The New

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2007) to obtain a com-prehensive understanding of the research and theory supporting the model.Readers who are thoroughly familiar with The New Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives might wish to skip this chapter.

THE DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION

Knowledge can be organized into three broad domains: information, mental pro-cedures, and psychomotor procedures.

The Domain of Information

The domain of information, sometimes referred to as declarative knowledge,has a hierarchic structure in its own right. At the bottom of the informationalhierarchy are vocabulary terms. A vocabulary term is a word or phrase aboutwhich a student has an accurate, but not necessarily deep, level of understand-ing. For example, a student might have a general understanding of the termasteroids but know little of the nuances regarding its defining characteristics andits similarities and differences with comets and meteors. Whether or not a termis considered a vocabulary term within the New Taxonomy is totally a functionof instruction. To illustrate, consider the term habitat. Obviously it could be thetopic of an entire unit of instruction or even more. In this case, habitat would notbe considered a vocabulary term. Rather it would be an organizing concept witha variety of related generalization, principles, and facts. In contrast, if treated as

9

a vocabulary term, habitat would be addressed very briefly, and the expectationwould be that students have a surface level understanding only of some basiccharacteristic. Instructional focus and intent, then, are major determinantswhen classifying types of knowledge in the New Taxonomy. This is an impor-tant awareness to keep in mind when classifying any type of knowledge—information, mental procedures, or psychomotor procedures—as it relates to theNew Taxonomy.

At a level above vocabulary terms are facts. Facts present information aboutspecific persons, places, things, and events. To illustrate, “The Battle of Gettysburgwas pivotal to the outcome of the Civil War” is a fact. One characteristic of factsis that they commonly involve the definite article the with reference to theirsubject. Instruction again plays a critical role in determining whether specificinformational knowledge is considered a fact. To illustrate, consider the statement,“The human skeleton has characteristics similar to and different from the skeletonof a chimpanzee.” If the expectation is that students simply know this pieceof information without being able to elaborate on specific similarities and differ-ences, then it would be considered a simple fact. However, if the expectation isthat students can provide detailed examples of the similarities and differences,then the statement would be considered a generalization. Again, instructionalfocus and intent are the determiners of the precise classification for a knowledgecomponent.

At the top of the hierarchy are more general structures, such as generalizationsand principles. The statement “Specific battles sometimes disproportionatelyinfluence the outcome of a war” is a generalization. As mentioned previously, tobe considered a generalization, the expectation would be that students can providedetailed examples of this statement.

The various types of knowledge within the information domain are describedin more detail in Figure 2.1.

For the sake of clarity and ease of use, the New Taxonomy organizes the typesof information into two broad categories: details and organizing ideas. Detailsinclude vocabulary terms, facts, and time sequences; organizing ideas include gen-eralizations and principles.

Details• Vocabulary terms• Facts• Time sequences

Organizing ideas• Principles• Generalizations


The New Taxonomy in Brief 11

Figure 2.1 Types of Informational Knowledge

Vocabulary Terms

At the most specific level of informational knowledge are vocabulary terms. In this system, knowing avocabulary term means understanding the general meaning of a word. For example, when studentsunderstand declarative knowledge at the level of a vocabulary term, they have a general idea ofwhat the word means and no serious misconceptions about its meaning. To organize classroomcontent as vocabulary terms is to organize it as independent words.The expectation is that studentshave an accurate but somewhat surface-level understanding of the meaning of these terms.

Facts

Facts are a very specific type of informational content. Facts convey information about specificpersons, places, living and nonliving things, and events.They commonly articulate information suchas the following:

• The characteristics of a specific real or fictitious person (e.g., The fictitious character RobinHood first appeared in English literature in the early 1800s).

• The characteristics of a specific place (e.g., Denver is in the state of Colorado).• The characteristics of specific living and nonliving things (e.g., My dog, Tuffy, is a golden

retriever; the Empire State Building is over 100 stories high).• The characteristics of a specific event (e.g., Construction began on the Leaning Tower of

Pisa in 1174).

Time Sequences

Time sequences include important events that occurred between two points in time. For example,the events that occurred between President Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963, andhis burial on November 25, 1963, are organized as a time sequence in most people’s memories.First one thing happened, then another, then another.

Generalizations

Generalizations are statements for which examples can be provided. For example, the statement“U.S. presidents often come from families that have great wealth or influence” is a generalization,for which examples can be provided. It is easy to confuse some generalizations with some facts.Facts identify characteristics of specific persons, places, living and nonliving things, and events,whereas generalizations identify characteristics about classes or categories of persons, places,living and nonliving things, and events. For example, the statement “My dog, Tuffy, is a goldenretriever” is a fact. However, the statement “Golden retrievers are good hunters” is a generalization.In addition, generalizations identify characteristics about abstractions. Specifically, informationabout abstractions is typically stated in the form of generalizations. With these distinctions noted, ifa generalization (or principle) is treated as an isolated piece of information with no supportingexamples or applications, then it should be classified as a fact. Instructional focus and intent aredetermining factors in the classification of information as generalizations versus facts. The followingare examples of the various types of generalizations:

• Characteristics of classes of persons (e.g., It takes at least two years of training to becomea fireman.)

• Characteristics of classes of places (e.g., Large cities have high crime rates.)• Characteristics of classes of living and nonliving things (e.g., Golden retrievers are good

hunting dogs; Firearms are the subject of great debate.)• Characteristics of classes of events (e.g., Super Bowls are premier sporting events in the

United States.)• Characteristics of abstractions (e.g., Love is one of the most powerful human emotions.)

(Continued)


Figure 2.1 (Continued)

Principles

Principles are specific types of generalizations that deal with relationships. In general, there are twotypes of principles found in school-related declarative knowledge: cause–effect principles andcorrelational principles.

Cause–effect principles. These principles articulate causal relationships. For example, thesentence “Tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus” is a cause–effect principle. Although notstated here, understanding a cause–effect principle includes knowledge of the specific elementswithin the cause–effect system and the exact relationships those elements have to one another. Tounderstand the cause–effect principle regarding tuberculosis and the bacterium, one would have tounderstand the sequence of events that occur, the elements involved, and the type and strength ofrelationships between those elements. In short, understanding a cause–effect principle involves agreat deal of information.

Correlational principles. Correlational principles describe relationships that are not necessarilycausal in nature but in which a change in one factor is associated with a change in another factor.For example, the following is a correlational principle: “The increase in lung cancer among womenis directly proportional to the increase in the number of women who smoke.”

Again, to understand this principle, a student would have to know the specific details about thisrelationship, such as the general pattern, that the number of women who have lung cancer changesat the same rate as the number of women who smoke changes.

These two types of principles are sometimes confused with cause–effect sequences. A cause–effect sequence applies to a specific situation, whereas a principle applies to many situations. Thecauses of the Civil War taken together represent a cause–effect sequence they apply to the CivilWar only. However, the cause–effect principle linking tuberculosis and the tubercle bacillus can beapplied to many different situations and many different people. Physicians use this principle tomake judgments about a variety of situations and a variety of people. The key distinction betweenprinciples and cause–effect sequences is that principles can be exemplified in a number ofsituations, whereas cause–effect sequences cannot—they apply to a single situation only.


The Domain of Mental Procedures

Mental procedures—sometimes referred to as procedural knowledge—are dif-ferent in form and function from information or declarative knowledge. Whereasdeclarative knowledge can be considered the “what” of human knowledge, proce-dural knowledge can be described as the “how-to.” One important characteristic ofprocedural knowledge is that it contains information. Information is embedded inthe domain of mental procedures and the domain of psychomotor procedures.

Procedural knowledge typically starts out as declarative knowledge. To illus-trate, consider the procedure for driving a car. In the initial stages, an individualcannot actually drive the car but knows information about driving, such as thelocation of the brake, the general flow of physical activity needed to turn in dif-ferent directions, the general flow of activity needed to slow down, speed up, andso on. The individual cannot perform the procedure but is aware of the require-ments to do so. With practice over time, the individual learns to execute the pro-cedure, sometimes with little conscious thought. At this point it is fully developedprocedural knowledge.

Driving a car is an example of a psychomotor procedure in that it involvesphysical action. An example of a mental procedure is editing a composition foroverall logic. Again, in the initial stages of learning how to edit for overall logic,an individual must know some basic information, such as the characteristics of alogical progression of ideas and the need to reread a composition a number oftimes to edit effectively. With practice over time, the individual actually learnshow to execute the steps involved in editing for overall logic with relative ease.

At the top of the hierarchy of mental procedures are highly robust processesthat have a diversity of possible products or outcomes and involve the execution ofmany interrelated subprocedures. Technically, such operations are referred to asmacroprocedures. The prefix macro indicates that the procedure is highly complex,having many subcomponents that require some form of management. For example,the procedure of writing fulfills the defining characteristics of a macroprocedure.

Somewhat in the middle of the hierarchy are mental procedures that do notgenerate the variety of products possible from macroprocedures and do not incor-porate the wide variety of subcomponents. These procedures are commonlyreferred to as tactics. For example, an individual may have a tactic for reading ahistogram. Tactics are made up of general rules with an overall flow of execution.For example, a tactic for reading a histogram might include rules that address(a) identifying the elements depicted in the legend, (b) determining what is reportedin each axis on the graph, and (c) determining the relationship between the ele-ments on the two axes. Although there is a general pattern in which these rules areexecuted, there is no rigid or set order. Again, instructional focus and intent aremajor determiners in classifying a mental procedure as a macroprocedure versusa tactic. To illustrate, consider the procedure of using a calculator. If approachedas a few basic operations, then it would be considered a tactic. However, ifapproached as a complex set of interacting functions that can be used in a varietyof situations, then it would be considered a macroprocedure.

Algorithms are mental procedures that normally do not vary in applicationonce learned. They have very specific outcomes and very specific steps. Multi-column addition and subtraction are illustrations of algorithms. Algorithms mustbe learned to the level of automaticity to be useful.

The simplest type of mental procedure is a single rule or a small set of ruleswith no accompanying steps. A single rule would consist of one IF–THEN rule—IF situation X occurs, THEN perform action Y. For example, a rule for capitaliz-ing the first word in a sentence is a single-rule procedure.

For the purpose of the New Taxonomy, it is useful to organize the domain ofmental procedures into two broad categories: those that, with practice, can beexecuted automatically or with little conscious thought and those that must becontrolled. Tactics, algorithms, and single rules can be learned to the level of auto-maticity or to the level of little conscious thought. Macroprocedures require con-trolled execution. As a set, tactics, algorithms, and single rules will be referred toas skills throughout the New Taxonomy; macroprocedures will be referred to


simply as processes. Again the reader is cautioned that instructional focus andintent play major roles in determining whether a mental procedure is considered aprocess or a skill. Figure 2.2 depicts the two categories of mental procedureswithin the New Taxonomy.


Figure 2.2 Categories of Mental Procedures

Processes Macroprocedures

Tactics

Skills Algorithms

Single rules


The Domain of Psychomotor Procedures

As the name implies, the psychomotor domain is composed of physical pro-cedures. As is the case with the other two domains, the psychomotor domain canbe organized into a hierarchy. At the bottom of the psychomotor hierarchy arefoundational physical abilities upon which more complex procedures are devel-oped. These include overall body equilibrium, speed of limb movement, manualdexterity, and the like.

These foundational abilities are generally developed without formal instruc-tion. Indeed, human beings perform all these physical functions naturally with acertain degree of aplomb. However, this is not to say that these foundational skillscannot be improved with instruction and practice. For example, with instruction,a person’s manual dexterity can be improved. Therefore, it qualifies as a type ofknowledge in that it can be enhanced through instruction.

At a level up from basic foundational procedures are simple combination pro-cedures, such as shooting a free throw in basketball. As their name implies, simplecombination procedures involve sets of foundational procedures acting in parallel.Shooting a free throw in basketball is an example of a simple combination proce-dure that involves the interaction of a number of foundational procedures, such aswrist-finger speed, control precision, and arm-hand steadiness.

Finally, complex combination procedures use sets of simple combination pro-cedures. For example, the act of playing defense in basketball involves the com-bination skills of side-to-side movement with the body in a squatting position,hand waving, and so on. Once again, instructional focus and intent commonly

determine if a psychomotor procedure is classified as a simple combination pro-cedure or a complex combination procedure. Consider for example, the procedureof putting together a series of specific movements to create a dance segment. Thiscould be approached in a fairly simplistic manner (i.e., a simple combination pro-cedure) or a complex manner involving sophisticated and highly nuanced transi-tions (i.e., a complex combination procedure).

For the purposes of the New Taxonomy, it is useful to organize the proceduresin the psychomotor domain into two categories. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.


Figure 2.3 Categories of Psychomotor Procedures

Processes Complex combination procedures

Simple combination procedures

Skills

Foundational procedures


In summary, for the purposes of the New Taxonomy, the components in thethree domains of knowledge have been organized as depicted in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Components of the Three Knowledge Domains

Information 1. Organizing ideas PrinciplesGeneralizations

2. Details Time sequencesFactsVocabulary terms

Mental Procedures 1. Processes Macroprocedures

2. Skills TacticsAlgorithmsSingle rules

Psychomotor Procedures 1. Processes Complex combination procedures

2. Skills Simple combination proceduresFoundational procedures


THE LEVELS OF PROCESSING DIMENSION

The second dimension of the New Taxonomy deals with levels of mental process-ing that are applied to the three knowledge domains. There are three general sys-tems of mental processing that operate in a coordinated fashion: the self-system,the metacognitive system, and the cognitive system. This is depicted in Figure 2.5.


Figure 2.5 Six Levels of the New Taxonomy

Level 6 Self-System

Level 5 Metacognitive System

Level 4 Knowledge Utilization

Level 3 Analysis

Cognitive System

Level 2 Comprehension

Level 1 Retrieval


As shown in Figure 2.5, the cognitive system includes four subsystems thathave a hierarchic structure: retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and knowledge uti-lization. This makes for a six-level taxonomy.

Level 1: Retrieval (Cognitive System)

Retrieval involves transferring what we know but are currently not thinkingabout to a current state of attention. The process of retrieval differs somewhat,depending upon the type of knowledge involved and the degree of processingrequired. In the New Taxonomy, retrieval of information is either a matter ofrecognition or recall. Recognition can be described as determining whetherincoming information is accurate, inaccurate, or unknown. Recall, by contrast,requires not only some level of recognition, but in addition, the production ofrelated information. For example, a student who selects a synonym from among aset of words relies upon recognition. A student asked to define a word or produce

a synonym employs recall; in addition to recognizing the term, the student mustproduce an appropriate response. This distinction constitutes a hierarchy of diffi-culty within Level 1 of the New Taxonomy.

Although knowledge from the domain of information is only recognized orrecalled, knowledge from the domains of mental procedures and psychomotorprocedures can be executed as well. When the steps in a procedure are carried out,something occurs, and a product results. For example, consider the procedure formulticolumn subtraction; a quantity is computed when the steps are carried out.Thus we say that procedural knowledge is executed, whereas information is rec-ognized and recalled. However, it is also true that procedural knowledge can berecognized and recalled, because all procedures contain embedded information.(See previous discussion of mental procedures.)

Level 2: Comprehension (Cognitive System)

The process of comprehension within the cognitive system is responsible foridentifying the critical or defining attributes of knowledge. Comprehension, asdefined in the New Taxonomy, involves two related processes: integrating andsymbolizing.

Integrating

Integrating involves distilling knowledge down to its key characteristics orga-nized in a parsimonious, generalized form. Effective learners pare down incominginformation to its gist. This explains why individuals usually do not remember thespecific facts in an interesting story they have read but do tend to recall the gen-eral flow of information and events.

Symbolizing

Symbolizing is the comprehension process of creating a symbolic analog ofthe knowledge that has been produced via the process of integrating. The symbolicanalysis is typically in the form of images. A popular form of symbolizing inK–12 classrooms is graphic organizers, which combine language and symbols.Symbolizing can also take the form of graphs, pictures, and pictographs.

Level 3: Analysis (Cognitive System)

Analysis in the New Taxonomy involves the reasoned extension of knowl-edge. Analysis also goes beyond the identification of essential versus nonessentialcharacteristics that are a function of the process of comprehension. Analysis inthis context involves the generation of new information not already possessedby the individual. There are five analysis processes: (1) matching, (2) classifying,(3) analyzing errors, (4) generalizing and (5) specifying.


Matching

Matching addresses the identification of similarities and differencesbetween knowledge components. The process of matching may be simpleor complex, depending on the demands of the task. At a simple level, matchinginvolves noticing basic similarities, like those between two dogs. At a morecomplex level, matching involves comparing the same two dogs on character-istics that are key features of their respective breeds and explaining how thesesimilarities and differences help that breed. It is the latter form of the task thatis referred to here as matching. Important components of the matching processinclude

• Specifying the attributes or characteristics on which items being matchedare to be analyzed

• Determining how they are alike and different• Stating similarities and differences as precisely as possible

Classifying

Classifying refers to organizing knowledge into meaningful categories. Likematching, it is basic to human thought. Although learners use the process of clas-sifying naturally, when used as an analytic tool, this process can be very challeng-ing. Classifying is distinct from matching in that it focuses on superordinate andsubordinate categories, whereas matching focuses on similarities and differences.Important components of the classifying process include

• Identifying the defining characteristics of the items to be classified• Identifying a superordinate category to which the item belongs and explain-

ing why it belongs in that category• Identifying one or more (if any) subordinate categories for the item and

explaining how they are related

Analyzing Errors

Analyzing errors addresses the reasonableness, logic, or accuracy of knowledge.The existence of this cognitive function implies that information must be consideredreasonable for an individual to accept it as valid. To perform this function well, astudent must have a basic (but not necessarily technical) understanding of the natureof evidence and well-formed arguments as well as various types of logical errors onecan make. Critical attributes of analyzing informational errors include

• Determining if information as presented appears reasonable• Analyzing the information for logical errors and inaccuracies


The foregoing discussion applies to error analysis involving information.When the focus is on mental or psychomotor processes, analyzing errors is a quitedifferent matter. Given that procedures commonly involve bugs, analyzing errorsfor mental and psychomotor procedures involves searching for and remediatingbugs. However, the process of analyzing errors must be guided by a conceptualunderstanding of the procedure. Operationally, this means that students examinethe impact of each aspect of a mental or psychomotor procedure from the perspec-tive of its contribution to the overall effectiveness of the procedures. Criticalattributes of analyzing errors for procedural knowledge include

• Identifying the impact each step or component of a procedure has on theoverall process

• Identifying and correcting a faulty or ineffective step or component

Generalizing

Generalizing, as defined in the New Taxonomy, is the process of constructingnew generalizations from information that is already known or observed. To illus-trate, a student is involved in the analytic process of generalizing when he or shedesigns a new generalization about “regions” from three generalizations that havealready been presented in class. Critical attributes of generalizing include

• Focusing on specific pieces of information or observations without makingassumptions

• Looking for patterns or connections in the information• Making a general statement that explains the patterns or connections

Specifying

Specifying is the process of generating new applications of a known general-ization or principle. To illustrate, a student is involved in the analytic process ofspecifying by identifying a new situation or new phenomenon that is governed byBernoulli’s principle (which is commonly taught in high school to explain the con-cept of lift). The student has taken known principles and identified a new applica-tion previously not known to the individual.

Critical attributes of specifying include

• Identifying the generalizations or principles that apply to a specific situation• Making sure that the specific situation meets the conditions that have to be

in place for the generalizations or principles to apply• If the generalizations or principles do apply, identifying what conclusions

can be drawn or what predictions can be made


Level 4: Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)

As their name implies, knowledge utilization processes are those employedwhen an individual wishes to accomplish a specific task. For example, an engineermight use the knowledge of Bernoulli’s principle to solve a specific problemrelated to lift in the design of a new type of aircraft. Robust tasks are the venue inwhich knowledge is rendered useful to individuals. In the New Taxonomy, fourgeneral categories of knowledge utilization tasks have been identified: (1) deci-sion making, (2) problem solving, (3) experimenting, and (4) investigating.

Decision Making

The process of decision making is used when an individual must selectbetween two or more alternatives. Decision making might be described as theprocess by which an individual answers questions like “What is the best way to_____?” or “Which of these is most suitable?” For example, individuals areengaged in decision making when they use their knowledge of specific locationswithin a city to identify the best site for a new park. Key elements of the decision-making process include

• Identifying alternatives• Identifying the criteria that will be used to judge the value of each alternative• Selecting among alternatives based on a systematic application of criteria

Problem Solving

The process of problem solving is used when an individual attempts to accom-plish a goal for which an obstacle exists. Problem solving might be described asthe process one engages in to answer questions such as “How will I overcome thisobstacle?” or “How will I reach my goal but still meet these conditions?” Criticalattributes of the problem solving process include

• Identifying obstacles to the goal• Identifying alternative ways to accomplish the goal• Evaluating the alternatives• Selecting and executing the alternatives

Experimenting

Experimenting is the process of generating and testing hypotheses for thepurpose of understanding some physical or psychological phenomenon.Experimenting might be described as the process used when answering questionssuch as “How can this be explained?” or “Based on this explanation, what can bepredicted?” For example, an individual is involved in experimental inquiry when


he or she generates and tests a hypothesis about the effect a new airplane wingdesign will have on lift and drag. Critical attributes of experimenting include

• Making predictions based on known or hypothesized principles• Designing a way to test the predictions using observational data• Evaluating the validity of the principles based on the outcome of the test

Investigating

Investigating is the process of generating and testing hypotheses about past,present, or future events. Investigating may be described as the process one goesthrough when attempting to answer such questions as “What are the defining fea-tures of_____?” or “How did this happen?” or “Why did this happen?” or “Whatwould have happened if_____?” To illustrate, a student is involved in investigat-ing when he or she examines possible explanations for the existence of the phe-nomenon known as crop circles by examining what others have said or written onthe topic. Critical attributes of investigating include

• Identifying what is known or agreed upon regarding the phenomenon underinvestigation

• Identifying areas of confusion or controversy regarding the phenomenon• Providing an answer for the confusion or controversy using opinions and

arguments expressed by others• Presenting a logical argument for the proposed answer

Level 5: Metacognition

The metacognitive system is responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and regu-lating the functioning of all other types of thought. Taken together, these functionsare sometimes referred to as responsible for so-called executive control. Within theNew Taxonomy, the metacognitive system has four functions: (1) specifying goals,(2) process monitoring, (3) monitoring clarity, and (4) monitoring accuracy.

Specifying Goals

One of the primary tasks of the metacognitive system is to establish cleargoals and plans for accomplishing those goals. In terms of the New Taxonomy, thegoal-setting function of the metacognitive system is responsible for establishingclear learning goals for specific types of knowledge. For example, it would bethrough the goal-specification function of the metacognitive system that a studentwould establish a specific goal in terms of increasing competence at a specificpsychomotor skill taught in a physical education class. Along with the goal, thestudent would establish a plan for accomplishing the goal.


Process Monitoring

The process-monitoring component of the metacognitive system typicallymonitors the effectiveness of a procedure as it is being carried out when a specificgoal has been identified. For example, the metacognitive system will monitor howwell a goal is being met relative to reading a bar graph or how well a goal is beingmet relative to shooting free throws. Process monitoring also comes into play whena long-term or short-term goal has been established for information, for example,when a student has established the goal of better understanding polynomials.

Monitoring Clarity

Monitoring clarity and monitoring accuracy belong to a set of functions thatsome researchers refer to as dispositional. The term disposition is used to indicatethat monitoring clarity and monitoring accuracy are ways in which an individualis or is not disposed to approach knowledge. Monitoring clarity involves deter-mining the extent to which an individual is free from indistinction and ambiguityabout knowledge.

Monitoring Accuracy

Monitoring accuracy involves determining the extent to which an individualis correct in terms of understanding specific knowledge. It typically requires indi-viduals to check their understanding by seeking out further information.

Level 6: Self-System Thinking

The self-system determines whether an individual will engage in or disengagefrom a given task; it also determines how much energy the individual will bring tothe task. Once the self-system has determined what will be attended to, the func-tioning of all other elements of thought (i.e., the metacognitive system, the cogni-tive system, and the knowledge domains) are, to a certain extent, dedicated ordetermined. There are four types of self-system thinking that are relevant to theNew Taxonomy: (1) examining importance, (2) examining efficacy, (3) examiningemotional response, and (4) examining overall motivation.

Examining Importance

One of the key determinants of whether an individual attends to a given typeof knowledge is whether that individual considers the knowledge important. Whatan individual considers to be important is probably a function of the extent towhich it meets one of two conditions: it is perceived as instrumental in satisfyinga basic need, or it is perceived as instrumental in the attainment of a personal goal.


Examining Efficacy

Relative to the New Taxonomy, examining efficacy involves examining theextent to which an individual believes he or she has the ability, power or neces-sary resources to gain competence relative to a specific knowledge component. Ifa student believes he or she does not have the requisite ability, power, or resourcesto gain competence in a specific skill, this might greatly lessen the motivation tolearn that knowledge even though it is perceived as important.

Examining Emotional Response

The influence of emotion in human motivation is becoming increasingly clear.Relative to the New Taxonomy, examining emotions involves analyzing the extentto which an individual has an emotional response to a given knowledge compo-nent and the part that response plays in one’s motivation.

Examining Overall Motivation

As might be inferred from the previous discussion, an individual’s motivationto initially learn or increase competence in a given knowledge component is afunction of three factors: (1) perceptions of its importance, (2) perceptions of effi-cacy relative to learning or increasing competency in the knowledge component,and (3) one’s emotional response to the knowledge component. This is depicted inFigure 2.6.


Figure 2.6 Aspects of Motivation

EmotionalImportance Efficacy

Response

Motivation


Given this set of relationships, one can operationally describe different levelsof motivation. Specifically, high motivation to learn or increase competence rela-tive to a given knowledge component will exist under the following conditions:

1. The individual perceives the knowledge component as important, and

2. The individual believes that he or she has the necessary ability, power,or resources to learn or increase competence relative to the knowledgecomponent, or

3. The individual has a positive emotional response to the knowledge com-ponent (or both 2 and 3).

Low motivation occurs under the following conditions:

1. The individual perceives the knowledge component to be unimportant, or

2. The individual believes that he or she does not have the necessary ability,power, or resources to learn or increase competence relative to the knowl-edge component, or

3. The individual has a negative emotional response to the knowledgecomponent.

In terms of the New Taxonomy, examining motivation is the process of iden-tifying one’s level of motivation to learn or increase competence in a given knowl-edge component and then identifying the interrelationships between one’s beliefsabout importance, beliefs about efficacy, and emotional responses that governone’s level of motivation.

SUMMARY

In summary, the New Taxonomy has a knowledge dimension and a mental pro-cessing dimension. Using these two dimensions, educators can design objectivesfor specific knowledge components involving specific mental processes. Readersnot thoroughly familiar with the information presented in this chapter areencouraged to read The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano &Kendall, 2007).

Chapters 3 through 8 of this text address each mental-processing level of theNew Taxonomy as it relates to each of the three knowledge domains. Chapter 9addresses the use of the New Taxonomy as a framework for assessment.


CH A P T E R TH R E E

Retrieval Objectives and Tasks

Retrieval involves recognizing, recalling, or executing knowledge. At this levelof the New Taxonomy there is no expectation that the student demonstrates

the knowledge in depth or understands the basic structure of the knowledge or itscritical versus noncritical elements. We consider each of the three types of retrieval.

RECOGNIZING

Recognizing involves determining whether incoming information is accurate,inaccurate, or unknown. Figure 3.1 presents recognizing objectives and tasks forvarious types of knowledge.

The farthest column to the right of Figure 3.1 (Column 6) contains a prototyp-ical benchmark statement found in many state and district standards documents.The statements in this column demonstrate an important consideration in design-ing objectives and tasks using state or local standards documents—they can bevery generic in their description of their expectations regarding student compe-tence in subject matter content. The examples involve grade-level intervals. Whenstate and district documents write benchmark statements for each grade level, theproblem can be alleviated somewhat. However even grade-level benchmark state-ments can be quite general in nature. To illustrate, here are prototypical statementsfrom state-level standards documents regarding expectations for the English lan-guage arts at fifth grade:

1. Apply prior knowledge and experience to make inferences and respond tonew information presented in text.

2. Draw inferences and conclusions and support them with textual evidenceand prior knowledge.

(Text continues on page 30)

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l whe

npe

rfor

min

g a

fitne

ssas

sess

men

t.

The

pro

cess

of p

erfo

rmin

ga

fitne

ssas

sess

men

t

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Impr

oves

fitn

ess

byin

terp

retin

g In

form

atio

n fro

mfit

ness

ass

essm

ents

(e.

g.,

card

io-r

espi

rato

ry e

ndur

ance

,m

uscu

lar

stre

ngth

and

endu

ranc

e, fl

exib

ility

, and

body

com

posi

tion)

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Ske

tchi

ng t

he n

egat

ive

spac

e ar

ound

an

obje

ct,

rath

er t

han

draw

ing

the

obje

ct it

self,

is d

one

toa.

Hel

p im

prov

e th

e pe

rspe

ctiv

e of

the

draw

ing

b.Im

prov

e th

e ov

eral

l con

tour

of

the

shap

ec.

Trai

n th

e ey

e to

see

the

whi

te s

pace

of

the

draw

ing

d.M

ake

the

obje

ct a

ppea

r la

rger

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reco

gniz

e th

atsk

etch

ing

nega

tive

spac

e he

lps

to t

rain

the

eye

to s

ee t

hew

hite

spa

ce o

f a

draw

ing.

The

ski

ll of

sket

chin

gne

gativ

e sp

ace

Vis

ual A

rts

5–8

Kno

ws

how

exp

erie

nce

ofan

d id

eas

from

art

med

iaca

n be

enh

ance

d th

roug

hce

rtai

n te

chni

ques

and

proc

esse

s.

29

Sam

ple

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Whi

ch o

f th

e fo

llow

ing

is a

def

ensi

ve p

lay

invo

lleyb

all?

a.sp

ikin

g th

e ba

ll b.

bloc

king

c.cr

oss-

cour

t sh

otd.

deco

y

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reco

gniz

ebl

ocki

ng a

s a

defe

nsiv

e pl

ay in

volle

ybal

l.

The

ski

ll of

bloc

king

invo

lleyb

all.

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Iden

tifie

s so

phis

ticat

ion

inm

ovem

ent

asso

ciat

ed w

ithhi

ghly

ski

lled

phys

ical

activ

ities

(e.

g.,

mov

es t

hat

dist

ingu

ish

a pr

ofes

sion

alte

nnis

pla

yer

from

a h

igh

scho

ol t

enni

s pl

ayer

).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Whi

ch o

f th

e fo

llow

ing

can

be u

sefu

l for

proj

ectin

g a

char

acte

r on

sta

ge?

__ B

ody

alig

nmen

t__

Ges

ture

s __

Dic

tion

__ S

peak

ing

volu

me

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reco

gniz

e bo

dyal

ignm

ent,

gest

ures

,di

ctio

n, a

nd s

peak

ing

volu

me

as u

sefu

l for

proj

ectin

g a

char

acte

ron

sta

ge.

The

pro

cess

of

proj

ectin

g a

char

acte

r us

ing

phys

ical

tech

niqu

es

The

atre

5–8

Mak

es a

rtis

tic c

hoic

es b

yus

ing

basi

c ac

ting

skill

s(e

.g.,

sens

ory

reca

ll,co

ncen

trat

ion,

bre

ath

cont

rol,

dict

ion,

bod

yal

ignm

ent,

cont

rol o

fis

olat

ed b

ody

part

s).

Sta

rtin

g ou

t ru

nnin

g so

mew

hat

slow

er t

han

your

aver

age

spee

d is

a u

sefu

l str

ateg

y in

wha

t ki

ndof

com

petit

ion?

a.R

elay

rac

eb.

Mar

atho

nc.

Hur

dlin

g d.

Spr

int

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

star

ting

som

ewha

t sl

ower

tha

nav

erag

e sp

eed

as a

usef

ul s

trat

egy

in t

hem

arat

hon.

The

pro

cess

of

runn

ing

am

arat

hon

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

6–8

Use

s ba

sic

stra

tegi

es fo

rbo

th o

ffens

e an

d de

fens

ein

bot

h te

am a

nd in

divi

dual

spor

ts.

3. Describe elements of character development in written works.

4. Make inferences or draw conclusions about characters’ qualities and actions.

5. Participate in creative response to text using art, drama, or oral presentations.

Obviously, to design educational objectives and their related tasks at a specificgrade level, educators must frequently “unpack” benchmark statements to cull outspecific content on which they will focus.

This unpacking process is depicted in the third and fourth columns of Figure 3.1.Consider the first row of that figure. The benchmark statement reads, “Understandshow current domestic policies and international policies have been influenced bythe Cold War and conflicts in Korea and Vietnam.” The knowledge focus (Column 4)derived from this very general benchmark statement is “Events at the beginning ofthe Cold War.” The recognition objective (Column 3) derived from the knowledgefocus is “The student will be able to identify the correct sequence of critical eventsat the beginning of the Cold War.” Where the benchmark statement is quite broadand encompasses the Cold War, Korea, and Vietnam, the objective in this case notonly focuses on the Cold War but also calls attention to events at the beginning ofthe Cold War and their proper sequence.

This example illustrates that objectives derived from a benchmark statementfocus on specific elements implied or stated in it and put those elements in a specificcontext. The fourth column in Figure 3.1 identifies the focus of knowledge that hasbeen culled out of the benchmark statement by a district, school, or individualteacher. Identifying a knowledge focus from benchmark statements is obviously acritical step in designing educational objectives (Column 3) and tasks (Column 2),although it does not have to be done as explicitly as shown in the figure.

Examining the objective statements in Figure 3.1 (see fourth column) illus-trates that the verb phrase in some of the objectives is recognizes. The various lev-els of the New Taxonomy represent possible verb phrases that might be used toconstruct objectives and tasks. As shown in later chapters, at some levels of theNew Taxonomy the name of the level does not easily translate into a commonlyused verb phrase. In the case of recognizing objectives and tasks, terms andphrases like the following might be used:

• Select from a list• Identify from a list• Determine if the following statements are true

In the second column of Figure 3.1, a task is listed for each objective. Tasksrepresent the behavior students will exhibit as an indication they have met thestated objective. The articulation of specific tasks for each objective providesteachers with explicit guidance as to how they might design assessments. In


Chapter 9 we consider how these tasks can be used to develop a comprehensivesystem of assessment using the New Taxonomy.

The tasks listed in Figure 3.1 depict the typical formats for recognizing tasks.In general, recognizing tasks are forced-choice in nature. Figure 3.2 lists varioustypes of forced-choice tasks. Any of the formats in Figure 3.2 could have beenused with the objectives in Figure 3.1.

It is instructive to consider the nature of recognizing tasks across the variousdomains of knowledge.

Recognizing With Information

Recognizing tasks for details involve the identification of accurate statementsregarding terms, facts, and time sequences. To illustrate, the first task involvingdetails requires students to recognize a correct sequence of events. No in-depthknowledge of these events is required. The second task requires students to iden-tify accurate information about the consumer price index taught at the simplelevel of a term. Again, no in-depth understanding of the consumer price index isrequired to complete the task.

Recognizing organizing ideas involves identifying accurate statements aboutgeneralizations and principles. To illustrate, the recognizing task for the general-ization requires students to identify a simple example of a nonrenewable resource.Again, this does not require in-depth understanding of the defining characteristicsof nonrenewable resources and their characteristics.

Recognizing With Mental Procedures

Recognizing tasks for mental skills involve validating accurate statements abouta specific mental skill. The first example in Figure 3.1 involves using simple bargraphs and line graphs. Since this procedure is classified as a skill (as opposed to aprocess), the assumption is that it has been addressed instructionally at a fairly simplelevel (see Chapter 2 for a discussion). The recognizing task involves identifyingthe best graph to use in a specific situation. Recognizing tasks for mental processesinvolve validating accurate statements about a specific mental process. The first men-tal process in Figure 3.1 is problem solving. Because it is classified as a process (asopposed to a skill), the assumption is that it has been addressed instructionally at afairly complex level (for a discussion see Chapter 2). The recognizing task requiresstudents to identify components of the problem-solving process from a list.

Recognizing With Psychomotor Procedures

Recognizing tasks for psychomotor skills involve validating accurate state-ments about a specific mental skill. The first psychomotor skill in Figure 3.1 is

Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 31


Figure 3.2 Types of Forced-Choice Items

1. Traditional Multiple Choice—Provides a stem and alternatives, some of which aredistracters and one of which is the correct choice

(Stem) The best definition of a region is. . . .A. An area of land between two bodies of water (distracter)B. An area of land that has common topographical or political features (correct choice)C. An area of land that is a specific size (distracter)D. An area of land that has a specific shape (distracter)

2. Matching—Provides multiple stems and multiple optionsTraditional formatInvention Inventor_____ 1. Vaccine for Polio A. Eli Whitney

B. Jonas Salk_____ 2. Telephone C. Henry Ford

D. Alexander Graham Bell_____ 3. Assembly Line E. Henry McCormick

Expanded formatPerson Activity TimeA. Kennedy 1. Led U.S. forces in Europe (WWII) 6. About 1790B. Jefferson 2. Elected first Roman Catholic president 7. About 1980C. Reagan 3. Elected first president of U.S. 8. About 1800

4. Purchased Louisiana Territory 9. About 18605. Hostages released at start of presidency 10. About 1960

3. Alternative Choice—Provides a stem and two choices that are quite similarTraditional format

(Stem) The part of speech used to form a clause is . . .A. A prepositionB. A conjunction

Alternative format(A. An architect, B. A draftsman) is an engineer who designs buildings.3. True–False—Provides statements that must be judged as true or false

Mark F is the statement is false and T if the statement is true:_____ 1. The first thing to do with an automobile that does not start is to check the battery._____ 2. A cause of premature tire wear is improper tire pressure._____ 3. The automobile’s onboard computer should be replaced if it drives poorly._____ 4. Under harsh driving conditions, an automobile’s oil should be changed every three

months or 3,000 miles, whichever comes first.

4. Multiple Response—Allows for two or more correct responses.Traditional formatWhich of the following can be the end punctuation for a sentence?1. A period2. A dash3. An exclamation point4. A question mark5. 1 and 26. 2, 3, and 47. 1, 3, and 48. 2 and 3

Alternative formatPlace a Y in front of each event listed below that occurred at the Battle of Gettysburg:

_____ 1. Pickett’s Charge_____ 2. The end of the Civil War_____ 3. Confederate soldiers occupied Culp’s Hill_____ 4. Meade’s Maneuver_____ 5. Fifteen citizens of Gettysburg were killed at Devil’s Den

Source: Adapted from Classroom Assessment and Grading that Work (Figure 4.7, p 77). Marzano, Robert J.Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2006.

sketching negative space. The recognizing task involves identifying the correctreason for sketching negative space among a list of options. Recognizing tasks forpsychomotor processes involve validating accurate statements about a specificmental process. The first psychomotor process in Figure 3.1 is projecting a char-acter on stage. The task requires identification of appropriate physical techniqueswithin the overall process of projecting a character on stage.

RECALLING

Recalling involves producing accurate information as opposed to simply recogniz-ing it. Figure 3.3 presents recalling objectives and tasks for various types ofknowledge.

As before, the benchmark statements in Figure 3.3 are very general.Consequently, a knowledge focus has been identified in the fourth column fromwhich objectives and tasks are designed. Some objectives and tasks employ theverb recall. However, other terms like the following might also be used:

• Exemplify• Name• List• Label• State• Describe• Who• What• Where• When

Generally, the format for recalling tasks is short written or oral constructed-response formats as illustrated in Figure 3.3. However, on occasion, fill-in-the-blank formats like the following are used:

As it relates to the cell membrane, the term selectively permeable means thatthe membrane _____________________________________________________.

Recalling With Information

Recalling tasks for details involve producing accurate but not necessarilycritical information about terms, facts, and time sequences. The first exampleof a recalling task for details involves factual information regarding the U.S.Constitution. To complete the recalling task, students must retrieve from theirpermanent memories one way that the U.S. Constitution limits the power of gov-ernment. The first example of a recalling task for an organizing idea addresses ageneralization about the impact of chance events on history. The task requires


34

Fig

ure

3.3

Rec

allin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Ter

ms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Nam

e on

e w

ay b

y w

hich

the

U.S

.Con

stitu

tion

limits

the

pow

ers

of g

over

nmen

t.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

nam

eat

leas

t on

e w

ay in

whi

ch t

heU

.S.C

onst

itutio

n lim

its t

hepo

wer

s of

gov

ernm

ent,

such

as

by s

epar

atio

n an

d sh

arin

g of

pow

ers,

che

cks

and

bala

nces

,or

the

Bill

of

Rig

hts.

Fact

s ab

out

U.S

.Con

stitu

tion

His

tory

6–8

Und

erst

ands

how

ele

men

ts in

the

U.S

Con

stitu

tion,

suc

h as

sepa

ratio

n an

d sh

arin

g of

pow

ers,

che

cks

and

bala

nces

,an

d th

e B

ill o

f R

ight

s, s

erve

to

limit

gove

rnm

enta

l pow

er.

Wha

t w

as n

eces

sary

bef

ore

the

resu

lts o

f ea

rly s

tudi

es li

nkin

gsm

okin

g an

d ca

ncer

wer

eac

cept

ed a

s ac

cura

te?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reca

llth

at e

arly

stu

dies

on

the

link

betw

een

smok

ing

and

canc

erw

ere

repe

ated

and

yie

lded

cons

iste

nt r

esul

ts b

efor

e th

eyw

ere

acce

pted

as

accu

rate

.

Fact

s ab

out

early

stu

dies

linki

ng s

mok

ing

and

canc

er

Sci

ence

6–8

Kno

ws

that

bef

ore

the

resu

lts o

fan

exp

erim

ent

are

cons

ider

edva

lid,

they

mus

t be

foun

dre

peat

edly

and

con

sist

ently

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

In h

isto

ry,

we

have

cha

nce

even

ts t

hat

are

unex

pect

ed b

utca

n gr

eatly

influ

ence

eve

nts.

Iden

tify

an e

xam

ple

of a

cha

nce

even

t th

at h

ad a

sig

nific

ant

impa

ct o

n th

e ev

ents

tha

tfo

llow

ed.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

that

a c

hanc

e ev

ent

inhi

stor

y is

an

even

t th

at w

as n

otpl

anne

d or

ant

icip

ated

by

the

part

icip

ants

and

can

rec

all o

nesu

ch e

vent

fro

m r

ecen

t re

adin

gsin

his

tory

.

A g

ener

aliz

atio

nab

out

char

acte

ristic

sof

cha

nce

even

ts

His

tory

5–6

Und

erst

ands

tha

t ch

ance

pla

ysa

role

in h

isto

rical

eve

nts.

35

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng t

he la

wth

at w

hene

ver

an o

bjec

t is

see

nto

spe

ed u

p or

slo

w d

own,

an

unba

lanc

ed fo

rce

acts

on

it.W

hat

are

som

e ex

ampl

es o

fun

bala

nced

forc

es w

e se

e in

ever

yday

life

? D

escr

ibe

the

impa

ct t

hat

thes

e fo

rces

hav

e.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

prov

ide

ever

yday

exa

mpl

es t

hat

dem

onst

rate

the

law

of

unba

lanc

ed fo

rces

.

A p

rinci

ple

rega

rdin

gun

bala

nced

forc

es a

ndth

e sp

eed

of o

bjec

ts

Sci

ence

6–8

Kno

ws

that

whe

neve

r an

obj

ect

visi

bly

spee

ds u

p, s

low

s do

wn,

or c

hang

es d

irect

ion,

an

unba

lanc

ed fo

rce

(e.g

., fr

ictio

n)ha

s ac

ted

upon

it.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t is

an

exam

ple

of a

situ

atio

n in

whi

ch k

now

ing

anef

fect

ive

refu

sal s

kill

is u

sefu

l?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to r

emem

ber

the

type

sof

circ

umst

ance

s in

whi

chre

fusa

l ski

lls a

re u

sefu

l.

Ref

usal

ski

llsH

ealth

9–12

Kno

ws

how

bad

situ

atio

ns c

anbe

avo

ided

by

usin

g sk

ills

such

as r

efus

al,

nego

tiatio

n, a

ndco

llabo

ratio

n.

Why

wou

ld y

ou w

ant

to c

alcu

late

your

hea

rt r

ate

and

brea

thin

gra

te w

hen

exer

cisi

ng?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reca

llth

at h

eart

and

bre

athi

ng r

ate

are

com

pone

nts

of a

fitn

ess

asse

ssm

ent.

Cal

cula

ting

hear

t ra

te a

ndbr

eath

ing

rate

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Enh

ance

s fit

ness

thr

ough

use

of a

sses

smen

t te

chni

ques

(e.g

., ca

rdio

-res

pira

tory

endu

ranc

e, m

uscu

lar

stre

ngth

and

endu

ranc

e, f

lexi

bilit

y,an

d bo

dy c

ompo

sitio

n).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

If yo

u w

ere

doin

g re

sear

ch o

n a

rece

nt e

vent

and

con

side

ring

whe

ther

a s

peci

fic b

ook

mig

ht b

eus

eful

, w

hy m

ight

you

che

ck t

hepu

blic

atio

n da

te,

the

tabl

e of

cont

ents

, an

d re

ad t

he p

refa

ce?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reca

llth

at u

sefu

l Inf

orm

atio

n ca

n be

prov

ided

by

a bo

ok’s

pub

licat

ion

date

, ta

ble

of c

onte

nts,

and

pref

ace.

Usi

ng a

boo

k to

obta

inIn

form

atio

n

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5U

ses

the

inde

x, t

able

of

cont

ents

, gl

ossa

ry,

appe

ndix

,an

d pr

efac

e co

rrec

tly t

o lo

cate

Info

rmat

ion.

(Con

tinu

ed)

36

Fig

ure

3.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Des

crib

e w

hy e

stim

atio

n ca

n be

usef

ul a

s pa

rt o

f so

lvin

g a

prob

lem

and

afte

r yo

u ha

veso

lved

a p

robl

em.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

desc

ribe

the

valu

e of

est

imat

ion

in s

olvi

ng s

ome

prob

lem

s an

dfo

r ch

ecki

ng t

he r

easo

nabl

enes

sof

com

puta

tiona

l res

ults

.

Est

imat

ing

stra

tegi

esM

ath

3–5

Est

imat

es a

nd e

valu

ates

estim

atio

ns t

hrou

gh u

se o

fst

rate

gies

suc

h as

fro

nt-e

ndes

timat

ion

and

roun

ding

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Why

is it

impo

rtan

t to

pla

ce y

our

finge

rs o

n th

e ho

me

row

bef

ore

you

begi

n ty

ping

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f th

eho

me

row

for

corr

ect

finge

ring.

Spe

cific

keyb

oard

ing

tech

niqu

es

Tech

nolo

gyK

–2U

ses

corr

ect

hand

pos

ition

san

d bo

dy p

ostu

re w

hen

typi

ngon

a c

ompu

ter

keyb

oard

.

Wha

t is

the

pro

per

way

to

exec

ute

a si

t-up

?T

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

le t

o re

call

that

the

kne

es s

houl

d be

ben

tdu

ring

a si

t-up

.

Doi

ng s

it-up

sP

hysi

cal

Edu

catio

n3–

6

Eng

ages

in a

ctiv

ities

suc

h as

push

-ups

, pu

ll-up

s, s

it-up

s, a

ndis

omet

ric s

tren

gth

activ

ities

inor

der

to d

evel

op a

nd m

aint

ain

mus

cula

r st

reng

th.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

The

re a

re c

omm

on in

divi

dual

and

team

str

ateg

ies

for

keep

ing

the

ball

or p

uck

away

fro

mop

pone

nts

in in

vasi

on g

ames

,lik

e ba

sket

ball

and

hock

ey.L

ist

two

or m

ore

of t

hese

str

ateg

ies.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

list

the

stra

tegi

es t

hat

are

com

mon

to in

divi

dual

s an

d te

ams

for

keep

ing

the

ball

or p

uck

away

from

opp

onen

ts.

Pla

ying

net

and

inva

sion

gam

esP

hysi

cal

Edu

catio

n3–

6

Use

s be

ginn

ing

stra

tegi

es fo

rne

t an

d in

vasi

on g

ames

(e.g

., st

rikin

g a

ball

to k

eep

itup

or

away

fro

m o

ppon

ent

ina

rack

et s

port

or

drib

blin

g to

prev

ent

an o

ppon

ent

from

stea

ling

the

ball

in b

aske

tbal

l).

Why

is it

impo

rtan

t to

kee

p yo

urle

ft ha

nd w

ell u

nder

the

nec

kw

hen

play

ing

the

guita

r?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reca

llth

at h

and

posi

tion

is o

ne o

f th

em

ost

impo

rtan

t as

pect

s of

play

ing

the

guita

r.

Pla

ying

am

usic

alin

stru

men

t

Mus

ic3–

5P

erfo

rms

with

atte

ntio

n to

pitc

h,rh

ythm

, ph

ysic

al d

ynam

ics,

and

timbr

e w

hen

play

ing

a m

usic

alin

stru

men

t.

students to produce examples of how chance events affect history. Again, in-depthknowledge is not required.

Recalling With Mental Procedures

Recalling tasks for mental skills involve generating basic information about amental skill. The first recalling task for a mental skill involves refusal skills.Students must provide an example of when refusal skills might be useful. Recallingtasks for mental processes involve producing accurate information about a spe-cific mental process. The first recalling task for a mental process involves theprocess of using a book to obtain information. Students must retrieve informationabout how to use the publication date, table of contents, and a preface whenobtaining information from a book.

Recalling With Psychomotor Procedures

Recalling tasks for psychomotor skills involve generating information about aspecific psychomotor skill. The first recalling task for a psychomotor skill involvesspecific keyboarding techniques. Students must produce information about theimportance of the home row. Recalling tasks for psychomotor processes involveproducing information about a specific psychomotor process. The first recallingtask for a psychomotor process involves net and invasion games. Students mustproduce information about strategies used in various games of this type.

EXECUTING

Executing involves actually carrying out a mental or physical procedure asopposed to simply retrieving or recalling information about such procedures.There is a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the process of executing, par-ticularly as it relates to complex mental and psychomotor procedures. While it istrue that executing is at the lowest level of the New Taxonomy (retrieval), it canbe the highest level of expectation for students when a complex mental orpsychomotor procedure is involved. Consider, for example, the mental process ofwriting a persuasive essay. The actual execution of this process is a complex feat,indeed, requiring the management of many interacting components. The same canbe said for the process of playing basketball, a psychomotor procedure. How, then,could a district, school, or teacher ever expect students to use higher levels of theNew Taxonomy, such as articulating critical versus noncritical componentsof these procedures (i.e., an integrating task) or creating new generalizationsabout these procedures (i.e., a generalization task), or investigating the origins ofthese procedures (an investigation task) and so on? The answer is that executing,


in fact, might be the highest level of expectation for students for these complexprocedures. Stated differently, a district, school, or teacher might not have objec-tives above the executing level in the New Taxonomy for complex procedures likewriting a persuasive essay and playing basketball.

Another option is to break these complex procedures into smaller compo-nent parts. Recall from the discussion in Chapter 2 that procedures like these aretechnically referred to as macroprocedures with many subcomponents interact-ing in complex ways. At a specific grade level, a school or district might focuson one or two elements only for a complex procedure. For example, at lowergrade levels, the skill of stating a clear claim might be the emphasis for the com-plex procedure of writing a persuasive essay. Likewise, at lower grade levels,the emphasis might be placed on dribbling only as it relates to the complexprocedure of playing basketball. With these more narrow foci, districts andschools can then legitimately include objectives for the other levels of the NewTaxonomy without the fear of overwhelming students. Marzano and Haystead(2008) have outlined how districts and schools might accomplish this spiralingeffect to curriculum in the areas of language arts, mathematics, science, andsocial studies.

Figure 3.4 presents executing objectives and tasks for various types ofknowledge.

Theoretically, all of the objective statements in Figure 3.4 could have employedthe term execute, but none do. This is because the term, although accurate, issimply not common within discussions of procedural knowledge. For example, itwould be considered clumsy to say, “The student will be able to execute the skillof determining the next number in a numeric series.” Instead, the verbs in execut-ing objectives and tasks are usually specific to the type of skill or process that isthe target of the objective or task, like the following:

• Add• Subtract• Multiply• Divide• Apply• Demonstrate• Draft• Complete• Locate• Make• Solve• Read• Use• Write


39

Fig

ure

3.4

Exe

cutin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Gra

de/S

ubj.

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fac

ts, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

n/a

n/a

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

n/a

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

en/

a

Men

tal P

roce

dure

:S

kill

Det

erm

ine

your

cur

rent

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rtan

d br

eath

ing

rate

.T

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tude

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ill b

e ab

le t

om

onito

r he

art

and

brea

thin

gra

tes.

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itorin

ghe

art

rate

and

brea

thin

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te

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Kno

ws

how

to

mon

itor

elem

ents

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as

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t ra

te,

brea

thin

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te,

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ertio

n, a

ndre

cove

ry r

ate

in o

rder

to

dete

rmin

e in

tens

ity o

f ex

erci

se.

Pro

vide

the

nex

t nu

mbe

rin

thi

s se

ries:

7, 1

1, 1

4, 1

8,21

, __

_.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

disc

over

and

exe

cute

the

rul

efo

r a

spec

ific

num

eric

pat

tern

.

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erm

inin

g th

eru

le fo

r a

patte

rn o

fnu

mbe

rs

Mat

h3–

5R

ecog

nize

s a

wid

e va

riety

of

patte

rns,

suc

h as

bas

ic li

near

patte

rns,

sim

ple

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atin

g an

dgr

owin

g pa

ttern

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d th

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gove

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g ru

les.

Men

tal P

roce

dure

:P

roce

ssW

rite

a pe

rsua

sive

ess

ay w

ithsp

ecia

l atte

ntio

n to

the

inte

rest

s an

d pe

rspe

ctiv

es o

fan

aud

ienc

e of

you

r ch

oice

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

writ

e a

pers

uasi

ve e

ssay

tha

tre

flect

s at

tent

ion

to t

hein

tere

sts

and

pers

pect

ives

of

a sp

ecifi

c au

dien

ce.

Writ

ing

ape

rsua

sive

essa

y

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5W

rites

for

diffe

rent

aud

ienc

es,

such

as

self,

pee

rs,

teac

hers

,an

d ad

ults

, by

usi

ng s

trat

egie

ssu

ch a

s fo

cus

adap

tatio

n,or

gani

zatio

n, p

oint

of

view

,an

d au

dien

ce a

war

enes

s.

(Con

tinu

ed)

40

Fig

ure

3.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Gra

de/S

ubj.

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

If th

e ea

rth’

s di

amet

er is

12,7

40 k

m,

wha

t is

its

circ

umfe

renc

e? S

how

how

you

solv

ed t

his

prob

lem

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e a

varie

ty o

f pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g pe

rimet

er.

Sol

ving

ava

riety

of

prob

lem

sin

volv

ing

perim

eter

Mat

h6–

8S

olve

s pe

rimet

er a

nd a

rea

prob

lem

s fo

r a

varie

ty o

fsh

apes

(e.

g.,

para

llelo

gram

s,tr

iang

les,

circ

les)

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:S

kill

Tap

out

the

rhyt

hm o

f ¾

, or

wal

tz,

time.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

initi

ate

and

keep

a s

peci

fied

rhyt

hm.

Kee

ping

rhy

thm

Mus

ic

3–5

Per

form

s w

ith a

war

enes

s of

pitc

h, r

hyth

m,

dyna

mic

s an

dtim

bre,

and

tem

po.

Type

the

par

agra

ph g

iven

you

,st

artin

g w

ith y

our

finge

rs o

nth

e ho

me

row

and

usi

ngap

prop

riate

fin

gerin

g.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

type

usi

ng a

ppro

pria

tefin

gerin

g.

Usi

ngap

prop

riate

finge

ring

whi

lety

ping

Tech

nolo

gy3–

5P

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rms

from

hom

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w w

ithaw

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ess

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rope

r fin

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d pr

oper

pos

ture

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:P

roce

ssS

wim

tw

o la

ps,

mov

ing

from

back

str

oke,

to

side

str

oke,

to

brea

st s

trok

e in

any

ord

er,

mak

ing

smoo

th t

rans

ition

sfr

om o

ne t

o th

e ot

her.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

dem

onst

rate

adv

ance

dsw

imm

ing

stro

kes.

Usi

ng v

ario

ussw

imm

ing

stro

kes

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Use

s ad

vanc

ed s

port

-spe

cific

tech

niqu

e in

a v

arie

ty o

fac

tiviti

es (

e.g.

, sw

imm

ing,

danc

e, k

ayak

ing,

indi

vidu

alan

d te

am s

port

s).

Per

form

a m

usic

alco

mpo

sitio

n of

you

r ch

oice

.P

ay a

ttent

ion

to y

our

tem

poan

d ot

her

dyna

mic

s w

eha

ve s

tudi

ed.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

perf

orm

a m

usic

alco

mpo

sitio

n on

pitc

h, in

rhyt

hm,

with

app

ropr

iate

dyna

mic

s an

d tim

bre

and

ast

eady

tem

po.

Per

form

ing

am

usic

alco

mpo

sitio

n

Mus

ic3–

5P

erfo

rms

with

aw

aren

ess

ofpi

tch,

rhy

thm

, dy

nam

ics

and

timbr

e, a

nd t

empo

.

The format for the tasks in Figure 3.4 are short written or oral constructed-response formats accompanied by actually performing (i.e., executing) the proce-dure. In the case of mental skills, forced-choice formats could have been used. Toillustrate, the format for the mental procedure regarding numeric series could havebeen a multiple-choice task like the following:

Which of the following is the next number you would expect in the series, 7,11, 14, 18, 21?

a. 20

b. 21

c. 22

d. 24

Executing With Information

By definition, executing does not apply to the domain of information.Information can be recognized and recalled but not executed.

Executing With Mental Procedures

Executing tasks for mental skills involves accurately carrying out the mentalskill or process without significant error but not necessarily being able to explainhow it works. The first example of an executing task for a mental skill involvesmonitoring heart rate and breathing rate. For this task students must actually carryout the procedure as opposed to providing information about the procedure. Thefirst example of an executing task for a mental process involves writing a persua-sive essay. To complete this task, students must actually write a persuasive essay.Again, it is important to remember that executing can be the highest level ofexpectation for mental processes.

Executing With Psychomotor Procedures

Executing tasks for psychomotor skills involve accurately carrying out a psy-chomotor skill or process without significant error but not necessarily being ableto explain how it works. The first example of an executing task for a psychomo-tor skill involves tapping out rhythm. To demonstrate competence in this skill,students must perform the task. The first example of an execution task for a psy-chomotor process involves using specific strokes while swimming. Students mustexecute these strokes in a coordinated fashion. Again, executing can be the high-est level of expectation for psychomotor processes.


SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR

RETRIEVAL OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Recognizing Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to validate the accuracy of information presented to them• Use terms and phrases like the following: recognize, select from a list, iden-

tify from a list, determine if the following statements are true• Use forced-choice formats

Recalling Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to produce accurate information• Use terms like the following: recall, exemplify, name, list, label, state,

describe, who, what, where, when• Use short written and oral constructed-response formats along with fill-in-

the-blank formats

Executing Objectives and Tasks

• Do not apply to the domain of information• Require students to carry out a procedure• Can be the highest level of expectation for complex processes• Use terms like the following: add, subtract, multiply, divide, apply, demon-

strate, draft, complete, make, solve, read, use, write• Use short written and oral constructed-response formats along with execu-

tion of the procedure; use forced-choice formats with mental skills


CH A P T E R FO U R

Comprehension Objectives and Tasks

Comprehension involves the related processes of integrating and symbolizingknowledge. Critical to both of these processes is that students are able

to identify the critical or essential information as opposed to the noncritical ornonessential information.

INTEGRATING

Integrating involves identifying and articulating the critical or essential elementsof knowledge. Figure 4.1 presents integrating objectives and tasks for the varioustypes of knowledge.

Benchmark statements sometimes make direct allusion to integrating, at leastfor the domain of information. For example, consider the benchmark statement inthe first row, which states that students are expected to understand the decline ofthe Cold War from the 1970s to the early 1990s. Implicit in this statement is theexpectation that students will distinguish between critical versus noncritical events.

The verb integrate is rarely if ever used with integrating objects and tasks.Rather, terms and phrases like the following are frequently employed:

• Describe how or why (or both)• Describe the key parts of• Describe the effects• Describe the relationship between• Explain ways in which• Make connections between• Paraphrase• Summarize

43

44

e 4.

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igur

Inte

grat

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Obj

ectiv

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asks

T

Task

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ectiv

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ime

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rev

ects

olut

ion

arou

nd t

he s

un a

ffth

e se

ason

s.

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

pro

win

gvi

de a

des

crip

tion

sho

how

the

tilt

and

rev

olut

ion

ofth

e ea

rth

arou

nd t

he s

unaf

f.

ects

the

sea

sons

A p

rinci

ple

rega

rdin

g th

ese

ason

and

the

tilt

of t

he e

arth

.

Sci

ence

6–8

ws

hoK

noea

ther

w s

easo

ns a

nd w

patte

rns

of th

e ea

rth

are

desi

gned

yan

d al

tere

d b

the

tilt o

f the

ear

th’s

axis

and

the

eart

h’ol

utio

ns

rev

., he

at is

mor

ear

ound

the

sun

(i.e

inte

nse

on o

ne p

art o

r an

othe

r of

the

ear

olut

ion

th a

ccor

ding

to it

s re

var

ound

the

sun)

.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Des

cror

the

ibe

the

reas

onin

g f

step

s us

ed in

sub

trac

tions

actin

g fr

e de

nom

inat

ors

with

unl

ik.

yT

he s

tude

nt w

ill id

entif

y w

hea

ch s

tep

in a

ddin

g or

actin

g fr

subt

re

actio

ns w

ith u

nlik

deno

min

ator

s is

impo

rtan

t.

The

ski

ll of

subt

ract

ing

frac

tions

ew

ith u

nlik

deno

min

ator

s.

Mat

h6–

8P

erfo

rac

tion

ms

addi

tion

and

subt

rac

tions

with

unl

ike

for

frde

nom

inat

ors

and

mul

tiple

san

d di

vide

s al

l fr

.ac

tions

lem

in s

ente

nce

Wha

t pr

obm

eani

ng is

cre

ated

by

a“d

angl

ing

part

icip

le”?

Wha

t lo

gica

l ste

ps le

adto

its

corr

ectio

n?

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

iden

tify

the

logi

cal p

robl

emy

pres

ente

d b

a d

angl

ing

par

w it

can

be

ticip

le a

nd h

oco

rrec

ted.

The

ski

ll of

reco

gniz

ing

and

corr

ectin

gda

nglin

g.

mod

ifier

s

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8

eren

t v

Use

s di

ffor

erb

fm

s in

writ

ing

(e.g

., lin

king

and

aux

iliar

erbs

,y

vve

rb p

hr,

and

regu

lar

and

ases er

bs).

irreg

ular

v

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

If y

ante

d to

con

duct

a s

urou

wv

yea

sam

ple

of s

tude

nts

to e

stim

ate

the

perc

enta

ge o

f st

uden

ts in

our

clas

s th

at a

re in

for

ym

edab

out

a cu

rren

t ev

ent,

desc

ribe

hoou

wou

ld c

hoos

e th

e su

rw

yv

yere

spon

dent

sy

each

.Exp

lain

wh

step

in t

he p

roce

ss is

impo

rtan

t.

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

desc

ribe

the

ky

step

se

ed in

sel

ectin

g a

invo

lvsa

mpl

e.

The

pro

cess

of

sam

plin

g w

ithin

y st

udy.

a su

rve

Sci

ence

6–8

Use

s to

ols

such

as

com

pute

rha

rdw

are

toar

e an

d so

ftwga

ther

, an

d in

ter

, an

alyz

epr

etsc

ient

ific

data

.

(Con

tinu

ed)

46

Fig

ure

4.1

(Con

tinue

d)

ask

TO

bjec

tive

wle

dge

Kno

Focu

sG

rade

/Sub

j.k

Sta

tem

ent

Ben

chm

ar

Wha

t ar

e th

e m

ost

impo

rtan

t th

ings

eep

in m

ind

whe

n co

nstr

uctin

gto

ka

wor

ell-f

med

par

raph

tha

tag

eff

ely

wec

tivroks

with

in a

larg

ery

or c

ompo

sitio

n? E

xpla

in w

hyes

saou

ha

the

step

s y

ev id

entif

ied

are

impo

rtan

t.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

ew

to

cons

trxp

lain

ho

uct

ael

l-str

wuc

ture

d pa

rag

aph

and

rw

it s

erho

vve

s th

e o

all

erpu

rpos

e of

the

com

posi

tion.

The

pro

cess

of w

ritin

gw

orel

l-fm

edag

par

aphs

.r

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5

Use

s st

raf

t, an

dat

egie

s to

edi

t, dr

vise

wr

re.g

., w

riti

ng (

eite

s w

ithor

d ch

oice

and

atte

ntio

n to

w rse

nten

ce v

ael

l as

iatio

n as

wau

dien

ce;u

ses

par

aphs

agr

prop

erly

;ela

bor

alat

es o

n a

cent

rid

ea;p

rodu

ces

maf

ts).

ultip

le d

r

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Des

crib

e th

e ty

pica

l fin

gerin

g us

edf

ying

a s

cale

on

a sp

ecifi

cor

a p

lam

umen

t.us

ical

inst

rxp

lain

Als

o e

y th

is f

inge

rw

hin

g is

impo

rtan

t.

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

y th

e fin

ger

iden

tify

wh

or a

ing

fus

ical

inst

rsp

ecifi

c m

umen

t is

impo

ror

pla

tant

f.

ying

sca

les

The

ski

ll of

ing

whi

lefin

ger

ying

a s

cale

pla

on a

spe

cific

inst

rum

ent.

Mus

ic 3

–5yt

hmic

Use

s rh

, an

d,

mel

odic

harm

onic

cla

ssro

om in

stru

men

ts(e

.g.

, vi

olin

, el

ectr

pian

o,

ic g

uita

rdr

orum

s) t

o pe

rfm

sim

ple

chor

dal

patte

rat

ely

and

ns a

ccur

.in

depe

nden

tly

Des

crw

to h

old

a pe

ncil

soib

e ho

that

it is

eas

ier

to f

rom

lette

rs.

clea

rlyW

yh d

oes

hold

ing

a pe

ncil

this

wa

ou w

ry

help

yite

bet

ter?

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

w t

o ho

ld a

pen

cil

expl

ain

how

hile

writ

ing.

The

ski

ll of

hold

ing

a pe

ncil

corr

ectly

whe

nw

ritin

g.

Lang

uage

Art

sP

reK

Enh

ance

s w

ritin

g w

ith u

se o

f to

ols

and

mat

eria

ls s

uch

as c

ron

say

,m

arer

s, p

oste

r bo

ard,

and

kch

alkb

oard

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

eIn

cla

ss w

ha

ev b

een

lear

ning

hoy

softb

all.

w t

o pl

aD

escr

ibe

wha

tou

ld d

o du

ryo

u w

ing

a ga

me

if y

uoer

e th

e pi

tche

r on

the

tea

m.

w

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

expl

ain

hoy

softb

all.

w t

o pl

aal

The

gen

erpr

oces

sv

ed in

inol

vyi

ng s

oftb

all.

pla

ysic

alP

hE

duca

tion

3–5

al p

roce

ssU

nder

stan

ds t

he g

ener

ying

a m

ajor

spo

rof

pla

t.

Des

crw

yib

e ho

ould

go

abou

tou

wor

appl

ying

col

ors

and

fm

s in

ayi

ng p

arla

ndsc

ape

patic

ular

atte

ntio

n to

the

type

of b

res

ushs

trok

ould

use

dur

you

win

g ea

ch p

hase

of

.th

e pr

oces

sD

efy

the

step

sen

d w

hy

eou

hav

iden

tifie

d ar

e im

port

ant.

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

uanc

es o

fex

plai

n th

e n

appl

ying

col

ors

and

from

s in

land

scap

e pa

intin

g w

hile

usin

g a

spec

ific

set

of b

rush

stro

k.

es

The

pro

cess

of

appl

ying

col

ors

whi

le u

sing

asp

ecifi

c se

t of es

.br

ush

stro

k

Vis

ual A

rts

9–12

w t

heU

nder

stan

ds h

oun

icat

ion

of id

eas

isco

mm

aff

y th

e te

chni

ques

and

ecte

d b

w t

his

proc

esse

s us

ed a

nd h

ore

late

s to

the

med

ia.

Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 47

The most common format for integrating tasks is an extended written or oralconstructed response. For example, except for those involving details, all of thetasks in Figure 4.1 would require a fair amount of explanation.

Integrating With Information

In some situations, integrating can be applied to details; however, since inte-grating involves identifying essential versus nonessential elements, a set of detailsmust have a fairly complex structure to be amenable to integrating. For example,the first integrating task involves details about the key external events that led tothe collapse of the Soviet Union. There are a number of such events, and theseevents have a fairly complex relationship. To complete the task, students have to list the critical events from the set. Given their inherent complexity, organizingideas are highly amenable to integrating. When generalizations are the focus ofintegrating, the task involves identifying the defining characteristics of a class ofelements. For example, the integrating task involving a generalization addresses ageneralization about participation in the political process. The student must providean example of this generalization and explain how the example meets the definingcharacteristics of the generalization. Principles are different from generalizations.Principles involve a statement about the relationship between two variables.Consequently, integrating tasks for principles require students to explain the func-tional relationship between variables. For example, the integrating task involving aprinciple about the relationship between the tilt of the earth and the seasons requiresstudents to articulate the causal relationship between these two phenomena.

Integrating With Mental Procedures

Integrating tasks for mental skills and processes involve identifying and articu-lating the important steps of specific skills or processes. The first integrating taskinvolving a mental skill addresses subtracting fractions with like denominators.Students must describe the reasoning underlying the steps in this procedure. The firstintegrating task for mental processes involves the procedure for sampling within asurvey study. Again students must describe the process. Again it is worth noting thatwith complex procedures—mental and psychomotor—educational objectives arerarely written beyond the level of execution. The typical expectation is that studentsperform the procedures with fluency and accuracy, not that they can explain thelogic of the procedures. Integration goes beyond the typical expectation of execut-ing a procedure and requires understanding the logic underlying the procedure.

Integrating With Psychomotor Procedures

Integrating applies to psychomotor skills and processes the same way itapplies to mental skills and processes. A student must identify the steps involvedin the skill or process and the logic underlying those steps. The first integrating

task for psychomotor skills involves fingering for a specific musical instrumentwhile playing scales. The student must describe the steps involved in this proce-dure and the logic behind these steps. The first integrating task for psychomotorprocesses involves the process of playing softball. Students must explain the over-all events in this psychomotor process.

It is important to make a distinction between recalling as it relates to proce-dures and integrating as it relates to procedures. With recalling, students mustsimply retrieve the steps involved in a procedure. With integrating, students mustexplain the logic behind those steps—why they work.

SYMBOLIZING

Symbolizing involves depicting the critical aspects of knowledge in some type ofnonlinguistic or abstract form. Figure 4.2 presents symbolizing tasks for the vari-ous types of knowledge.

The process of symbolizing is rarely explicit in benchmark statements. Thatis, benchmark statements rarely ask students to represent or depict knowledge.The term symbolize is frequently used in symbolizing objectives and tasks. Otherterms and phrases include

• Depict• Represent• Illustrate• Draw• Show• Use models• Diagram• Chart

The obvious format for symbolizing tasks is a representation that does not relyon language. However, this does not mean that language is incompatible withsymbolizing tasks. Indeed, extended explanations and presentations in constructed-response formats often accompany symbolizing tasks. For example, almost everysymbolizing task in Figure 4.2 requires students to use language to one extent oranother. In many situations some type of graphic organizer is employed. These aresomewhat different for the various domains of knowledge.

Symbolizing With Information

Symbolizing as it relates to details can be done in a variety of ways, includingpictures, pictographs and graphic organizers. When graphic organizers are employed,the formats found in Figure 4.3 are commonly employed.


e 4.

2F

igur

Sym

boliz

ing

Obj

ectiv

es a

nd

asks

T

ask

TO

bjec

tive

wle

dge

Kno oc

usF

Gra

de/S

ubj.

k S

tate

men

tB

ench

mar

orIn

fm

atio

n:D

etai

ls:

Term

s,F

, Tim

eac

tsse

quen

ces

eIn

thi

s un

it, w

e h

av d

iscu

ssed

the

wes

of

avim

mig

ants

com

ing

to t

he U

nite

d S

tate

s af

ter

ra

the

Civ

il W

.ror

On

a w

ld m

ap o

utlin

eaw

, dr

xten

ding

fro

m t

he im

mig

lines

ean

ts’

rco

untr

ies

of o

rigin

to

the

poin

ts in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

that

y m

ost

com

mon

ly s

ettle

d.th

eU

se w

ider

line

sor

ban

ds t

o in

dica

te w

hat

coun

trer

e th

eie

s w

sour

ce o

f a

larg

er n

rum

bers

of

imm

ig.

ants

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

gap

hica

lly r

epre

sent

rat

ion

afte

r th

e C

ivil

imm

igr

war

in t

erm

s of

the

rant

s’im

mig

coun

trie

s of

orig

in a

s w

eel

l as

rela

tiv.

num

bers

Det

ails

of

imm

igat

ion

tor

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

afte

rth

e C

ivil

Wra

His

tory

5–6

Kno

acto

rs th

atw

s ab

out f

led

to in

crea

sed

imm

igat

ion

rin

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

durin

gth

e an

tebe

llum

per

iod

from

Chi

na, I

rela

nd, a

ndG

erm

anys

y an

d th

e w

aim

mig

ants

adj

uste

d to

life

rin

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

Kno

ws

abou

t the

rea

ctio

n to

imm

igan

ts fr

om th

e na

tivis

tr

vem

ent a

nd th

e m

ow

-“K

noN

othi

ng”p

ar.

ty

aphi

c to

indi

cate

the

arc

of

the

thre

e-U

se a

gr

act

pla

ey

wve

ha

just

stu

died

, in

dica

ting

the

eyk e

vac

ters

’en

ts a

nd c

har

actio

ns t

hat

mo

evy

fth

e pl

aar

d, in

clud

ing

clim

ax a

ndor

wre

solu

tion

of t

he p

la.y

le to

The

stu

dent

will

be

abat

e th

e ar

c of

a th

ree-

illus

try,

act p

lay

iden

tifyi

ng th

e ke

evac

ter

ents

and

cha

r, i

nclu

ding

clim

axac

tions

and

reso

lutio

n of

the

pla

.y

Det

ails

of

a ysp

ecifi

c pl

aLa

ngua

geA

rts

6–8

Kno

w a

plo

tw

s ho

velo

ps (

ede

alle

l.g

., pa

rst

or,

y lin

es a

nd s

ubpl

ots

ect

caus

e-an

d-ef

f , cl

imax

,re

latio

nshi

psan

d re

solu

tion)

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

aliz

atio

nG

ener

The

re is

a s

a,

ying

that

the

mor

e th

ings

cha

nge

y st

ath

e m

ore

the

, mea

ning

that

y th

e sa

me

alth

ough

som

e th

ings

mig

ht lo

ok v

ery

eren

t d

iff,

in o

ne w

aya

in o

ther

wy

hays

the

e no

t cha

nged

vat

all.

For

e, c

hild

ren

used

to g

o to

xam

ple

one-

room

sch

oolh

ouse

ser

, with

ev

ry

gad

e in

the

sam

e ro

om.

y w

Onc

e th

ey

ere

insi

de th

ough

, the

lear

ned

the

sam

e sp

ellin

g an

d ar

ithm

etic

y.

ou d

oou

wIf

yaw

ere

to d

r, y

this

w a

ll th

eou

mig

ht s

hoer

e di

ffth

ings

that

w,

eren

t abo

ut th

e sc

hool

hous

es

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

ate

the

idea

tha

till

ustr

ther

e ar

e co

mm

onal

ities

as w

eren

ces

ell a

s di

ffy

betw

een

the

pres

ent

daan

d th

e pa

st.

aliz

atio

nA

gen

erab

out

the

com

mon

aliti

esee

n th

ebe

twpa

st a

nd t

hepr

esen

t

His

tory

K–4

Und

erst

ands

ho

amili

esw

fac

ted

in t

he p

ast

inte

r(e

.g.,

role

s,

scho

olin

g,

jobs

xper

ew

ienc

es)

and

hoac

tions

ha

thos

e in

ter

evch

ange

d th

roug

h tim

e.

(Con

tinu

ed)

49

50

e 4.

2F

igur

(Con

tinue

d)

ask

Te

Obj

ectiv

wle

dge

Kno oc

usF

Gra

de/S

ubj.

k S

tate

men

tB

ench

mar

bw

the

sam

e le

sson

s be

ing

taug

ht in

ut a

lso

sho .

both

pla

ces

Thi

nk a

bout

oth

er w

ays

that

life

toda

eren

t fro

m li

fy

is s

imila

r to

and

diff

.e

long

ago

awD

r p

ictu

res

to il

lust

rw

thin

gs h

ave

ate

hoch

ange

d an

d ho

w th

eve

y ha

sta

.ye

d th

e sa

me

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

Illus

tree

n su

pply

and

ate

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

dem

and

and

thei

r im

pact

on

pr.

ice

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

grat

e th

eap

hica

lly il

lust

rre

latio

nshi

p be

twee

nsu

pply

and

dem

and.

A p

rinci

ple

abou

t th

ere

latio

nshi

pee

n su

pply

betw

and

dem

and

Eco

nom

ics

3–5

Und

erst

ands

that

sel

lers

wan

t to

sell

mor

e of

apr

oduc

t whe

n th

e pr

ices

are

high

er a

nd b

uan

tye

rs w

to b

uy m

ore

of a

pro

duct

whe

n th

e pr

wic

es a

re lo

r.e

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

w y

Rep

rese

nt h

ool

low

ing

ou m

ight

rea

d th

e f

new

spap

er a

r.

ticle

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

visu

ally

rep

rese

nt a

logi

cal

appr

oach

to

read

ing

aw

spap

er a

rne

ticle

.

The

ski

ll of

read

ing

asi

mpl

ew

spap

erne ar

ticle

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5

Use

s te

, to

pic

xt h

eadi

ngs

and

sum

mar

,y

sent

ence

sg

eatu

res,

typ

efra

phic

f,

ace

and

chap

ter

title

s) t

o fin

dor

inf

mat

ion

and

mai

n id

ea.

ou h

aIm

agin

e y

ev t

o e

oung

erxp

lain

to

a y

stud

ent

wh

o-fif

ths

plus

thr

ee-f

ifths

equ

aly

twon

e.U

se d

raxp

lain

the

idea

.w

ings

to

e

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

ate

the

proc

ess

ofill

ustr

addi

ng s

impl

e fr

.ac

tions

The

ski

ll of

addi

ng s

impl

efr

actio

ns

Mat

h3–

5U

ses

addi

tion

and

subt

ror

sim

ple

actio

n f

fr.

actio

ns

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Usi

ng t

he p

roor

d pr

obvi

ded

wan

slat

ele

m,

trle

m in

to v

ath

e pr

oble

s an

d sy

mbo

ls f

riab

roap

prop

rat

ions

.ia

te o

per

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

rus

e va

les

to r

epre

sent

iab

a w

lem

.or

d pr

ob

The

pro

cess

of

ord

solv

ing

wle

ms

prob

Mat

h6–

8w

s th

at e

quat

ions

Kno

and

ineq

ualit

ies

are

mat

hem

atic

al s

tate

men

tsum

bers

and

usin

g n

sym

bols

to

repr

esen

tre

latio

nshi

ps a

nd

orre

al-w

ld s

ituat

ions

.

51

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Gra

de/S

ubj.

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Use

you

r ow

n no

tatio

n sy

stem

to

repr

esen

tth

e pr

oces

s yo

u us

e w

hen

expl

orin

g a

new

web

site

.Use

diff

eren

t cl

uste

rs t

o re

pres

ent

wha

t yo

u do

whe

n yo

u ar

e se

ekin

g sp

ecifi

cin

form

atio

n, w

hen

you

wan

t to

che

ck t

heau

then

ticity

of

the

site

, an

d w

hen

you

wan

tto

und

erst

and

the

diffe

rent

kin

ds o

f m

ater

ial

that

are

ava

ilabl

e fr

om a

site

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

repr

esen

t th

e flo

w o

f an

info

rmat

ion

sear

ch t

hat

uses

tex

t fe

atur

es a

ndhi

erar

chic

str

uctu

res

inw

eb-b

ased

info

rmat

iona

lte

xt.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

web

-bas

edin

form

atio

nse

arch

es

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Und

erst

ands

com

plex

,im

plic

it hi

erar

chic

stru

ctur

es in

info

rmat

iona

lte

xts,

incl

udin

g In

tern

etda

taba

ses.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Illus

trat

e th

e re

quire

d al

ignm

ent

of t

he t

ip o

fth

e cu

e st

ick

to t

he c

ue b

all i

n or

der

to d

raw

the

cue

ball

back

and

to

the

right

afte

r it

impa

cts

with

the

obj

ect

ball.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

poin

t of

cue

stic

k im

pact

on

the

cue

ball

and

the

subs

eque

ntba

ll tr

ajec

tory

for

a gi

ven

billi

ard

prob

lem

.

The

ski

ll of

strik

ing

abi

lliar

d ba

ll

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

key

ele

men

tsof

adv

ance

d m

ovem

ent

in s

port

s.

Illus

trat

e th

e pr

oper

arm

and

han

d m

otio

n in

abu

tterf

ly s

trok

e.T

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

leto

illu

stra

te t

he p

rope

r ar

man

d ha

nd m

otio

n fo

r th

ebu

tterf

ly s

trok

e.

The

arm

and

hand

mot

ion

for

a bu

tterf

lyst

roke

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

key

ele

men

tsof

adv

ance

d m

ovem

ent

in s

port

s.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Use

an

S g

raph

to

indi

cate

dyn

amic

s of

a s

kitu

rn.I

ndic

ate

the

chan

ging

pre

ssur

e on

the

uphi

ll an

d do

wnh

ill s

ki a

nd t

he o

rient

atio

n of

the

skis

and

the

ski

er’s

tor

so t

o th

e fa

ll lin

e.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to il

lust

rate

an

S t

urn,

indi

catin

g th

e po

sitio

n of

the

skie

r’s t

orso

and

ski

sre

lativ

e to

the

fall

line,

as

wel

l as

the

chan

ging

pres

sure

on

the

uphi

ll an

ddo

wnh

ill s

kis

thro

ugho

utth

e tu

rn.

The

pro

cess

of

mak

ing

an S

turn

in s

kiin

g

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

mov

emen

tsas

soci

ated

with

hig

hly

skill

ed p

hysi

cal a

thle

tes

(e.g

., m

oves

tha

t le

ad t

osu

cces

sful

nav

igat

ion

ofa

slop

e w

hile

dow

nhill

skiin

g).

Use

an

illus

trat

ion

to in

dica

te h

ow t

o pa

ralle

lpa

rk o

n a

busy

str

eet

and

then

ret

urn

to t

heflo

w o

f tr

affic

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to il

lust

rate

the

over

all

proc

ess

of p

aral

lel p

arki

ng.

The

pro

cess

of

para

llel p

arki

ngD

river

’sE

duca

tion

9–12

Dem

onst

rate

s cr

itica

las

pect

s of

driv

ing

in a

nur

ban

envi

ronm

ent.


Figure 4.3 Graphic Organizers for Details

Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4 Event 5

Topic

The graphic organizer at the top of Figure 4.3 is used for terms and facts. Thetopic or term is placed in the circle, and the information about the topic or term iswritten in the spokes. Consider for example, the first symbolizing task for details.It involves facts about immigration after the Civil War and asks students to use amap to represent these facts. This, of course, is a very precise way for students tosymbolize such information. However, one or both of the graphic organizers inFigure 4.3 might have been used. For example “immigration after the Civil War”could be written in the circle and details about immigration written in the spokes.

The organizer at the bottom of Figure 4.3 is used for time sequences. If theinformation about immigration after the Civil War was conceptualized as aseries of chronological events, the time sequence organizer could have been used.(A more detailed description of graphic organizers of this type can be found inMarzano, 2007, and Marzano & Pickering, 2005.)

Figure 4.4 depicts the type of graphic organizer commonly used with general-izations. The generalization is placed in the rectangle at the top and the examplesof the generalization in the boxes below the top rectangle. For example, the gen-eralization in Figure 4.2 about the commonalities between the past and presentwould be written in the rectangle. Examples would be written in the boxes below.Since principles involve relationships between variables, graphs and charts are

Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 53

typically used with this type of knowledge structure. For example, a student mightcreate a graph representing the relationship between supply and demand for thetask in Figure 4.1 involving this principle. A graph might show demand on oneaxis and supply on another. (For a more detailed discussion of these graphic orga-nizers, see Marzano, 2007, and Marzano & Pickering, 2005.)

Figure 4.4 Graphic Organizers for Generalizations

Generalization

Example Example Example

Symbolizing With Mental Procedures

Symbolizing as it relates to mental skills and processes typically involvesdesigning a flow chart or diagram. Figure 4.5 depicts a common graphic organizerused to depict mental (and psychomotor) skills and processes.

Figure 4.5 Graphic Organizers for Skills and Processes

Product orOutcome

For example, a student might select the graphic organizer in Figure 4.5 todepict the skill of reading a newspaper article or the process of solving wordproblems. The causal relationships between the elements of these procedures aredepicted in the relationships between the circles. The culminating event is a prod-uct or an outcome, such as comprehending the article or solving the word problem.

Symbolizing With Psychomotor Procedures

Symbolizing psychomotor procedures is similar to symbolizing mental proce-dures. It commonly involves flow charts and diagrams. In addition, it can involvepictures. To illustrate, a student might draw a diagram to depict the skill of strik-ing a billiard ball. Similarly, a student might draw pictures to depict making Sturns in skiing.


COMPREHENSION OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Integrating Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to describe the critical versus noncritical elements ofinformation

• Are more common with information than with mental or psychomotor pro-cedures; when used with mental and psychomotor procedures they requirestudents to explain the logic underlying the steps in a procedure.

• Use terms like the following: describe how or why, describe the key partsof, describe the effects, describe the relationship between, explain ways inwhich, make connections between, paraphrase, summarize

• Use extended written and oral constructed-response formats

Symbolizing Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to depict critical elements in some nonlinguistic orabstract form

• Use terms like the following: symbolize, depict, represent, illustrate, draw,show, use model, diagram, chart

• Use extended written and oral constructed-response formats along withgraphic organizers, pictures, charts, graphs, tables, maps, and the like


55

CH A P T E R FI V E

Analysis Objectives and Tasks

processes: (1) matching, (2) classifying, (3) analyzing errors, (4) generalizing, andAs described in Chapter 2, the analysis processes involve examining knowl-

edge with the intent of generating new conclusions. There are five analysis

(5) specifying.

MATCHING

Matching involves identifying similarities and differences. Figure 5.1 presentsmatching objectives and tasks for the various domains of knowledge.

The verb match is rarely used in matching tasks. Most commonly, compare orcompare and contrast are used. The following terms and phrases might also be used:

• Categorize• Differentiate• Discriminate• Distinguish• Sort• Create an analogy• Create a metaphor

It is important to note that matching can involve more than two examples of aspecific type of knowledge. For example, a student demonstrates the ability tomatch by organizing individuals from history into two or more groups based ontheir similarities. The following task would elicit this type of matching:

We have been studying a number of individuals who were important his-torically for one reason or another. Organize these individuals into two or

56

e 5.

1F

igur

asks

Mat

chin

g O

bjec

tives

and

T

ask

Te

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ectiv

wle

dge

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usF

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ject

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rade

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tate

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tB

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rmat

ion:

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ime

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re t

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ff

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dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

wys

tha

ta

cele

bry

atio

ns o

f C

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bus

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veha

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ain

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toric

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nder

stan

ding

7–8

ws

that

his

tor

Kno

y ca

n be

inte

rpre

ted

diff

eren

ter

ently

at

diff

times

acc

ordi

ng t

o ne

wly

disc

oer

ed r

ecor

ds o

r ch

angi

ngv

polit

ics

or v

ie.

wpo

ints

eW

ha

ev b

een

stud

ying

the

term

s po

ew

ran

d au

thor

owity

.Hy

alik

are

the

eren

t?e

and

diff

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

nam

e th

e si

mila

ritie

s an

ddi

ffee

n th

e te

rer

ence

s be

twm

sw

poer

and

auth

or.

ity

The

ter

ms

poer

wan

dity

auth

or

Civ

ics

3–5

Und

erst

ands

tha

t po

er is

wsi

mpl

y th

e ab

ility

to

dire

ct o

rco

ntro

l som

ethi

ng o

r so

meo

new

hile

aut

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y is

pow

este

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vy

in p

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tom

, la

or

the

vco

nsen

t of

the

go

rene

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orIn

fm

atio

n:O

rgan

izin

gal

izat

ion

Gen

er

We

haev b

een

stud

ying

pat

tern

sof

mig

atio

n, in

clud

ing

seas

onal

rm

igat

ion.

rId

entif

y th

e si

mila

ritie

ser

ence

s in

hum

an a

ndan

d di

ffr

anim

al m

ig,

espe

cial

lyat

ions

with

reg

ard

to t

he u

nder

lyin

g.

caus

es

le t

oT

he s

tude

nt w

ill b

e ab

desc

ribe

the

sim

ilarit

ies

and

diff

orer

ence

s in

the

cau

ses

fhu

man

and

ani

mal

mig

atio

n.r

aliz

atio

nG

ener

abou

t th

eca

uses

of

hum

an a

ndan

imal

mig

atio

nr

rG

eog

yap

h6–

8K

noat

ion

and

ws

abou

t m

igr

diffu

sion

(e

aliz

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n.g

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e na

tur

proc

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of a

n im

mig

ant;

rth

esp

read

of

a di

seas

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roug

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popu

latio

n;ra

tion

glob

al m

igha

bits

of

plan

ts a

nd a

nim

als)

.

orIn

fm

atio

n:O

rgan

izin

gP

rinci

ple

Wha

t is

com

mon

am

ong

cond

uctio

n, c

onec

tion

vad

iatio

n in

ter

and

rm

s of

w o

f he

at e

nerg

y?th

e flo w d

o th

eH

oer

?y

diff

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

wha

t is

com

mon

am

ong

the

conc

epts

of

cond

uctio

n,co

nad

iatio

n an

dve

ctio

n an

d r

w t

hey

diff

ho.

er f

rom

eac

h ot

her

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

cond

uctio

n,co

nec

tion,

vad

iatio

nan

d r

Sci

ence

6–8

Kno

ws

ws

that

hea

t en

ergy

flo

thro

ugh

the

proc

esse

s of

adia

tion,

and

cond

uctio

n, r

ectio

n fr

om w

conv

rma m

ater

ials

.or

reg

ions

to

cool

one

s

57

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Des

crib

e ho

w a

ddin

g an

dm

ultip

lyin

g ar

e al

ike

and

how

they

are

diff

eren

t.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

desc

ribe

how

add

ing

and

mul

tiply

ing

are

alik

e an

d ho

wth

ey d

iffer

.

The

ski

lls o

fad

ding

and

mul

tiply

ing

who

le n

umbe

rs

Mat

h3–

5K

now

s th

e el

emen

ts o

f an

dre

latio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

addi

tion,

subt

ract

ion,

mul

tiplic

atio

n, a

nddi

visi

on (

e.g.

, ad

dend

s ca

nap

pear

in a

ny o

rder

;div

isio

n is

the

reve

rse

of m

ultip

licat

ion)

.

Com

pare

situ

atio

ns w

hen

you

wou

ld u

se a

dire

ct q

uote

with

thos

e w

hen

you

wou

ldpa

raph

rase

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

desc

ribe

how

to

dete

rmin

ew

heth

er t

o us

e a

dire

ct q

uote

or p

arap

hras

e.

The

ski

lls o

fus

ing

dire

ctqu

otes

and

para

phra

sing

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8W

rites

pro

per

rese

arch

pap

ers

(e.g

., us

es a

the

sis

stat

emen

t,us

es a

logi

cal s

eque

nce,

para

phra

ses

or e

labo

rate

s on

idea

s an

d co

nnec

ts t

hem

to

rela

ted

sour

ces

and

topi

cs,

iden

tifie

s va

lidity

and

inva

lidity

of

info

rmat

ion,

add

ress

es d

iffer

ent

poin

ts o

f vi

ew,

conv

erts

info

rmat

ion

into

form

s su

ch a

sch

arts

and

tab

les,

sea

mle

ssly

enha

nces

wor

k w

ith q

uota

tions

and

cita

tions

, ad

apts

res

earc

hed

mat

eria

l for

pre

sent

atio

npu

rpos

es).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Des

crib

e ho

w d

eter

min

ing

the

valid

ity o

f a

prim

ary

sour

ce is

sim

ilar

to a

nd d

iffer

ent

from

dete

rmin

ing

the

valid

ity o

f a

seco

ndar

y so

urce

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

wha

t is

sim

ilar

and

diffe

rent

in d

eter

min

ing

the

valid

ity o

f a

prim

ary

sour

ce a

ndof

a s

econ

dary

sou

rce.

The

pro

cess

of

dete

rmin

ing

the

valid

ity o

fpr

imar

y so

urce

san

d se

cond

ary

sour

ces

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12E

valu

ates

the

val

idity

and

relia

bilit

y of

prim

ary

and

seco

ndar

y so

urce

s by

usi

ngaw

aren

ess

of t

he c

redi

bilit

y an

dpe

rspe

ctiv

es o

f th

e au

thor

and

date

of

publ

icat

ion;

use

of lo

gic,

prop

agan

da a

nd b

ias;

and

com

preh

ensi

vene

ss o

f ev

iden

ce.

(Con

tinu

ed)

58

Fig

ure

5.1

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Usi

ng s

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xam

ples

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scrib

e th

e di

ffere

nce

betw

een

how

you

wou

ld t

ake

indi

rect

and

dire

ct m

easu

rem

ents

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

com

pare

the

pro

cess

es o

f di

rect

and

indi

rect

mea

sure

men

ts.

The

pro

cess

esof

dire

ctan

d in

dire

ctm

easu

rem

ents

Mat

h6–

8K

now

s ho

w to

mak

e ba

sic

indi

rect

mea

sure

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ts (

e.g.

, usi

ng g

rids

or g

raph

ing

pape

r to

est

imat

ear

ea o

f irr

egul

ar s

hape

s).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Iden

tify

how

usi

ng a

gra

phite

penc

il is

sim

ilar

to a

nd d

iffer

ent

from

usi

ng a

cha

rcoa

l pen

cil

whe

n sk

etch

ing

a pe

rson

’s fa

ce.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

how

usi

ng a

gra

phite

penc

il is

sim

ilar

to a

nd d

iffer

ent

from

usi

ng a

cha

rcoa

l pen

cil f

orsk

etch

ing

a fa

ce.

The

ski

lls o

fus

ing

a gr

aphi

tepe

ncil

and

ach

arco

al p

enci

lin

a s

peci

ficsi

tuat

ion

Vis

ual A

rts

K–4

Und

erst

ands

the

diff

eren

ces

betw

een

art

tool

s (e

.g.,

pain

t,cl

ay,

film

), t

echn

ique

s (e

.g.,

laye

ring,

sha

ding

, si

ze v

aria

tion)

,an

d pr

oces

ses

(e.g

., tin

ting

inph

otog

raph

y, f

iring

in p

otte

ry).

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crib

e ho

w h

ittin

g a

base

ball

that

is p

lace

d on

a t

ee is

sim

ilar

to a

nd d

iffer

ent

from

hitt

ing

aba

seba

ll th

row

n by

a p

itche

r.

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stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

sim

ilarit

ies

and

diffe

renc

es b

etw

een

hitti

ng a

base

ball

on a

tee

and

hitt

ing

a ba

seba

ll th

row

n by

a p

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r.

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ski

lls o

fhi

tting

aba

seba

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om a

tee

and

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ng a

thro

wn

base

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Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

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Kno

ws

how

to

cond

ition

and

trai

n fo

r se

lect

phy

sica

l act

iviti

es.

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chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

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cess

Con

tras

t th

e ap

proa

ches

use

d to

cont

rol s

peed

and

dire

ctio

n in

snow

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ding

with

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se u

sed

in s

kate

boar

ding

or

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g as

it co

mpa

res

to r

olle

rbla

ding

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stu

dent

will

be

able

toid

entif

y th

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mila

ritie

s an

ddi

ffere

nces

bet

wee

n tw

o cl

osel

yre

late

d sp

orts

, suc

h as

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boar

ding

and

ska

tebo

ardi

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pro

cess

esof

sno

wbo

ardi

ng,

skat

eboa

rdin

g,sk

iing,

and

rolle

rbla

ding

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sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

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erst

ands

sop

hist

icat

ion

inm

ovem

ent

asso

ciat

ed w

ith h

ighl

ysk

illed

ath

lete

s (e

.g.,

wha

tm

akes

a s

ucce

ssfu

l vs.

anun

succ

essf

ul p

lay

in fo

otba

ll).

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ect

two

spec

ific

type

s of

danc

es w

e ha

ve b

een

stud

ying

,su

ch a

s ta

p an

d ba

llet.

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are

they

sim

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and

how

are

the

ydi

ffere

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stu

dent

will

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able

to

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tify

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sim

ilarit

ies

and

diffe

renc

es b

etw

een

two

type

sof

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pro

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form

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ce9–

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nder

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ithva

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more groups and explain how the individuals within each group are simi-lar. Also explain how the individuals are different from group to group:

Alexander Graham Bell

Galileo

George Washington Carver

Louis Pasteur

Amelia Earhart

Sally Ride

John Glenn

Henry Ford

Eric the Red

Ferdinand Magellan

Jacques Cartier

Martin Luther King, Jr.

This example illustrates that what is typically thought of as a categorizing taskis considered matching in the New Taxonomy. This is because categorizing asexemplified in the foregoing task involves sorting elements into like categoriesbased on their characteristics. As described in Chapter 2, classifying in the NewTaxonomy focuses on superordinate and subordinate categories, whereas match-ing focuses on similarities and differences.

Matching can also employ an analogy format like the following:

Explain how the relationship between a bone and a skeleton is similar toand different from the relationship between a word and a sentence.

Analogy formats require students to identify how a relationship between onepair of elements is similar to the relationship between a second pair of elements.In this case, it is how the relationship between a bone and a skeleton is similar tothe relationship between a word and a sentence.

Finally, matching tasks can also employ a metaphor format like the following:

Explain the following metaphor: Helen Keller was the Frederick Douglassof her family.

To complete this task, a student must determine how Helen Keller andFrederick Douglass are alike at an abstract level, since they bear little resemblanceat a concrete level. This is the essence of a metaphor, identifying abstract similar-ities when there are few or no concrete similarities.

All the example tasks in Figure 5.1 use short or extended written or oralconstructed-response formats. As a guide to completing matching tasks, thegraphic organizers in Figure 5.2 are commonly used.

Analysis Objectives and Tasks 59


1. Sentence Stem

Reprinted from Marzano and Pickering (2005, p. 40)

2. Venn Diagram

3. Double Bubble

Figure 5.2 Graphic Organizers for Matching

• _________________________ and ________________________ are similar because they both• ________________________________________________________________________________.• ________________________________________________________________________________.• ________________________________________________________________________________.

• _______________________________ and __________________________ are different because• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.

Different Similar Different

Different Item Similar Item Different

Different Similar Different


4. Comparison Matrix

5. Analogy

6. Metaphor

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3

Characteristic 1 Similaritiesand Differences



Item 1, pair 1 Item 1, pair 2

Item 2 pair 1 Item 2 pair 2Common relationship between items

Common General Characteristics of Item 1 Characteristics Characteristics of Item 2

Source: Adapted from Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual (pp. 40, 43, 44, 50, 52). Marzano,Robert J., & Pickering, Debra J. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005.


For a detailed description of the graphic organizers in Figure 5.2, see Marzanoand Pickering (2005). The first graphic organizer is a sentence stem. Sentencestems provide students with explicit guidance regarding how to describe similari-ties and differences between items. To illustrate, assume a student was matchingthe sun and the moon. In the top portion of the sentence stem, the terms sun andmoon are recorded along with a description of how they are similar. The studentmight write,

• They are both bodies in space.• They both have an influence on the earth.• They both provide light.

The bottom portion of the stem is reserved for differences. There the studentmight write,

The sun and moon are different because

• The sun is about 93 million miles from earth, but the moon is about 250,000miles away.

• The sun is made up of gases, but the moon is made up of rocks.• The sun influences temperature and seasons, but the moon influences tides.

The second organizer is the Venn diagram. Each circle represents one of theitems being matched. Similarities between items are written in the area of inter-section between the two circles. Differences are recorded in the parts of each cir-cle that do not intersect.

The third organizer in Figure 5.2 is the double bubble. It was popularized byHyerle (1996). Similarities are recorded in the bubbles between the two items. Forexample, three similarities between the sun and the moon would be recorded in thethree bubbles in the middle. Differences would be recorded in the bubbles on thefar right and far left.

The fourth organizer is the comparison matrix. The columns represent theitems to be compared; the rows represent the characteristics on which they arecompared. To illustrate, consider the matching task in Figure 5.1 for principles. Itasks students to compare principles regarding conduction, convection and radia-tion. These items would be placed as the column headings in the comparisonmatrix. Next, students (or the teacher) would identify characteristics on which tocompare the three. Those characteristics might be (1) amount of heat generated,(2) method of heat transfer, and (3) use in cooking. These would be placed in therows of the comparison matrix. In the appropriate cells, students would thenrecord the similarities and differences between conduction, convection, and radi-ation on these characteristics.

The fifth organizer is used for analogies. As shown in Figure 5.3, the first pairof elements in the analogy is written above and below the left side. The secondpair of elements in the analogy is written above and below the line on the rightside. The common relationship between the two pairs is written on the line belowthe triangle.


Figure 5.3 Analogy Graphic Organizer

Bone Word

Skeleton SentenceIs building block of

The sixth organizer is used with metaphors. The two terms in the metaphor arewritten at the tops of the first and third columns. Explicit characteristics for bothterms are written in the rows for their respective terms. The middle column artic-ulates the abstract commonalities between the two terms in the metaphor. This isdepicted in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4 Metaphor Graphic Organizer

Characteristics of Item 1Common General Characteristics Characteristics of Item 2

Frederick Douglass Helen Keller

Was a slave as a young boy Had a rough beginning Got sick as a baby, which lefther deaf and blind

Learned to read and write anyway

Achieved goals even when difficult

Learned how to read Brailleand write; also went to college

Wrote books and gave speeches against slavery

Worked to help other people who suffered like they did.

Through speech tours and writing, inspired others toovercome their disabilities

Source: From Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual (p 52). Marzano, Robert J., & Pickering, Debra J.Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005.

Here the metaphor involves Frederick Douglass and Helen Keller. On the sur-face, they bear little resemblance. Frederick Douglass was a slave; Helen Kellergot sick as a baby, which left her deaf and blind. However at an abstract level,these two characteristics are related; they demonstrate that both FrederickDouglass and Helen Keller had rough beginnings. It is the abstract relationshipsarticulated in the middle column that constitute the metaphoric link between thetwo items.

Matching With Information

Matching tasks for details involve identifying the manner in which terms,facts or time sequences are similar to and different from related structures. Forexample, the first matching task for details requires students to determine the sim-ilarities and differences between facts pertaining to the Columbus Day celebra-tions of 1905 and 2005. Matching tasks for organizing ideas involve identifyinghow one principle or generalization is similar to and different from other general-izations and principles. For example, the matching task for generalizationsrequires students to describe similarities and differences between characteristics ofhuman migration and animal migration.

Matching With Mental Procedures

Matching tasks for mental skills involve identifying how two or more skills aresimilar and different in terms of their component parts. For example, the first match-ing task for mental skills requires students to describe the similarities and differ-ences between the skills of addition and multiplication. Matching tasks for mentalprocesses involve identifying how two or more processes are similar and differentin terms of their component parts. For example, the first matching task for mentalprocesses requires students to describe the similarities and differences between theprocesses of determining the validity of primary and secondary sources.

Matching With Psychomotor Procedures

Matching tasks for psychomotor skills involve identifying how two or morephysical skills are similar and different in terms of the steps they involve. Forexample, the first matching task for psychomotor skills requires students todescribe the similarities and differences between the skills of using a graphitepencil and a charcoal pencil when sketching. Matching tasks for psychomotorprocesses involve identifying how two or more physical processes are similar anddifferent in terms of the steps they involve. For example, the first matching taskfor psychomotor processes requires students to describe the similarities and differ-ences between the processes of snowboarding and skateboarding or between theprocesses of skiing and rollerblading.


CLASSIFYING

Classifying as defined in the New Taxonomy goes beyond organizing items intogroups or categories. Rather, classifying involves identifying the superordinatecategory in which knowledge belongs as well as the subordinate categories (ifany) for knowledge. Figure 5.5 presents classifying objectives and tasks for thevarious domains of knowledge.

As illustrated in the right-most column of Figure 5.5, classifying is sometimesexplicit in benchmark statements. To illustrate, consider the row of Figure 5.5 thataddresses informational details. The benchmark statement in this second exampleof classifying details addresses knowledge of types of regions. Implicit in suchknowledge is the process of classifying specific locations within superordinatecategories, such as formal regions, functional regions and perceptual regions.As described in the previous discussion of matching, classifying in the NewTaxonomy involves identification of superordinate and subordinate categories asopposed to identifying similarities and differences only.

The term classify is frequently employed in classifying tasks as well as termsand phrases like the following:

• Organize• Sort• Identify a broader category• Identify categories• Identify different types

The most common format for classifying tasks is short or extended writtenand oral constructed-response formats. Commonly, graphic organizers like thoseshown in Figure 5.6 are used as aids and guides in classifying tasks.

The first organizer in Figure 5.6 is used when a classifying task involves sort-ing elements into superordinate categories. The superordinate categories form thecolumn heads, and elements are listed under their appropriate superordinate cate-gory. This is depicted in Figure 5.7.

Here the three columns are titled Art Materials, Art Techniques and Art Processes.In addition to this organizer, students would be given the following list of elements,all relating to art: paint, clay, overlapping, shading, varying size and color, addingin sculpture, subtracting in sculpture, casting jewelry, charcoal, pencil, wood, collage,mural, stippling, glaze, mixing color, and constructing jewelry. Students would beasked to sort these art elements into their respective superordinate categories.

The second organizer in Figure 5.6 is used when the classifying task involvesidentifying subordinate categories. Subordinate categories are placed in the circlesbelow the element that is the focus of the classifying task. This is depicted inFigure 5.8.



66

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ples

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th

ese

eW

hat

othe

r ru

les

e th

is?

are

ther

e lik

The

stu

dent

will

be

le t

o id

entif

yab ce

rtai

n ru

les

asth

ose

that

are

lishe

d an

des

tab

follo

ed f

wor

pers

onal

saf

.et

y

The

pro

cess

of

ety

pers

onal

saf

Hea

lth P

reK

K

nool

low

inw

s th

e ro

utin

es t

o f

.g.,

fire

drem

erge

ncy

situ

atio

ns (

e,

ills

calli

ng 9

11,

runn

ing

from

or

scre

amin

gat

som

eone

tr

ou).

ying

to

hurt

y

(Con

tinu

ed)

68

Fig

ure

5.5

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

To w

hat

type

of

mat

hem

atic

alco

mpu

tatio

ns d

o th

e co

mm

utat

ive,

asso

ciat

ive,

and

dis

trib

utiv

e pr

oper

ties

appl

y? W

hat

is a

n ex

ampl

e of

eac

h?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

that

cert

ain

oper

atio

nsar

e us

ed w

ithra

tiona

l num

bers

.

Men

tal

proc

esse

spe

rfor

med

on

ratio

nal n

umbe

rs

Mat

h6–

8K

now

s op

erat

ions

with

rat

iona

lnu

mbe

rs (

e.g.

, di

strib

utiv

e pr

oper

ty,

com

mut

ativ

e an

d as

soci

ativ

e pr

oper

ties

of a

dditi

on a

nd m

ultip

licat

ion,

inve

rse

prop

ertie

s, id

entit

y pr

oper

ties)

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Whe

n us

ing

ther

mom

eter

s, r

uler

s an

dgr

adua

ted

cylin

ders

, w

hat

type

of

skill

sar

e w

e en

gage

d in

? W

hat

are

othe

rex

ampl

es o

f th

is t

ype

of s

kill?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

clas

sify

tool

s an

d si

mpl

eeq

uipm

ent

asth

ose

used

inga

ther

ing

data

.

The

ski

lls o

fus

ing

spec

ific

type

s of

too

ls t

oco

llect

dat

a

Sci

ence

3–5

Gat

hers

sci

entif

ic d

ata

usin

g si

mpl

eto

ols

and

equi

pmen

t (e

.g.,

ther

mom

eter

s, m

icro

scop

es,

calc

ulat

ors,

bal

ance

s, g

radu

ated

cylin

ders

).

Wha

t ty

pes

of d

ance

ski

lls a

re fo

llow

ing

and

mirr

orin

g? W

hat

othe

r ex

ampl

esar

e th

ere

of t

hese

typ

es o

f sk

ills?

The

stu

dent

will

be a

ble

to c

lass

ifysk

ills

as c

omm

onin

par

tner

dan

ce.

The

ski

lls o

fpa

rtne

r da

ncin

gD

ance

K–4

Use

s pa

rtne

r sk

ills

such

as

lead

ing

and

follo

win

g as

wel

l as

copy

ing

and

mirr

orin

g.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t is

the

cat

egor

y of

str

ateg

ies

used

in p

layi

ng t

enni

s, p

ing-

pong

and

badm

into

n;ho

w a

re t

hese

diff

eren

tfr

om in

vasi

on g

ames

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

clas

sify

stra

tegi

es a

sco

mm

on t

o ne

tga

mes

as

oppo

sed

to in

vasi

on g

ames

.

The

pro

cess

of

play

ing

a ne

tga

me

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–5

Use

s be

ginn

ing

stra

tegi

es fo

r ne

t an

din

vasi

on g

ames

(e.

g.,

keep

ing

the

ball

goin

g or

aw

ay f

rom

opp

onen

t in

ara

cket

spo

rt,

drib

blin

g th

e ba

ll in

bask

etba

ll).

We

have

bee

n pr

actic

ing

a nu

mbe

r of

mus

ical

pie

ces

over

the

pas

t fe

ww

eeks

, ea

ch o

f w

hich

use

s cr

esce

ndo.

Des

crib

e so

me

of t

he c

ateg

orie

s of

cres

cend

o th

ese

piec

es m

ight

fall

into

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

vario

us c

ateg

orie

sof

cre

scen

do.

The

pro

cess

of

mus

icpe

rfor

man

ce

Mus

ic9–

12P

erfo

rms

at a

n in

term

edia

te le

vel

(e.g

., at

tend

s to

phr

asin

g an

din

terp

reta

tion,

per

form

s va

rious

met

ers

and

rhyt

hms

in a

var

iety

of

keys

)a

varie

ty o

f m

usic

al p

iece

s w

ithex

pres

sion

(e.

g.,

appr

opria

te d

ynam

ics,

phra

sing

, ru

bato

).


Figure 5.6 Graphic Organizers for Generalizing

1. Superordinate Categories

2. Subordinate Categories

Superordinate Category 1 Superordinate Category 2 Superordinate Category 3


Figure 5.7 Graphic Organizers for Superordinate Categories

Art Materials Art Techniques Art Processes

Figure 5.8 Graphic Organizer for Subordinate Categories

Literary Texts

Fiction Nonfiction

ScienceMyths Poems Biography Speech

Fiction

John F.Navajo’s Rudyard Bernice KohnIsaac Asimov

Kennedy“Changing Kipling “Birds of Talking Leaves:The Robots

Prey March” The Story of "InauguralWoman” of Dawn

Sequoyah Address"

HowardWilliamGeorge Lucas Greenfield Martin Luther

ShakespeareHercules New Hope/Star Marc Chagall: King Jr. “I Have

“All the World’sWars An Introduction a Dream”

a Stage”

In Figure 5.8, students have been asked to identify various types of fiction andnonfiction, both of which are subsumed under the larger category of types of literary texts.

Classifying With Information

Classifying tasks for details involve the identification of superordinate andsubordinate categories. For example, the first classifying task for details requiresstudents to classify fruits, vegetables, butter, steak, and pasta into three categories:protein, fat, and vitamins. This requires students to sort each food type into prede-termined superordinate categories in their proper order based on the extent towhich these food types contain protein, fat, and vitamins. It is important to notethat this task requires a different type of thinking than would be required if the tasksimply was to organize these food types into categories of their own choosing. Thelater is simple matching involving similarities and differences between food types.The task in Figure 5.6 requires organizing elements into predetermined superordi-nate categories. Classifying tasks for details more commonly involve superordi-nate categories than subordinate categories because of the specificity of details.

Classifying tasks for organizing ideas involve superordinate and subordinatecategories. For example, the classifying task for principles requires students toidentify the superordinate category for a principle involving muscle overload. Thistask demonstrates that classifying tasks can be completed with a relatively shortresponse on the part of students. Here students would simply have to state that theprinciple of overload belongs to a bigger (i.e., superordinate) category of princi-ples regarding strength training and explain why. The brevity of the requiredresponse, however, does not detract from its cognitive complexity.

Classifying With Mental Procedures

Classifying tasks for mental skills involve the identification of superordinateand subordinate categories. For example, the first classifying task for mental skillsrequires students to classify the skill of correcting spelling errors as belongingto the superordinate category of skills involved in proofreading and editing.Conversely, students could have been asked to identify subordinate categories ofspelling errors. Classifying tasks for mental processes involve both superordinateand subordinate categories. The first classifying task for mental processes requiresstudents to classify specific rules as belonging to the superordinate category ofpersonal safety. Conversely, students could have been asked to identify subordi-nate categories of personal safety.

Classifying With Psychomotor Procedures

Classifying tasks for psychomotor skills and processes involve identifyingsuperordinate and subordinate categories for specific physical skills. For example,


the first classifying task for psychomotor skills requires students to identify thesuperordinate category of the psychomotor skills of using thermometers, rulers,and graduated cylinders. The first classifying task for psychomotor processesrequires students to identify the superordinate category of net games. Had thesuperordinate category been given first, the classifying task would have involvedidentifying examples of net games, such as tennis, Ping-Pong and badminton.

ANALYZING ERRORS

Analyzing errors involves identifying factual or logical errors in knowledge orprocessing errors in the execution of knowledge. Figure 5.9 depicts objectives andtasks for analyzing errors across the domains of knowledge.

The verb analyze errors can be used in analyzing errors objectives and tasks.Other terms and phrases include the following:

• Identify problems• Identify issues• Identify misunderstandings• Assess• Critique• Diagnose• Evaluate• Edit• Revise

The common format for analyzing errors is short or extended written or oralconstructed-response formats. In addition, more structured formats might beemployed. To illustrate, consider the following task:

John knows that you are most likely to get a sunburn if you are out inthe sun between 11:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. He asks six of his friends whythis is so. They each give him a different answer. Identify which of theanswers are wrong and explain the errors made in each case:

Answer 1: We are slightly closer to the sun at noon than in the morning orafternoon.

Answer 2: More “burn” will be produced by the noon sun than by the morn-ing or afternoon sun.

Answer 3: When the sun’s rays fall straight down (directly) on a surface, moreenergy is received than when they fall indirectly on the surface.



73

e 5.

9F

igur

asks

Ana

lyzi

ng E

rror

s O

bjec

tives

and

T

Task

Obj

ectiv

ew

ledg

eK

no ocus

FS

ubje

ct,

ade

Gr

k S

tate

men

tB

ench

mar

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

F, T

ime

acts

sequ

ence

s

Rev

ieat

ure

ofw

cam

paig

n lit

erco

mpe

ting

cand

idat

es t

o de

term

ine

whe

ther

a c

andi

date

has

sim

plifi

edan

issu

e in

wys

tha

t co

uld

mis

lead

aan

yam

iliar

with

one

who

is n

ot f

.th

e de

tails

The

stu

dent

will

be

le t

o de

ter

abm

ine

acy

ofth

e ac

cur

cont

ent

pres

ente

din

a p

ersu

asiv

ear

gum

ent,

such

as

a po

litic

al s

peec

h.

Det

ails

abo

utsp

ecifi

cor

cand

idat

es f

lic o

ffice

pub

Civ

ics

9–12

alid

ity,

Und

erst

ands

the

use

of

logi

cal v

fact

ual a

ccur

, em

otio

nal a

ppea

l,ac

ydi

stor

vide

nce

and

appe

als

to b

ias

ted

ean

d ho

y af

fw

the

alid

ity o

fec

t th

e v

hist

orar

ical

and

con

tem

por

y po

litic

alun

icat

ion

(eco

mm

s .g

., Li

ncol

n’“H

ouse

”D

ivid

ed,

Soj

ourn

er T

rs

uth’

“Ain

’t I

aom

an?,

”W

s C

hief

Jos

eph’

“I S

hall

Fig

htor

eN

o M

ore

Fer

,”M

arv

tin L

uthe

r K

ing,

’s

Jr.

e“I

Hav

” a

Dre

am,

cam

paig

ner

adv

, po

litic

al c

artis

emen

tsto

ons)

.

Your

frie

nd a

rgue

s th

at t

he m

ount

ain

rang

e r

as c

ause

dig

ht o

utsi

de o

ur c

ity w

ybe

stor

a m

assi

vm

cen

turie

s ag

o.B

ased

on

wha

t y

w a

bout

ear

ou k

noth

, co

uld

this

sto

rpr

oces

ses

y be

tru

e?W

hy

not?

y or

wh

The

stu

dent

will

be

le t

o de

ter

abm

ine

acy

ofth

e ac

cur

orsp

ecifi

c in

fm

atio

nba

sed

onw

ledg

e of

kno

ear

ysic

alth

’s p

h.

proc

esse

s

Det

ails

rega

rdin

g th

eea

rys

ical

th’s

ph

proc

esse

s

rG

eog

yap

h3–

5Id

entif

ies

patte

rns

on t

he la

ndsc

ape

ycr

eate

d b

ph

.g.,

the

ysic

al p

roce

sses

(e

timbe

r,

line

in m

ount

aino

us r

egio

nsth

e v

xpos

ed a

ndeg

etat

ion

on t

he e

prot

ecte

d si

des

of a

mou

ntai

n ra

nge)

.

orIn

fm

atio

n:O

rgan

izin

gal

izat

ion

Gen

er

We

haev

bee

n st

udyi

ng t

he e

arly

Am

eric

an n

oel

.v

acte

rs in

The

cha

rth

ese

ear

orly

wve

ks h

a b

een

desc

ribed

as f

lat

and

unid

imen

sion

al.I

dent

ifyso

me

of t

he e

rror

s or

inco

nsis

tenc

ies

in t

his

posi

tion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y w

hat

le a

ndis

pla

usib

le a

bout

impl

ausi

b acte

rs in

ath

e ch

argi

v.

en g

enre

aliz

atio

nA

gen

erab

out

the

acte

rs in

ach

ar en g

enre

giv

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12U

nder

stan

ds f

acte

rea

ture

s of

cha

rel

opm

ent

in li

ter

dev

.g.,

atur

e (e

een

the

prot

agon

ist

diffe

renc

es b

etw

and

anta

goni

st,

flat

vs.f

ull c

har

,ac

ters

chan

ges

in c

har

, th

e im

por

acte

rsta

nce

acte

r’of

a c

har

es).

s ac

tions

and

mot

iv

(Con

tinu

ed)

74

e 5.

9F

igur

(Con

tinue

d)

ask

TO

bjec

tive

wle

dge

Kno oc

usF

Sub

ject

,G

rade

k S

tate

men

tB

ench

mar

orm

atio

n:In

fO

rgan

izin

gP

rinci

ple

The

sto

ry w

e ju

st r

ead

argu

es t

hat

ere

resp

onsi

bhu

man

s w

or t

hele

fe

.xt

inct

ion

of t

he d

inos

aurs

Bas

ed o

nou

r un

ders

tand

ing

of t

he e

ary

s ea

rth

’ly

hist

or,y

lem

s w

ith id

entif

y th

e pr

obth

is a

rgum

ent.

The

stu

dent

will

be

le t

o id

entif

yab

alla

cy o

f an

the

far

gum

ent

base

d on

an u

nder

stan

ding

of f

vide

nce.

ossi

l e

Prin

cipl

esos

sil

rega

rdin

g f

vide

nce

e

Sci

ence

6–8

ws

hoK

no,

hist

orw

the

age

y an

dch

angi

ng li

for

e f

ms

of t

he e

arth

can

be

yde

term

ined

b fo

ssils

and

the

are

aar

ound

the

m a

nd h

ovi

denc

ew

thi

s e

yca

n be

com

prom

ised

bol

ding

, t

he f

brea

king

and

upl

iftin

g of

laer

s.y

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

aph

pres

ente

d to

yT

he g

rw

s an

ou s

hoxt

rem

e r

eal

l in

a st

ocis

e an

d f

s pr

k’ic

e.

over

the

pas

t 2

mon

ths

et t

heY

ying

dat

a us

ed t

o de

acco

mpa

nel

opv

rth

is g

yap

h in

dica

te a

cha

nge

bew

a f

ver

the

per

dolla

rs o

iod,

whi

ch t

he g

aph

r.

corr

ectly

indi

cate

sW

hat

crea

ted

the

mis

impr

essi

on?

The

stu

dent

will

be

le t

o id

entif

yab fla

raph

ws

in g

pres

enta

tion

base

don

ski

ll at

inte

rpre

ting

the

es.

x an

d y

ax

The

ski

ll of

read

ing

asp

ecifi

c ty

peof

gap

hr

Mat

h6–

8U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

the

sam

e se

t of

dat

aca

n be

rep

rese

nted

usi

ng a

vraie

ty o

fle

s, g

rta

b,

and

sym

bols

to

con

aphs

yve

eren

t m

essa

ges

(edi

ffar

.g.,

via

tion

insc

ale

can

alte

r a

visu

al m

essa

ge).

Ye

impo

rou

’vle

fro

m a

ted

a ta

bsp

read

shee

t do

cum

ent

into

the

pap

erou

are

wr

yiti

ng,

ble

lose

sut

the

tab

rso

me

fove

rrm

attin

g an

d o

uns

the

page

mar

gins

ely

.Wha

t is

the

lik

caus

e of

thi

s er

ror?

The

stu

dent

will

be

le to

dia

gnos

eab er

rors

in d

ata

form

attin

g ba

sed

onan

und

erst

andi

ng o

fth

e st

eps

used

toim

port

dat

a.

The

ski

ll of

impo

rtin

g a

le f

rom

ata

bsp

read

shee

t to

ord

a W

file

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8K

now

s th

e el

emen

ts a

nd u

ses

ofsp

read

shee

ts (

e,

row

and

.g.,

cells

colu

mn;

fr

ulas

use

d to

imm

edia

tely

om

upda

te d

ata;

spre

adsh

eets

use

d in

prin

trm

and

elec

tron

ic fo

for

purp

oses

suc

has

to

trac

usin

ess

prof

it an

d lo

ss)

king

b

eatu

res

ofU

ses

soph

istic

ated

fr

com

pute

r pr

og.g

., cl

ip a

ram

s (e

t, sp

ell-

, th

esau

rch

ecke

ror

d co

unt)

.us

, w

75

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

You’

ve ju

st f

inis

hed

mak

ing

apr

esen

tatio

n to

the

cla

ss o

n a

book

tha

tyo

u re

ad a

bout

the

Civ

il W

ar.O

ne o

fth

e qu

estio

ns a

fello

w s

tude

nt a

sks

is,

“Why

did

you

cho

ose

that

boo

k fo

r yo

urpr

esen

tatio

n?”

Doe

s th

at s

ugge

st t

hat

you

mad

e in

err

or in

put

ting

toge

ther

your

pre

sent

atio

n? H

ow m

ight

you

hav

ean

ticip

ated

the

que

stio

n?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reco

gniz

eer

rors

in o

ral

pres

enta

tion

thro

ugh

aco

nsid

erat

ion

of a

udie

nce

expe

ctat

ions

.

The

pro

cess

of d

esig

ning

and

deliv

erin

gan

ora

lpr

esen

tatio

n

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8P

rese

nts

oral

ly e

xpre

ssin

g a

clea

r po

int

of v

iew

(e.

g.,

uses

org

aniz

atio

nal

patte

rns

such

as

outli

nes,

pre

view

s,in

trod

uctio

n, b

ody,

tra

nsiti

ons,

and

conc

lusi

on;u

ses

evid

ence

and

argu

men

ts t

o su

ppor

t op

inio

ns;u

ses

visu

al a

ids)

.

You’

ve e

xcha

nged

pap

ers

in c

lass

to

chec

k on

e an

othe

r’s w

ork.

For

one

prob

lem

tha

t as

ks fo

r th

e m

edia

n of

alis

t of

inte

gers

, yo

u se

e th

at 1

0.25

isth

e an

swer

the

stu

dent

pro

vide

d.H

owdo

you

kno

w t

his

is a

n er

ror

with

out

even

doi

ng t

he c

alcu

latio

n fir

st?

Wha

t se

ems

a lik

ely

expl

anat

ion

for

this

err

or?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

erro

rs r

elat

ed t

om

edia

n, m

ean

and

mod

e ba

sed

on a

nun

ders

tand

ing

ofth

e pr

oces

ses

used

to c

alcu

late

the

m.

The

pro

cess

of s

olvi

ngpr

oble

ms

rega

rdin

gce

ntra

lte

nden

cy

Mat

h6–

8K

now

s m

easu

res

of c

entr

al t

ende

ncy

(i.e.

, m

ean,

mod

e, m

edia

n).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Vid

eota

pe y

our

exec

utio

n of

a s

kill

that

you

wan

t to

impr

ove.

Rev

iew

the

tap

e in

slow

mot

ion

to id

entif

y an

y in

corr

ect

body

pos

ition

or

mov

emen

t.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

spor

t pe

rfor

man

ceer

rors

bas

ed o

n an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

spor

t-sp

ecifi

c sk

ills.

A s

peci

ficph

ysic

al s

kill

ofth

e st

uden

t’sch

oice

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Use

s so

phis

ticat

ed s

kills

in p

hysi

cal

activ

ities

(e.

g.,

swim

min

g, b

alle

t,m

ount

ain

biki

ng,

indi

vidu

al a

ndte

am s

port

s).

(Con

tinu

ed)

76

Fig

ure

5.9

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Vid

eota

pe y

our

perf

orm

ance

on

anin

stru

men

t of

you

r ch

oice

.Ide

ntify

erro

rs in

a s

peci

fic a

spec

t of

you

rte

chni

que

and

expl

ain

how

you

mig

htad

dres

s th

ese

erro

rs.

The

stu

dent

will

be a

ble

to id

entif

yte

chni

cal e

rror

sin

tec

hniq

ue fo

r a

chos

en in

stru

men

t.

Spe

cific

tech

niqu

esfo

r pl

ayin

g an

inst

rum

ent

ofth

e st

uden

t’sch

oice

Mus

ic6–

8E

xpre

ssly

and

acc

urat

ely

perf

orm

s on

acl

assr

oom

inst

rum

ent

a va

riety

of

piec

es t

hat

incl

ude

mod

est

rang

es a

ndch

ange

s of

tem

po,

key

and

met

er.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wat

ch t

he v

ideo

of

a ju

dged

com

petit

ion

in a

spo

rt t

hat

inte

rest

syo

u.K

eep

your

ow

n sc

ore

for

each

com

petit

or,

prov

ide

a ra

tiona

le fo

r th

esc

ore,

and

atte

mpt

to

reco

ncile

you

rsc

ores

aga

inst

the

judg

es’s

core

s or

final

ran

king

s.D

o yo

u th

ink

the

judg

esm

ade

any

erro

rs in

the

ir ra

nkin

g?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

toid

entif

y er

rors

in c

ompe

titiv

epe

rform

ance

of a

spec

ific

spor

t bas

edon

kno

wle

dge

ofth

e m

ovem

ent

elem

ents

req

uire

d.

A s

peci

fic s

port

of t

he s

tude

nt’s

choi

ce

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Use

s ap

prop

riate

mov

emen

t se

quen

ces

for

sele

cted

gam

es,

spor

ts a

nd d

ance

s(e

.g.,

com

bini

ng s

teps

to

perf

orm

cert

ain

danc

es;c

ombi

ning

run

ning

,st

oppi

ng,

thro

win

g, c

atch

ing,

and

hitti

ng fo

r ba

seba

ll).

Sel

ect

a sp

ort,

art,

or c

raft

for

whi

chyo

u co

nsid

er y

ours

elf

at le

ast

at t

hein

term

edia

te le

vel.

Bro

wse

the

web

for

a si

te t

hat

offe

rs t

ips

and

tech

niqu

esan

d de

term

ine

whe

ther

or

not

they

seem

val

id b

ased

on

your

exp

erie

nce.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

dete

rmin

ew

heth

er t

here

are

erro

rs in

the

desc

riptio

n of

ate

chni

que

orpr

oces

s ba

sed

onan

und

erst

andi

ngof

the

tec

hniq

ueor

pro

cess

.

A s

peci

fic s

port

,ar

t, or

cra

ft of

the

stud

ent’s

choi

ce

Vis

ual A

rts

9–12

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Com

plet

es a

rtw

ork

with

suf

ficie

ntco

mpe

tenc

e an

d co

nfid

ence

(e.g

.tec

hniq

ue,

proc

ess)

with

the

goal

of

carr

ying

out

inte

ntio

nU

nder

stan

ds s

ophi

stic

atio

n in

mov

emen

t as

soci

ated

with

hig

hly

skill

ed a

thle

tes

(e.g

., m

oves

tha

t le

adto

suc

cess

ful s

erve

s an

d pa

sses

as

oppo

sed

to u

nsuc

cess

ful s

erve

s an

dpa

sses

in v

olle

ybal

l).

Answer 4: When the sun is directly overhead, its rays pass through less atmos-phere than when it is lower in the sky.

Answer 5: The air is usually warmer at noon than at any other time of the day.

Answer 6: The ultraviolet rays of sunlight are mainly responsible for sunburn.

The foregoing example involves information. The following example involvesthe mental process of using the word-processing software WordPerfect:

Robert plans to perform the following steps to write a composition usingWordPerfect. Identify what will go wrong if he carries out the followingsteps exactly as stated:

1. When he gets into WordPerfect, he will begin by clicking on the CEN-TER command on the bar at the top of the page.

2. He will type in his three-paragraph composition.

3. When he is done, he will click on the small x in the upper right-handcorner of the screen.

4. The next day he will reopen WordPerfect and print out his composition.

Analyzing Errors With Information

In terms of details, analyzing errors tasks involve determining the extent towhich information is reasonable, given what the student already knows about thetopic. For example, the first analyzing errors task for details involves informationabout a specific candidate for public office. Students must determine possibleerrors in the candidate’s position on a specific issue. Relative to organizing ideas,analyzing errors tasks involve determining whether statements regarding a gener-alization or a principle are logical. For example, the analyzing errors task regard-ing the generalization about characters in a specific genre asks students to identifyinconsistencies or errors in this position.

Tasks employing analyzing errors for information typically require knowledgeof different types of errors that might be made. Figure 5.10 presents four cate-gories of such errors.

Other than the types of logical errors listed in Figure 5.10, analyzing errorsrequires knowledge of how to present and defend a claim. This is depicted inFigure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 provides a generic framework for providing support for a claim.Students do not have to understand the technical aspects of grounds, backing, andqualifiers (such as their names and defining characteristics). However, they shouldbe aware that valid claims should be supported (grounds), this support should beexplained (backing), and exceptions to the claim should be identified (qualifiers).



Figure 5.10 Four Categories of Logical Errors

1. Faulty logic can occur in seven different ways:

A. Contradiction—presenting conflicting information. If a politician runs on a platformsupporting term limits, then votes against an amendment that would set term limits, thatpolitician has committed the error of contradiction.

B. Accident—failing to recognize than an argument is based on an exception to a rule. Forexample, if a student concludes that the principal always goes to dinner at a fancyrestaurant on Fridays because he or she sees him at one on a given Friday which justhappens to be his birthday, that student has committed the error of accident.

C. False cause—confusing a temporal (time) order of events with causality or oversimplifyingthe reasons behind some event or occurrence. For example, if a person concludes that thewar in Vietnam ended because of the antiwar protests, he or she is guilty of ascribing afalse cause. The antiwar protests might have had something to do with the cessation of thewar, but there were also many other interacting causes.

D. Begging the question—making a claim and then arguing for the claim by using statementsthat are simply the equivalent of the original claim. For example, if a person says thatproduct x is the best detergent on the market and then backs up this statement by simplysaying that it is superior to other detergents, he or she is begging the question.

E. Evading the issue—changing the topic to avoid addressing the issue. For example, aperson is evading the issue if he or she begins talking about the evils of the news mediawhen asked by a reporter about an alleged involvement in fraudulent banking procedures.

F. Arguing from ignorance—arguing that a claim is justified simply because its opposite has notbeen proven true. For example, if a person argues that there is no life on other planetsbecause there has been no proof of such existence, he or she is arguing from ignorance.

G. Composition–division—asserting something about a whole that is really only true of itsparts is composition; on the flip side, division is asserting about all of the parts somethingthat is generally, but not always, true of the whole. For example, if a person asserts thatRepublicans are corrupt because one Republican is found to be corrupt, he or she iscommitting the error of composition. If a person states that a particular Democrat supportsbig government simply because Democrats are generally known for supporting governmentprograms, he or she is committing the error of division.

2. Attacks can occur in three ways:

A. Poisoning the well—being so completely committed to a position that you explain awayabsolutely everything that is offered in opposition to your position. This type of attackrepresents a person’s unwillingness to consider anything that may contradict his or heropinion. For example, if a political candidate has only negative things to say about anopponent, he or she is poisoning the well.

B. Arguing against the person—rejecting a claim using derogatory facts (real or alleged) aboutthe person who is making the claim. If a person argues against another person’s positionon taxation by making reference to poor moral character, he or she is arguing against theperson.

C. Appealing to force—using threats to establish the validity of a claim. If your landlordthreatens to evict you because you disagree with him or her on an upcoming election issue,he or she is appealing to force.

3. Weak reference occurs in five ways:

A. Sources that reflect biases—consistently accepting information that supports what wealready believe to be true, or consistently rejecting information that goes against what webelieve to be true. For example, a person is guilty of bias if he or she believes that a personhas committed a crime and will not even consider DNA evidence indicating that theindividual is innocent.


B. Sources that lack credibility—using a source that is not reputable for a given topic.Determining credibility can be subjective, but there are some characteristics that mostpeople agree damage credibility, such as when a source is known to be biased or has littleknowledge of the topic. A person is guilty of using a source that lacks credibility when he orshe backs up a belief that the government has a conspiracy to ruin the atmosphere by citinga tabloid journal known for sensational stories that are fabricated.

C. Appealing to authority—invoking authority as the last word on an issue. If a person says,“Socialism is evil” and supports this claim by saying the governor said so, he or she isappealing to authority.

D. Appealing to the people—attempting to justify a claim based on its popularity. For example,if a girl tells her parents she should have a pierced belly button because everyone else hasone, she is appealing to the people.

E. Appealing to emotion—using a so-called sob story as proof for a claim. For example, ifsomeone uses the story of a tragic accident in his or her life as a means to convince peopleto agree with his or her opinion on war, she is appealing to emotion.

4. Misinformation occurs in two different ways:

1. Confusing the facts—using information that seems to be factual but that has been changedin such a way that it is no longer accurate. For example, a person is confusing the facts ifhe or she backs up a claim by describing an event but leaving out important facts or mixingup the temporal order of the events.

2. Misapplying a concept or generalization—misunderstanding or wrongly applying a conceptor generalization to support a claim. For example, if someone argues that a talk-show hostshould be arrested for libel after making a critical remark, the person has misapplied theconcept of libel.


Figure 5.11 Framework for Supporting a Claim

Grounds: Once a claim is made, it should be supported by grounds. Depending on the type of claimmade, grounds may be composed of

• Matters of common knowledge• Expert opinion• Experimental evidence• Other information considered factual

Backing: Backing establishes the validity of grounds and discusses them in depth.

Qualifiers: Not all grounds support their claims with the same degree of certainty. Consequently,qualifiers state the degree of certainty for the claim or exceptions to it or both.

Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007).

Analyzing Errors With Mental Procedures

In terms of mental skills and processes, analyzing errors tasks involve iden-tifying errors that someone is making or has made while executing a mentalprocedure. For example, the first analyzing errors task for mental skills

involves reading a specific type of graph. The first analyzing errors task formental processes involves the process of designing and delivering an oralpresentation. When procedures are involved (mental or psychomotor), theemphasis is not on logical errors, as is the case with information (details andorganizing ideas). Rather the emphasis is on identifying any errors or bugs inthe execution of the procedure.

Analyzing Errors With Psychomotor Procedures

Analyzing errors tasks for psychomotor procedures follow the same pattern asanalyzing errors tasks for mental procedures. They involve the identification oferrors someone has made or is making while carrying out a psychomotor skillor process. For example, the first analyzing errors task for psychomotor skillsinvolves a specific physical skill of the student’s choice. The first analyzing errorstask for psychomotor processes involves the process of playing a sport of thestudent’s choice.

GENERALIZING

The analysis skill of generalizing involves inferring new generalizations and prin-ciples from information that is known or stated. Figure 5.12 depicts generalizingobjectives and tasks across the domains of knowledge.

The term generalize can be used in generalizing tasks along with terms andphrases like the following:

• What conclusions can be drawn• What inferences can be made• Create a generalization• Create a principle• Create a rule• Trace the development of• Form conclusions

The most common format for generalizing tasks is short or extended written ororal constructed-response formats. These tasks might be relatively unstructured,like those in Figure 5.12, or they might be highly structured as in the followingtwo examples:



81

Fig

ure

5.12

Gen

eral

izin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng s

ettle

men

tsfr

om a

ncie

nt t

imes

to

mod

ern.

Bas

edup

on w

hat

you

know

abo

ut t

wo

spec

ific

settl

emen

ts,

wha

t ge

nera

lizat

ions

can

you

mak

e ab

out

whe

re p

eopl

e te

nd t

oes

tabl

ish

settl

emen

ts a

nd w

hy?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to c

onst

ruct

and

def

end

a ge

nera

lizat

ion

abou

tw

hy h

uman

set

tlem

ents

appe

ar w

here

the

y do

.

Det

ails

abo

utsp

ecifi

cse

ttlem

ents

Geo

grap

hy6–

8K

now

s th

at p

hysi

cal a

nd h

uman

dist

ribut

ions

occ

ur w

ith r

espe

ct t

osp

atia

l and

hum

an p

atte

rns,

arra

ngem

ents

, an

d as

soci

atio

ns(e

.g.,

why

som

e ar

eas

are

mor

ede

nsel

y se

ttled

, pa

ttern

s in

the

kind

and

num

ber

of li

nks

betw

een

settl

emen

ts).

Mes

sage

s ab

out h

ealth

pro

duct

s ca

n be

help

ful,

aler

ting

us to

thei

r us

eful

ness

,ho

w th

ey a

re b

est u

sed,

and

thei

r si

deef

fect

s.B

ut e

ach

heal

th p

rodu

ct is

mad

eby

a c

ompa

ny w

ith a

spe

cific

vie

w o

fhe

alth

.Sel

ect o

ne h

ealth

pro

duct

and

find

out d

etai

ls a

bout

the

com

pany

that

prod

uced

it.W

hat g

ener

aliz

atio

ns c

anyo

u m

ake

abou

t the

hea

lth p

rodu

ct b

ased

on th

e in

form

atio

n ab

out t

he c

ompa

ny?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to m

ake

gene

raliz

atio

nsab

out

the

influ

ence

of

sour

ces

of in

form

atio

non

the

val

idity

and

usef

ulne

ss o

f th

ein

form

atio

n pr

esen

ted.

Det

ails

abo

utsp

ecifi

c so

urce

sof

info

rmat

ion

Hea

lth6–

8K

now

s ho

w m

essa

ges

from

the

med

ia,

frie

nds

and

othe

r lo

cal

sour

ces

can

impa

ct h

ealth

prac

tices

(e.

g.,

heal

th fa

ds,

adve

rtis

ing,

mis

conc

eptio

nsab

out

heal

th).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

We

have

see

n ev

iden

ce fo

r a

num

ber

ofge

nera

lizat

ions

abo

ut h

isto

ry a

ndge

ogra

phy.

For

exa

mpl

e, t

he r

ocky

inte

rior

of a

ncie

nt G

reec

e an

d ea

syac

cess

to

the

Med

iterr

anea

n S

eapr

ovid

e su

ppor

t fo

r th

e ge

nera

lizat

ion

that

the

geo

grap

hy o

f a

regi

on c

an h

ave

a si

gnifi

cant

impa

ct o

n a

coun

try’

sfu

ture

.The

ear

ly U

nite

d S

tate

s, w

hose

land

teem

ed w

ith r

esou

rces

and

the

The

stu

dent

will

be a

ble

to d

evel

opge

nera

lizat

ions

abo

utho

w k

now

ledg

e of

the

past

can

be

used

to

bette

r un

ders

tand

poss

ible

con

sequ

ence

sof

pre

sent

act

ions

.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t hi

stor

yan

d ge

ogra

phy

Geo

grap

hy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds h

ow p

hysi

cal a

ndhu

man

geo

grap

hic

fact

ors

influ

ence

maj

or e

vent

s an

d m

ovem

ents

inhi

stor

y (e

.g.,

the

cour

se a

ndou

tcom

e of

bat

tles

and

war

s, th

esl

ave

trad

e in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

beca

use

of th

e de

man

d fo

r ch

eap

labo

r, th

e pr

ofita

bilit

y of

the

tria

ngle

trad

e be

caus

e of

pre

vaili

ng w

ind

and

ocea

n cu

rren

ts).

(Con

tinu

ed)

82

Fig

ure

5.12

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

ener

gy o

f am

bitio

us s

ettle

rs f

rom

oth

erla

nds,

has

gro

wn

to b

e a

pow

erfu

l and

wea

lthy

natio

n la

rgel

y be

caus

e of

the

sere

sour

ces.

We’

ve a

lso

seen

tha

t th

ehi

stor

y of

the

Ath

enia

ns,

who

se s

eapo

wer

was

unr

ival

ed a

nd u

nche

cked

,al

so s

uppo

rts

the

gene

raliz

atio

n th

atw

ith g

reat

pow

er c

an c

ome

grea

tar

roga

nce,

and

thr

ough

arr

ogan

ce,

defe

at.W

hat

does

thi

s su

gges

t to

you

abou

t th

e re

latio

nshi

p of

the

pas

t an

dpr

esen

t, w

heth

er t

he s

ubje

ct is

geog

raph

y or

his

tory

? P

rovi

de e

vide

nce

for

your

con

clus

ions

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

We’

ve e

xplo

red

the

way

s in

whi

ch m

usic

refle

cts

diffe

rent

cul

ture

s an

d tim

es.

We’

ve a

lso

disc

usse

d ho

w,

thou

ghcu

lture

s ca

n la

st c

entu

ries,

pop

ular

mus

ic s

eem

s to

com

e an

d go

fairl

yqu

ickl

y.H

owev

er,

som

e so

ngs

that

wer

epo

pula

r in

the

ear

ly t

o m

id-t

wen

tieth

cent

ury

are

still

hea

rd t

oday

.Bas

ed o

nw

hat

you

know

abo

ut t

he s

ongs

tha

tsu

rviv

e, w

hat

gene

raliz

atio

ns c

an y

oum

ake

abou

t ne

w m

usic

and

whe

ther

itw

ill s

tand

the

tes

t of

tim

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

prov

ide

gene

raliz

atio

ns o

n ho

wth

e qu

aliti

es o

f m

usic

help

a p

artic

ular

pie

ce o

fm

usic

end

ure.

Prin

cipl

es a

bout

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

mus

ican

d cu

lture

Mus

ic6–

8U

nder

stan

ds c

hara

cter

istic

s of

clas

sic

mus

ic a

nd c

lass

ic m

usic

genr

es a

s w

ell a

s th

e fa

ctor

saf

fect

ing

wha

t m

akes

mus

ic c

lass

ic(e

.g.,

from

diff

eren

t ge

nres

, st

yles

,hi

stor

ical

per

iods

, co

mpo

sers

).

83

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

stu

died

a n

umbe

r of

ref

usal

skill

s to

be

used

in d

iffer

ent

situ

atio

ns.

Wha

t ge

nera

lizat

ion

can

you

mak

eab

out

refu

sal s

kills

reg

ardl

ess

of t

hesi

tuat

ions

in w

hich

the

y ar

e us

ed?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

cons

truc

t a

gene

raliz

atio

n ab

out

the

use

of s

peci

ficre

fusa

l ski

lls.

Spe

cific

ref

usal

stra

tegi

esH

ealth

6–8

Und

erst

and

vario

us r

efus

alst

rate

gies

and

the

situ

atio

ns in

whi

ch t

hey

are

best

app

lied.

We

have

stu

died

var

ious

way

s of

reco

rdin

g tim

e—th

e E

gypt

ian

and

the

May

an,

for

exam

ple—

and

the

syst

ems

on w

hich

the

y ar

e ba

sed—

for

exam

ple,

sola

r or

luna

r.W

hat

can

we

say

is t

rue

abou

t th

e te

chni

que

that

is u

sed

tore

cord

tim

e, r

egar

dles

s of

the

sys

tem

bein

g us

ed?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deve

lop

age

nera

lizat

ion

abou

t th

eob

serv

atio

nal a

nd d

ata-

gath

erin

g sk

ills

requ

ired

to r

ecor

d tim

eth

roug

hout

his

tory

.

Obs

erva

tiona

lan

d da

ta-

gath

erin

g sk

ills

His

toric

alU

nder

stan

ding

5–6

Und

erst

ands

var

ious

sys

tem

s fo

rre

cord

ing

time

(e.g

., E

gypt

ian,

Indi

an,

May

an,

Mus

lim,

Jew

ish)

as

wel

l as

the

astr

onom

ical

sys

tem

sth

at a

re t

he fo

unda

tion

of s

uch

syst

ems

(e.g

., so

lar,

luna

r,se

milu

nar)

;eva

luat

es t

heir

stre

ngth

s an

d w

eakn

esse

s.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t ge

nera

lizat

ions

abo

ut e

ffect

ive

writ

ing

can

be m

ade

whe

n w

e co

nsid

erw

hat

is r

equi

red

to w

rite

an e

ffect

ive

essa

y, p

arag

raph

, or

eve

n an

effe

ctiv

ese

nten

ce?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out

the

writ

ing

proc

ess

requ

ired

for

the

deve

lopm

ent

ofan

effe

ctiv

e se

nten

cean

d its

app

licat

ion

to a

nef

fect

ive

essa

y or

the

reve

rse.

The

writ

ing

proc

ess

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Use

s ac

cura

te a

nd s

enso

ryla

ngua

ge t

o cl

arify

and

enh

ance

idea

s an

d su

ppor

t va

rious

purp

oses

(e.

g.,

to t

ell a

nim

agin

ativ

e st

ory,

to

tran

slat

eco

mpl

ex c

once

pts

into

sim

ple

term

s, t

o ac

hiev

e a

spec

ific

voic

e,to

def

end

liter

ary

conc

epts

).

How

mig

ht y

ou c

hara

cter

ize

inno

vatio

nin

a w

ay t

hat

capt

ures

its

uses

and

valu

e in

lite

ratu

re,

the

arts

and

tech

nolo

gy?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

crea

te a

gene

raliz

atio

n th

atca

ptur

es t

he s

igni

fican

tas

pect

s of

inno

vatio

nac

ross

sub

ject

are

as.

The

pro

cess

of in

vent

ion

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds th

e si

mila

ritie

s an

ddi

ffere

nces

in th

e te

rms

inve

ntio

nan

d in

nova

tion

(e.g

., in

vent

ion

is th

epr

oces

s of

cre

atin

g a

new

sys

tem

or o

bjec

t whi

le in

nova

tion

is th

epr

oces

s of

enh

anci

ng o

r ad

aptin

gan

exi

stin

g sy

stem

or

obje

ct).

(Con

tinu

ed)

84

Fig

ure

5.12

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t ca

n be

sai

d ge

nera

lly a

bout

the

mot

ions

com

mon

in g

estu

res

used

by

Italia

n sp

eake

rs?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out

gest

ures

that

are

com

mon

amon

g sp

eake

rs o

f the

targ

et la

ngua

ge.

The

ski

ll of

usin

g ge

stur

esin

a s

peci

ficla

ngua

ge.

For

eign

Lang

uage

9–12

Kno

ws

abou

t w

ritin

g sy

stem

s in

the

targ

et a

nd n

ativ

e la

ngua

ges

as w

ell a

s an

y ot

her

sele

cted

lang

uage

(e.

g.,

logo

grap

hic,

sylla

bic,

alp

habe

tic).

Sel

ect

thre

e re

late

d w

eigh

t-lif

ting

skill

s,su

ch a

s th

e fr

ont

and

rear

squ

at a

nd t

hede

ad li

ft, a

nd d

eter

min

e w

hat

can

besa

id g

ener

ally

abo

ut t

he p

rope

rex

ecut

ion

of t

hese

ski

lls.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out

prop

er fo

rm in

wei

ght

liftin

g ba

sed

on w

hat

iskn

own

abou

t pr

oper

form

in t

hree

rel

ated

lifts

.

Spe

cific

wei

ght-

liftin

gte

chni

ques

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Kno

ws

how

to

trai

n an

d co

nditi

onfo

r se

lect

phy

sica

l act

iviti

es.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t ge

nera

lizat

ions

can

be

mad

eab

out

usin

g ex

erci

se e

quip

men

t as

oppo

sed

to t

he s

port

tha

t it

mim

ics

(e.g

., bi

ke m

achi

nes

vs.b

ikes

;cro

ss-

coun

try

skiin

g vs

.cro

ss-c

ount

ry s

kim

achi

nes;

trea

dmill

s vs

.run

ning

)?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out

the

rela

tions

hip

of m

ovem

ent

form

s in

spo

rts

to t

hem

ovem

ent

form

spo

ssib

le u

sing

mac

hine

sth

at m

imic

tho

se s

port

s.

The

gen

eral

proc

ess

ofus

ing

exer

cise

equi

pmen

t fo

rsp

ecifi

c sp

orts

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Kno

ws

how

to

trai

n an

d co

nditi

onfo

r se

lect

phy

sica

l act

iviti

es.

Bas

ed u

pon

your

exp

erie

nce

in o

il or

wat

erco

lor

pain

ting,

wha

t ca

n be

sai

dab

out

the

thin

gs t

o w

atch

out

for

whe

nla

yerin

g on

e co

lor

over

ano

ther

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out

atte

ntio

n to

seq

uenc

ean

d la

yerin

g co

mm

on t

oth

e pr

oces

ses

of o

il an

dw

ater

col

or p

aint

ing.

The

pro

cess

of

laye

ring

colo

rsV

isua

l Art

s9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

the

med

ium

,te

chni

que,

and

pro

cess

es o

neus

es a

ffect

the

idea

s or

info

rmat

ion

bein

g co

mm

unic

ated

.

1. Following is a set of statements we have been studying about life onearth. What are some conclusions you might come to that are supportedby these generalizations? Explain your reasoning.

a. There have been profound changes in the climate over the earth.

b. Coordination and integration of action are generally slower in plantsthan in animals.

c. There is an increasing complexity of structure and function fromlower to higher forms of life.

d. All life comes from life and produces its own kind of living organism.

e. Light is a limiting factor of life.

2. What general conclusion can you infer about batting, based on yourunderstanding of the following skills?

a. Hitting a curve ball

b. Hitting a fast ball

c. Hitting a knuckle ball

d. Hitting a slider

Commonly, graphic organizers like those in Figure 5.13 are used as guides andaids in generalizing tasks.

The rows of the generalization matrix list the information from which a gen-eralization is to be developed. In this case, the matrix addresses four types of


Figure 5.13 Generalizing Matrix

Characteristic 1:Who Governs

Characteristic 2:How Decisions Are Made

Characteristic 3:Current Examples Conclusions

Item 1:Democracy

Item 2:Republic

Item 3:Theocracy

Item 4:Dictatorship

Conclusions

government: democracy, republic, theocracy, and dictatorship. The columnsrepresent the specific characteristics that will be used to create the generaliza-tion. In this case, those characteristics are (a) who governs, (b) how decisionsare made, and (c) current examples. Note that generalizations can be constructedfor each type of government (row generalizations) and for each characteristic(column generalizations). The bottom right square in the matrix contains thesummary generalization.

Generalizing With Information

As it relates to details, generalizing tasks involve inferring generalizations andprinciples from specific terms, facts, or events. For example, the first generalizingtask for details involves facts about settlements from ancient times. Students mustuse their knowledge of details about ancient times to create new conclusions aboutsettlements. Generalizing is a fairly sophisticated skill as it relates to organizingideas. It involves the articulation of new generalizations and principles based onknown generalizations and principles. For example, the first generalizing task fororganizing ideas addresses a number of generalizations across the topics of historyand geography. To complete this task, students must understand generalizationsabout history and geography and also make inferences to devise a larger overar-ching generalization.

Generalizing With Mental Procedures

Generalizing tasks for mental skills involve constructing and defending con-clusions about a set of skills. For example, the first generalizing task for mentalskills involves specific refusal skills. Students must use their understanding ofspecific refusal skills to create an overarching conclusion about refusal skills.Generalizing tasks for mental processes involve constructing and defending con-clusions about two or more processes. For example, the first generalizing task formental processes involves related processes for writing essays, paragraphs, andsentences. Students must create a generalization about writing that applies to thesethree situations.

Generalizing With Psychomotor Procedures

Generalizing tasks for psychomotor procedures follow the same pattern asfor mental procedures. The first generalizing task for psychomotor skills involvesconstructing and defending generalizations about the skill of using gestures inItalian. The first generalizing task for psychomotor processes involves construct-ing and defending generalizations about processes for using exercise equipmentfor specific sports.


SPECIFYING

The analysis skill of specifying involves making and defending predictions aboutwhat might happen or what will necessarily happen in a given situation. Figure 5.14lists specifying tasks and objectives across the domains of knowledge.

Specifying objectives and tasks can use the term specify along with terms andphrases like the following:

• Make and defend• Predict• Judge• Deduce• What would have to happen• Develop an argument for• Under what conditions

Specifying tasks typically use short and extended written or oral constructed-response formats.

Specifying With Information

As depicted in Figure 5.14, specifying does not apply well to details becausedetails are inherently too specific to involve rules from which predictions can bemade. On the other hand, specifying is a natural type of thinking relative to orga-nizing ideas, which, by definition, are rule based. Specifying, as it relates to gen-eralizations, involves identifying what might be or must be true about a specificitem based on an understanding of the class or category to which that itembelongs. For example, the first specifying task for organizing ideas uses general-izations regarding the right of habeas corpus to predict what must be true in a spe-cific newspaper article. Specifying as it relates to principles involves making anddefending predictions about what will or might happen under certain conditions.For example, the second specifying task for organizing ideas addresses principlesregarding the change processes on earth. Based on these principles, students mustconclude what must be true relative to a specific weather pattern.

Specifying With Mental Procedures

Specifying, as it relates to mental skills and processes, involves identifyingwhat must happen or might happen during the execution of the skill or processunder specific conditions. For example, the first specifying task for mental skillsfocuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the skills of reading


88

Fig

ure

5.14

Spec

ifyi

ng O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

N/A

N/A

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

If a

new

spap

er e

dito

rial

desc

ribed

an

actio

n as

“dan

gero

us t

o ci

vil l

iber

ty,”

and

said

“th

at e

very

def

enda

ntde

serv

es t

o kn

ow o

f w

hat

he is

char

ged,

”w

hat

topi

c in

the

Bill

of

Rig

hts

do y

ou b

elie

ve t

heed

itoria

l was

con

cern

ed a

bout

?E

xpla

in w

hy t

he n

ewsp

aper

artic

le m

ust

be r

efer

ring

to t

heto

pic

you

have

iden

tifie

d.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

circ

umst

ance

s th

atbe

ar d

irect

ly o

n th

e rig

ht o

fha

beas

cor

pus.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

rega

rdin

g th

erig

ht o

f ha

beas

corp

us.

Civ

ics

6–8

Und

erst

ands

how

the

pow

er o

fgo

vern

men

t is

limite

d in

ord

er to

prot

ect t

he r

ight

s of

indi

vidu

als

bysp

ecifi

c pr

ovis

ions

of t

he U

nite

dS

tate

s C

onst

itutio

n (in

clud

ing

the

Bill

of R

ight

s, e

.g.,

habe

as c

orpu

s;tr

ial b

y ju

ry;d

oubl

e je

opar

dy;e

xpo

st fa

cto;

freed

om o

f rel

igio

n,sp

eech

, pre

ss, a

nd a

ssem

bly;

equa

l pro

tect

ion

and

due

proc

ess

of la

w;r

ight

to c

ouns

el).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

If a

clas

smat

e ar

gues

tha

t re

cent

Dec

embe

r sn

owst

orm

s pr

ovid

eev

iden

ce t

hat

eart

h’s

clim

ate

isno

t ch

angi

ng,

wha

t pr

inci

ples

wou

ld y

ou a

rgue

are

bei

ngas

sum

ed a

bout

the

nat

ure

ofcl

imat

e ch

ange

? W

hat

prin

cipl

esar

e be

ing

igno

red?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

circ

umst

ance

s th

atin

dica

te fa

st p

roce

sses

of

chan

ge o

n ea

rth

and

thos

e th

atin

dica

te s

low

er p

roce

sses

.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

fast

and

slow

erpr

oces

ses

ofch

ange

on

eart

h

Sci

ence

3–5

Und

erst

ands

how

the

eart

h’s

surfa

ce is

con

stan

tly c

hang

ing

bybo

th s

low

and

rap

id p

roce

sses

(e.g

., sl

ow p

roce

sses

, suc

h as

wea

ther

ing,

ero

sion

, tra

nspo

rt,

and

depo

sitio

n of

sed

imen

tca

used

by

wav

es, w

ind,

wat

er,

and

ice;

rapi

d pr

oces

ses,

suc

h as

torn

adoe

s, v

olca

nic

erup

tions

,an

d ea

rthq

uake

s).

89

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng v

ario

usm

ap p

roje

ctio

ns a

nd h

ow d

iffer

ent

proj

ectio

ns d

isto

rt th

e re

latio

nshi

pof

land

mas

ses

in d

iffer

ent w

ays.

If yo

u co

mpa

red

Gre

enla

nd a

ndA

fric

a by

est

imat

ing

thei

r sq

uare

mile

s us

ing

a M

erca

tor

map

and

then

com

pare

d th

em u

sing

a gl

obe,

how

wou

ld th

eco

mpa

rison

s di

ffer

and

why

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

infe

renc

es a

bout

map

rea

ding

bas

ed o

n an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

effe

cts

ofdi

ffere

nt m

ap p

roje

ctio

ns.

The

ski

lls o

fre

adin

g a

Mer

cato

r m

apan

d a

glob

e

Geo

grap

hy6–

8Id

entif

ies

the

char

acte

ristic

sof

map

pro

ject

ions

, su

ch a

sdi

stor

tion

on a

fla

t m

appr

ojec

tion

and

unde

rsta

nds

the

purp

oses

and

bes

t us

e of

each

typ

e.

If yo

u ch

ange

the

dim

ensi

ons

of a

squ

are

but

keep

it a

s a

rect

angl

e w

ith t

he s

ame

unit

area

, ho

w w

ill it

s pe

rimet

erch

ange

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to m

ake

and

defe

nd in

fere

nces

abo

ut th

ere

sults

of m

easu

ring,

bas

ed o

n an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

perim

eter

and

are

a.

The

ski

ll of

mea

surin

gle

ngth

,pe

rimet

er,

and

area

Mat

h3–

5U

nder

stan

ds r

elat

ions

hips

betw

een

leng

th,

perim

eter

,ci

rcum

fere

nce,

and

are

a.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

You’

ve w

ritte

n an

exp

osito

ryes

say

on t

he v

ictim

s of

a r

ecen

thu

rric

ane.

Whe

n yo

u fin

ishe

d,yo

u de

cide

d yo

u sh

ould

pers

uade

you

r cl

assm

ates

to

help

you

rai

se m

oney

for

the

caus

e.H

ow w

ould

you

r w

ritin

gan

d ap

proa

ch c

hang

e, a

nd w

hat

wou

ld y

ou k

eep?

Exp

lain

how

your

cha

nges

wou

ld im

prov

eth

e ch

ance

s of

per

suad

ing

your

cla

ssm

ates

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

e an

d de

fend

an

infe

renc

eab

out

the

deve

lopm

ent

of a

pers

uasi

ve e

ssay

bas

ed o

n an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

rel

atio

nshi

pof

per

suas

ive

writ

ing

to o

ther

type

s of

writ

ing.

The

pro

cess

of w

ritin

g a

pers

uasi

vees

say

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8

Writ

es p

ersu

asiv

e co

mpo

sitio

ns(e

.g.,

enga

ges

the

read

er b

yus

ing

cont

ext

and

pers

ona;

deve

lops

a m

aste

r id

ea t

hat

conv

eys

an o

pini

on;c

reat

es a

ndor

gani

zes

an a

ppro

pria

test

ruct

ure

for

a sp

ecifi

c au

dien

ce;

incl

udes

det

ails

, re

ason

s, a

ndex

ampl

es p

ersu

asiv

ely;

excl

udes

irrel

evan

t in

form

atio

n;an

ticip

ates

and

addr

esse

s co

unte

r cl

aim

s;ci

tes

sour

ces

of in

form

atio

nas

app

ropr

iate

).

(Con

tinu

ed)

90

Fig

ure

5.14

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

If yo

u se

t up

an in

vest

igat

ion

that

assu

med

con

stan

t tem

pera

ture

for

both

exp

erim

enta

l and

con

trol

cond

ition

s, u

nder

wha

t con

ditio

nsan

d ho

w m

ight

you

sal

vage

you

rex

perim

ent,

if th

e te

mpe

ratu

rew

as fo

und

not t

o be

con

stan

t?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

an

infe

renc

e ab

out

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

an

inve

stig

atio

n an

d th

e ev

alua

tion

of a

n ex

plan

atio

n by

car

eful

lyac

coun

ting

for

all v

aria

tions

and

dete

rmin

ing

thei

r re

leva

nce

toth

e st

ated

pur

pose

.

The

men

tal

proc

ess

ofco

nduc

ting

anin

vest

igat

ion

Sci

ence

9–12

Kno

ws

that

con

cept

s an

dkn

owle

dge

guid

e al

l sci

entif

icin

quiri

es,

whi

le c

urre

nt s

cien

tific

disc

over

y in

fluen

ces

the

desi

gn a

nd in

terp

reta

tion

ofin

vest

igat

ions

and

eva

luat

ions

mad

e by

oth

er s

cien

tists

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Giv

en w

hat

you

know

abo

utvo

caliz

ing

and

voic

e pr

ojec

tion,

wha

t w

ould

like

ly b

e th

e re

sult

ifyo

u vo

caliz

ed f

rom

you

r th

roat

rath

er f

rom

you

r di

aphr

agm

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

an

infe

renc

e ab

out

the

effe

cts

of d

iffer

ent

type

s of

voca

lizat

ion

base

d on

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

mec

hani

csof

the

ski

ll.

The

ski

ll of

voca

lizin

gT

heat

re9–

12U

nder

stan

ds b

oth

cont

empo

rary

and

clas

sic

actin

g te

chni

que.

The

cue

-bal

l and

eig

ht-b

all a

re in

a di

rect

line

to

the

corn

er p

ocke

t.W

hat

wou

ld li

kely

hap

pen

if yo

usa

nk t

he e

ight

-bal

l usi

ng b

otto

mE

nglis

h on

the

cue

bal

l?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

an

infe

renc

ere

gard

ing

the

effe

ct o

f di

ffere

ntty

pes

of E

nglis

h on

the

cue

bal

l,ba

sed

on a

n un

ders

tand

ing

ofcu

e ba

ll co

ntro

l.

The

ski

ll of

putti

ng E

nglis

hon

a c

ue b

all

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

sop

hist

icat

ion

inm

ovem

ent a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith h

ighl

ysk

illed

ath

lete

s (e

.g.,

wha

t mak

essu

cces

sful

ser

ves,

pas

ses,

and

spik

es in

vol

leyb

all).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

If yo

u co

nsis

tent

ly r

ush

the

net

afte

r yo

u de

liver

eve

ry s

erve

,w

hat

wou

ld y

our

oppo

nent

like

lydo

in r

espo

nse?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

an

infe

renc

e on

the

likel

y st

rate

gy o

f an

opp

onen

t, if

the

oppo

nent

is p

rese

nted

with

cons

iste

nt b

ehav

ior.

The

pro

cess

of

play

ing

tenn

isP

hysi

cal

Edu

catio

n9–

12

Kno

ws

and

follo

ws

the

rule

s fo

rsp

ortin

g ac

tiviti

es a

nd u

ses

appr

opria

te o

ffens

ive

and

defe

nsiv

e st

rate

gies

.

If yo

u be

gin

a m

usic

al p

iece

at t

hew

rong

tem

po, w

hat i

mpa

ct m

ight

this

hav

e on

mus

ical

phr

ases

with

in th

e pi

ece

and

for

the

impr

essi

on o

f the

pie

ce o

vera

ll?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mak

ean

d de

fend

infe

renc

es a

bout

the

impa

ct o

f a

give

n te

mpo

on

vario

us a

spec

ts o

f a

mus

ical

perf

orm

ance

.

The

pro

cess

of

perf

orm

ing

am

usic

al p

iece

Mus

ic6–

8A

ccur

atel

y pe

rfor

ms

on a

clas

sroo

m in

stru

men

t a

varie

tyof

pie

ces

that

dis

play

mod

est

rang

es a

nd c

hang

es o

f te

mpo

,ke

y, a

nd m

eter

.

a Mercator map and reading a globe. The first specifying task for mental processesfocuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the process of writinga persuasive essay.

Specifying With Psychomotor Procedures

Specifying tasks for psychomotor procedures are the same as specifying tasksfor mental procedures—students identify what must happen or might happen inthe execution of a procedure under certain conditions. For example, the first spec-ifying task for psychomotor skills focuses on making predictions based on anunderstanding of the skill of vocalizing. The first specifying task for psychomotorprocesses focuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the processof playing tennis.


ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Matching Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify similarities and differences• Use terms and phrases like the following: match, categorize, compare, com-

pare and contrast, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, sort, create an anal-ogy, create a metaphor

• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers

Classifying Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify superordinate and subordinate categories• Use terms and phrases like the following: classify, organize, sort, identify a

broader category, identify categories, identify different types• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers

Analyzing Errors Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify logical errors in information and processingerrors in the execution of procedural knowledge

• Use terms and phrases like the following: analyze the errors in, identify prob-lems, identify issues, identify misunderstandings, assess, critique, diagnose,evaluate, edit, revise

• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats


Generalizing Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to infer new generalizations and principles from knowninformation

• Use terms and phrases like the following: generalize, what conclusions canbe drawn, what references can be made, create a generalization, create aprinciple, create a rule, trace the development, form conclusions

• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers

Specifying Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to make and defend predictions about what might happenor what will necessarily happen in a given situation

• Use terms and phrases like the following: make and defend, specify, pre-dict, judge, deduce, what would have to happen, develop an argument for,under what conditions

• Use short or extended written or oral constructed-response formats


93

CH A P T E R SI X

Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks

(1) decision making, (2) problem solving, (3) experimenting, and (4) investigating.The knowledge utilization processes require students to apply or use knowl-

edge in specific situations. There are four knowledge utilization processes:

We consider each.

DECISION MAKING

Decision making involves selecting among alternatives that initially appear equal.Figure 6.1 lists decision-making objectives and tasks for the various domains ofknowledge.

The term decide is commonly used in decision-making objectives and tasks alongwith other terms and phrases including the following:

• Select the best among the following alternatives• Which among the following would be the best• What is the best way• Which of these is most suitable

The most common format for decision-making tasks is short or extended writ-ten or oral constructed-response formats. Sometimes decision-making tasks arequite structured, as in the following example:

Assume that the following three sites are being considered as the locationfor a new waste disposal plant: (1) near the lake at the north end of town,(2) near the airport, and (3) in the mountains outside of town. Which sitewould be best? Explain why the specific characteristics of the site youselected make it the best selection.


94

Fig

ure

6.1

Dec

isio

n-M

akin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Usi

ng t

he d

ata

you

have

fro

m y

our

mos

tre

cent

fitn

ess

asse

ssm

ent,

deci

de w

hat

aspe

cts

of y

our

pers

onal

fitn

ess

need

atte

ntio

n an

d w

hat

you

mig

ht d

o to

impr

ove

your

ove

rall

fitne

ss.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

use

data

fro

m a

per

sona

lfit

ness

ass

essm

ent

and

know

ledg

e ab

out

fitne

ssco

mpo

nent

s to

mak

e a

deci

sion

abo

ut h

ow t

oim

prov

e ov

eral

l fitn

ess.

Det

ails

fro

m a

pers

onal

fitn

ess

repo

rt

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Impr

oves

sel

ect f

itnes

sco

mpo

nent

s th

roug

h at

tent

ion

to r

elev

ant a

sses

smen

ts(e

.g.,

card

io-r

espi

rato

ryen

dura

nce,

mus

cula

r st

reng

than

d en

dura

nce,

flex

ibili

ty, a

ndbo

dy c

ompo

sitio

n).

We’

ve b

een

lear

ning

tha

t ru

les

mig

ht b

eus

eful

in o

ne s

ituat

ion

but

not

in a

noth

er.

Use

our

four

rul

es fo

r cl

assr

oom

beha

vior

and

dec

ide

whi

ch o

f th

efo

llow

ing

thre

e si

tuat

ions

wou

ld b

enef

itm

ost

if it

used

our

rul

es:y

our

hom

e,pe

ople

tra

velin

g to

geth

er o

n a

vaca

tion,

polit

icia

ns in

the

gov

ernm

ent.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deci

de w

hich

non

scho

olsi

tuat

ions

wou

ld b

enef

it fr

omes

tabl

ishe

d sc

hool

rul

es.

Det

ails

abo

utsp

ecifi

cbe

havi

oral

rul

es

Beh

avio

ral

Stu

dies

3–5

Und

erst

ands

tha

t ev

enco

nsis

tent

rul

es,

such

as

the

ones

at

hom

e, s

choo

l, ch

urch

and

in t

he c

omm

unity

, ar

esu

bjec

t to

cha

nge

(e.g

., so

me

rule

s be

com

e ou

tdat

ed,

new

peop

le a

re in

volv

ed,

outs

ide

circ

umst

ance

s ch

ange

).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

You

are

help

ing

desi

gn t

he s

tage

for

asc

hool

pro

duct

ion

for

a pl

ay s

et in

189

0sD

enve

r.B

ased

on

wha

t yo

u kn

ow a

bout

this

tim

e in

the

Wes

t, de

cide

wha

t ki

nds

of p

rops

and

sce

nery

will

like

ly b

e pa

rtof

eve

ry o

utdo

or s

tree

t sc

ene.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

tode

cide

on

the

prop

s an

dsc

ener

y ne

eded

for

a pl

ay s

etin

the

Am

eric

an W

est,

base

don

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

how

tocr

eate

an

envi

ronm

ent o

nst

age

and

know

ledg

e of

som

eas

pect

s of

the

Am

eric

an W

est.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t pr

ops

and

scen

ery

The

ater

5–8

Cre

ates

env

ironm

ents

thro

ugh

scen

ery,

pro

pert

ies,

light

ing

and

soun

d ch

oice

san

d ch

arac

ters

thr

ough

cost

ume

and

mak

eup

choi

ces.

95

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

You

have

team

spr

ints

sch

edul

ed fo

r th

isaf

tern

oon.

You’

ve g

ot a

sna

ck h

igh

inca

rboh

ydra

tes,

a c

andy

bar

that

’s h

igh

insu

gar

and

fat,

and

a pr

otei

n dr

ink.

Bas

edon

wha

t you

kno

w a

bout

prin

cipl

esof

nut

ritio

n an

d th

e im

pact

of p

hysi

cal

activ

ities

, whi

ch s

houl

d yo

u ch

oose

befo

re y

our

exer

cise

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deci

de w

hat

food

cho

ices

are

the

mos

t be

nefic

ial,

base

d on

an u

nder

stan

ding

of

nutr

ition

and

the

dem

ands

of

eith

erae

robi

c or

ana

erob

icac

tiviti

es.

Prin

cipl

es o

fnu

triti

onH

ealth

9–12

Und

erst

ands

how

peo

ple

ofdi

ffere

nt g

ende

rs,

ages

, an

dac

tivity

leve

ls h

ave

diffe

rent

nutr

ient

and

ene

rgy

need

s.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

You

wer

e gi

ven

four

thr

ee-d

igit

num

bers

—36

2, 4

59,

921,

and

658

—an

das

ked

to q

uick

ly e

stim

ate

the

sum

inyo

ur h

ead.

Iden

tify

at le

ast

two

way

s of

doin

g th

is a

nd t

hen

expl

ain

whi

ch w

ould

be t

he b

est

way

to

do s

o.C

onsi

der

spee

d an

d ac

cura

cy in

you

r de

cisi

on.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deci

de,

base

d on

a fa

mili

arity

with

est

imat

ion

stra

tegi

es,

whi

ch s

trat

egie

s ar

eap

prop

riate

for

a pa

rtic

ular

prob

lem

typ

e.

Est

imat

ion

skill

san

d st

rate

gies

Mat

h3–

5U

ses

stra

tegi

es (

e.g.

, fr

ont-

end

estim

atio

n, r

ound

ing)

to

estim

ate

com

puta

tions

and

to

eval

uate

tho

se e

stim

atio

ns.

You’

ve ju

st d

isco

vere

d th

at th

e da

ta y

ouim

port

ed in

to a

spr

eads

heet

has

asi

gnifi

cant

flaw

:All

the

data

hav

e be

ensh

ifted

by

one

colu

mn,

so

that

the

varia

ble

nam

es id

entif

y th

e w

rong

dat

a.D

eter

min

eho

w y

ou w

ill r

esto

re o

r re

impo

rt th

e da

taan

d ex

plai

n yo

ur r

easo

ning

.Con

side

r at

leas

t tw

o m

etho

ds fo

r ac

com

plis

hing

this

task

and

at l

east

two

crite

ria b

y w

hich

you

will

mak

e yo

ur d

ecis

ion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to d

ecid

e, b

ased

on

anun

ders

tand

ing

of t

he p

roce

ssof

impo

rtin

g da

ta,

wha

tap

proa

ch is

mos

t ef

ficie

nt fo

rco

rrec

ting

impo

rt e

rror

s.

Dat

a-m

anip

ulat

ion

stra

tegi

es

Tech

nolo

gy9–

12Im

port

s, e

xpor

ts,

and

mer

ges

data

sto

red

in d

iffer

ent

form

ats

(e.g

., te

xt,

grap

hics

).

(Con

tinu

ed)

96

Fig

ure

6.1

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

You’

ve b

een

aske

d to

writ

e a

lette

r to

pers

uade

a c

ity c

ounc

il pe

rson

to

visi

tyo

ur c

ivic

s cl

ass

and

desc

ribe

the

job’

sdu

ties

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies.

Wha

tst

rate

gies

wou

ld y

ou u

se t

o m

ake

the

invi

tatio

n an

app

ealin

g on

e? C

onsi

der

atle

ast

thre

e st

rate

gies

we

have

stu

died

,su

ch a

s ap

peal

to

emot

ion,

app

eal t

ore

ason

, an

d ap

peal

to

trad

ition

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to d

ecid

e ho

w t

o em

ploy

pers

uasi

ve w

ritin

g st

rate

gies

that

are

mos

t ef

fect

ive

for

apa

rtic

ular

aud

ienc

e an

dpu

rpos

e.

Pro

cess

es fo

rpe

rsua

sive

writ

ing

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Ada

pts

writ

ing

for

diffe

rent

purp

oses

(e.

g.,

to in

form

,an

alyz

e, e

nter

tain

, per

suad

e).

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng w

ays

to le

arn

and

rem

embe

r ne

w in

form

atio

n.T

hree

of

thes

e w

ays

are

(a)

verb

atim

reh

ears

al,

(b)

mne

mon

ic d

evic

es, a

nd (

c) e

xten

ded

prac

tice.

Sel

ect s

omet

hing

you

wou

ld li

keto

lear

n an

d de

cide

whi

ch o

f the

se th

ree

appr

oach

es w

ould

be

best

, giv

en th

eco

nten

t you

hav

e se

lect

ed.U

se a

t lea

sttw

o cr

iteria

whi

le m

akin

g yo

ur d

ecis

ion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to d

ecid

e, b

ased

on

anun

ders

tand

ing

of le

arni

ngst

rate

gies

, th

e be

st w

ay t

ole

arn

new

per

sona

lly c

hose

nco

nten

t.

The

pro

cess

of

lear

ning

new

know

ledg

e

Hea

lth9–

12K

now

s an

d ap

plie

s a

num

ber

of s

trat

egie

s fo

r le

arni

ngne

w k

now

ledg

e.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

You’

ve a

lway

s pl

ayed

ten

nis

on a

spha

ltco

urts

, an

d to

day

you’

ll be

pla

ying

am

atch

on

a gr

ass

cour

t fo

r th

e fir

st t

ime.

Con

side

r at

leas

t th

ree

stra

tegi

es fo

rhi

tting

a fo

reha

nd g

roun

dstr

oke.

Whi

chof

the

m w

ould

mos

t lik

ely

be t

he b

est

appr

oach

to

use

and

why

? D

escr

ibe

the

crite

ria y

ou u

sed

to m

ake

your

dec

isio

n.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to d

ecid

e, b

ased

on

anun

ders

tand

ing

of t

he w

ay t

hat

diffe

rent

sur

face

s af

fect

tra

vel

in t

enni

s, h

ow b

est

to r

etur

na

fore

hand

on

a di

ffere

ntsu

rfac

e.

Str

ateg

ies

for

hitti

ng a

fore

hand

str

oke

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

sop

hist

icat

ion

inm

ovem

ent

asso

ciat

ed w

ithhi

ghly

ski

lled

athl

etes

.

97

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

You’

ve b

een

aske

d to

cre

ate

a da

nce

sequ

ence

tha

t m

akes

peo

ple

thin

k of

asp

ecifi

c an

imal

.Whi

ch o

f th

e da

nce

mov

emen

ts w

e ha

ve b

een

prac

ticin

gw

ould

you

use

? W

hy?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to d

ecid

e, b

ased

on

anun

ders

tand

ing

of d

ance

,w

hat

mov

emen

ts t

o us

efo

r a

danc

e w

ith a

spe

cific

purp

ose.

Spe

cific

dan

cem

ovem

ents

Dan

ceK

–4C

reat

es a

seq

uenc

e of

mov

emen

ts w

ith a

spe

cific

impr

essi

on in

min

d.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

The

sce

ne y

ou w

ill p

lay

requ

ires

that

, by

the

end

of t

he s

cene

, yo

u tr

ansf

orm

fro

ma

quie

t an

d re

serv

ed c

hara

cter

to

som

eone

bol

d an

d co

nfid

ent.

Dec

ide

how

you

will

tra

nsfo

rm y

ours

elf

over

the

cour

se o

f th

e sc

ene

so t

hat

the

tran

sitio

nis

bel

ieva

ble.

Iden

tify

spec

ific

phys

ical

actio

ns y

ou m

ight

use

and

prio

ritiz

e th

emin

ter

ms

of t

heir

utili

ty.E

xpla

in t

he c

riter

iayo

u us

ed t

o pr

iorit

ize

the

stra

tegy

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deci

de,

base

d on

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

act

ing

proc

ess,

how

bes

t to

com

mun

icat

e a

sign

ifica

ntch

ange

in a

cha

ract

er o

ver

time

that

als

o m

aint

ains

cred

ibili

ty w

ith t

he a

udie

nce.

Phy

sica

lst

rate

gies

use

din

the

act

ing

proc

ess

The

ater

9–12

Cre

ates

and

mai

ntai

nsbe

lieva

ble

char

acte

rs t

hat

com

mun

icat

e w

ith a

udie

nces

in im

prov

isat

ions

and

prod

uctio

ns.

You’

d lik

e to

cre

ate

an o

il pa

intin

g th

atev

okes

in t

he v

iew

er a

n im

med

iate

sens

e of

the

sur

face

tex

ture

or

even

ath

ree-

dim

ensi

onal

, sc

ulpt

ural

feel

.D

ecid

e w

hat

tech

niqu

es a

nd p

roce

sses

you

wou

ld u

se a

nd w

hy y

ou b

elie

ve t

hey

will

be

effe

ctiv

e.Id

entif

y th

e st

rate

gies

you

mig

ht c

onsi

der

and

the

crite

ria y

ouus

ed t

o se

lect

you

r st

rate

gies

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

deci

de,

base

d on

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

pai

ntin

gte

chni

ques

, ho

w t

o cr

eate

asp

ecifi

c vi

sual

effe

ct.

Str

ateg

ies

with

in t

hepr

oces

s of

pain

ting

Vis

ual A

rts

9–12

Und

erst

ands

how

the

med

iaan

d pr

oces

ses

one

uses

affe

ct t

he c

omm

unic

atio

nof

idea

s.


Here the alternatives are provided to students. This is in contrast to a task likethe following, which requires students to generate the alternatives:

What site would be the best location for a waste-disposal plant? Identifyat least three viable potential sites and explain why the specific character-istics of the site you selected make it the best selection.

When decision-making tasks are highly structured, it is common to providestudents with a decision-making matrix like that shown in Figure 6.2.

The matrix in Figure 6.2 is set up for the decision-making task about the bestsite for a waste-disposal park. The alternatives form the columns. The criteria thatwill be used to select among the alternatives form the rows. In the task, three alter-natives are being considered: (1) near the lake at the north end of town, (2) near theairport, and (3) in the mountains outside of town. Also three criteria are being used:(A) moderate to low cost, (B) environmentally safe, and (C) aesthetically pleasing.A “Y” indicates that an alternative meets a criterion. For example, the first alterna-tive (near the lake) meets the first criterion (moderate to low cost). An “N” indi-cates that an alternative does not meet the criterion, and a “?” indicates that thestudent is not sure whether the alternative meets the criterion. Once the matrix iscompleted, the student looks at the pattern of “Y” responses to determine the bestalternative. In this case, it is the first alternative, near the lake. For a discussion ofmore sophisticated types of decision-making matrices, see Marzano (2007).

We next consider decision-making tasks across the various domains ofknowledge.

Decision Making With Information

Details are frequently the criteria used in decisions. For example, the firstdecision-making task for details requires students to use details from a personal

Figure 6.2 Decision-Making Matrix

Alternative 1Near the Lake

Alternative 2Near the Airport

Alternative 3In the Mountains Outside of Town

Criterion 1:Moderate tolow cost

Y Y ?

Criterion 2:Environmentally safe Y N ?

Criterion 3:Aesthetically pleasing Y N Y

fitness report to make a decision about how to improve overall fitness. Organizingideas are also common criteria used to make selections between alternatives. Forexample, the first decision-making task for organizing ideas requires students touse generalizations about props and scenery to determine how best to create a spe-cific environment on stage.

Decision Making With Mental Procedures

Mental skills are sometimes used as explicit tools with which to gather infor-mation for decisions. For example, the first decision-making task for mental skillsrequires students to use their knowledge of estimation skills to decide on the bestapproach to solve a specific type of problem. The second decision-making task formental processes requires students to use their knowledge of learning strategies todetermine the best approach to learn new content of their choice.

Decision Making With Psychomotor Procedures

Psychomotor skills and processes can also be used when making decisions.For example, the second decision-making task for psychomotor skills requiresstudents to use their knowledge of specific dance movements to determine the bestway to convey a specific impression. The first decision-making task for psy-chomotor processes requires students to use their knowledge of physical strategiesin acting to determine the best way to convey a specific impression on stage.

PROBLEM SOLVING

The knowledge utilization process of problem solving involves accomplishing agoal for which obstacles or limiting conditions exist. Problem solving is closelyrelated to decision making in that the latter is frequently a subcomponent of prob-lem solving. However, whereas decision making does not involve obstacles to agoal, problem solving does. Figure 6.3 lists sample problem-solving objectivesand tasks across the knowledge domains.

The term solve is frequently used in problem-solving tasks and objectivesalong with terms and phrases like the following:

• How would you overcome• Adapt• Develop a strategy to• Figure out a way to• How will you reach your goal under these conditions

The most common format for problem-solving tasks is short or extended writ-ten and constructed-response formats.


Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 99

100

Fig

ure

6.3

Prob

lem

-Sol

ving

Obj

ectiv

es a

nd T

asks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng th

e pr

opos

ed w

ind

farm

on th

e no

rth

side

of t

own.

All

sour

ces

of e

nerg

y,in

clud

ing

alte

rnat

ive

ener

gy s

ourc

es, p

rese

ntpr

oble

ms,

suc

h as

une

venn

ess

of s

uppl

y, a

ndtr

ade-

offs

, suc

h as

less

exp

ense

at t

he c

ost o

fco

nven

ienc

e.Id

entif

y th

e cu

rren

t gre

ates

tob

stac

les—

soci

al, p

hysi

cal,

tech

nica

l, or

aco

mbi

natio

n of

thes

e—an

d th

e so

lutio

nsne

eded

for

the

adop

tion

of th

e pr

opos

ed p

roje

ct.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to p

ropo

se a

sol

utio

nfo

r th

e ad

optio

n of

spec

ific

alte

rnat

ive

ener

gy s

ourc

es b

ased

on a

n un

ders

tand

ing

ofth

e ob

stac

les

and

trade

-offs

ass

ocia

ted

with

its

use.

Det

ails

abo

uta

spec

ific

alte

rnat

ive

ener

gy s

ourc

e

Geo

grap

hy9–

12U

nder

stan

ds h

ow t

hew

ides

prea

d us

e of

ren

ewab

leen

ergy

sou

rces

(e.

g.,

sola

r,w

ind,

the

rmal

) m

ight

affe

ctbo

th t

he e

arth

and

soc

iety

(e.g

., ai

r an

d w

ater

qua

lity,

the

oil i

ndus

trie

s, a

nd c

urre

ntm

anuf

actu

ring

prac

tices

).

We

have

see

n an

end

orse

men

t fr

om a

tele

visi

on c

eleb

rity

rega

rdin

g th

e po

sitiv

eef

fect

s of

new

exe

rcis

e eq

uipm

ent

for

flatte

ning

your

sto

mac

h;ho

wev

er,

neith

er t

he c

omm

erci

alno

r th

e co

mpa

ny t

hat

has

prov

ided

any

evid

ence

of

its e

ffect

iven

ess.

How

will

you

over

com

e th

is p

robl

em?

Whe

re w

ill y

ou g

o to

find

the

nece

ssar

y in

form

atio

n?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

alte

rnat

ive

sour

ces

of h

ealth

-rel

ated

info

rmat

ion

whe

n no

neap

pear

ava

ilabl

e.

Det

ails

abo

uta

spec

ific

type

of e

xerc

ise

equi

pmen

t

Hea

lth9–

12K

now

s ho

w t

o de

term

ine

whe

ther

var

ious

res

ourc

esfr

om h

ome,

sch

ool,

and

the

com

mun

ity p

rese

ntva

lid h

ealth

info

rmat

ion,

prod

ucts

, an

d se

rvic

es.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Poo

r na

tions

may

bel

ieve

tha

t th

ey d

o no

t ha

vest

rong

eno

ugh

voic

es a

t th

e U

.N.,

but

wea

lthy

natio

ns,

who

sig

nific

antly

impa

ct t

rade

and

com

mer

ce in

the

wor

ld,

likel

y be

lieve

tha

t th

est

reng

th o

f th

eir

influ

ence

sho

uld

refle

ct t

his

grea

ter

cont

ribut

ion.

How

mig

ht t

he s

truc

ture

of

the

U.N

.be

revi

sed

to a

ccom

mod

ate

both

conc

erns

? To

sol

ve t

his

prob

lem

, us

e w

hat

you

know

of

the

idea

s de

velo

ped

and

agre

emen

tsfo

rged

dur

ing

the

Con

stitu

tiona

l Con

vent

ion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

prop

ose

aso

lutio

n to

a p

robl

emre

gard

ing

polit

ical

repr

esen

tatio

n ba

sed

on a

n un

ders

tand

ing

of is

sues

rai

sed

durin

gth

e C

onst

itutio

nal

Con

vent

ion

and

how

they

wer

e re

solv

ed.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

prop

osed

durin

g th

eC

onst

itutio

nal

Con

vent

ion

U.S

.His

tory

5–6

Kno

ws

the

impo

rtan

t iss

ues

ofth

e tim

e of

the

Con

stitu

tiona

lC

onve

ntio

n an

d w

hich

of t

hem

wer

e su

ppor

ted

and

whi

chw

ere

oppo

sed

(e.g

.,se

para

tion

of p

ower

s, c

heck

san

d ba

lanc

es, t

he V

irgin

iaP

lan,

the

New

Jer

sey

Pla

n,th

e C

onne

ctic

ut C

ompr

omis

e,ab

oliti

on).

101

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

es

Bas

ed o

n w

hat

you

have

lear

ned

abou

t an

ecos

yste

m,

incl

udin

g su

ch p

rinci

ples

as

pred

ator

–pre

y re

latio

nshi

ps,

com

petit

ion

for

reso

urce

s, a

nd t

he a

ccep

tabl

e ra

nge

ofte

mpe

ratu

res

for

cert

ain

spec

ies,

dev

elop

ate

rrar

ium

tha

t yo

u be

lieve

pro

vide

s its

inha

bita

nts

with

the

str

onge

st p

ossi

bilit

y of

alo

ng li

fe.I

dent

ify t

he s

igni

fican

t pr

oble

ms

you

face

d in

sel

ectio

n of

spe

cies

and

the

envi

ronm

ent

and

how

you

sol

ved

them

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

addr

ess

the

prob

lem

s th

at t

hrea

ten

surv

ival

of

a se

lect

edsp

ecie

s ba

sed

on a

nun

ders

tand

ing

ofpr

edat

or–p

rey

rela

tions

hips

,co

mpe

titio

n fo

rre

sour

ces,

and

requ

irem

ents

for

food

and

a su

ppor

ting

envi

ronm

ent.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

ecos

yste

ms

Sci

ence

6–8

Kno

ws

fact

ors

that

affe

ctth

e nu

mbe

r an

d ty

pes

ofor

gani

sms

an e

cosy

stem

can

supp

ort

(e.g

., av

aila

ble

reso

urce

s;ab

iotic

fact

ors,

such

as

quan

tity

of li

ght

and

wat

er,

rang

e of

tem

pera

ture

s,an

d so

il co

mpo

sitio

n;di

seas

e;co

mpe

titio

n fr

omot

her

orga

nism

s w

ithin

the

ecos

yste

m;p

reda

tion)

.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We’

ve b

een

stud

ying

var

ious

kin

ds o

f re

fusa

lsk

ills.

If yo

u ha

d a

frie

nd w

ho r

ecog

nize

d th

atot

hers

wer

e m

akin

g hi

m a

ct in

a w

ay t

hat

mig

htha

rm h

is h

ealth

but

who

was

una

ble

to r

esis

tth

eir

influ

ence

, w

hat

advi

ce o

r st

rate

gy w

ould

you

offe

r an

d w

hy?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y ho

wbe

st to

sol

ve a

pro

blem

of n

egat

ive

soci

alin

fluen

ce th

roug

hun

ders

tand

ing

the

best

use

of r

efus

al s

kills

.

Spe

cific

ref

usal

skill

sH

ealth

3–5

Und

erst

ands

tec

hniq

ues

for

avoi

ding

, an

d re

spon

ding

to,

nega

tive

soci

al in

fluen

ces

and

pres

sure

to

use

alco

hol

or d

rugs

(e.

g.,

refu

sal s

kills

,se

lf-co

ntro

l).

Whi

le s

cann

ing

a to

pogr

aphi

c m

ap fo

rin

form

atio

n ab

out

a sp

ecifi

c m

ount

ain,

you

see

that

the

con

tour

line

for

the

ridge

you

are

inte

rest

ed in

doe

s no

t ha

ve a

num

ber

asso

ciat

ed w

ith it

, al

thou

gh t

here

are

con

tour

lines

nea

r it

that

do

have

alti

tude

s as

sign

ed.

Des

crib

e ho

w y

ou w

ill d

eter

min

e th

e al

titud

e of

the

cont

our

line

and

how

you

will

det

erm

ine

whe

ther

it is

in fe

et o

r m

eter

s.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e th

epr

oble

m o

f m

issi

ngin

form

atio

n on

a m

apth

roug

h th

e us

e of

basi

c m

ap-r

eadi

ngsk

ills.

Rea

ding

aco

ntou

r m

apG

eogr

aphy

3–5

Iden

tifie

s th

e ba

sic

char

acte

ristic

s of

map

s an

dgl

obes

(e.

g.,

title

, le

gend

,ca

rdin

al a

nd in

term

edia

tedi

rect

ions

, sc

ale,

grid

,pr

inci

pal p

aral

lels

, m

erid

ians

,pr

ojec

tion)

.

(Con

tinu

ed)

102

Fig

ure

6.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Whi

le w

orki

ng o

n a

rese

arch

pap

er,

you

disc

over

con

flict

ing

clai

ms

amon

g th

e so

urce

syo

u us

e re

gard

ing

a sp

ecifi

c, c

ritic

al e

vent

.How

will

you

res

olve

the

pro

blem

? D

iscu

ss t

hepr

oces

ses

avai

labl

e, in

clud

ing

eval

uatin

g th

ecr

edib

ility

of

sour

ces,

ver

ifyin

g th

e fa

cts,

and

dete

rmin

ing

whe

ther

logi

cal i

nfer

ence

s ar

em

ade

from

the

fact

s.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

reso

lve

aqu

estio

n of

con

flict

ing

info

rmat

ion

thro

ugh

eval

uatin

g th

ecr

edib

ility

of

sour

ces,

verif

ying

fact

s, a

ndev

alua

ting

infe

renc

esm

ade

from

fact

s.

The

pro

cess

of

findi

ng,

citin

g,an

d us

ing

sour

ces

in a

rese

arch

pap

er

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Writ

es r

esea

rch

pape

rs (

e.g.

,us

es a

thes

is s

tate

men

t, us

esan

app

ropr

iate

org

aniz

atio

npa

ttern

, par

aphr

ases

idea

san

d co

nnec

ts th

em to

sour

ces,

iden

tifie

s nu

ance

san

d di

scre

panc

ies

inin

form

atio

n, a

ddre

sses

all

poss

ible

per

spec

tives

, use

svi

sual

aid

s w

hen

nece

ssar

y,in

tegr

ates

quo

tatio

ns a

ndci

tatio

ns c

orre

ctly

, ada

pts

rese

arch

ed m

ater

ial f

orpr

esen

tatio

n in

ant

icip

atio

nof

a p

artic

ular

aud

ienc

e).

You

are

task

ed w

ith w

ritin

g an

ess

ay t

hat

will

pers

uade

bot

h yo

ur p

eers

and

par

ents

in t

heco

mm

unity

to

cont

ribut

e m

oney

tow

ard

the

build

ing

of a

hig

h-te

ch c

lass

room

tha

t w

on’t

beco

mpl

eted

unt

il af

ter

you

grad

uate

.How

will

you

craf

t ar

gum

ents

tha

t w

ill p

ersu

ade

both

audi

ence

s to

con

trib

ute

to t

he c

ause

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e th

epr

oble

m o

f ap

peal

ing

to d

iffer

ent

audi

ence

sin

the

sam

e es

say

byus

ing

a va

riety

of

pers

uasi

ve t

echn

ique

s.

The

pro

cess

of w

ritin

g a

pers

uasi

vees

say

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Writ

es p

ersu

asiv

eco

mpo

sitio

ns th

at a

ddre

sspr

oble

ms–

solu

tions

or

caus

es–e

ffect

s (e

.g.,

uses

ath

esis

sta

tem

ent;

addr

esse

sal

l pos

sibl

e co

unte

rar

gum

ents

;use

s rh

etor

ical

devi

ces,

suc

h as

app

eals

tolo

gic

and

appe

als

to e

mot

ion,

uses

per

sona

l ane

cdot

es;

deve

lops

arg

umen

ts a

nd u

ses

deta

ils, a

ddre

sses

trad

ition

,ca

use-

and-

effe

ct r

easo

ning

,co

mpa

rison

–con

tras

tre

ason

ing)

.

103

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

The

fin

gerin

g su

pplie

d fo

r an

inst

rum

enta

l pie

ceyo

u ar

e st

udyi

ng d

oes

not

wor

k fo

r th

e si

ze a

ndsh

ape

of y

our

hand

s.B

ased

on

wha

t w

orks

best

for

you,

ass

ign

new

fin

gerin

g w

here

ver

need

ed.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e a

spec

ific

finge

ring

prob

lem

by

revi

sing

fin

gerin

gno

tatio

n to

bes

t m

eet

pers

onal

ski

lls a

ndlim

itatio

ns.

Fin

gerin

g sk

ills

for

a sp

ecifi

cin

stru

men

t

Mus

ic6–

8A

ccur

atel

y pe

rfor

ms

a va

riety

of in

stru

men

tal p

iece

s w

ithex

pres

sion

on

a cl

assr

oom

inst

rum

ent,

dem

onst

ratin

gm

aste

ry o

f m

odes

t ra

nges

and

chan

ges

of t

empo

,ke

y, a

nd m

eter

.

You

are

to p

rese

nt a

spe

ech

in t

he fo

reig

nla

ngua

ge w

e ar

e st

udyi

ng,

and

you

have

had

cons

iste

nt p

robl

ems

pron

ounc

ing

som

e of

the

wor

ds in

the

spe

ech.

How

mig

ht y

ou w

rite

out

the

spee

ch fo

r yo

urse

lf to

ens

ure

that

you

say

each

wor

d co

rrec

tly?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to s

olve

a p

robl

emof

pro

nunc

iatio

nth

roug

h m

akin

g no

tes

to s

elf i

n an

unf

amili

arla

ngua

ge a

bout

cor

rect

pron

unci

atio

n.

Cor

rect

pron

unci

atio

n in

a fo

reig

nla

ngua

ge

For

eign

Lang

uage

K–4

Pre

sent

s si

mpl

e or

al r

epor

tsab

out

com

mon

sch

ool a

ndho

me

activ

ities

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Bec

ause

of

a re

cent

inju

ry,

you

find

that

you

rba

ckha

nd is

not

as

stro

ng a

s it

shou

ld b

e.D

evis

e a

met

hod

of p

lay

that

will

cap

italiz

e on

your

oth

er s

tren

gths

to

offs

et t

his

prob

lem

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e a

spec

ific

spor

ts-s

kill

prob

lem

by

iden

tifyi

ng s

trat

egie

sth

at w

ill c

ompe

nsat

e.

Pla

ying

ten

nis

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Fol

low

s th

e ru

les

of a

sele

cted

spo

rt a

nd m

akes

use

of o

ffens

ive

and

defe

nsiv

e te

chni

ques

.

The

cha

ract

er y

ou’v

e be

en s

elec

ted

to p

lay

isve

ry o

ld,

whi

ch y

ou w

on’t

be fo

r a

long

tim

e.D

escr

ibe

wha

t ph

ysic

al t

echn

ique

s yo

u’ll

use

tom

ake

the

audi

ence

bel

ieve

tha

t yo

u ar

e m

uch

olde

r th

an y

ou a

ppea

r.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

solv

e ac

ting

chal

leng

es t

hrou

ghan

und

erst

andi

ng o

fte

chni

ques

use

d to

proj

ect

char

acte

rs o

fa

spec

ific

type

.

The

pro

cess

of

port

rayi

ng a

char

acte

r

The

atre

9–12

Und

erst

ands

var

ious

clas

sica

l and

con

tem

pora

ryac

ting

tech

niqu

es a

ndm

etho

ds.

Problem Solving With Information

Details are frequently used to solve problems. For example, the first problem-solving task for details requires an understanding of details about a specific alter-native energy source. Organizing ideas apply to a variety of problem-solvingtasks. Commonly, a student uses a generalization or principle when identifyinghow best to overcome the obstacle within the problem. For example, the first prob-lem-solving task for organizing ideas involves the use of generalizations proposedat the Constitutional Convention to help solve a hypothetical problem about theUnited Nations.

Problem Solving With Mental Procedures

Specific mental skills can be the subject of problem-solving tasks. For exam-ple, the first problem-solving task for mental skills involves refusal skills. In thistask, effective use of refusal skills is the vehicle used to solve the problem. In thesecond example, the problem exists within the execution of the mental processitself: There is an obstacle to the typical procedure for reading a contour map—altitudes are not assigned to the contour lines. Mental processes are commonly thesubject of problem solving. The first problem-solving task for mental processesinvolves the process of finding, citing and using sources in research papers. In thiscase, the obstacle is that this process has produced conflicting results.

Problem Solving With Psychomotor Procedures

The first example of a problem-solving task for psychomotor skills involvesfingering skills for a specific instrument. The constraint is that a new system of fin-gering must be designed by students. The first example of a problem-solving taskfor psychomotor processes involves the process of playing tennis. The obstacle inthis situation is that an injury has limited the use of the student’s backhand stroke.

EXPERIMENTING

Experimenting involves generating and testing hypotheses about a specific physi-cal or psychological phenomenon. A critical feature of experimenting tasks is thatthe data be newly collected by the student. Figure 6.4 lists experimenting objec-tives and tasks across the various domains of knowledge.

The terms generate and test are commonly used in experimenting objectivesand tasks, along with terms and phrases like the following:

• Generate and test• Test the idea that



105

Fig

ure

6.4

Exp

erim

entin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Iden

tify

a re

cent

sig

nific

ant

even

t an

dhy

poth

esiz

e ho

w d

iffer

ent

type

s of

peo

ple

in t

heco

mm

unity

will

vie

w it

.Pro

vide

the

rea

soni

ngfo

r yo

ur h

ypot

hesi

s an

d th

en s

urve

y m

embe

rsof

the

com

mun

ity t

o te

st y

our

hypo

thes

is.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

ate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

s ab

out

how

sel

ecte

d ev

ents

mig

ht b

e vi

ewed

by

diffe

rent

mem

bers

of

the

com

mun

ity.

Det

ails

abo

ut a

spec

ific

curr

ent

even

t

Hea

lth9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

even

ts c

anbe

vie

wed

diff

eren

tly b

ydi

ffere

nt t

ypes

of

peop

le.

Sel

ect

a de

velo

pmen

t in

tec

hnol

ogy

that

has

occu

rred

in t

he p

ast

twen

ty y

ears

.For

exa

mpl

e,yo

u m

ight

sel

ect

the

iPod

.Bas

ed o

n w

hat

we

have

dis

cuss

ed a

bout

how

suc

h ch

ange

sim

pact

soc

iety

, de

velo

p a

hypo

thes

is a

bout

how

that

tec

hnol

ogy

has

had

an im

pact

on

peop

le’s

lives

.The

n ga

ther

info

rmat

ion

that

will

dire

ctly

test

you

r hy

poth

esis

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

s th

atde

mon

stra

tes

anun

ders

tand

ing

of t

hepo

ssib

le im

pact

of

are

cent

tec

hnol

ogy

onso

ciet

y.

Det

ails

abo

ut a

spec

ific

tech

nolo

gica

lin

nova

tion

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds h

ow t

echn

olog

yan

d so

ciet

y af

fect

one

anot

her

(e.g

., ne

wte

chno

logi

es a

re d

evel

oped

to s

erve

the

pro

cess

and

prod

uct

need

s of

soc

iety

;as

soci

ety,

eco

nom

y, a

nd p

oliti

csch

ange

, so

doe

s te

chno

logy

;so

ciet

al n

eeds

, va

lues

, an

dbe

liefs

influ

ence

tec

hnol

ogy)

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

We

know

tha

t th

ere

are

good

rea

sons

for

peop

le c

hoos

ing

one

kind

of

geog

raph

y ov

eran

othe

r w

hen

choo

sing

a p

lace

to

live.

For

exam

ple,

in a

gric

ultu

ral a

nd e

arly

soc

ietie

s,se

ttlin

g ne

ar fe

rtile

soi

l was

crit

ical

for

surv

ival

,no

t si

mpl

y co

nven

ient

for

livel

ihoo

d.B

ased

on

how

we

live

now

, de

velo

p a

hypo

thes

is a

bout

wha

t es

sent

ial a

spec

ts p

eopl

e lo

ok fo

r w

hen

they

con

side

r m

ovin

g to

a n

ew p

lace

.Why

mig

ht t

he r

easo

ns b

e di

ffere

nt?

How

can

you

colle

ct in

form

atio

n di

rect

ly f

rom

peo

ple

toan

swer

thi

s qu

estio

n?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

sre

gard

ing

the

reas

ons

why

peo

ple

choo

se t

oliv

e in

cer

tain

pla

ces.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t w

hyhu

man

ses

tabl

ish

settl

emen

ts

Geo

grap

hy3–

5Id

entif

ies

area

s of

den

sehu

man

pop

ulat

ion

and

unde

rsta

nds

reas

ons

for

such

popu

latio

n (e

.g.,

fert

ile s

oil,

avai

labi

lity

of w

ater

;av

aila

bilit

y of

coa

l, iro

n, a

ndot

her

natu

ral r

esou

rces

).

(Con

tinu

ed)

106

Fig

ure

6.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

Sel

ect

thre

e di

ffere

nt v

isua

l str

uctu

res

that

,ac

cord

ing

to t

he d

esig

n pr

inci

ples

we’

ve b

een

stud

ying

, ca

n ha

ve d

iffer

ent

effe

cts

on t

hevi

ewer

, su

ch a

s a

sens

e of

bal

ance

, an

xiet

y, o

rrh

ythm

.Cre

ate

sim

ple

draw

ings

tha

t yo

ube

lieve

exe

mpl

ify e

ach

stru

ctur

e an

d fin

d ou

t if

you

are

succ

essf

ul in

com

mun

icat

ing

wha

t yo

uin

tend

.For

exa

mpl

e, s

urve

y yo

ur c

lass

mat

es t

ote

ll yo

u w

hich

dra

win

g re

pres

ents

whi

ch e

ffect

.D

ecid

e if,

bas

ed o

n th

e re

sults

, yo

u ca

n ch

ange

the

desi

gn t

o im

prov

e yo

ur r

esul

ts.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

sre

gard

ing

desi

gnpr

inci

ples

and

the

iref

fect

s on

the

vie

wer

.

Prin

cipl

es o

fde

sign

in a

rtV

isua

l Art

s5–

8U

nder

stan

ds h

ow d

iffer

ent

phys

ical

str

uctu

res

prod

uce

cert

ain

effe

cts

(e.g

., de

sign

elem

ents

, su

ch a

s lin

e, c

olor

,sh

ape;

prin

cipl

es s

uch

asre

petit

ion,

rhy

thm

, ba

lanc

e).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Imag

ine

a sc

enar

io in

whi

ch y

ou h

ave

a lim

ited

amou

nt o

f mon

ey a

nd a

re in

the

groc

ery

stor

ead

ding

item

s to

a s

hopp

ing

cart

.You

don

’t ha

ve a

calc

ulat

or, s

o yo

u’ve

got

to k

eep

a ru

nnin

g to

tal i

nyo

ur h

ead

of th

e co

sts

of th

e ite

ms

as y

ou a

ddth

em.D

evel

op tw

o or

mor

e te

chni

ques

for

men

tally

est

imat

ing

or c

alcu

latin

g th

e to

tals

as

you

go.Y

ou c

an e

ven

deve

lop

tech

niqu

es th

at u

seite

ms

in y

our

cart

to h

elp

you

keep

som

e tra

ck o

fyo

ur r

unni

ng to

tal.

How

wou

ld y

ou g

o ab

out

test

ing

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

you

r ap

proa

ches

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

ahy

poth

esis

reg

ardi

ngth

e be

st m

ath

stra

tegi

es t

o us

e to

solv

e a

spec

ific

estim

atio

n pr

oble

man

d te

st t

heir

rela

tive

effe

ctiv

enes

s.

Str

ateg

ies

for

solv

ing

asp

ecifi

c ty

pe o

fm

athe

mat

ics

prob

lem

Mat

h6–

8U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

diffe

rent

tech

niqu

es (

e.g.

, w

orki

ngba

ckw

ard

from

a s

olut

ion,

usin

g a

sim

ilar

prob

lem

typ

e,id

entif

ying

a p

atte

rn)

may

be

used

to

solv

e th

e sa

me

mat

hem

atic

al p

robl

em b

utth

at s

ome

of t

hose

tech

niqu

es m

ay b

e m

ore

effe

ctiv

e fo

r th

at p

artic

ular

prob

lem

tha

n ot

hers

.

Usi

ng ti

me

as a

mea

sure

is v

ery

usef

ul in

sci

ence

as in

dai

ly li

fe.W

e ca

n co

mpa

re th

e sp

eed

of tw

oth

ings

, lik

e m

arbl

es m

ovin

g do

wn

an in

clin

edpl

ane,

bec

ause

we

can

say

how

muc

h tim

e ea

chta

kes

to tr

avel

the

sam

e di

stan

ce.B

ut w

atch

esar

en’t

the

only

way

that

we

can

mea

sure

tim

e.W

e ca

n al

so u

se w

ater

:If w

e ca

n m

ake

it flo

w a

ta

stea

dy r

ate,

it a

llow

s us

to m

ake

com

paris

ons.

Cre

ate

a hy

poth

esis

abo

ut h

ow th

e flo

w o

f wat

erca

n be

con

trolle

d so

that

it c

an b

e us

ed to

mea

sure

tim

e.H

ow c

an y

ou te

st it

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

ahy

poth

esis

abo

ut h

oww

ater

mig

ht b

e us

edto

kee

p tr

ack

of t

ime

and

then

tes

t th

ehy

poth

esis

by

cons

truc

ting

the

devi

ce.

Ski

lls a

ndst

rate

gies

for

mea

surin

g tim

e

Sci

ence

3–5

Use

s si

mpl

e to

ols

and

equi

pmen

t (e

.g.,

ther

mom

eter

s, m

icro

scop

es,

calc

ulat

ors,

gra

duat

edcy

linde

rs)

to c

olle

ctsc

ient

ific

data

.

107

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng h

ow t

o us

e va

rious

sear

ch e

ngin

es.G

ener

ate

a hy

poth

esis

abo

utth

e m

ost

effic

ient

and

mos

t ac

cura

te r

esea

rch

engi

ne fo

r a

spec

ific

type

of

info

rmat

ion.

The

nte

st y

our

hypo

thes

is a

nd e

xpla

in y

our

findi

ngs.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to g

ener

ate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

s ab

out

the

use

of v

ario

usse

arch

eng

ines

.

Str

ateg

ies

for

usin

g a

varie

tyof

sea

rch

engi

nes

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds t

he u

ses

ofa

varie

ty o

f in

form

atio

nal

sear

ch e

ngin

es.

We’

ve b

een

stud

ying

var

ious

map

pro

ject

ions

.B

ased

on

wha

t yo

u’ve

lear

ned,

hyp

othe

size

abou

t w

hat

char

acte

ristic

of

a m

ap p

roje

ctio

nw

ould

pro

vide

you

the

gre

ates

t lik

elih

ood

of g

ettin

g th

e m

ost

accu

rate

dis

tanc

em

easu

rem

ent

betw

een

two

poin

ts a

t so

me

fixed

poi

nt o

n th

e ea

rth.

Wha

t pr

ojec

tion

wou

ldbe

leas

t lik

ely

to p

rovi

de a

ccur

ate

info

rmat

ion

for

the

sam

e lo

catio

ns?

Det

erm

ine

whe

ther

you

are

corr

ect

by c

ompa

ring

the

know

n di

stan

cebe

twee

n th

e tw

o po

ints

aga

inst

the

dis

tanc

eyo

u de

term

ine

thro

ugh

the

map

pro

ject

ions

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

ahy

poth

esis

abo

utw

hich

map

pro

ject

ion

will

pro

vide

mor

e an

dle

ss a

ccur

ate

data

abou

t th

e di

stan

cebe

twee

n tw

o pl

aces

and

test

tha

thy

poth

esis

thr

ough

mea

sure

men

t.

Str

ateg

ies

for

usin

g a

varie

tyof

map

s

Geo

grap

hy6–

8K

now

s di

stin

guis

hing

char

acte

ristic

s of

map

proj

ectio

ns,

incl

udin

gdi

stor

tion

on f

lat-

map

proj

ectio

ns,

and

iden

tifie

ssi

tuat

ions

in w

hich

eac

hm

ap m

ight

be

mor

e or

less

ben

efic

ial.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

The

Qw

erty

key

boar

d w

as d

esig

ned

to s

low

dow

n ty

pist

s be

caus

e ea

rly m

echa

nica

lty

pew

riter

s w

ere

not

wel

l-des

igne

d an

d w

ould

jam

eas

ily.C

ompu

ter

keyb

oard

s do

n’t

jam

,th

ough

, an

d A

ugus

t D

vora

k de

sign

ed a

keyb

oard

to

mak

e ty

ping

mor

e co

mfo

rtab

le a

nda

little

fast

er.C

ompa

re t

he t

wo

keyb

oard

desi

gns

and

gene

rate

a h

ypot

hesi

s th

at t

ests

the

usef

ulne

ss o

f hi

s de

sign

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

sab

out

the

likel

yus

eful

ness

of

asp

ecifi

c ke

yboa

rdin

gin

vent

ion

in a

spe

cific

situ

atio

n.

Key

boar

ding

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8Ty

pes

with

som

eso

phis

ticat

ion,

dem

onst

ratin

gso

me

mem

oriz

atio

n of

key

loca

tion.

(Con

tinu

ed)

108

Fig

ure

6.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng a

num

ber

of s

tret

chin

gte

chni

ques

.Gen

erat

e an

d te

st a

hyp

othe

sis

abou

t th

e ef

fect

iven

ess

of a

par

ticul

arte

chni

que

in a

par

ticul

ar s

ituat

ion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

ahy

poth

esis

abo

ut t

heus

eful

ness

of

asp

ecifi

c st

retc

hing

tech

niqu

e.

Spe

cific

stre

tchi

ngte

chni

ques

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

6-8

Und

erst

ands

and

app

lies

stre

tchi

ng t

echn

ique

s in

appr

opria

te s

ituat

ions

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Kee

p a

log

of y

our

exer

cise

.Not

e th

e tim

e of

day,

how

long

bef

ore

and

afte

r a

mea

l, th

e ty

peof

mea

l, ho

w e

ffect

ive

the

exer

cise

see

med

to

be,

and

wha

teve

r ot

her

info

rmat

ion

you

thin

km

ight

be

help

ful.

At

the

end

of a

thr

ee-w

eek

perio

d, r

evie

w t

he d

ata

to g

ener

ate

ahy

poth

esis

abo

ut t

he b

est

cond

ition

s fo

rex

erci

se.I

mpl

emen

t an

exe

rcis

e pl

an b

ased

on

your

hyp

othe

ses.

Afte

r th

ree

wee

ks o

f yo

ur n

ewpl

an,

com

pare

you

r be

fore

and

afte

r lo

gs.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

and

test

a h

ypot

hesi

sre

gard

ing

the

cond

ition

s th

atar

e op

timal

for

pers

onal

exe

rcis

e.

Per

sona

lex

erci

sete

chni

ques

Hea

lth9–

12U

nder

stan

ds h

ow p

erso

nal

habi

ts r

elat

e to

gen

eral

heal

th a

nd h

ow t

hese

hab

itsca

n be

mod

ified

if n

eces

sary

to p

rom

ote

atta

inm

ent

ofhe

alth

goa

ls (

e.g.

, fo

llow

ing

a pe

rson

al n

utrit

ion

plan

to

redu

ce t

he r

isk

of h

igh

bloo

dpr

essu

re o

r ch

oles

tero

l lev

els

as w

ell a

s di

seas

e).

Sel

ect

mus

ic f

rom

tw

o di

ffere

nt g

enre

s or

styl

es.I

dent

ify w

hat

you

thin

k is

mos

t di

stin

ctiv

eab

out

each

sty

le s

o th

at y

ou c

an s

elec

t an

dpl

ay ju

st a

few

mea

sure

s th

at y

ou t

hink

cap

ture

the

diffe

renc

es.A

sk y

our

clas

smat

es t

o gu

ess

the

styl

e of

eac

h.H

ave

you

been

abl

e to

capt

ure

the

styl

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

gene

rate

ahy

poth

esis

abo

ut t

hech

arac

teris

tics

of a

mus

ical

sty

le a

ndch

eck

that

hyp

othe

sis

thro

ugh

a su

rvey

of

liste

ners

.

Per

form

ance

tech

niqu

esM

usic

3–5

Dem

onst

rate

s kn

owle

dge

ofm

usic

rep

rese

ntin

g di

vers

ege

nres

and

sty

les.

• What would happen if• How would you test that• How would you determine if• How can this be explained• Based on the experiment, what can be predicted

The most common formats for experimenting tasks are short and extendedwritten and oral constructed-response tasks.

Experimenting With Information

Details are sometimes used as the basis for hypothesis generation and testing.For example, the first experimenting task for details involves details about aspecific current event. Students must generate a hypothesis about how differentpeople might perceive this event and then gather data to test their hypothesis.Experimenting is particularly well suited to organizing ideas since these knowl-edge structures readily lend themselves to hypothesis generation. For example, thefirst experimenting task for organizing ideas involves generalizations about whypeople choose to live in certain places. Students must generate hypotheses andthen collect data to test these hypotheses.

Experimenting With Mental Procedures

Mental skills and processes can be used as the subject of experimenting tasks.For example, the first experimenting task for mental skills involves strategies forsolving a specific type of problem. Students must generate and test hypothesesabout the most efficient strategies for solving that particular problem type. Thefirst experimenting task for mental processes involves strategies for using a vari-ety of search engines. Students design an experiment to determine the most efficient search engine in a specific situation.

Experimenting With Psychomotor Procedures

Experimenting tasks for psychomotor skills and processes follow the samepattern as experimenting tasks for mental procedures. The first experimenting taskfor psychomotor skills involves generating and testing hypotheses for two key-boarding configurations. The first experimenting task for psychomotor processesinvolves generating and testing hypotheses regarding a personal exercise routine.

INVESTIGATING

Investigating involves examining a past, present, or future situation. Investigatingcan be likened to experimenting in that it involves hypothesis generation and testing.


However, the data used in investigating are not gathered by direct observationas they are in experimenting. Rather, the data used to test hypotheses areassertions and opinions that have been made by others. In addition, the rules ofevidence for investigating tasks are different from those employed in experiment-ing inquiry. The rules of evidence for investigating are those governing the designof a logical argument. The rules of evidence for experimenting are those govern-ing the interpretation of direct observations. Investigating may be likened more toinvestigative reporting, whereas experimenting may be likened more to purescientific inquiry. Figure 6.5 lists investigating objectives and tasks across thedomains of knowledge.

The term investigate can be used in investigating tasks along with terms andphrases like the following:

• Research• Find out about• Take a position on• What are the differing features of• How did this happen• Why did this happen• What would have happened if

The most common format for investigating tasks is short or extended oral andwritten constructed-response tasks.

Investigating With Information

Knowledge of specific details and organizing ideas are commonly the impe-tus for an investigation. For example, the first investigating task for detailsinvolves facts about obtaining food during a specific period of time. To completethe task, students must examine what others have said about the issue. The firstinvestigating task for organizing ideas involves generalizations about people imi-tating characters in the media. Students are instructed to examine what others havesaid about this issue using information from the Internet along with other sources.

Investigating With Mental Procedures

Mental skills and processes are frequently the subject of investigating tasks.For example, the first investigating task for mental skills focuses on discoveringthe origins of base 10 computational algorithms. The first investigating taskinvolving mental processes addresses the process of using Internet databases.Students must examine early origins of such databases.



111

Fig

ure

6.5

Inve

stig

atin

g O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Sel

ect

thre

e ki

nds

of b

asic

food

s th

at y

ou e

atev

ery

day,

like

bre

ad,

milk

, an

d ve

geta

bles

.H

ow d

id a

fam

ily in

ear

ly A

mer

ica

obta

in t

hesa

me

kind

s of

food

? D

id t

his

chan

ge h

ow t

hey

spen

t th

eir

time?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

how

acqu

iring

dai

ly fo

odpl

aced

gre

at d

eman

dson

fam

ilies

of

1800

s.

Det

ails

abo

utfa

mili

es o

f th

e18

00s

His

tory

3–4

Kno

ws

how

a fa

rm fa

mily

from

the

ear

ly 1

800s

expe

rienc

ed d

aily

life

(e.g

., w

ork,

clo

thin

g, t

ools

,fo

od,

and

food

pro

duct

ion)

.

We’

ve b

een

stud

ying

how

hum

an a

ctio

nsca

n im

pact

the

env

ironm

ent.

In 1

972,

2 m

illio

nol

d tir

es w

ere

drop

ped

a m

ile o

ff th

e co

ast

ofF

lorid

a, in

a m

ove

thou

ght

to b

enef

icia

l.N

owth

ere

is a

sig

nific

ant

effo

rt u

nder

way

to

rem

ove

all t

he t

ires

at c

onsi

dera

ble

expe

nse.

Det

erm

ine

why

the

pla

n w

as a

dopt

ed o

rigin

ally

, w

hyth

e tir

es m

ust

now

be

rem

oved

, an

d, w

ithth

e be

nefit

of

hind

sigh

t, w

hat

shou

ld h

ave

been

inve

stig

ated

bef

ore

the

initi

al d

ecis

ion

was

mad

e.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

how

spe

cific

hum

ande

cisi

ons

can

sign

ifica

ntly

impa

ctth

e en

viro

nmen

t.

Det

ails

abo

ut a

spec

ific

hum

ande

cisi

on

Geo

grap

hy

9–12

Kno

ws

how

the

phy

sica

len

viro

nmen

t is

affe

cted

by c

hang

es in

hum

ante

chno

logy

or

beha

vior

(e.g

., ru

noff

and

sedi

men

tch

ange

s, s

oil a

nd a

ir qu

ality

degr

adat

ion,

hab

itat

dest

ruct

ion,

alte

ratio

nsin

the

hyd

rolo

gic

cycl

e,in

crea

ses

in w

orld

tem

pera

ture

s).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

We

know

tha

t pe

ople

lear

n ab

out

othe

rs in

man

y di

ffere

nt w

ays,

incl

udin

g ta

lkin

g w

ithot

hers

and

fro

m m

ass

med

ia,

like

tele

visi

onan

d ra

dio.

Is it

tru

e th

at p

eopl

e so

met

imes

imita

te p

eopl

e or

cha

ract

ers

they

see

inte

levi

sion

or

the

mov

ies?

Usi

ng t

he I

nter

net

and

othe

r so

urce

s, f

ind

out

wha

t ot

hers

hav

esa

id a

nd w

ritte

n ab

out

this

issu

e.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

the

impa

ct t

hat

tele

visi

onch

arac

ters

can

hav

eon

indi

vidu

als.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t pe

ople

imita

ting

char

acte

rs in

the

med

ia

Beh

avio

ral

Stu

dies

3–5

Kno

ws

that

cha

ract

ers

seen

in t

he m

edia

are

som

etim

esim

itate

d.

(Con

tinu

ed)

112

Fig

ure

6.5

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

We

know

tha

t th

e so

urce

lang

uage

for

anE

nglis

h w

ord

or p

hras

e is

ofte

n as

soci

ated

with

som

e to

pics

but

not

oth

ers.

For

exa

mpl

e, in

med

icin

e w

e fin

d m

any

term

s or

phr

ases

tha

tha

ve t

heir

orig

in in

Lat

in o

r G

reek

.Wor

ds t

hat

nam

e fa

rm a

nim

als

tend

to

be f

rom

Old

Eng

lish

or A

nglo

-Sax

on—

cow

, de

er,

shee

p—bu

t th

ena

mes

for

the

mea

t fr

om t

hese

ani

mal

s of

ten

have

a F

renc

h or

igin

—be

ef,

veni

son,

mut

ton.

Exp

lore

fam

ilies

of

wor

ds t

o de

term

ine

if yo

uca

n fin

d an

y ot

her

rela

tions

hips

or

asso

ciat

ions

.C

ome

up w

ith e

vide

nce

for

your

wor

d fa

mily

and

sugg

est

a re

ason

tha

t th

e w

ords

sha

re a

com

mon

sou

rce

lang

uage

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

wor

d or

igin

s to

iden

tify

prin

cipl

es o

rco

mm

onal

ities

in w

ord

fam

ilies

.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

wor

dor

igin

s

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8

Und

erst

ands

the

mea

ning

of

unfa

mili

ar w

ords

by

usin

gw

ord

orig

ins

and

deriv

atio

ns(e

.g.,

Latin

and

Gre

ek r

oots

,m

eani

ngs

of fo

reig

n w

ords

used

in E

nglis

h, h

isto

rical

and

cont

empo

rary

influ

ence

son

wor

d m

eani

ngs)

.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng d

iffer

ent

base

s in

mat

hem

atic

s.O

f co

urse

, ba

se 1

0 is

the

one

we

use.

Usi

ng t

he I

nter

net

and

othe

r so

urce

s,de

scrib

e th

e ea

rly o

rigin

s of

bas

e10

mat

hem

atic

s.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

the

orig

ins

of b

ase

10m

athe

mat

ics.

Com

puta

tiona

lal

gorit

hms

inth

e ba

se 1

0sy

stem

Mat

h6–

8K

now

s ho

w n

umbe

r sy

stem

sw

ith b

ases

oth

er t

han

10 a

rest

ruct

ured

(e.

g.,

base

60

for

telli

ng t

ime

and

mea

surin

gan

gles

, R

oman

num

eral

s fo

rda

tes

and

cloc

k fa

ces)

.

In t

he p

ast,

peop

le u

sed

diffe

rent

too

ls t

om

easu

re w

eigh

t.A

sk y

our

pare

nts

and

rela

tives

how

the

y m

easu

red

wei

ght

whe

n th

ey w

ere

youn

g an

d co

mpa

re w

hat

they

did

with

wha

tyo

u do

tod

ay.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to in

vest

igat

e ho

wsp

ecifi

c m

etho

ds o

fm

easu

ring

wei

ght h

ave

chan

ged

over

tim

e.

Spe

cific

mea

sure

men

tst

rate

gies

and

tool

s

Geo

grap

hy3–

5R

ecal

ls v

ario

us m

etho

ds a

ndto

ols

used

to

mea

sure

dist

ance

(e.

g.,

mile

s,ki

lom

eter

s, t

ime,

cos

t,pe

rcep

tion)

.

113

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

We

have

bee

n us

ing

a va

riety

of

type

s of

Inte

rnet

dat

abas

es.I

n fa

ct,

the

Inte

rnet

has

not

been

aro

und

that

long

.Wha

t w

ere

som

eof

the

ear

lier

vers

ions

of

Inte

rnet

dat

abas

es?

How

hav

e th

ey c

hang

ed?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

the

early

orig

ins

ofIn

tern

et d

atab

ases

.

The

use

of I

nter

net

data

base

s

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

ses

mul

tiple

Int

erne

tda

taba

ses

in o

rder

to

expa

nd o

n is

sues

of in

tere

st.

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng v

ario

us u

ses

ofre

curr

ent

rela

tions

hips

to

mod

el r

eal-w

orld

prob

lem

s.U

sing

the

Int

erne

t an

d ot

her

sour

ces,

iden

tify

the

orig

ins

of t

his

idea

.W

ho f

irst

star

ted

usin

g th

e te

rm r

ecur

rent

rela

tions

hips

? W

hat

type

s of

rea

l-wor

ldpr

oble

ms

wer

e th

ey d

ealin

g w

ith?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

the

orig

ins

of t

he c

once

ptof

rec

urre

nt r

elat

ions

.

The

pro

cess

of

mod

elin

g an

dso

lvin

g re

al-

wor

ld p

robl

ems

usin

g re

curr

ent

rela

tions

Mat

h9–

12U

ses

recu

rren

ce r

elat

ions

(i.e.

, fo

rmul

as e

xpre

ssin

g a

patte

rn in

whi

ch e

ach

term

isa

func

tion

of o

ne o

r m

ore

ofth

e pr

evio

us t

erm

s, a

s in

the

Fib

onac

ci s

eque

nce)

to

mod

el a

nd t

o so

lve

real

-wor

ldpr

oble

ms

(e.g

., ho

me

mor

tgag

es,

annu

ities

).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Com

pare

the

des

ign

of t

he s

trai

ght

and

narr

owsk

is o

f th

e 19

80s

with

the

par

abol

ic s

kis

ofto

day.

How

and

why

doe

s th

e de

sign

cha

nge

impa

ct t

he w

ay t

he s

kis

are

used

to

mak

e a

turn

? U

se a

ccou

nts

by e

xper

t sk

iers

to

answ

erth

is q

uest

ion.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

inve

stig

ate

how

and

why

cha

nges

insp

orts

equ

ipm

ent

can

impa

ct s

kill

requ

ired

in t

he s

port

.

Spe

cific

ski

ing

tech

niqu

esP

hysi

cal

Edu

catio

n9–

12

Use

s ad

vanc

ed s

port

-spe

cific

skill

s (e

.g.,

aqua

tics,

dan

ce,

indi

vidu

al a

nd t

eam

spo

rts)

.

(Con

tinu

ed)

114

Fig

ure

6.5

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Des

crib

e va

rious

tec

hniq

ues

peop

le u

se fo

rke

epin

g on

pitc

h.W

hich

one

see

ms

best

to

you?

Use

opi

nion

s ex

pres

sed

by p

rofe

ssio

nal

perf

orm

ers

to a

ddre

ss t

he is

sue.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to in

vest

igat

ete

chni

ques

for

keep

ing

on p

itch.

The

ski

ll of

keep

ing

onpi

tch

Mus

ic6–

8U

ses

brea

th c

ontr

ol,

expr

essi

on,

and

tech

nica

lac

cura

cy w

hen

sing

ing

(e.g

., us

es a

ppro

pria

tetim

bre,

into

natio

n, d

ictio

n,pi

tche

s, a

nd r

hyth

ms)

and

sing

s at

a le

vel t

hat

incl

udes

rang

e an

d ch

ange

s of

tem

po,

key,

and

met

er.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Iden

tify

a ru

le c

hang

e in

the

pas

t de

cade

of

prof

essi

onal

foot

ball

that

has

had

an

impa

ct in

the

way

tha

t ce

rtai

n pl

ays

are

exec

uted

or

whe

n th

ey a

re c

alle

d.W

hat

was

the

inte

ntio

nof

the

rul

e ch

ange

? H

as it

bee

n ef

fect

ive?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to in

vest

igat

e ho

wch

ange

s in

a s

port

’sru

les

can

have

an

impa

ct o

n pl

ay.

The

pro

cess

and

rule

sre

gard

ing

asp

ecifi

c sp

ort

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Fol

low

s ap

prop

riate

rul

es fo

ra

sele

ct s

port

and

app

lies

offe

nsiv

e an

d de

fens

ive

stra

tegi

es.

Inve

stig

ate

the

proc

ess

for

mak

ing

an o

ilpa

intin

g du

ring

the

Ren

aiss

ance

and

how

artis

ts m

ake

them

tod

ay.W

hat

tech

niqu

es h

ave

rem

aine

d th

e sa

me

over

the

cen

turie

s, a

nd w

hydo

the

y co

ntin

ue t

o be

in u

se t

oday

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to in

vest

igat

e th

ech

arac

teris

tics

of a

rtm

edia

and

how

the

yha

ve c

hang

ed o

rre

mai

ned

the

sam

eov

er t

ime.

The

pro

cess

of

mak

ing

an o

ilpa

intin

g

Vis

ual A

rts

5–8

Und

erst

ands

how

com

mun

icat

ion

ofex

perie

nces

and

idea

s ca

nbe

affe

cted

by

diffe

rent

use

sof

art

med

ia,

tech

niqu

es,

and

proc

esse

s.

Investigating With Psychomotor Procedures

Psychomotor skills and processes can be the subject of investigating tasks.For example, the first investigating task for psychomotor skills asks students tocollect information about the impact of parabolic skis on the procedure of mak-ing turns. Students are asked to use opinions from expert skiers. The first exam-ple of an investigating task involving psychomotor processes addresses rules forplaying a specific sport. Students must examine how changes in these rules haveaffected the sport.


KNOWLEDGE UTILIZATION OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Decision-Making Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to select among alternatives• Use terms and phrases like the following: decide, select the best among the

following alternatives, which among the following would be best, what isthe best way, which of these is most suitable

• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific graphic organizers

Problem-Solving Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to overcome an obstacle to a goal• Use terms and phrases like the following: solve, how would you overcome,

adapt, develop a strategy to, figure out a way to, how will you reach yourgoal under these conditions

• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats

Experimenting Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to generate and test hypotheses• Use terms and phrases like the following: generate and test, test the idea

that, what would happen if, how would you test it, how would you deter-mine if, how can this be explained, based on this explanation what canbe predicted


Investigating Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to test hypotheses using what others have said or writtenas data as opposed to observational data they collect themselves


• Use terms and phrases like the following: investigate, research, find outabout, take a position on, what are the defining features of, how did thishappen, why did this happen, what would have happened if



117

CH A P T E R SE V E N

Metacognition Objectives and Tasks

The metacognitive processes oversee learning. There are four categoriesof metacognitive processes: (1) specifying goals, (2) process monitoring,

(3) monitoring clarity, and (4) monitoring accuracy.

SPECIFYING GOALS

The metacognitive process of specifying goals involves setting specific goals rela-tive to one’s understanding or skill at a specific type of knowledge and developinga plan for accomplishing the goals. Figure 7.1 lists specifying goals objectives andtasks for the various domains of knowledge.

The phrase set goals is frequently used in specifying goals, objectives, andtasks along with terms and phrases like the following:

• What would you like to accomplish• Identify something you want to

Specifying goals involves setting goals for specific types of knowledge andalso identifying how those goals might be accomplished. To demonstrate goal spec-ification, a student must not only articulate a goal relative to a specific knowledgecomponent but also articulate the specifics of a plan for accomplishing the goal.

The most common format for specifying goals tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed response. A graphic organizer like that in Figure 7.2 canbe used to aid students in the process of specifying goals.

Although very simple in nature, the graphic organizer in Figure 7.2requires students to identify a goal, outline a plan for accomplishing the goal,

118

Fig

ure

7.1

Spec

ifyi

ng G

oals

Obj

ectiv

es a

nd T

asks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r un

ders

tand

ing

of t

he s

eque

nce

of e

vent

s le

adin

gto

the

Sec

ond

Wor

ld W

ar?

Wha

t w

ould

you

hav

e to

do

reac

hyo

ur g

oal?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

nder

stan

ding

the

sequ

ence

of

even

ts in

Wor

ldW

ar I

I an

d id

entif

y ho

w it

can

be

acco

mpl

ishe

d.

Seq

uenc

e of

even

ts in

WW

II

U.S

.His

tory

7–8

Und

erst

ands

the

serie

s of

eve

nts

that

led

up to

Wor

ld W

ar II

(e.

g.,

the

lega

cy o

f Wor

ld W

ar I,

the

depr

essi

on in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes,

ethn

ic a

nd id

eolo

gica

l con

flict

s,im

peria

lism

, and

trad

ition

alpo

litic

al o

r ec

onom

ic r

ival

ries)

and

the

even

ts o

f the

war

itse

lf(e

.g.,

the

reas

ons

for

early

Axi

spo

wer

vic

torie

s be

twee

n 19

39an

d 19

42, h

ow H

itler

use

d th

ede

spai

r of

the

Ger

man

peo

ple

toris

e to

pow

er).

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r un

ders

tand

ing

of t

he r

oles

and

res

pons

ibili

ties

of t

he d

iffer

ent

bran

ches

of

our

gove

rnm

ent?

Wha

t w

ould

you

hav

eto

do

to r

each

you

r go

al?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

nder

stan

ding

the

thre

e br

anch

es o

fgo

vern

men

t an

d id

entif

y ho

wth

at g

oal c

an b

e ac

com

plis

hed.

Det

ails

rega

rdin

gth

e th

ree

bran

ches

of

gove

rnm

ent

Civ

ics

6–8

Und

erst

ands

the

mai

n po

wer

san

d fu

nctio

ns o

f ea

ch b

ranc

hof

gov

ernm

ent

in a

sys

tem

of

shar

ed p

ower

s (e

.g.,

legi

slat

ive,

exec

utiv

e, ju

dici

al)

and

the

wor

king

rel

atio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

the

bran

ches

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r un

ders

tand

ing

of h

ow p

eopl

e ac

t di

ffere

ntly

in a

grou

p fr

om h

ow t

hey

act

whe

n th

eyar

e on

the

ir ow

n? W

hat

wou

ld y

ouha

ve t

o do

rea

ch y

our

goal

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

nder

stan

ding

how

mem

bers

of

a gr

oup

beha

vean

d id

entif

y ho

w t

hat

goal

can

be a

ccom

plis

hed.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t ho

wm

embe

rs o

f a

grou

p be

have

Beh

avio

ral

Stu

dies

3–5

Und

erst

ands

tha

t in

divi

dual

sca

n be

influ

ence

d to

do

thin

gsth

ey w

ould

not

oth

erw

ise

do(g

ood

or b

ad)

whe

n th

ey a

rem

embe

rs o

f a

grou

p.

119

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Wha

t is

a go

al y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r un

ders

tand

ing

of h

ow th

e pr

inci

ples

of e

nerg

ytr

ansf

er in

and

out

of t

heat

mos

pher

e he

lp e

xpla

in v

aria

tion

inw

eath

er a

nd c

limat

e? W

hat w

ould

you

have

to d

o re

ach

your

goa

l?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

nder

stan

ding

the

tran

sfer

of

ener

gy in

and

out

of t

he a

tmos

pher

e an

d id

entif

yho

w t

hat

goal

can

be

acco

mpl

ishe

d.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

the

tran

sfer

of

ener

gy

Sci

ence

9–12

Und

erst

ands

how

wea

ther

and

clim

ate

are

affe

cted

by

heat

and

ener

gy t

rans

fer

in a

nd o

ut o

f th

eat

mos

pher

e (e

.g.,

radi

atio

n,co

nduc

tion,

con

vect

ion–

adve

ctio

n).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r ab

ility

to

use

spec

ific

func

tions

in a

GP

S d

evic

e?H

ow m

ight

you

rea

ch t

his

goal

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to t

he a

bilit

y to

use

spec

ific

func

tions

in a

GP

Sde

vice

and

iden

tify

how

tha

t go

alca

n be

rea

ched

.

Use

of

spec

ific

func

tions

in a

GP

S d

evic

e

Geo

grap

hy9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

he e

lem

ents

and

uses

of

geog

raph

icte

chno

logi

es (

e.g.

, ge

ogra

phic

info

rmat

ion

syst

ems

[GIS

] an

dsa

telli

te-p

rodu

ced

imag

ery)

.

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r ab

ility

to p

erfo

rm b

asic

men

tal

com

puta

tions

? H

ow m

ight

you

reac

h th

is g

oal?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

a go

al r

elat

ive

to t

he a

bilit

y to

perf

orm

men

tal c

alcu

latio

ns a

ndid

entif

y ho

w t

hat

goal

can

be

reac

hed.

Per

form

ing

men

tal

calc

ulat

ions

Mat

h3–

5P

erfo

rms

basi

c m

enta

l add

ition

and

subt

ract

ion

com

puta

tions

invo

lvin

g w

hole

num

bers

.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

abo

ut y

our

abili

ty t

o be

tter

unde

rsta

nd w

hat

you

are

read

ing?

How

mig

ht y

ou r

each

thi

s go

al?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

a go

al r

elat

ive

to t

he a

bilit

y to

com

preh

end

text

s an

d id

entif

yho

w t

hat

goal

can

be

reac

hed.

The

pro

cess

of

com

preh

endi

ngte

xt

Lang

uage

Art

sK

–2

Use

s or

gani

zatio

nal f

eatu

res

(e.g

., pi

ctur

e ca

ptio

ns, t

itle,

head

ings

, sto

ry s

truc

ture

, sto

ryto

pic)

to a

id u

nder

stan

ding

and

mak

e pr

edic

tions

abo

ut c

onte

nt(e

.g.,

actio

n, e

vent

s, r

esol

utio

ns).

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r ab

ility

to

use

a va

riety

of

sent

ence

s to

com

mun

icat

e yo

ur t

houg

hts?

How

mig

ht y

ou r

each

thi

s go

al?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

sing

a v

arie

ty o

fse

nten

ce t

ypes

in a

com

posi

tion

and

iden

tify

how

tha

t go

al c

anbe

rea

ched

.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

ava

riety

of

sent

ence

sw

hen

writ

ing

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8

Use

s al

l sen

tenc

e ty

pes

fluid

lyw

ith a

n ey

e fo

r el

abor

atin

gid

eas

(e.g

., si

mpl

e, c

ompo

und,

and

com

plex

sen

tenc

es;p

aral

lel

stru

ctur

e, s

uch

as s

imila

rgr

amm

atic

al fo

rms

orju

xtap

osed

item

s).

(Con

tinu

ed)

120

Fig

ure

7.1

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

rel

ativ

e to

you

r ab

ility

to

mas

ter

a se

rve

or p

ass

in a

favo

rite

spor

t? H

ow m

ight

you

rea

chth

is g

oal?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

a go

al r

elat

ive

to t

he a

bilit

y to

mas

ter

a se

rve

or p

ass

in a

spec

ific

spor

t an

d id

entif

y ho

wth

at g

oal c

an b

e re

ache

d.

The

ski

ll of

pass

ing

orse

rvin

g

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

mov

emen

tsas

soci

ated

with

hig

hly

skill

edat

hlet

es (

e.g.

, w

hat

mov

es m

ake

a su

cces

sful

ten

nis

serv

e).

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

abo

ut u

sing

a c

ompu

ter

keyb

oard

? H

ow m

ight

you

rea

chth

is g

oal?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

elat

ive

to u

sing

a c

ompu

ter

keyb

oard

and

iden

tify

how

tha

tgo

al c

an b

e re

ache

d.

Key

boar

ding

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8Ty

pes

with

pro

gres

sing

prof

icie

ncy,

sho

win

g so

me

key

mem

oriz

atio

n.

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

abo

ut u

sing

the

cor

rect

pron

unci

atio

n in

Spa

nish

? H

owm

ight

you

rea

ch t

his

goal

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

a go

al r

egar

ding

cor

rect

pron

unci

atio

n in

Spa

nish

and

iden

tify

how

tha

t go

al c

an b

ere

ache

d.

The

ski

ll of

usin

g co

rrec

tpr

onun

ciat

ion

For

eign

Lang

uage

K–4

Use

s la

ngua

ge m

echa

nics

,co

nven

tions

and

sty

le (

e.g.

,gr

amm

ar,

spel

ling,

voc

abul

ary,

dial

ect,

slan

g, id

iom

s, h

umor

,pr

onun

ciat

ion,

into

natio

n, t

one,

stre

ss,

stru

ctur

e) a

ppro

pria

te fo

rdi

ffere

nt a

udie

nces

(e.

g.,

peer

s,te

ache

rs)

and

setti

ngs

(e.g

.,fo

rmal

, in

form

al).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

abo

ut p

erfo

rmin

g an

inst

rum

enta

l pie

ce w

hile

oth

ers

sing

or p

lay

cont

rast

ing

part

s? H

owm

ight

you

rea

ch t

his

goal

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

ago

al r

egar

ding

an

inst

rum

enta

lpi

ece

as a

ccom

pani

men

t an

did

entif

y ho

w t

hat

goal

can

be

reac

hed.

The

pro

cess

of

perfo

rmin

g an

inst

rum

enta

lpi

ece

Mus

ic3–

5P

erfo

rms

inst

rum

enta

l par

ts w

ithot

hers

in a

n or

ches

tral

ike

setti

ng(e

.g.,

sim

ple

rhyt

hmic

or

mel

odic

ostin

atos

, co

ntra

stin

g rh

ythm

iclin

es,

harm

onic

pro

gres

sion

san

d ch

ords

).

Wha

t is

a g

oal y

ou h

ave

or m

ight

have

abo

ut a

chie

ving

a s

peci

ficef

fect

in p

aint

ing?

How

mig

ht y

oure

ach

this

goa

l?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

set

a go

al r

elat

ive

to a

chie

ving

asp

ecifi

c ef

fect

in p

aint

ing

and

iden

tify

how

tha

t go

al c

an b

ere

ache

d.

The

pro

cess

of a

chie

ving

asp

ecifi

c ef

fect

whe

n pa

intin

g

Vis

ual A

rts

5–8

Und

erst

ands

how

com

mun

icat

ion

of e

xper

ienc

es a

nd id

eas

can

beaf

fect

ed b

y di

ffere

nt u

ses

of a

rtm

edia

, tec

hniq

ues,

and

proc

esse

s.

Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 121

My plan: ____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Figure 7.2 Graphic Organizer for Specifying Goals

My goal:

Resources I will need:

and identify the resources necessary for executing the plan. Across all thedomains of knowledge, it is the student’s response to the question regarding the manner in which the goal will be accomplished that provides insight into the level at which the student is employing the metacognitive process of speci-fying goals. For example, a response in which the student notes, “I will have towork harder to accomplish this goal” does not truly address the metacognitiveprocess of goal setting. Rather, the student should identify a clear objective, arough time line, necessary resources and the like.

Specifying Goals With Information

Specifying goals tasks for details and organizing ideas involve setting goalsfor specific details and organizing ideas along with a plan for accomplishing those

goals. For example, the first specifying goals task for details addresses detailsabout World War II. Students must set a goal relative to increasing their knowl-edge regarding this information and establish a plan for doing so. The first speci-fying goals task for organizing ideas deal with setting goals regardinggeneralizations about how members of a group behave.

Specifying Goals With Mental Procedures

Specifying goals tasks for mental skills and processes involve setting goals forspecific mental skills and processes along with a plan for accomplishing those goals.For example, the first specifying goals task for mental skills involves use of specificfunctions on a GPS device. Students must set a goal relative to these skills and estab-lish a plan for accomplishing the goal. The first specifying goals task for mentalprocesses involves setting goals regarding the process of comprehending text.

Specifying Goals With Psychomotor Procedures

Specifying goals tasks for psychomotor skills and processes involve settinggoals for specific psychomotor skills and processes along with a plan for accom-plishing those goals. For example, the first specifying goals task for psychomotorskills involves the skill of passing or serving in a specific sport. Students must seta goal for improving their performance in these skills and then establish a plan foraccomplishing the goal. The first specifying goals task for psychomotor processesinvolves setting goals relative to performing an instrumental piece.

PROCESS MONITORING

Process monitoring commonly involves determining how effectively a plan foraccomplishing a goal is being accomplished and how effectively a procedure isbeing carried out in real time, particularly when a goal has been established for theprocedure. The goals addressed in process monitoring might be relatively long-termgoals established by the metacognitive process of specifying goals or they might berelatively short-term goals established for a specific situation. Figure 7.3 presentsprocess monitoring objectives and tasks across the various domains of knowledge.

The term monitor is commonly used in process monitoring tasks along withterms and phrases like the following:

• Evaluate• Determine how well• Determine how effectively



123

Fig

ure

7.3

Proc

ess

Mon

itori

ng O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng a

spec

ts o

fec

onom

ics

rela

ted

to in

tend

ed a

ndun

inte

nded

con

sequ

ence

s.A

s w

e’ve

lear

ned,

the

ter

m e

xter

nalit

ies

desc

ribes

unin

tend

ed c

onse

quen

ces

that

mig

ht b

ebe

nefic

ial o

r ha

rmfu

l to

othe

rs.S

et a

goal

reg

ardi

ng y

our

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

this

ter

m.A

s yo

u un

dert

ake

this

, ob

serv

eho

w y

ou r

efin

e yo

ur u

nder

stan

ding

.W

hat

wor

ks b

est

for

you?

Def

initi

ons,

exam

ples

, or

act

ual c

ases

? If

in t

hepr

oces

s yo

u fin

d yo

urse

lf co

nfus

ed,

wha

t do

you

thi

nk m

ight

hav

e go

new

rong

in y

our

appr

oach

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to m

onito

r ho

w w

ell h

e or

she

is r

efin

ing

his

or h

erun

ders

tand

ing

rela

tive

toth

e te

rm e

xter

nalit

ies

base

don

a p

erso

nal g

oal h

e or

she

has

set.

A s

peci

ficec

onom

ics

term

Eco

nom

ics

9–12

Kno

ws

that

ext

erna

litie

sca

nbe

def

ined

as

unin

tent

iona

lef

fect

s (g

ood

or b

ad)

that

resu

lt w

hen

prod

uctio

n or

cons

umpt

ion

of a

par

ticul

argo

od o

r se

rvic

e af

fect

s pe

ople

who

are

not

dire

ctly

invo

lved

in th

e m

arke

t exc

hang

e(e

.g.,

a ne

gativ

e ex

tern

ality

occu

rs in

pro

duct

ion

whe

nla

rge

com

pani

es e

xplo

itw

orke

rs in

poo

r co

untr

ies

tom

ake

chea

per

prod

ucts

;apo

sitiv

e ex

tern

ality

inpr

oduc

tion

occu

rs w

hen

drug

sm

ade

to tr

eat o

ne m

edic

alco

nditi

on a

re fo

und

to h

elp

trea

t ano

ther

as

wel

l).

The

re a

re m

any

type

s of

terr

ain—

mar

sh,

alpi

ne, a

nd tu

ndra

, jus

t to

nam

e a

few

.S

ee if

you

can

dev

elop

a p

erso

nal

syst

em, a

sch

ema,

or

cate

gorie

s th

atw

ill h

elp

you

bette

r un

ders

tand

the

diffe

renc

es a

mon

g th

ese

term

s an

d w

hyth

ey p

rovi

de u

sefu

l dis

tinct

ions

.As

you

gain

a b

ette

r un

ders

tand

ing,

wat

ch w

hat

it is

you

do

that

see

ms

to b

e m

ost h

elpf

ulan

d w

hat d

oesn

’t se

em to

wor

k.C

an y

ousa

y w

hat w

orks

, wha

t doe

sn’t,

and

why

?

Bas

ed o

n a

pers

onal

ly s

etgo

al,

the

stud

ent

will

be

able

to m

onito

r ho

w w

ell h

e or

she

is r

efin

ing

his

or h

erun

ders

tand

ing

abou

t th

edi

ffere

nces

am

ong

term

sus

ed t

o de

scrib

e te

rrai

n.

Spe

cific

geog

raph

yte

rms

Geo

grap

hy9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

he a

dvan

tage

san

d di

sadv

anta

ges

of u

sing

plac

es fo

r di

ffere

nt a

ctiv

ities

base

d on

the

ir ph

ysic

alch

arac

teris

tics

(e.g

., flo

odzo

ne,

fore

st,

tund

ra,

eart

hqua

ke z

one,

riv

ercr

ossi

ng).

(Con

tinu

ed)

124

Fig

ure

7.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

It’s

a tr

uism

tha

t tr

ansp

orta

tion

and

com

mun

icat

ion

can

have

a s

igni

fican

tim

pact

on

how

peo

ple

live

and

rela

te t

oon

e an

othe

r.S

et a

goa

l reg

ardi

ng y

our

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

thi

s ge

nera

lizat

ion.

As

you

deve

lop

the

exam

ples

, id

entif

y w

hat

help

s yo

u un

ders

tand

the

se id

eas

bette

r.W

hen

you

find

exam

ples

tha

t do

n’t

help

your

und

erst

andi

ng,

see

if yo

u ca

nde

scrib

e w

hat

it is

abo

ut t

he e

xam

ples

that

don

’t se

rve

the

purp

ose.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

heis

mee

ting

a pe

rson

algo

al r

egar

ding

lear

ning

gene

raliz

atio

ns a

bout

tran

spor

tatio

n an

dco

mm

unic

atio

n.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

ttr

ansp

orta

tion

and

com

mun

icat

ion

Geo

grap

hy3–

5K

now

s ho

w u

pdat

es in

tran

spor

tatio

n an

dco

mm

unic

atio

n te

chno

logy

have

affe

cted

rel

atio

nshi

psbe

twee

n pe

ople

or

com

mun

ities

in d

iffer

ent

loca

tions

.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

We’

ve b

een

disc

ussi

ng s

ome

of t

hesc

ienc

e as

soci

ated

with

glo

bal w

arm

ing.

We

lear

ned

of t

he p

rinci

ple

that

war

m a

irho

lds

mor

e m

oist

ure

than

coo

l air.

Set

ago

al a

bout

lear

ning

mor

e ab

out

this

idea

in t

erm

s of

its

impl

icat

ions

for

glob

alw

arm

ing

and

clim

ate.

In o

ther

wor

ds,

wha

t im

pact

doe

s th

is p

rinci

ple

sugg

est

if te

mpe

ratu

re is

ris

ing

acro

ss t

he g

lobe

?A

s yo

u se

ek t

o le

arn

abou

t th

is,

keep

aw

are

abou

t w

hat

help

s yo

uun

ders

tand

—w

hat

way

s yo

u fin

d he

lpyo

u m

ake

the

conn

ectio

ns—

and

also

any

appr

oach

es y

ou u

se t

hat

do n

othe

lp y

ou u

nder

stan

d th

e pr

oble

m.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

a go

al h

e or

she

has

set

rega

rdin

g un

ders

tand

ing

the

prin

cipl

e th

at w

arm

air

hold

s m

ore

moi

stur

e th

anco

ol a

ir an

d its

impl

icat

ions

for

clim

ate.

A p

rinci

ple

rega

rdin

gth

e am

ount

of m

oist

ure

air

hold

sat

diff

eren

tte

mpe

ratu

res

Sci

ence

6–8

Und

erst

ands

the

ele

men

tsof

the

wat

er c

ycle

(e.g

., ev

apor

atio

n,co

nden

satio

n, p

reci

pita

tion,

runo

ff, p

erco

latio

n) a

nd t

heir

effe

cts

on t

he c

limat

e an

dw

eath

er p

atte

rns.

125

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

The

yea

rs 1

864

and

1865

wer

e so

me

of th

e m

ost e

vent

ful i

n th

e C

ivil

War

.C

onst

ruct

a ti

me

line

that

org

aniz

esth

ese

even

ts a

nd s

et s

tand

ards

reg

ardi

ngth

e in

form

atio

n yo

u tim

e lin

e w

ill c

onta

in.

How

doe

s th

is p

roce

ss o

f org

aniz

ing

help

you

bette

r un

ders

tand

the

impa

ct th

ese

even

ts h

ad o

n th

e pe

ople

of t

hat t

ime?

Con

side

r w

heth

er th

is ti

me

line

has

som

edi

sadv

anta

ges.

For

exam

ple,

mig

ht it

giv

eth

e m

isim

pres

sion

that

eac

h ev

ent

caus

ed th

e ev

ent t

hat f

ollo

wed

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l his

or

her

time

line

for

the

Civ

il W

arha

s m

et t

he s

tand

ard

heor

she

has

est

ablis

hed.

Use

of

atim

e lin

eU

.S.H

isto

ry7–

8K

now

s th

e ev

ents

tha

tsh

aped

the

Civ

il W

ar a

nd it

sou

tcom

e (e

.g.,

diffe

renc

esbe

twee

n th

e ec

onom

ic,

tech

nolo

gica

l, an

d hu

man

reso

urce

s of

the

Uni

on a

ndC

onfe

dera

te s

ides

;the

impa

ct o

f th

e E

man

cipa

tion

Pro

clam

atio

n).

Tran

slat

ing

stor

y pr

oble

ms

into

sym

bolic

form

s is

an

impo

rtan

t st

ep t

o fin

ding

aso

lutio

n.R

evie

w t

he s

ever

al s

tory

prob

lem

s pr

ovid

ed,

focu

sing

less

on

the

answ

er t

han

the

way

tha

t yo

u th

ink

abou

t th

e st

ory

in o

rder

to

iden

tify

the

varia

bles

and

how

the

y ar

e re

late

d.S

et a

goa

l for

you

r un

ders

tand

ing

ofth

is p

roce

ss.I

s th

ere

an a

ppro

ach

that

seem

s to

wor

k be

tter

than

ano

ther

?C

heck

you

r fo

rmul

as a

gain

st t

he o

nes

prov

ided

.Wha

t w

orke

d an

d w

hat

didn

’t?D

o yo

u kn

ow w

hy?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

heha

s m

et a

per

sona

l goa

lre

gard

ing

his

or h

erun

ders

tand

ing

of t

he s

kill

ofre

pres

entin

g st

ory

prob

lem

ssy

mbo

lical

ly.

Rep

rese

ntin

gst

ory

prob

lem

ssy

mbo

lical

ly

Mat

h3–

5Tr

ansl

ates

pro

blem

situ

atio

nsin

to a

var

iety

of

form

s(e

.g.,

a gr

aph

to a

sym

bolic

exp

ress

ion)

.

(Con

tinu

ed)

126

Fig

ure

7.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

You’

ve b

een

prov

ided

with

a s

heet

divi

ded

in th

ree

colu

mns

.The

left-

mos

tco

lum

n ha

s fiv

e ro

ws,

eac

h w

ith th

esa

me

fore

ign

lang

uage

pas

sage

.Sta

rtin

gw

ith th

e fir

st b

lank

col

umn

on th

e to

p ro

w,

prov

ide

a ro

ugh

tran

slat

ion.

Und

erlin

eth

ose

wor

ds in

the

pass

age

of th

e fir

stco

lum

n th

at h

elpe

d yo

u co

me

to th

istr

ansl

atio

n.In

the

third

, far

rig

ht c

olum

n,m

ake

any

note

s ab

out w

hat w

ords

or

phra

ses

are

still

unc

lear

.For

eac

h ro

w,

and

for

as m

any

row

s as

nec

essa

ry,

refin

e yo

ur tr

ansl

atio

n in

the

seco

ndco

lum

n, u

nder

linin

g th

e ne

w p

arts

of t

hepa

ssag

e th

at y

ou h

ave

addr

esse

d, a

ndm

akin

g no

tes

in th

e th

ird c

olum

n ab

out

your

pro

gres

s.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, in

the

first

row

, you

mig

ht m

ake

a no

te a

bout

how

you

used

the

voca

bula

ry w

ords

you

kno

wto

dra

ft yo

ur fi

rst t

rans

latio

n.B

y th

ela

st r

ow, y

ou m

ight

be

talk

ing

abou

tco

nnec

ting

wor

ds o

r un

ders

tand

ing

how

phra

ses

are

linke

d to

geth

er.B

efor

e yo

uac

tual

ly b

egin

the

proc

ess,

set

ape

rson

al g

oal f

or y

ours

elf a

nd th

en s

eeho

w w

ell y

ou m

et y

our

goal

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

his

or h

er p

rogr

ess

in m

eetin

g a

pers

onal

goa

lre

gard

ing

tran

slat

ing

afo

reig

n la

ngua

ge p

assa

ge.

The

pro

cess

of t

rans

latin

ga

fore

ign

lang

uage

pass

age

For

eign

Lang

uage

5–8

Und

erst

ands

the

con

tent

of v

ario

us a

ppro

pria

teso

urce

s on

fam

iliar

top

ics

(e.g

., pe

rson

al le

tters

,br

ochu

res,

illu

stra

ted

new

spap

er a

nd m

agaz

ine

artic

les,

adv

ertis

emen

ts).

127

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Sel

ect

one

of t

he b

ooks

we

have

in o

urcl

ass

libra

ry a

nd u

se a

ll th

e m

eani

ngcl

ues

we

have

bee

n le

arni

ng—

the

title

,th

e to

pic,

the

pic

ture

s an

d pi

ctur

eca

ptio

ns—

to h

elp

you

unde

rsta

nd t

hest

ory.

Afte

r yo

u re

ad t

he s

tory

, w

e w

illdi

scus

s ho

w a

ll th

ese

clue

s he

lped

you

unde

rsta

nd t

he s

tory

bet

ter,

or if

the

ydi

dn’t,

why

the

y di

dn’t.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

he is

usin

g m

eani

ng c

lues

to

unde

rsta

nd a

sto

ry.

The

pro

cess

of

usin

g m

eani

ngcl

ues

toun

ders

tand

a st

ory

Lang

uage

Art

sK

–2

Use

s te

xtua

l clu

es(e

.g.,

capt

ions

, tit

le,

head

ings

, st

ory

stru

ctur

e)to

aid

com

preh

ensi

on a

ndm

ake

pred

ictio

ns a

bout

cont

ent

(e.g

., ac

tion,

even

ts,

reso

lutio

n).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Impr

ovis

e a

harm

oniz

ing

part

tha

t is

styl

istic

ally

app

ropr

iate

for

a sp

ecifi

cso

ng.S

et a

goa

l for

you

r pe

rfor

man

cebe

fore

you

beg

in.R

ecor

d yo

urim

prov

isat

ion

and

liste

n to

it,

notin

g th

ese

ctio

ns t

hat

wer

e su

cces

sful

and

tho

seth

at w

ere

less

suc

cess

ful.

How

wel

l did

you

mee

t yo

ur g

oal?

Can

you

det

erm

ine

wha

t te

chni

ques

wer

e m

ost

usef

ul?

Try

the

task

aga

in t

o se

e if

your

impr

ovis

atio

n is

bet

ter

or m

ore

appr

opria

te fo

r th

e m

usic

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

heis

lear

ning

to

impr

ovis

eha

rmon

y th

at is

app

ropr

iate

for

a sp

ecifi

c st

yle

of m

usic

.

Har

mon

izin

gw

ithin

a s

peci

ficty

pe o

f m

usic

Mus

ic9–

12H

arm

oniz

es in

appr

opria

te s

tyle

. (Con

tinu

ed)

128

Fig

ure

7.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

On

your

nex

t sk

i run

, se

lect

one

asp

ect

of y

our

skiin

g as

a fo

cus,

suc

h as

you

ror

ient

atio

n to

the

fall

line,

the

sha

pe o

fea

ch c

arve

, or

you

r st

ance

com

ing

into

and

out

of a

tur

n.S

et a

spe

cific

goa

l for

your

self.

Wha

t do

you

obs

erve

abo

ut t

hesk

ill t

hat

you

do w

ell,

and

wha

t m

ight

you

need

to

wor

k m

ore

on?

How

did

your

atte

ntio

n to

the

tas

k he

lp o

r di

stra

ctfr

om y

our

exec

utio

n of

the

ski

ll?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to m

onito

r ho

w w

ell h

e or

she

mee

ts a

per

sona

l goa

lfo

r ex

ecut

ing

a sp

ecifi

csk

iing

skill

.

A s

port

-spe

cific

skill

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Use

s ap

prop

riate

ski

lls in

sele

cted

spo

rts

or a

ctiv

ities

(e.g

., sw

imm

ing,

bal

let,

hiki

ng,

tenn

is,

base

ball)

.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

As

you

star

t th

e ne

xt a

rt p

roje

ct,

keep

ajo

urna

l tha

t id

entif

ies

your

initi

al p

lans

for

prod

ucin

g th

e ar

t pi

ece,

wha

t te

chni

ques

or p

roce

sses

you

use

d an

d w

hy,

and

whe

ther

you

had

to

mak

e ch

ange

s in

your

app

roac

h to

mee

t yo

ur g

oal.

Des

crib

e w

hat

you

lear

ned

from

thi

spr

oces

s th

at m

ight

hel

p yo

u ne

xt t

ime

you

begi

n a

proj

ect.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

hem

eets

a g

oal r

elat

ive

toex

ecut

ing

the

proc

esse

sne

cess

ary

to p

rodu

ce a

nar

t pi

ece.

The

pro

cess

of p

rodu

cing

a pi

ece

of a

rt

Vis

ual A

rts

5–8

Kno

ws

how

the

exp

ress

ion

ofex

perie

nces

and

idea

s ca

nbe

sha

ped

usin

g th

e qu

aliti

esan

d ch

arac

teris

tics

ofdi

ffere

nt a

rt m

edia

.

Cho

ose

thre

e di

ffere

nt d

ance

ele

men

tsw

e ha

ve le

arne

d an

d co

mbi

ne t

hem

into

a sm

ooth

seq

uenc

e th

at s

uits

the

mus

icpr

ovid

ed.B

efor

e yo

u be

gin,

set

ape

rson

al g

oal f

or w

hat

you

wan

t to

acco

mpl

ish.

Try

diffe

rent

seq

uenc

es t

ofin

d w

hich

see

m t

o w

ork

best

.Des

crib

ew

hy y

ou m

ade

your

fin

al c

hoic

es.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

mon

itor

how

wel

l he

or s

here

ache

s a

pers

onal

goa

lre

lativ

e to

com

bini

ng d

ance

sequ

ence

s th

at a

re s

moo

than

d su

it th

e m

usic

pro

vide

d.

The

pro

cess

of

com

bini

ngda

nce

sequ

ence

s

Dan

ce5–

8U

nder

stan

ds m

ovem

ent

elem

ents

obs

erve

d in

dan

cean

d un

ders

tand

s ap

prop

riate

danc

e vo

cabu

lary

(e.

g.,

leve

l,di

rect

ion)

.

Process monitoring tasks are frequently extended in their duration, particu-larly if the focus is a long-term goal. In such cases, they require students to keeptrack of learning over time and report on how well they have met their long-termgoals. The most common response format for process monitoring tasks is short orextended written or oral constructed response.

Process Monitoring With Information

Process monitoring tasks for information involve monitoring the extent towhich goals are being met in terms of understanding specific details and organiz-ing ideas. For example, the first process monitoring task for details in Figure 7.3addresses a specific economics term. To complete the task, students must monitortheir progress in meeting a specific goal they have set for learning that term. Thefirst process monitoring task for organizing ideas addresses generalizations abouttransportation and communication. Again students set personal goals regardingtheir understanding and then monitor their progress toward those goals.

Process Monitoring With Mental Procedures

To elicit process monitoring for mental and psychomotor procedures, tasksmust be designed in such a way that students can monitor how well they are meet-ing goals relative to the execution of these procedures. For example, the firstprocess monitoring task for mental skills involves using a time line. Students mustarticulate standards for their time lines and the extent to which the finished productmeets their standards. The first process monitoring task for mental processesinvolves the process of translating a foreign language passage. Students set explicitgoals for translating the passage and then determine how well their goals were met.

Process Monitoring With Psychomotor Procedures

Process monitoring for psychomotor procedures follows the same pattern asprocess monitoring with mental procedures. The first process monitoring task forpsychomotor skills involves harmonizing within a specific type of music. Studentsmust record their attempts at harmonizing so that they might analyze how wellthey have met their goals. The first process monitoring task for psychomotorprocesses involves producing a piece of art. Goals are set, and progress towardsthose goals is monitored.

MONITORING CLARITY

As its name implies, monitoring clarity involves determining the extent to whichan individual is clear about specific aspects of knowledge. Clarity is defined here


as being free from indistinction or ambiguity. Stated in more positive terms, onewho is clear about knowledge can recognize the distinctions important to thatknowledge and ascribe precise meaning to each important distinction.

Figure 7.4 presents monitoring clarity objectives and tasks across the variousdomains of knowledge.

Commonly terms and phrases like the following are employed in monitoringclarity objectives and tasks:

• What are you clear about• What are you unclear about• How could you better understand

The most common format for monitoring clarity tasks is short or extendedwritten and oral constructed-response formats.

Across all domains of knowledge, the more precise students can be about theirareas of lack of clarity, the more they are exercising the metacognitive process ofmonitoring clarity. For example, one level of monitoring for clarity regarding themental process of using WordPerfect® would be demonstrated by the followingstudent response:

“I get confused when I try to center things.”

However, a much deeper level of metacognitive awareness would be exhibitedby the following response:

“I don’t understand how you can go back and center a line in the middle ofa document without losing all the margins that you have already set up.”

Below we consider monitoring clarity tasks across the domains of knowledge.

Monitoring Clarity With Information

Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of information involve identifyinghow clear a student is about specific details and organizing ideas. For example,the first monitoring clarity task for details involves details about the humanskeletal structure. Students must determine their level of clarity about the specificrole it plays in growth and survival. The first monitoring clarity task for organiz-ing ideas addresses clarity regarding generalizations about specific substances.



131

Fig

ure

7.4

Mon

itori

ng C

lari

ty O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

Thi

nk a

bout

the

ske

leta

l str

uctu

reof

the

hum

an b

ody.

Are

you

cle

arab

out

the

spec

ific

role

it p

lays

ingr

owth

and

sur

viva

l? W

hat

is n

otcl

ear

to y

ou?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

deta

ils a

bout

the

skel

etal

str

uctu

re a

bout

whi

ch h

e or

she

has

diffi

culty

mak

ing

dist

inct

ions

.

Det

ails

abo

utth

e hu

man

skel

etal

stru

ctur

e

Sci

ence

3–5

Und

erst

ands

tha

t th

e gr

owth

,su

rviv

al,

and

repr

oduc

tion

of li

ving

orga

nism

s de

pend

upo

n di

stin

ctbo

dy s

truc

ture

s an

d bo

dy s

yste

ms

(e.g

., on

e bo

dy s

truc

ture

isco

nduc

ive

to s

wim

min

g w

hile

anot

her

is c

ondu

cive

to

flyin

g).

We

have

stu

died

the

Age

of

Dis

cove

ry a

nd n

oted

tha

t th

at p

erio

dis

sig

nific

ant

for

the

exch

ange

of

flora

, fa

una,

and

pat

hoge

ns.W

hat

aspe

cts

abou

t th

is e

xcha

nge

are

uncl

ear

to y

ou?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y de

tails

abo

utth

e A

ge o

f D

isco

very

abou

t w

hich

he

or s

heha

s di

fficu

lty m

akin

gdi

stin

ctio

ns.

Det

ails

abo

utth

e A

ge o

fD

isco

very

Wor

ld H

isto

ry7–

8K

now

s th

e ef

fect

s of

the

inte

ract

ions

of fl

ora,

faun

a, a

nd p

atho

gens

on

both

loca

l and

glo

bal p

opul

atio

ns(e

.g.,

how

the

dise

ase

mic

roor

gani

sms

the

Pilg

rims

brou

ght d

evas

tate

din

dige

nous

pop

ulat

ions

;pop

ulat

ion

trend

s an

d gr

owth

in th

e A

mer

icas

,E

urop

e, a

nd E

ast A

sia

in th

e si

xtee

nth

and

seve

ntee

nth

cent

urie

s, o

rigin

san

d ro

utes

of f

lora

and

faun

aex

chan

ged

acro

ss th

e w

orld

).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Do

you

know

whi

ch s

ubst

ance

s ar

ehe

lpfu

l and

whi

ch a

re h

arm

ful?

Som

e su

bsta

nces

, lik

e pr

escr

iptio

ndr

ugs,

can

be

help

ful f

or s

ome

peop

le b

ut h

arm

ful f

or o

ther

s.W

hich

subs

tanc

es a

re y

ou c

onfu

sed

abou

t?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

thos

e as

pect

s of

harm

ful a

nd h

elpf

ulsu

bsta

nces

abo

ut w

hich

he o

r sh

e is

unc

lear

.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t sp

ecifi

csu

bsta

nces

Hea

lthK

–2U

nder

stan

ds h

ow t

o te

ll th

edi

ffere

nce

betw

een

help

ful

and

harm

ful s

ubst

ance

s.

(Con

tinu

ed)

132

Fig

ure

7.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

Tens

ions

bet

wee

n in

divi

dual

free

dom

s an

d rig

hts

and

natio

nal

secu

rity

are

not

acad

emic

.In

the

cour

se o

f U

.S.h

isto

ry t

o th

e pr

esen

tda

y, t

here

are

diff

erin

g vi

ews

as t

ow

hen

or e

ven

whe

ther

it is

acce

ptab

le t

o gi

ve u

p ce

rtai

n rig

hts

for

secu

rity.

Are

you

cle

ar a

bout

whe

re t

he li

ne is

for

you?

Exp

lain

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

ose

aspe

cts

of t

he t

ensi

on b

etw

een

indi

vidu

al f

reed

om a

ndna

tiona

l sec

urity

abo

utw

hich

he

or s

he is

unce

rtai

n.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

indi

vidu

alfr

eedo

ms

and

secu

rity

Civ

ics

9–12

Kno

ws

how

U.S

.con

stitu

tiona

lva

lues

and

prin

cipl

es a

ffect

U.S

.fo

reig

n po

licy

(e.g

., a

com

mitm

ent

to t

he s

elf-

dete

rmin

atio

n of

nat

ions

)an

d un

ders

tand

s th

e st

rain

s th

at a

recr

eate

d am

ong

U.S

.val

ues

and

inte

rest

s as

we

face

the

nec

essi

tyof

inte

rnat

iona

l pol

itics

(e.

g.,

aco

mm

itmen

t to

hum

an r

ight

s an

d th

ere

quire

men

ts o

f na

tiona

l sec

urity

).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Con

side

r th

e di

ffere

nt w

ays

that

dat

aca

n be

rep

rese

nted

.How

can

chan

ges

of s

cale

for

diffe

rent

repr

esen

tatio

ns a

ffect

the

imm

edia

tem

essa

ge c

omm

unic

ated

? Is

itcl

ear

how

the

sam

e da

ta c

an b

ein

terp

rete

d di

ffere

ntly

bec

ause

of

the

man

ner

of p

rese

ntat

ion?

Exp

lain

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y ar

eas

ofun

cert

aint

y ab

out

how

the

use

of s

cale

can

affe

ctda

ta p

rese

ntat

ion.

Spe

cific

ski

llsin

volv

ed in

sele

ctin

g an

dus

ing

a sc

ale

topr

esen

t da

ta

Mat

h6–

8U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

tabl

es,

grap

hs,

and

sym

bols

can

all

be u

sed

to r

epre

sent

the

sam

e se

t of

dat

a an

d th

at t

hese

diffe

rent

met

hods

ofte

n co

nvey

diffe

rent

mes

sage

s (e

.g.,

varia

tion

insc

ale

can

alte

r a

visu

al m

essa

ge).

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng h

ow to

thin

kab

out t

he b

egin

ning

and

end

ing

ofw

ords

—pr

efix

es a

nd s

uffix

es—

tohe

lp fi

gure

out

wha

t the

wor

ds m

ean.

Are

you

cle

ar w

hy th

is is

use

ful a

ndw

hy s

omet

imes

it is

not

use

ful?

Go

thro

ugh

the

prov

ided

wor

d lis

t and

see

if yo

u ar

e cl

ear

abou

t whe

n it

wor

ks, w

hen

it do

esn’

t, an

d w

hy.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

whe

n he

or

she

isun

clea

r w

heth

er a

pre

fixor

suf

fix c

an b

e he

lpfu

l in

deco

ding

a w

ord

mea

ning

.

A s

peci

ficde

codi

ng s

kill

Lang

uage

Art

sK

–2D

ecod

es w

ords

by

usin

g ba

sic

stru

ctur

al a

naly

sis

(e.g

., sy

llabl

es,

pref

ixes

, su

ffixe

s, b

asic

roo

ts a

ndro

ot w

ords

, sp

ellin

g pa

ttern

s).

133

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

How

is t

he c

arto

gram

diff

eren

t fr

omot

her

them

atic

map

s? W

hy w

ould

you

choo

se it

ove

r ot

her

type

s of

map

to

repr

esen

t da

ta?

Wha

tch

arac

teris

tics

of a

car

togr

am d

oyo

u ne

ed t

o be

com

e cl

eare

r ab

out?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

unce

rtai

nty

heor

she

has

reg

ardi

ng t

hebe

st u

se o

f a

cart

ogra

mto

rep

rese

nt d

ata.

The

var

ious

proc

esse

sfo

r m

odel

ing

them

atic

map

s

Geo

grap

hy6–

8U

ses

them

atic

map

s (e

.g.,

patte

rns

of p

opul

atio

n an

d di

seas

e,ve

geta

tion,

eco

nom

ic fe

atur

es)

and

unde

rsta

nds

the

elem

ents

and

uses

of

cart

ogra

ms.

We

use

perm

utat

ion

and

com

bina

tion

to s

olve

cou

ntin

gpr

oble

ms.

Are

you

cle

ar a

bout

whi

chsh

ould

be

used

whe

n? W

hat

don’

tyo

u un

ders

tand

abo

ut h

ow t

hey

can

be u

sed

to s

olve

pro

blem

s?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

unce

rtai

nty

heor

she

has

reg

ardi

ng t

heus

e of

per

mut

atio

ns a

sop

pose

d to

com

bina

tions

to s

olve

cou

ntin

gpr

oble

ms.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

perm

utat

ions

and

com

bina

tions

to

solv

e co

untin

gpr

oble

ms

Mat

h9–

12U

nder

stan

ds c

ount

ing

proc

edur

esan

d re

ason

ing

(e.g

., ho

w t

o fin

d th

enu

mbe

r of

way

s to

arr

ange

obj

ects

in a

set

, us

e of

per

mut

atio

ns a

ndco

mbi

natio

ns t

o so

lve

coun

ting

prob

lem

s).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

For

a s

port

tha

t yo

u en

joy

that

requ

ires

strik

ing

a ba

ll, c

onsi

der

wha

t yo

u kn

ow a

bout

the

idea

l han

dan

d fo

ot p

ositi

on a

nd fo

llow

-thr

ough

.W

hat

aspe

cts

are

you

not

clea

rab

out?

Are

the

re a

dvan

tage

s to

appr

oach

es y

ou m

ight

not

be

usin

g?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

thos

e as

pect

s of

the

prop

er fo

rm fo

r st

rikin

ga

ball

abou

t w

hich

he

orsh

e is

unc

lear

.

The

ski

ll of

strik

ing

a ba

llw

ithin

a s

peci

ficsp

ort

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

mov

emen

t as

soci

ated

with

hig

hly

skill

ed a

thle

tes

(e.g

.,m

oves

tha

t m

ake

a su

cces

sful

hit

in b

aseb

all).

We

need

to

mak

e su

re t

hat

we

use

smoo

th t

rans

ition

s fr

om r

unni

ng a

ndju

mpi

ng.T

hink

thr

ough

wha

t it

take

sto

ens

ure

that

the

pro

cess

issm

ooth

.Is

ther

e so

met

hing

you

’reno

t cl

ear

abou

t?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

thos

e as

pect

s of

tran

sitio

ns b

etw

een

sequ

entia

l mot

or s

kills

abou

t w

hich

he

or s

he is

unce

rtai

n.

The

ski

ll of

tran

sitio

ning

betw

een

spec

ific

mot

or s

kills

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

K–2

Tran

sitio

ns b

etw

een

mot

or s

kills

used

in a

seq

uenc

e (e

.g.,

goin

gfr

om r

unni

ng in

to a

slid

e). (C

onti

nued

)

134

Fig

ure

7.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

For

a s

peci

fic n

et o

r in

vasi

on g

ame

that

you

pla

y, c

onsi

der

the

stra

tegi

esyo

u us

e, fo

r ex

ampl

e, fo

r pr

even

ting

an o

ppon

ent

from

ste

alin

g th

e ba

ll in

bask

etba

ll or

pla

cing

the

bal

l aw

ayfr

om a

n op

pone

nt in

a r

acke

t sp

ort.

Con

side

r w

heth

er t

hese

str

ateg

ies

are

alw

ays

good

, re

gard

less

of

the

type

of

oppo

nent

.How

can

you

be

clea

rer

abou

t w

hen

thes

e st

rate

gies

are

best

use

d?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y ar

eas

ofun

cert

aint

y ab

out

stra

tegy

use

durin

g in

vasi

onga

mes

.

The

pro

cess

of

play

ing

inva

sion

gam

es

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Use

s be

ginn

ing

stra

tegi

es fo

r ne

tan

d in

vasi

on g

ames

(e.

g.,

keep

ing

the

ball

goin

g, k

eepi

ng t

he b

all a

way

from

an

oppo

nent

, pr

even

ting

anop

pone

nt f

rom

ste

alin

g th

e ba

ll).

Con

side

r th

e ch

alle

nge

of in

tera

ctin

gas

an

inve

nted

cha

ract

er in

an

impr

ovis

ed s

crip

t.A

re y

ou c

lear

abou

t w

hat

wou

ld c

hang

e in

the

impr

ovis

atio

n an

d w

hat

char

acte

ristic

s yo

u sh

ould

mai

ntai

nto

kee

p th

e ch

arac

ter

unifi

ed?

Exp

lain

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

thos

e as

pect

s of

impr

ovis

atio

n ab

out

whi

chhe

or

she

is u

ncer

tain

.

The

phy

sica

las

pect

s of

the

proc

ess

ofim

prov

isat

ion

The

atre

5–8

Pla

ys a

cha

ract

er in

bot

h im

prov

ised

and

scrip

ted

situ

atio

ns.

Monitoring Clarity With Mental Procedures

Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of mental procedures involve iden-tifying how clear a student is about specific mental skills and processes. Forexample, the first monitoring clarity task for mental skills requires students toidentify their level of certainty regarding how the use of scale can affect data pre-sentation. The first monitoring clarity task for mental processes involves clarityregarding various processes for reading thematic maps.

Monitoring Clarity With Psychomotor Procedures

Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of psychomotor procedures involveidentifying how clear a student is about specific psychomotor skills and processes.For example, the first monitoring clarity task for psychomotor skills requiresstudents to identify their level of clarity regarding the skill of striking a ball withina specific sport. The first monitoring clarity task for psychomotor processesinvolves clarity relative to the process of playing invasion games.

MONITORING ACCURACY

Monitoring accuracy involves determining the extent to which an individual iscorrect in terms of his understanding of specific knowledge. Monitoring accuracyis distinct from, but related to, monitoring clarity. That is, a student could be clearabout some aspects of knowledge—have no ambiguity or lack of distinction—butin fact be inaccurate. It is important to contrast the metacognitive process ofmonitoring accuracy with the analysis process of analyzing errors since they bothaddress inaccuracies and errors. Analyzing errors involves the errors made byothers as well as oneself. Monitoring accuracy deals exclusively with one’s owninaccuracies or errors. In addition, monitoring accuracy involves checking one’sassumptions regarding accuracy. For example, a student might believe he or sheis accurate in his or her understanding of the position of a political candidate.However, when executing the metacognitive process of monitoring accuracy, heor she would actually check to determine if the assumptions about the candidate’sposition are in fact accurate. Error analysis does not involve this “checking one’sassumptions” aspect.

Figure 7.5 lists tasks for monitoring accuracy across the three knowledgedomains of knowledge.

As Figure 7.5 illustrates, a critical aspect of monitoring accuracy is defending orverifying one’s judgment of accuracy. This implies that students must not only makejudgments about their accuracy but also must provide evidence for this judgment.



136

Fig

ure

7.5

Mon

itori

ng A

ccur

acy

Obj

ectiv

es a

nd T

asks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fact

s, T

ime

sequ

ence

s

We

have

dis

cuss

ed t

he d

istin

ctio

nbe

twee

n th

e te

rms

true

cor

rela

tion

and

belie

vabl

e co

rrel

atio

n.W

hat

aspe

cts

abou

t th

is d

istin

ctio

n do

you

belie

ve?

Che

ck t

o m

ake

sure

you

unde

rsta

nd a

ccur

atel

y.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y an

d de

fend

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

heis

acc

urat

e ab

out

the

term

s tr

ue c

orre

latio

nan

dbe

lieva

ble

corr

elat

ion.

Spe

cific

mat

hem

atic

ste

rmin

olog

y

Mat

h9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

he b

asic

con

cept

of

corr

elat

ion

(e.g

., a

true

cor

rela

tion

vers

us a

bel

ieva

ble

corr

elat

ion;

how

to

know

whe

n tw

o va

riabl

esar

e co

rrel

ated

).

We’

ve le

arne

d th

at fo

reig

n vo

cabu

lary

wor

ds c

an b

e ea

sy to

lear

n w

hen

they

are

rel

ated

to E

nglis

h w

ords

, as

Spa

nish

frut

ais

to E

nglis

h fr

uit.

But

fals

e co

gnat

es, s

omet

imes

cal

led

fals

e fr

iend

s, m

ake

it di

fficu

lt to

rem

embe

r th

e tr

ue m

eani

ng o

f aw

ord.

For

exam

ple,

Spa

nish

ass

istir

mea

ns to

atte

nd.T

he E

nglis

h w

ord

assi

stis

ayu

dar

in S

pani

sh.A

ttach

edis

a li

st o

f ter

ms

that

incl

ude

both

true

and

fals

e co

gnat

es.W

hich

can

you

iden

tify

corr

ectly

? H

ow d

o yo

u kn

owyo

u ar

e co

rrec

t?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y an

d ex

plai

nw

hy h

e or

she

bel

ieve

sa

spec

ific

wor

d to

be

atr

ue o

r a

fals

e co

gnat

e.

Spe

cific

fore

ign

lang

uage

term

inol

ogy

For

eign

Lang

uage

K–4

Kno

ws

com

mon

cog

nate

s an

dex

pres

sion

s in

bot

h th

e la

ngua

gebe

ing

stud

ied

and

any

nativ

ela

ngua

ges.

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Sel

ect a

rec

ent d

ecis

ion

that

you

have

mad

e or

you

hav

e w

atch

edso

meo

ne e

lse

mak

e.Id

entif

y w

heth

eryo

u ar

e ac

cura

te in

you

r id

entif

icat

ion

of th

e op

port

unity

cos

t for

this

deci

sion

.How

do

you

know

you

are

accu

rate

? C

heck

you

r un

ders

tand

ing.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

and

defe

nd h

is o

rhe

r ac

cura

cy in

pro

vidi

ngan

exa

mpl

e of

an

oppo

rtun

ity c

ost.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

top

port

unity

cos

t

Eco

nom

ics

6–8

Und

erst

ands

the

nec

essi

tyof

opp

ortu

nity

cos

ts a

nd t

hat

effe

ctiv

e ec

onom

ic d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

incl

udes

com

parin

g th

eco

sts

and

bene

fits

asso

ciat

edw

ith o

ther

pos

sibl

e ch

oice

s.

137

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

Are

you

acc

urat

e ab

out

iden

tifyi

ngex

ampl

es in

dai

ly li

fe o

f co

nduc

tion,

conv

ectio

n, a

nd r

adia

tion?

How

are

you

sure

tha

t th

ese

are

valid

exam

ples

? C

heck

you

r re

ason

ing.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

and

defe

nd h

is o

rhe

r ac

cura

cy in

sel

ectin

gda

ily-li

fe il

lust

ratio

ns o

fco

nduc

tion,

con

vect

ion

and

radi

atio

n.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

cond

uctio

n,co

nvec

tion,

and

radi

atio

n

Sci

ence

6–8

Kno

ws

that

con

vect

ion,

con

duct

ion,

and

radi

atio

n ar

e al

l way

s th

at h

eat

ener

gy f

low

s fr

om w

arm

er m

ater

ials

or r

egio

ns t

o co

oler

one

s.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

The

pro

blem

pre

sent

ed t

o yo

ure

quire

d th

e us

e of

a s

peci

ficm

etho

d of

indi

rect

mea

sure

men

t.W

hat

part

s of

the

pro

cess

do

you

know

you

man

aged

cor

rect

ly?

How

do y

ou k

now

you

wer

e co

rrec

t?C

heck

the

ste

ps t

hat

you

have

use

d.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

and

defe

nd t

heex

tent

to

whi

ch h

e or

she

unde

rsta

nds

spec

ific

tech

niqu

es fo

r in

dire

ctm

easu

rem

ent.

Spe

cific

tech

niqu

esre

gard

ing

indi

rect

mea

sure

men

t

Mat

h9–

12S

elec

ts a

nd u

ses

an a

ppro

pria

tem

etho

d of

mea

sure

men

t (d

irect

or

indi

rect

) fo

r a

part

icul

ar s

ituat

ion

(e.g

., us

es p

rope

rtie

s of

sim

ilar

tria

ngle

s to

mea

sure

indi

rect

lyth

e he

ight

of

an o

bjec

t).

For

thr

ee o

f th

e m

ultip

le c

hoic

eite

ms,

you

had

to

estim

ate

the

answ

er.W

ere

you

corr

ect

in t

hese

lect

ion

and

use

of y

our

estim

atio

nst

rate

gy?

How

do

you

know

? C

heck

your

str

ateg

y.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

and

expl

ain

why

the

estim

atio

n st

rate

gyhe

or

she

sele

cted

was

used

cor

rect

ly.

Spe

cific

estim

atio

nst

rate

gies

Mat

h3–

5E

stim

ates

com

puta

tions

usi

ngsp

ecifi

c st

rate

gies

(e.

g.,

fron

t-en

des

timat

ion,

rou

ndin

g) a

nd c

heck

sac

cura

cy.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

To w

hat

exte

nt a

re y

ou c

orre

ct in

your

use

of

the

GP

S a

cros

s th

em

any

diffe

rent

situ

atio

ns w

e ha

vebe

en s

tudy

ing?

How

do

you

know

you

have

use

d it

corr

ectly

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y an

d de

fend

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he c

orre

ctly

use

d a

GP

S d

evic

e in

a v

arie

tyof

situ

atio

ns.

The

gen

eral

proc

ess

ofus

ing

a G

PS

devi

ce

Geo

grap

hy9–

12U

nder

stan

ds t

he e

lem

ents

and

uses

of

geog

raph

ic t

echn

olog

ies

(e.g

., ge

ogra

phic

info

rmat

ion

syst

ems

(GIS

) an

d sa

telli

te-

prod

uced

imag

ery)

.

(Con

tinu

ed)

138

Fig

ure

7.5

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Whe

n yo

u re

view

ed t

head

vert

isem

ents

tha

t w

ere

pres

ente

d,to

wha

t ex

tent

wer

e yo

u ac

cura

te in

your

iden

tific

atio

n of

exa

gger

ated

clai

ms,

glit

terin

g ge

nera

litie

s, o

rot

her

atte

mpt

s to

per

suad

e yo

u?H

ow d

o yo

u kn

ow y

ou w

ere

accu

rate

? P

rovi

de e

vide

nce

for

your

con

clus

ions

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

and

defe

nd t

heex

tent

to

whi

ch h

e or

she

can

spot

str

ateg

ies

used

in a

dver

tisem

ents

to

pers

uade

the

con

sum

er.

The

pro

cess

of

pers

uasi

on in

adve

rtis

ing

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8K

now

s m

etho

ds u

sed

in v

isua

lm

edia

to

conv

ince

or

appe

al t

o a

part

icul

ar a

udie

nce

(e.g

., pr

oduc

tion

tech

niqu

es,

such

as

desi

gnin

g a

new

s pr

ogra

m w

ith a

n ey

e fo

ren

tert

ainm

ent;

pers

uasi

vete

chni

ques

, su

ch a

s us

e of

bia

sed

info

rmat

ion

or e

xagg

erat

ed c

laim

s,po

rtra

yal o

f ap

peal

ing

lifes

tyle

s an

dsp

ecta

cula

r ge

nera

litie

s).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

As

you

mad

e yo

ur p

rese

ntat

ion

in S

pani

sh,

did

you

pron

ounc

eea

ch w

ord

corr

ectly

? H

ow d

o yo

ukn

ow t

he w

ord

was

pro

noun

ced

corr

ectly

? R

eexa

min

e ho

w y

oupr

onou

nce

wor

ds.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

toid

entif

y an

d ex

plai

n w

hyth

e S

pani

sh w

ords

he

orsh

e us

ed in

a p

rese

ntat

ion

wer

e pr

onou

nced

cor

rect

ly.

The

ski

ll of

pron

ounc

ing

asp

ecifi

c w

ord

For

eign

Lang

uage

K–4

Use

s la

ngua

ge m

echa

nics

,co

nven

tions

and

sty

le (

e.g.

,gr

amm

ar,

spel

ling,

sen

tenc

est

ruct

ure,

voc

abul

ary,

dia

lect

, sl

ang

or id

iom

s;pr

onun

ciat

ion,

into

natio

n,to

ne,

stre

ss)

appr

opria

te fo

r a

varie

tyof

aud

ienc

es (

e.g.

, pe

ers,

tea

cher

s)an

d se

tting

s (e

.g.,

form

al,

info

rmal

).

As

you

form

lette

rs o

f th

e al

phab

et,

whi

ch d

o yo

u fo

rm c

orre

ctly

?W

hich

lette

rs n

eed

mor

e w

ork?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y w

hich

lette

rs o

fth

e al

phab

et h

e or

she

form

s co

rrec

tly.

The

ski

ll of

writ

ing

spec

ific

lette

rs o

f th

eal

phab

et

Lang

uage

Art

sP

reK

Writ

es o

r co

pies

fam

iliar

wor

ds(e

.g.,

own

nam

e, p

et’s

nam

e).

139

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Whe

n yo

u m

ake

your

cla

sspr

esen

tatio

n, h

ow w

ell a

re y

ou u

sing

the

right

ton

e of

voi

ce a

nd v

olum

e?H

ow d

o yo

u kn

ow?

Do

you

follo

w t

heru

les

of e

ffect

ive

disc

ussi

on w

e ha

vebe

en s

tudy

ing?

How

do

you

know

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

whe

ther

he

or s

hem

odul

ates

ton

e of

voi

cean

d vo

lum

e w

hen

mak

ing

a pr

esen

tatio

n.

The

pro

cess

of

mod

ulat

ing

tone

and

voic

e w

hen

mak

ing

apr

esen

tatio

n

Lang

uage

Art

sK

–2U

ses

appr

opria

te v

olum

e, p

hras

ing,

and

into

natio

n fo

r va

rious

situ

atio

nsre

quiri

ng o

ral c

omm

unic

atio

n (e

.g.,

smal

l gro

up s

ettin

gs,

info

rmal

disc

ussi

ons,

cla

ss d

iscu

ssio

ns,

orpr

esen

tatio

ns).

Hav

e so

meo

ne r

ecor

d a

vide

o as

you

perf

orm

a s

port

tha

t aw

ards

scor

e po

ints

(su

ch a

s gy

mna

stic

s,ho

rse

jum

ping

, or

div

ing)

.Rev

iew

your

vid

eota

ped

perf

orm

ance

agai

nst

wha

t yo

u be

lieve

d yo

uw

ere

acco

mpl

ishi

ng d

urin

g th

epe

rfor

man

ce.W

ere

you

accu

rate

inyo

ur ju

dgm

ents

? W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

Pro

vide

evi

denc

e fo

r yo

urco

nclu

sion

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y an

d de

fend

judg

men

ts m

ade

upon

view

ing

a re

cord

edpe

rfor

man

ce a

gain

st t

heju

dgm

ents

he

or s

he m

ade

durin

g th

e pe

rfor

man

ce.

The

pro

cess

of

perf

orm

ing

asp

ecifi

c sp

ort

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Use

s ad

vanc

ed s

kills

tai

lore

d to

sele

cted

spo

rts

or a

ctiv

ities

(e

.g.,

swim

min

g, d

ance

, hi

king

,te

nnis

, ba

seba

ll).

Terms and phrases commonly used in monitoring accuracy objectives andtasks include the following:

• About what do you believe you are accurate?• About what do you believe you might be inaccurate?

The most common format for monitoring accuracy is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed-response tasks.

It is worth noting again that across all domains of knowledge, a criticalaspect of monitoring accuracy tasks is that students must verify whether theinformation they believed to be accurate is in fact accurate. Consequently, mon-itoring accuracy tasks involve reviewing and checking information previouslypresented. As we’ve mentioned before, this is not the case with the analysisprocess of analyzing errors.

Monitoring Accuracy With Information

Monitoring accuracy tasks in the domain of information require students todetermine how accurate they are about specific details and organizing ideas. Forexample, the first monitoring accuracy task for details involves specific terminol-ogy. To complete this task, students must review what has been presented aboutthese terms and compare that information with their current understanding of theterms. The first monitoring accuracy task for organizing ideas involves the per-ceived accuracy of generalizations about opportunity cost.

Monitoring Accuracy With Mental Procedures

Monitoring accuracy tasks in the domain of mental procedures require studentsto determine how accurately they execute specific mental skills and processes. Forexample, the first monitoring accuracy task for mental skills involves a specific skillregarding indirect measurement. Students must determine how accurately they exe-cute the component parts of this skill. The first monitoring accuracy task for mentalprocedures involves the accuracy of the general process for using a GPS device.

It is important to distinguish monitoring accuracy for procedures with processmonitoring for procedures. As described previously in this chapter, the metacog-nitive skill of process monitoring involves a specific goal. Students must set spe-cific goals regarding a procedure, and then monitor the extent to which these goalsare being met. The metacognitive process of monitoring accuracy does not neces-sarily involve a goal on the part of the students. Rather it simply involves studentsjudging how accurately the steps in a procedure are being executed and checkingthe validity of their understanding regarding those steps.


Monitoring Accuracy With Psychomotor Procedures

Monitoring accuracy in the domain of psychomotor procedures follows thesame pattern as monitoring accuracy with mental procedures. It requires studentsto judge how accurately they execute specific psychomotor skills and processesand check the accuracy of their judgments. For example, the first monitoring accu-racy task for psychomotor skills involves the skill of pronouncing specific words.Students must judge if they are executing this procedure accurately and examinethe validity of their judgments. Again this differs from the metacognitive skill ofprocess monitoring because a personal goal is not involved. It differs from ana-lyzing errors because it goes beyond simply examining the results of a procedure.The first monitoring accuracy task for psychomotor processes involves the processof modulating tone and voice while making a presentation.


METACOGNITIVE OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Specifying Goals Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to set goals and establish a plan for accomplishing thosegoals

• Use terms and phrases like the following: set goals, what would you like toaccomplish, identify something you want to


Process Monitoring Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to determine how effectively goals are being met relativeto the knowledge domains; goals may be set via the metacognitive processof specifying goals or for a specific situation

• Use terms and phrases like the following: monitor, evaluate, determine howwell, determine how effectively


Monitoring Clarity Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to determine the extent to which they are free from ambi-guity and indistinction about specific aspects of knowledge

• Use terms and phrases like the following: what are you sure about, what areyou unsure about, how could you better understand



Monitoring Accuracy Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to determine the extent to which they are accurate abouttheir understanding of knowledge; involves reexamining assumptions aboutwhat is correct or accurate

• Use terms and phrases such as the following: about what do you believeyou are accurate, about what do you believe you are inaccurate

• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response tasks


143

CH A P T E R EI G H T

Self-System Objectives and Tasks

Self- system thinking involves determining and analyzing one’s motivation tolearn new content. As described in Chapter 2, self-system thinking involves

four aspects: (1) examining importance, (2) examining efficacy, (3) examiningemotional response, and (4) examining motivation.

Examining Importance

The self-system process of examining importance involves analyzing theextent to which one believes that learning specific knowledge is important andthen examining one’s beliefs relative to that issue. If an individual does not per-ceive a specific piece of knowledge as important at a personal level, he or she willprobably not be highly motivated to learn it.

Figure 8.1 lists objectives and tasks for the self-system process of examiningimportance across the three knowledge domains.

Examining importance goes beyond simply identifying how important learn-ing specific knowledge is perceived to be. It also involves examining and defend-ing the logic underlying one’s thinking. Obviously this latter part of the process ismore applicable to older students. Students at the lower grade levels might beexpected to articulate how important they perceive something to be and providesome reason for this perception, but they might not be expected to analyze theirthinking.

Examining importance objectives or any other type of self-system process arealmost never explicit in standards or benchmark statements. As discussed in thenext chapter, a district or school would have to elect to make self-system goalsan overt part of the curriculum. They will probably not find a mandate to do so intheir state and national standards documents.


144

Fig

ure

8.1

Exa

min

ing

Impo

rtan

ce O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fa

cts,

Tim

ese

quen

ces

How

impo

rtan

t do

you

thi

nk it

is t

hat

you

know

how

oth

er c

hild

ren’

s liv

es in

the

cul

ture

we

are

stud

ying

diff

er f

rom

you

r ow

n? E

ach

of y

our

grou

ps h

as s

tudi

ed a

spe

cific

fam

ily in

asp

ecifi

c co

untr

y an

d co

mm

unic

ated

with

the

m.

Why

do

you

thin

k it

mig

ht b

e im

port

ant

toun

ders

tand

how

diff

eren

t th

eir

hous

es,

food

and

toy

s ar

e? D

oes

your

thi

nkin

gm

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

hepl

aces

on

lear

ning

how

othe

r ch

ildre

n’s

lives

are

diffe

rent

fro

m h

is o

r he

row

n an

d an

alyz

es t

here

ason

ing

behi

nd t

hat

judg

men

t.

Fact

s ab

out

how

spe

cific

fam

ilies

live

For

eign

Lang

uage

K–4

Und

erst

ands

util

itaria

nfo

rms

of t

he s

tudi

edcu

lture

(e.

g.,

toys

, cl

othe

s,ho

mes

, ty

pica

l die

t,cu

rren

cy)

and

com

pare

sth

em t

o th

ose

in o

ne’s

nativ

e cu

lture

.

How

impo

rtan

t do

you

thi

nk it

is t

hat

you

unde

rsta

nd t

he k

inds

of

conf

licts

tha

t ar

ise

betw

een

valu

es a

nd p

rinci

ples

—fo

r ex

ampl

e,th

e sp

ecifi

c co

nflic

ts b

etw

een

the

maj

ority

rule

and

the

min

ority

rig

hts

we

have

bee

nst

udyi

ng?

Why

do

you

thin

k it

mig

ht b

eim

port

ant

to u

nder

stan

d th

ese

conf

licts

?D

oes

your

thi

nkin

g m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

hepl

aces

on

unde

rsta

ndin

gsp

ecifi

c co

nflic

ts th

at a

rise

betw

een

valu

es a

ndpr

inci

ples

and

ana

lyze

s th

ere

ason

ing

behi

nd th

atju

dgm

ent.

Fact

s ab

out

spec

ific

conf

licts

Civ

ics

6–8

Und

erst

ands

pas

t co

nflic

tsbe

twee

n fu

ndam

enta

lva

lues

and

prin

cipl

es (

e.g.

,co

nflic

ts b

etw

een

one

pers

on’s

rig

hts

and

the

com

mon

goo

d, c

onfli

cts

betw

een

maj

ority

rul

ean

d m

inor

ity r

ight

s).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

How

impo

rtan

t do

you

thi

nk it

is t

hat

you

unde

rsta

nd t

hat

scie

nce

cann

ot a

nsw

er a

llqu

estio

ns a

nd t

hat

tech

nolo

gy c

anno

t so

lve

all

hum

an p

robl

ems

or m

eet

all h

uman

nee

ds?

Why

do

you

thin

k it

is im

port

ant

to u

nder

stan

dth

is?

Do

you

thin

k yo

ur r

easo

ns a

re v

alid

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

hepl

aces

on

unde

rsta

ndin

gth

at s

cien

ce a

nd te

chno

logy

cann

ot s

olve

all

prob

lem

s or

mee

t all

hum

an n

eeds

and

anal

yzes

the

reas

onin

gbe

hind

that

judg

men

t.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t th

elim

itatio

ns o

fsc

ienc

e an

dte

chno

logy

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds t

hat

scie

nce

and

tech

nolo

gy h

ave

limita

tions

.

145

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

How

impo

rtan

t do

you

thi

nk it

is t

hat

you

unde

rsta

nd t

he p

rope

rtie

s an

dre

latio

nshi

ps a

mon

g ge

omet

ricfig

ures

? W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

it is

impo

rtan

t to

und

erst

and

them

? D

oes

your

thi

nkin

g re

pres

ent

a st

rong

argu

men

t?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

he p

lace

son

und

erst

andi

ng t

hepr

oper

ties

and

rela

tions

hips

amon

g fig

ures

and

ana

lyze

sth

e re

ason

ing

behi

nd t

hat

judg

men

t.

Prin

cipl

esab

out

the

rela

tions

hip

amon

gge

omet

ricfig

ures

Mat

h9–

12S

olve

s m

athe

mat

ical

and

re

al-w

orld

pro

blem

s by

usi

ngpr

oper

ties

of f

igur

es a

nd t

here

latio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

them

(e.g

., us

es u

nder

stan

ding

of

arc,

cho

rd,

tang

ents

, an

dpr

oper

ties

of c

ircle

s to

dete

rmin

e th

e ra

dius

).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng a

spe

cific

set

of s

teps

for

appl

ying

a s

peci

fic e

vent

in h

isto

ry t

o ou

r ow

n liv

es.E

xpla

inw

hy y

ou b

elie

ve t

his

to b

e an

impo

rtan

t sk

ill o

r w

hy y

ou d

o no

t.H

ow v

alid

is y

our

thin

king

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

dete

rmin

e ho

w im

port

ant

he o

rsh

e th

inks

it is

to

be a

ble

tore

late

eve

nts

from

his

tory

to

his

or h

er o

wn

life.

The

ski

ll of

rela

ting

asp

ecifi

chi

stor

ical

even

t to

one

’sow

n lif

e

His

toric

alU

nder

stan

ding

9–12

Und

erst

ands

how

to

refr

ain

from

bel

ievi

ng t

hat

spec

ific

less

ons

lear

ned

in t

he p

ast

will

alw

ays

appl

y to

pro

blem

s in

the

pres

ent.

How

impo

rtan

t is

it t

hat

you

real

ize

whe

n yo

u ar

e in

an

emer

genc

ysi

tuat

ion

and

wha

t yo

u sh

ould

do

abou

t it?

Why

do

you

thin

k it

isim

port

ant

or n

ot im

port

ant?

Can

you

prov

ide

an e

xam

ple

to s

how

why

you

are

corr

ect?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

he p

lace

son

bei

ng a

ble

to id

entif

y an

emer

genc

y si

tuat

ion.

The

ski

ll of

reco

gniz

ing

an e

mer

genc

ysi

tuat

ion

Hea

lthK

–2U

nder

stan

ds h

ow t

o re

cogn

ize

emer

genc

y si

tuat

ions

and

how

to

resp

ond

(e.g

., us

es a

tele

phon

e to

obt

ain

assi

stan

ce;

iden

tifie

s an

d ob

tain

s as

sist

ance

from

pol

ice

offic

ers,

fire

fig

hter

san

d tr

uste

d ad

ults

;tre

ats

com

mon

inju

ries,

suc

h as

scra

tche

s, b

ruis

es a

ndsu

nbur

ns).

(Con

tinu

ed)

146

Fig

ure

8.1

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

How

impo

rtan

t is

it t

hat

you

are

able

to p

lan

and

cond

uct

a si

mpl

ein

vest

igat

ion,

incl

udin

g sy

stem

atic

obse

rvat

ions

and

rea

chin

g a

logi

cal

conc

lusi

on?

Why

do

you

thin

k it

is o

ris

not

impo

rtan

t? C

an y

ou p

rovi

dere

ason

s fo

r yo

ur c

oncl

usio

ns?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

he p

lace

son

pla

nnin

g an

d co

nduc

ting

an in

vest

igat

ion

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tha

tju

dgm

ent.

The

pro

cess

of

plan

ning

and

cond

uctin

g a

sim

ple

inve

stig

atio

n

Sci

ence

3–5

Des

igns

and

car

ries

out

sim

ple

inve

stig

atio

ns (

e.g.

, fo

rmul

ates

a sp

ecifi

c sc

ient

ific

ques

tion,

mak

es a

ppro

pria

teob

serv

atio

ns,

deve

lops

logi

cal

conc

lusi

ons)

.

How

impo

rtan

t is

it t

hat

you

are

able

to s

umm

ariz

e an

d pa

raph

rase

info

rmat

iona

l tex

ts,

such

as

conv

eyin

gth

e m

ain

idea

s an

d cr

itica

l det

ails

?W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

you

are

corr

ect?

Exp

lain

you

r th

inki

ng.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

he p

lace

s on

sum

mar

izin

g an

d pa

raph

rasi

ngin

form

atio

nal t

exts

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

that

judg

men

t.

The

pro

cess

of

sum

mar

izin

gan

dpa

raph

rasi

ngin

form

atio

nal

text

Lang

uage

Art

s6–

8

Use

s su

mm

ary

and

para

phra

sing

to e

nhan

ceun

ders

tand

ing

of in

form

atio

n in

text

(e.

g., a

rran

ges

info

rmat

ion

in a

logi

cal o

rder

;con

veys

mai

nid

eas,

ess

entia

l det

ails

, and

unde

rlyin

g m

eani

ng;u

ses

own

wor

ds o

r qu

oted

mat

eria

ls;

pres

erve

s au

thor

’s p

ersp

ectiv

e).

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n pr

actic

ing

scal

es o

nou

r re

ed in

stru

men

ts.D

o yo

u th

ink

this

is im

port

ant

to d

o? W

hy o

rw

hy n

ot?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

expl

ain

why

he

or s

he t

hink

spl

ayin

g a

scal

e on

a r

eed

inst

rum

ent

is im

port

ant

orw

hy it

is n

ot.

Pla

ying

asi

mpl

e sc

ale

on a

ree

din

stru

men

t

Mus

icK

–2P

lays

sca

les

on a

bas

icin

stru

men

t.

How

impo

rtan

t is

it t

hat

you

can

use

art

mat

eria

ls s

afel

y an

d re

spon

sibl

y?W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

it is

impo

rtan

t or

not

impo

rtan

t? C

an y

ou p

rovi

de s

ome

good

rea

sons

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to id

entif

y th

e pe

rson

alim

port

ance

he

or s

he p

lace

son

usi

ng a

rt m

ater

ials

saf

ely

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

gbe

hind

tha

t ju

dgm

ent.

Usi

ng a

rtm

ater

ials

safe

ly

Vis

ual A

rts

K–4

Use

s ar

t m

ater

ials

and

too

lssa

fely

and

app

ropr

iate

ly.

147

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

How

impo

rtan

t do

you

thi

nk it

is t

hat

you

follo

w t

he r

ules

and

pro

cedu

res

for

the

phys

ical

-act

ivity

set

tings

we

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng?

Do

you

thin

k th

isis

nec

essa

ry o

r un

nece

ssar

y? E

xpla

inyo

ur r

easo

ning

.How

wel

l hav

e yo

uth

ough

t th

is t

hrou

gh?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

pers

onal

impo

rtan

ce h

e or

she

pla

ces

on fo

llow

ing

the

rule

s an

dpr

oced

ures

for

phys

ical

-act

ivity

setti

ngs

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tha

tju

dgm

ent.

Fol

low

ing

the

rule

s an

dpr

oced

ures

for

phys

ical

activ

ityse

tting

s

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Kno

ws

why

the

rul

es a

ndpr

oced

ures

in s

ettin

gs o

fph

ysic

al a

ctiv

ity a

re im

port

ant.

How

impo

rtan

t is

it t

o us

e di

ffere

ntvo

ice

leve

ls d

epen

ding

on

wha

tse

tting

you

are

in,

like

a sm

all-g

roup

disc

ussi

on o

r a

repo

rt t

o th

e cl

ass?

Can

you

pro

vide

goo

d re

ason

s fo

ryo

ur a

nsw

er?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

pers

onal

impo

rtan

ce h

e or

she

pla

ces

on u

sing

app

ropr

iate

voi

cele

vels

dep

endi

ng o

n th

ese

tting

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tha

tju

dgm

ent.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

ava

riety

of

voic

e le

vels

acro

ssdi

ffere

ntse

tting

s

Lang

uage

Art

sK

–2

Adj

usts

vol

ume,

phr

asin

g, a

ndin

tona

tion

acco

rdin

g to

the

situ

atio

n at

han

d (e

.g.,

smal

lgr

oup

setti

ngs,

info

rmal

disc

ussi

ons

or c

lass

disc

ussi

ons,

cla

sspr

esen

tatio

ns).

Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used in examining impor-tance objectives and tasks:

• How important is it to you• Why do you think it might be important• Can you provide some reasons why it is important• How logical is your thinking

The common format for examining importance tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed-response formats.

Examining Importance With Information

Examining importance tasks for the domain of information involve determin-ing how important it is to learn details and organizing ideas and analyzing thelogic of those perceptions. For example, the first examining importance task fordetails involves facts about specific families. Students first identify how importantthey believe this information to be. Then they consider the logic of their thinking.The first examining importance task for organizing ideas involves perceptions ofimportance relative to generalizations about science and technology.

Examining Importance With Mental Procedures

Examining importance tasks for the domain of mental procedures involvedetermining how important it is to learn specific mental skills and processes andanalyzing the logic of those perceptions. For example, the first examining impor-tance task for mental skills involves the skill of relating a specific historic eventto one’s own life. In this case, the teacher has provided students with a series ofsimple steps or rules to follow. Students must first determine if they perceive thisto be an important skill and then analyze their thinking. The first examiningimportance task for mental processes involves perceptions of importance relativeto the process of planning and conducting simple investigations.

Examining Importance With Psychomotor Procedures

Examining importance tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve determining how important it is to learn psychomotor skills and processesand analyzing the logic of these perceptions. For example, the first examiningimportance task for psychomotor skills involves playing a simple scale on aninstrument. Students must identify how important they believe it is to learn howto play scales on a real instrument and then defend their logic. The first examin-ing importance task for psychomotor processes involves perceptions of impor-tance regarding the process of using art materials safely.


EXAMINING EFFICACY

The self-system process of examining efficacy involves examining the extent towhich individuals believe they can improve their understanding or competencerelative to a specific type of knowledge. It also involves examining their thinkingon the issue. If individuals do not believe they can change their competence rela-tive to a specific piece of knowledge, they will probably not be motivated to learnit, even if they perceive it as important. Figure 8.2 lists objectives and tasks forexamining efficacy across the three knowledge domains.

Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used in examining effi-cacy objectives and tasks:

• Can you improve• How well do you think you can do• How well can you learn• How good are you at• How logical is your thinking

The most common format for examining efficacy tasks is short or extendedwritten and oral constructed-response formats.

Examining Efficacy With Information

Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of information involve identifyingbeliefs about one’s ability to learn details and organizing ideas and then examin-ing the logic of these beliefs. For example, the first examining efficacy task fordetails involves details about specific international conflicts. Students must deter-mine how capable they believe themselves to be to improve their understanding ofthese details. They must also explain and defend their thinking. The first examin-ing efficacy task for organizing ideas involves perceptions of efficacy regardinggeneralizations about how geography has influenced history.

Examining Efficacy With Mental Procedures

Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of mental procedures involve identi-fying beliefs about one’s ability to improve competence at mental skills andprocesses and analyzing the reasoning behind these perceptions. For example, thefirst examining efficacy task for mental skills involves the skill of interpreting spe-cific nonverbal skills. Students must determine if they believe they can get betterat this skill and the reasons that they believe so. The first examining efficacy taskfor mental processes involves perceptions of efficacy regarding the process oftranslating data into maps, graphs, and charts.


Self-System Objectives and Tasks 149

150

Fig

ure

8.2

Exa

min

ing

Eff

icac

y O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fa

cts,

Tim

ese

quen

ces

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng t

he I

raq

war

.D

o yo

u th

ink

you

can

impr

ove

your

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

tha

t w

ar?

Why

or

why

not?

Exp

lain

you

r th

inki

ng.H

ow w

ell

supp

orte

d ar

e yo

ur c

oncl

usio

nsab

out

this

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erun

ders

tand

ing

of t

he I

raq

war

can

be im

prov

ed a

nd a

naly

zehi

s or

her

thi

nkin

g.

Det

ails

abo

ut a

spec

ific

inte

rnat

iona

lco

nflic

t

Soc

ial

Stu

dies

9–12

Kno

ws

spec

ific

deta

ilsre

gard

ing

spec

ific

inte

rnat

iona

lco

nflic

ts.

We

have

bee

n st

udyi

ng t

hede

velo

pmen

t of

the

Sup

rem

e C

ourt

.C

an y

ou d

eepe

n yo

ur u

nder

stan

ding

of t

he s

igni

fican

t ev

ents

tha

t he

lped

shap

e th

e S

upre

me

Cou

rt in

firs

t fe

wde

cade

s of

the

new

nat

ion?

Wha

tre

ason

s do

you

hav

e fo

r be

lievi

ng t

his?

How

val

id is

you

r th

inki

ng?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erun

ders

tand

ing

of t

hede

velo

pmen

t of

the

Sup

rem

eC

ourt

can

be

impr

oved

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

thes

e be

liefs

.

Det

ails

rega

rdin

g th

ede

velo

pmen

tof

the

U.S

.S

upre

me

Cou

rt

His

tory

9–12

Kno

ws

how

the

U.S

.Sup

rem

eC

ourt

was

est

ablis

hed

and

the

sign

ifica

nt e

vent

s th

at le

d to

its

crea

tion

( e.

g.,

Chi

ef J

ustic

eM

arsh

all,

Art

icle

III

of t

heC

onst

itutio

n, J

udic

iary

Act

of

1789

, M

arbu

ry v

.Mad

ison

).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

We

have

see

n ex

ampl

es o

f ho

wph

ysic

al g

eogr

aphy

has

influ

ence

dm

ajor

his

toric

eve

nts.

Do

you

belie

veyo

u ca

n co

me

to a

bet

ter

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

thi

s ge

nera

lizat

ion?

Wha

t re

ason

s do

you

hav

e fo

r th

inki

ngyo

u ca

n or

can

not

impr

ove

your

unde

rsta

ndin

g? H

ow g

ood

are

thes

ere

ason

s?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he o

r sh

e be

lieve

s hi

s or

her

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

how

geog

raph

y ha

s in

fluen

ced

hist

ory

can

be im

prov

ed a

ndan

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

behi

ndth

ese

belie

fs.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t ho

wge

ogra

phy

has

influ

ence

dhi

stor

y

Geo

grap

hy6–

8U

nder

stan

ds h

ow m

ajor

his

toric

even

ts a

nd m

ovem

ents

hav

ebe

en a

ffect

ed b

y bo

th h

uman

and

geog

raph

ic fa

ctor

s (e

.g.,

the

cour

ses

and

outc

omes

of p

hysi

cal c

onfli

ct,

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of

the

sla

vetr

ade

in N

orth

and

Sou

thA

mer

icas

, th

e pr

ofita

bilit

y of

the

tria

ngle

tra

de d

ue t

o th

elo

catio

ns o

f w

ind

and

ocea

ncu

rren

ts,

the

effe

cts

of v

ario

usla

nd s

urve

y sy

stem

s us

ed in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes)

.

151

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

The

mot

ions

of

the

eart

h an

d m

oon

expl

ain

man

y ph

enom

ena

on e

arth

.C

an y

ou r

each

a b

ette

r un

ders

tand

ing

of t

he p

rinci

ples

tha

t ac

coun

t fo

rec

lipse

s an

d tid

es?

Why

do

you

ordo

n’t

you

belie

ve y

ou c

an h

ave

a be

tter

unde

rsta

ndin

g th

an y

ou d

o no

w?

Exp

lain

and

def

end

your

thi

nkin

g.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

toid

entif

y th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

he o

r sh

e be

lieve

s hi

s or

her

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

how

phen

omen

a on

ear

th c

an b

eex

plai

ned

by th

e m

otio

ns o

f the

eart

h an

d m

oon

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

thes

e be

liefs

.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

the

mot

ions

of

the

eart

h

Sci

ence

6–8

Und

erst

ands

how

phe

nom

ena

on e

arth

are

affe

cted

by

the

cycl

es a

nd m

otio

ns o

f th

e su

nan

d th

e m

oon

(e.g

., da

y an

dni

ght,

the

seas

ons

of t

he y

ear,

the

moo

n’s

phas

es,

eclip

ses,

tides

).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n di

scus

sing

how

to

inte

rpre

t tw

o co

mm

on n

onve

rbal

cue

sus

ed in

con

vers

atio

n.C

an y

ou im

prov

eyo

ur a

bilit

y to

inte

rpre

t th

ese

spec

ific

nonv

erba

l cue

s? W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

you

can

or c

an’t?

How

wel

l hav

e yo

uth

ough

t th

roug

h th

is is

sue?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

inte

rpre

ting

spec

ific

nonv

erba

l clu

es c

an b

eim

prov

ed a

nd a

naly

ze t

here

ason

ing

for

that

bel

ief.

The

ski

ll of

inte

rpre

ting

spec

ific

nonv

erba

lcu

es

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5

Und

erst

ands

non

verb

al c

ues

used

dur

ing

the

cour

se o

f a

conv

ersa

tion.

Thi

s ye

ar w

e ha

ve b

een

lear

ning

how

to a

dd a

nd s

ubtr

act

frac

tions

with

unlik

e de

nom

inat

ors.

Can

you

impr

ove

your

abi

lity

in t

his

skill

? W

hy d

o yo

uth

ink

you

can

or c

anno

t? E

xpla

in y

our

thin

king

.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

add

ing

and

subt

ract

ing

frac

tions

with

unl

ike

deno

min

ator

s ca

n be

impr

oved

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g fo

rth

at b

elie

f.

Add

ing

and

subt

ract

ing

frac

tions

Mat

h6–

8A

dds

and

subt

ract

s fr

actio

nsw

ith li

ke a

nd u

nlik

ede

nom

inat

ors.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

We

have

bee

n w

orki

ng w

ith v

ario

usw

ays

to t

rans

late

prim

ary

data

into

map

s, g

raph

s, a

nd c

hart

s.H

ow w

ell

have

you

mas

tere

d th

is p

roce

ss o

ftr

ansl

atio

n? D

o yo

u th

ink

you

can

impr

ove

your

app

roac

h? E

xpla

in t

here

ason

ing

behi

nd y

our

answ

er.D

oes

your

thi

nkin

g m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

tra

nsla

ting

data

into

map

s, g

raph

s, a

nd c

hart

sca

n be

impr

oved

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

at b

elie

f.

Tran

slat

ing

data

into

map

s,gr

aphs

, an

dch

arts

Geo

grap

hy9–

12Tr

ansl

ates

dat

a in

to u

sefu

lm

aps,

cha

rts,

and

gra

phs

(e.g

.,ch

arts

dev

elop

ed fr

om c

ensu

sda

ta fo

cusi

ng o

n sp

ecifi

cin

form

atio

nal t

opic

s, c

arto

gram

sde

pict

ing

the

rela

tive

size

s of

Eur

opea

n co

untr

ies

base

d on

thei

r ur

ban

popu

latio

ns).

(Con

tinu

ed)

152

Fig

ure

8.2

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

We

have

logg

ed t

he r

esul

ts o

f a

rece

ntph

ysic

al-f

itnes

s as

sess

men

t an

dle

arne

d ho

w t

o in

terp

ret

them

in o

rder

to d

evel

op in

divi

dual

fitn

ess

goal

s.H

oww

ell d

o yo

u un

ders

tand

the

info

rmat

ion

and

how

wel

l can

you

dev

elop

a f

itnes

sgo

al b

ased

on

wha

t yo

u un

ders

tand

—ca

n yo

u be

mor

e ef

fect

ive?

Why

do

you

belie

ve y

ou c

an o

r ca

n’t

impr

ove?

Exp

lain

you

r th

inki

ng.H

ow g

ood

is y

our

thin

king

on

this

issu

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

usi

ng f

itnes

sas

sess

men

t in

form

atio

n to

deve

lop

pers

onal

fitn

ess

goal

sca

n be

impr

oved

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

at b

elie

f.

Usi

ng f

itnes

sas

sess

men

tin

form

atio

n

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Und

erst

ands

how

to

crea

tefit

ness

goa

ls a

nd p

lans

bas

edon

info

rmat

ion

inte

rpre

ted

from

a fit

ness

ass

essm

ent.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

We

have

bee

n pr

actic

ing

prop

erfin

gerin

g fo

r th

e co

mpu

ter

keyb

oard

.D

o yo

u th

ink

you

can

get

bette

r at

thi

s?W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

fin

gerin

g fo

r th

eco

mpu

ter

keyb

oard

can

be

impr

oved

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

at b

elie

f.

Spe

cific

keyb

oard

ing

skill

s

Tech

nolo

gy3–

5U

ses

prop

er f

inge

ring

(fro

m t

heho

me

row

) an

d pr

oper

pos

ture

whi

le u

sing

the

com

pute

rke

yboa

rd.

We

have

bee

n pr

actic

ing

spec

ific

clim

bing

tec

hniq

ues.

Sel

ect

one

tech

niqu

e yo

u ar

e ha

ving

diff

icul

ty w

ith.

Can

you

get

bet

ter

at t

his?

Why

or

why

not

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

a s

peci

ficcl

imbi

ng t

echn

ique

can

be

impr

oved

and

exp

lain

his

or

her

thin

king

.

A s

peci

ficcl

imbi

ngte

chni

que

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

K–2

Dev

elop

s m

uscu

lar

stre

ngth

and

endu

ranc

e by

par

ticip

atin

gin

spe

cific

act

iviti

es (

e.g.

,w

eigh

t lif

ting,

clim

bing

).

153

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

We’

ve le

arne

d th

at e

ven

nonv

erba

lsi

gns

can

com

mun

icat

e a

grea

t de

al t

oth

e au

dien

ce.C

an y

ou im

prov

e yo

urey

e co

ntac

t, ge

stur

es,

and

post

ure

whe

n yo

u pr

esen

t? W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

Why

do

you

thin

k yo

ur b

elie

fs a

bout

your

self

are

accu

rate

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

usi

ng n

onve

rbal

tech

niqu

es c

an b

e im

prov

edan

d an

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

for

that

bel

ief.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

nonv

erba

lco

mm

unic

atio

nte

chni

ques

Lang

uage

Art

s3–

5

Ski

llful

ly c

omm

unic

ates

nonv

erba

lly (

e.g.

, ey

e co

ntac

t,ha

nd g

estu

res,

faci

alex

pres

sion

s).

Iden

tify

offe

nsiv

e or

def

ensi

vest

rate

gies

in a

spo

rt y

ou e

ngag

e in

ofte

n.H

ow w

ell d

o yo

u ex

ecut

e th

ese

stra

tegi

es?

Can

you

get

bet

ter?

Exp

lain

why

or

why

not

and

def

end

your

rea

soni

ng.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

he

or s

he b

elie

ves

his

or h

erco

mpe

tenc

e in

offe

nsiv

e or

defe

nsiv

e st

rate

gies

can

be

impr

oved

and

ana

lyze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

at b

elie

f.

Offe

nsiv

e or

defe

nsiv

est

rate

gies

in a

spec

ific

spor

t

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

7–8

Use

s ba

sic

offe

nsiv

e an

dde

fens

ive

stra

tegi

es in

an

indi

vidu

al o

r te

am s

port

.

Examining Efficacy With Psychomotor Procedures

Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of psychomotor procedures involveidentifying beliefs about one’s ability to improve competence at psychomotorskills and processes and analyzing the reasoning behind these perceptions. Forexample, the first examining efficacy task for psychomotor skills involves specifickeyboarding skills. Students must determine if they believe they can improve theircompetence at these psychomotor skills and explain and defend their thinkingbehind their beliefs. The first examining efficacy task for psychomotor processesinvolves perceptions of efficacy regarding the process of using nonverbal commu-nication techniques.

EXAMINING EMOTIONAL RESPONSE

The process of examining emotional response involves identifying what emotions,if any, are associated with specific knowledge, whether these emotions interferewith learning, and the logic behind those associations. As described in Chapter 2,negative affect can dampen a student’s motivation to learn or improve at some-thing, even if the student believes that the knowledge is important and that he orshe has the requisite ability and resources. Figure 8.3 lists objectives and tasks forexamining emotional response across the three knowledge domains.

The key feature of this type of self-system thinking is the identification ofthe logic underlying emotional responses. There is no necessary attempt to changethese associations—only to understand them. This said, an argument can bemade that awareness of one’s emotional associations provides the opportunity forsome control over them.

Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used with examiningemotional response objectives and tasks:

• What are your feelings about• What is the logic underlying these feelings• How reasonable is your thinking

The common format for examining emotional response tasks is short orextended written and oral constructed-response formats.

Examining Emotional Response With Information

Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of information involveidentifying any emotions associated with details and organizing ideas and thelogic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotionalresponse task for details involves facts regarding a specific political issue.Students are asked to identify any emotions associated with the political issue and



155

Fig

ure

8.3

Exa

min

ing

Em

otio

n O

bjec

tives

and

Tas

ks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fa

cts,

Tim

ese

quen

ces

Wha

t em

otio

ns d

o yo

u ha

ve, i

f any

,ab

out t

he s

ourc

es o

f a s

peci

fic p

oliti

cal

conf

lict t

hat w

e ha

ve b

een

stud

ying

,w

heth

er th

ey a

re h

isto

rical

—su

ch a

sth

ose

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

lave

ry, w

ithex

tend

ing

civi

l rig

hts

to a

ll A

mer

ican

s—or

mor

e re

cent

, suc

h as

imm

igra

tion

and

the

war

in Ir

aq?

Wha

t do

you

thin

kgi

ves

rise

to th

ese

emot

ions

? D

oes

your

thin

king

mak

e se

nse?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith a

spe

cific

polit

ical

issu

e an

d an

alyz

e th

ere

ason

ing

behi

nd t

hose

emot

ions

.

The

det

ails

rega

rdin

ga

spec

ific

polit

ical

issu

e

Civ

ics

6–8

Kno

ws

abou

t bo

th p

ast

and

pres

ent

polit

ical

con

flict

s in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

(e.g

.,sl

aver

y, c

ivil

right

s, s

uffr

age,

the

role

of

relig

ion

in t

heU

.S.g

over

nmen

t, ev

ents

lead

ing

to t

he c

reat

ion

of t

heco

untr

y an

d it’

s bi

coas

tal

expa

nsio

n).

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

veab

out

spec

ific

hum

an-c

ause

d ch

ange

sth

at a

re t

akin

g pl

ace

in d

iffer

ent

regi

ons

acro

ss t

he U

nite

d S

tate

s an

dw

hat

thes

e ch

ange

s m

ight

mea

n fo

rth

e fu

ture

? S

elec

t a

spec

ific

chan

ge t

ore

act

to.W

hat

kind

of

thin

king

on

your

part

do

thes

e em

otio

ns s

ugge

st?

How

reas

onab

le is

you

r th

inki

ng?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

peci

fichu

man

-cau

sed

chan

ges

indi

ffere

nt r

egio

ns o

f th

e U

nite

dS

tate

s an

d an

alyz

e th

ere

ason

ing

behi

nd t

hose

emot

ions

.

The

det

ails

rega

rdin

gsp

ecifi

chu

man

-cau

sed

chan

ges

indi

ffere

ntre

gion

s of

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

Geo

grap

hy3–

5U

nder

stan

ds t

he p

oten

tial

impa

ct t

hat

chan

ges

caus

edby

hum

ans

can

have

on

diffe

rent

reg

ions

(e.

g.,

the

rein

trod

uctio

n of

wol

ves

into

wild

life

pres

erve

s in

Mon

tana

).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

veab

out

the

fact

tha

t pr

imar

y an

dse

cond

ary

sour

ces

refle

ct t

he m

otiv

es,

inte

rest

s an

d bi

ases

of

thei

r au

thor

san

d m

ay c

ontr

adic

t ea

ch o

ther

? W

hat

thin

king

mig

ht g

ive

rise

to t

hese

emot

ions

? Is

it lo

gica

l?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith c

ontr

adic

tions

amon

g pr

imar

y an

d se

cond

ary

sour

ces

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tho

seem

otio

ns.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t pr

imar

yan

d se

cond

ary

sour

ces

His

toric

alU

nder

stan

ding

7–8

Und

erst

ands

the

mot

ives

,in

tere

sts

and

poss

ible

bia

ses

in d

iffer

ent

prim

ary

and

seco

ndar

y so

urce

s (e

.g.,

lette

rs,

phot

os,

info

rmat

ion

from

new

spap

ers

and

mag

azin

es,

eyew

itnes

sac

coun

ts o

r he

arsa

y).

(Con

tinu

ed)

156

Fig

ure

8.3

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

vew

hen

you

cons

ider

the

con

cept

of

extin

ctio

n? D

o yo

u co

nsid

er it

in t

erm

sof

its

impo

rtan

ce in

bio

logi

cal

evol

utio

n, o

r do

you

thi

nk o

f it

diffe

rent

ly?

Is y

our

thin

king

logi

cal?

Why

or

why

not

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith t

he c

once

pt o

fex

tinct

ion

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tho

seem

otio

ns.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

extin

ctio

n

Sci

ence

6–8

Und

erst

ands

ext

inct

ion

and

how

impo

rtan

t its

effe

ct o

nbi

olog

ical

evo

lutio

n is

(e.

g.,

whe

n an

env

ironm

ent

chan

ges,

not

all s

peci

es a

re a

ble

toad

apt;

man

y of

the

spe

cies

tha

tha

ve li

ved

on t

he e

arth

hav

esu

ffere

d ex

tinct

ion)

.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

veab

out

aski

ng q

uest

ions

in o

rder

to

broa

den

a cl

assr

oom

dis

cuss

ion?

Wha

t is

the

thi

nkin

g be

hind

thi

s?D

oes

your

thi

nkin

g m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith a

skin

gqu

estio

ns in

the

cla

ssro

om a

ndan

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

behi

ndth

ose

emot

ions

.

The

ski

ll of

aski

ngqu

estio

ns in

clas

s

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Enr

iche

s cl

assr

oom

disc

ussi

ons

by a

skin

gqu

estio

ns.

We

have

bee

n pr

actic

ing

a te

chni

que

for

hand

ling

the

stre

ss o

f do

ing

poor

lyon

a c

lass

ass

ignm

ent.

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

ve a

bout

thi

s st

rate

gy?

Wha

t th

inki

ng g

ives

ris

e to

the

seem

otio

ns?

How

logi

cal i

s th

at t

hink

ing?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith le

arni

ngst

rate

gies

for

copi

ng w

ith t

hest

ress

of

doin

g po

orly

on

a cl

ass

assi

gnm

ent

and

exam

ine

the

thin

king

beh

ind

thos

e em

otio

ns.

The

ski

ll of

copi

ng w

ithth

e st

ress

of

doin

g po

orly

on a

cla

ssas

sign

men

t

Hea

lth6–

8K

now

s st

rate

gies

for

copi

ngw

ith t

he s

tres

s of

doi

ng p

oorly

on a

cla

ss a

ssig

nmen

t.

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

uas

soci

ate

with

res

pond

ing

to q

uest

ions

and

feed

back

afte

r a

pres

enta

tion

you

have

giv

en—

for

exam

ple,

cla

rifyi

ng a

ndde

fend

ing

your

idea

s or

exp

andi

ng o

na

topi

c? W

hat

thin

king

giv

es r

ise

toth

ese

emot

ions

? D

oes

it se

em lo

gica

l?W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

eeki

ngfe

edba

ck t

o re

vise

apr

esen

tatio

n an

d an

alyz

e th

elo

gic

behi

nd t

hose

em

otio

ns.

The

pro

cess

of r

evis

ing

apr

esen

tatio

n

Lang

uage

Art

s9–

12

Rev

ises

a p

rese

ntat

ion

byre

spon

ding

to

ques

tions

and

feed

back

(e.

g.,

elab

orat

es o

n a

topi

c, c

larif

ies

and

defe

nds

idea

s, u

ses

logi

cal a

rgum

ents

and

logi

cal o

rgan

izat

ion,

eval

uate

s ov

eral

l ach

ieve

men

t,se

ts f

utur

e go

als)

.

157

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

vew

hen

you

are

pres

ente

d a

prob

lem

situ

atio

n th

at y

ou m

ust

tran

slat

e in

toan

othe

r fo

rm—

oral

, w

ritte

n, c

oncr

ete,

or s

ome

othe

r fo

rm?

Wha

t is

the

logi

cbe

hind

the

se e

mot

ions

? D

oes

it m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

ass

ocia

ted

with

tra

nsla

ting

a pr

oble

msi

tuat

ion

from

one

form

into

anot

her

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

tho

se e

mot

ions

.

The

pro

cess

of t

rans

latin

ga

prob

lem

situ

atio

n in

tova

rious

form

s

Mat

h6–

8U

ses

oral

, w

ritte

n, c

oncr

ete,

pict

oria

l, an

d gr

aphi

cal f

orm

s to

repr

esen

t pr

oble

m s

ituat

ions

and

tran

slat

es a

mon

gth

ese

form

s.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u ha

veab

out

lear

ning

and

mas

terin

g a

spec

ific

adva

nced

ski

ll in

you

r sp

ort?

Wha

t do

you

thi

nk c

ause

s th

ese

emot

ions

? Is

you

r th

inki

ngre

ason

able

?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

ass

ocia

ted

with

lear

ning

and

mas

terin

gad

vanc

ed s

kills

in a

cho

sen

spor

tan

d an

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

behi

ndth

ose

emot

ions

.

An

adva

nced

skill

in a

spec

ific

spor

t

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

9–12

Use

s ad

vanc

ed s

kills

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

elec

t sp

orts

or a

ctiv

ities

(e.

g.,

swim

min

g,da

nce,

clim

bing

, te

nnis

,la

cros

se).

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

u th

ink

ofw

hen

you

are

requ

ired

to p

aral

lel p

ark

in d

river

’s e

duca

tion?

Wha

t is

the

thin

king

beh

ind

thes

e as

soci

atio

ns?

Doe

s yo

ur t

hink

ing

mak

e se

nse?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

ass

ocia

ted

with

lear

ning

to

para

llel p

ark

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

thos

e em

otio

ns.

The

ski

ll of

para

llel

park

ing

Driv

er’s

Edu

catio

n9–

12

App

lies

the

skill

s an

dpr

oces

ses

for

driv

ing

in a

cong

este

d ar

ea.

Psy

chom

otor

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Sel

ect

one

of t

he n

ew s

port

s w

e ha

vebe

en s

tudy

ing.

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y,do

you

hav

e w

hen

you

thin

k ab

out

lear

ning

tha

t sp

ort?

Wha

t is

the

reas

onin

g be

hind

you

r re

actio

n?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

ass

ocia

ted

with

lear

ning

a n

ew s

port

and

anal

yze

the

thin

king

beh

ind

thos

eem

otio

ns.

The

pro

cess

of le

arni

ng a

new

spo

rt

Phy

sica

lE

duca

tion

3–6

Impr

oves

phy

sica

l per

form

ance

by m

akin

g us

e of

info

rmat

ion

prov

ided

by

both

inte

rnal

and

exte

rnal

sou

rces

(e.

g.,

self-

asse

ssm

ent,

peer

, an

dco

ach

revi

ew).

Wha

t em

otio

ns,

if an

y, d

o yo

uas

soci

ate

with

the

pro

cess

of

prod

ucin

g an

art

wor

k th

at r

efle

cts

your

per

sona

l bel

iefs

? W

hat

reas

ons

are

ther

e fo

r th

ese

asso

ciat

ions

?D

o th

ey m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

any

emot

ions

ass

ocia

ted

with

pro

duci

ng a

n ar

twor

k an

dan

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

behi

ndth

ose

emot

ions

.

The

pro

cess

of p

rodu

cing

a w

ork

of a

rt

Vis

ual

Art

s9–

12

Atte

mpt

s to

car

ry o

ut p

erso

nal

inte

ntio

ns in

art

wor

k.

the reasoning behind these associations. The first examining emotional responsetask for organizing ideas involves emotional responses relative to generalizationsabout primary and secondary sources.

Examining Emotional Response With Mental Procedures

Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of mental proceduresinvolve identifying emotions associated with mental skills and processes and thelogic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotional responsetask for mental skills addresses specific skills for asking questions in class. Here theteacher has provided students with a few question-asking techniques. Students areasked to identify emotions associated with these techniques and the logic behindthese associations. The first examining emotional response task for mental processesinvolves emotional responses relative to the process of revising a presentation.

Examining Emotional Response With Psychomotor Procedures

Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve identifying emotions associated with psychomotor skills and processes andthe logic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotionalresponse task for psychomotor skills addresses a specific advanced skill in a specificsport. Students identify any associated emotions and the logic behind these emo-tions. The first examining emotional response task for psychomotor processesinvolves emotional responses regarding the process of learning a new sport.

EXAMINING MOTIVATION

The final type of self-system thinking involves examining overall motivation toimprove one’s understanding of or competence in a specific type of knowledge.As described in Chapter 2, overall motivation is a composite of the other threeaspects of self-system thinking: perceptions of importance, perceptions of effi-cacy, and emotional response. Examining motivation can be considered an“omnibus” self-system process incorporating the other three aspects of the self-system. Figure 8.4 lists objectives and tasks for examining motivation across thethree knowledge domains.

Ideally, when students respond to tasks like those in Figure 8.4, they considerall three self-system components that can affect motivation. They comment on theimportance they ascribe to the knowledge, the level of efficacy they perceive, andany emotions they associate with the knowledge. They also explain which of thesethree factors dominates their motivation. Of course the sophistication of students’



159

Fig

ure

8.4

Exa

min

ing

Mot

ivat

ion

Obj

ectiv

es a

nd T

asks

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Det

ails

:Te

rms,

Fa

cts,

Tim

ese

quen

ces

How

inte

rest

ed a

re y

ou in

lear

ning

mor

e ab

out

the

loca

tion

of y

our

scho

ol,

hom

e, a

nd s

tate

? W

hy a

reyo

u in

tere

sted

or

not

inte

rest

ed?

Are

your

rea

sons

goo

d re

ason

s?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

loca

tion

of h

is o

r he

r sc

hool

, ho

me,

and

stat

e.

Det

ails

abo

utsc

hool

, ho

me,

and

stat

e

Geo

grap

hyK

–2Lo

cate

s fa

mili

ar p

lace

s,su

ch a

s sc

hool

, ho

me,

and

neig

hbor

hood

, as

wel

l as

larg

er a

reas

, su

ch a

s on

e’s

own

com

mun

ity,

stat

e, a

ndco

untr

y.

Eac

h of

us

has

sele

cted

a d

iffer

ent

snac

k fo

od t

o st

udy.

How

inte

rest

edar

e yo

u in

lear

ning

abo

ut t

he s

nack

you

have

sel

ecte

d? W

hy d

o yo

u ha

veth

is le

vel o

f in

tere

st?

Doe

s yo

urth

inki

ng m

ake

sens

e?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

a s

peci

ficty

pe o

f sn

ack

food

and

pro

vide

som

e re

ason

s fo

r th

ispe

rcep

tion.

Det

ails

abo

ut a

spec

ific

snac

kfo

od

Hea

lth3–

5U

nder

stan

ds h

ow t

o pr

actic

ehe

alth

ful e

atin

g (e

.g.,

eatin

gve

geta

bles

rat

her

than

pota

to c

hips

, ea

ting

a va

riety

of n

utrit

ious

food

s, e

atin

gpe

riodi

cally

thr

ough

out

the

day

to a

ssis

t en

ergy

leve

lsan

d su

stai

n gr

owth

).

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Gen

eral

izat

ion

Do

you

have

an

inte

rest

in le

arni

ngho

w h

isto

rical

acc

ount

s ca

n ch

ange

,ba

sed

on n

ewly

unc

over

ed r

ecor

dsan

d in

terp

reta

tions

? Ye

s or

no?

Exp

lain

you

r re

ason

ing.

Doe

s it

mak

ego

od s

ense

? W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

toid

entif

y hi

s or

her

leve

l of

mot

ivat

ion

to in

crea

seun

ders

tand

ing

of h

ow h

isto

rical

acco

unts

can

cha

nge,

bas

edon

new

info

rmat

ion,

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

isle

vel o

f mot

ivat

ion.

Gen

eral

izat

ions

abou

t his

toric

alac

coun

ts

His

toric

alU

nder

stan

ding

7–8

Kno

ws

that

his

toric

alin

terp

reta

tions

and

acc

ount

sch

ange

, du

e to

rec

ently

disc

over

ed d

ocum

ents

or

fact

s an

d ch

angi

ng p

oliti

cs.

(Con

tinu

ed)

160

Fig

ure

8.4

(Con

tinue

d)

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Info

rmat

ion:

Org

aniz

ing

Prin

cipl

e

How

wou

ld y

ou d

escr

ibe

your

leve

l of

mot

ivat

ion

for

unde

rsta

ndin

g ho

wel

emen

ts a

re a

rran

ged

in t

he p

erio

dic

tabl

e? W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

you

are

mot

ivat

ed t

his

way

? Is

you

r th

inki

ngre

ason

able

? E

xpla

in.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

how

ele

men

tsar

e ar

rang

ed in

the

per

iodi

cta

ble

and

anal

yze

the

reas

onin

g fo

r th

is le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n.

Prin

cipl

esre

gard

ing

the

perio

dic

tabl

e

Sci

ence

9–12

Kno

ws

the

arra

ngem

ent

ofel

emen

ts in

the

per

iodi

cta

ble

and

know

s th

atpa

ttern

s ap

pear

with

in t

heta

ble,

illu

stra

ting

elem

ents

with

sim

ilar

prop

ertie

s (e

.g.,

num

bers

of

prot

ons,

neut

rons

, an

d el

ectr

ons;

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

atom

icnu

mbe

r an

d at

omic

mas

s).

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Ski

ll

How

inte

rest

ed a

re y

ou in

bei

ng g

ood

at fo

llow

ing

the

rule

s of

con

vers

atio

nw

e ha

ve b

een

stud

ying

, lik

e ta

king

turn

s an

d ra

isin

g yo

ur h

and

to s

peak

in c

lass

? W

hy a

re y

ou in

tere

sted

?A

re t

here

goo

d re

ason

s to

be

inte

rest

ed?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

com

pete

nce

in fo

llow

ing

the

rule

s of

con

vers

atio

n an

dpr

ovid

e so

me

reas

ons

for

this

thi

nkin

g.

Spe

cific

rul

esof

con

vers

atio

nLa

ngua

geA

rts

K–2

Adh

eres

to

conv

entio

ns o

fco

nver

satio

n an

d di

scus

sion

(e.g

., lis

tens

, ta

kes

turn

s,ra

ises

han

d to

spe

ak,

stay

son

top

ic).

Are

you

mot

ivat

ed t

o be

abl

e to

use

asp

read

shee

t to

upd

ate

and

add

data

?W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

Doe

s yo

ur t

hink

ing

mak

e se

nse?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

com

pete

nce

in u

sing

asp

read

shee

t to

upd

ate

and

add

data

and

ana

lyze

the

logi

c of

his

or h

er t

hink

ing.

Upd

atin

g an

dad

ding

dat

a to

a sp

read

shee

t

Tech

nolo

gy6–

8U

ses

a sp

read

shee

t to

mak

ech

ange

s to

dat

a.

161

Task

Obj

ectiv

eK

now

ledg

eFo

cus

Sub

ject

,G

rade

Ben

chm

ark

Sta

tem

ent

Men

tal

Pro

cedu

re:

Pro

cess

Wha

t is

you

r le

vel o

f in

tere

st in

bei

ngab

le t

o ac

cura

tely

use

the

conv

entio

ns o

f S

pani

sh w

e ar

est

udyi

ng,

espe

cial

ly w

hen

it co

ncer

nsus

ing

the

right

lang

uage

for

diffe

rent

setti

ngs,

suc

h as

soc

ial a

ndac

adem

ic?

Why

? A

re t

here

goo

dre

ason

s be

hind

you

r th

inki

ng?

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

com

pete

nce

in u

sing

the

conv

entio

ns o

f S

pani

sh a

ndan

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

for

this

leve

l of

mot

ivat

ion.

The

pro

cess

of u

sing

the

conv

entio

nsof

a fo

reig

nla

ngua

gedu

ring

conv

ersa

tion

For

eign

Lang

uage

5–8

Use

s la

ngua

ge m

echa

nics

,co

nven

tions

and

sty

le (

e.g.

,co

mpl

ex g

ram

mat

ical

stru

ctur

es,

slan

g, id

iom

s,po

lite

and

info

rmal

form

s an

dst

atus

indi

cato

rs,

vern

acul

ardi

alec

ts a

nd d

ictio

n)ap

prop

riate

to

soci

al,

acad

emic

and

cer

emon

ial

audi

ence

s.

How

str

ongl

y ar

e yo

u m

otiv

ated

to b

e ab

le t

o us

e th

e re

ctan

gula

rco

ordi

nate

sys

tem

to

mod

el a

nd t

oso

lve

prob

lem

s? W

hy?

How

logi

cal

is y

our

thin

king

? E

xpla

in.

The

stu

dent

will

be

able

to

iden

tify

his

or h

er le

vel o

fm

otiv

atio

n to

incr

ease

com

pete

nce

in u

sing

the

rect

angu

lar

coor

dina

te s

yste

man

d an

alyz

e th

e re

ason

ing

for

this

leve

l of

mot

ivat

ion.

Usi

ngre

ctan

gula

rco

ordi

nate

s to

solv

e pr

oble

ms

Mat

h6–

8M

odel

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responses is dependent on their age and maturity. Whereas older students might beexpected to provide a detailed explanation of the factors affecting their motivation,primary students would be expected to provide a simple statement of their level ofmotivation and a basic reason or two for this perception.

Objectives and tasks for examining motivation are expressed in many ways,although common phrases include the following:

• How interested are you• How motivated are you• How would you explain your level of interest• How reasonable is your thinking

The common format for examining motivation tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed response. Graphic organizers like that depicted in Figure8.5 can be used by students to aid in their response to examining motivation tasks.

The graphic organizer in Figure 8.5 has a place for students to list their per-ceptions of importance, their perceptions of efficacy, and their perceptions of emo-tional response. This cues them to three major factors in motivation. There is alsoa section in the graphic organizer cueing them to explain how these three factorsinteract to enhance or decrease their motivation.


Figure 8.5 Graphic Organizer for Motivation

How important is this Do I think I can do What emotions do Ito me? Why? this? Why? associate with this?

Why?

My overall motivation

Explain ________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________

Examining Motivation With Information

Examining motivation tasks for the domain of information involve identifyingone’s level of motivation to learn details and organizing ideas and then analyzingthe reasons for the identified level of motivation. For example, the first examiningmotivation task for details involves details about school, home, and state. Studentsmust determine whether they are interested in learning about these details as wellas the reasons for their identified level of motivation. The first examining motiva-tion task for organizing ideas involves perceptions of motivation relative to gen-eralizations about historical accounts.

Examining Motivation With Mental Procedures

Examining motivation tasks for the domain of mental procedures involveidentifying one’s level of motivation to learn mental skills and processes and thenanalyzing the reasons for the identified level of motivation. For example, the firstexamining motivation task for mental skills involves specific rules of conversa-tion. Students must identify their interest in learning these rules and the reasonsbehind their level of interest. The first examining motivation task for mentalprocesses involves perceptions of motivation relative to the process of using con-ventions in foreign language.

Examining Motivation With Psychomotor Procedures

Examining motivation tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve identifying one’s level of motivation to learn psychomotor skills andprocesses and then analyzing the reasons for the identified level of motivation. Forexample, the first examining motivation task for psychomotor skills involves spe-cific warm-up and cool-down exercises. Students identify their level of motivationfor learning these psychomotor skills and the reasons behind the identified level.The first examining motivation task for psychomotor processes involves percep-tions of motivation relative to the process of reading a story aloud.


SELF-SYSTEM OBJECTIVES AND TASKS

Examining Importance Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify the extent to which they perceive learning spe-cific knowledge to be important and analyze the logic of their perceptions

• Use terms and phrases like the following: how important is it to you, whydo you think it might be important, can you provide some reason why it isimportant, how logical is your thinking



Examining Efficacy Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify the extent to which they believe they can learnor get better at specific knowledge and analyze the logic of their beliefs

• Use terms and phrases like the following: can you improve, how well doyou think you can do, how well can you learn, how good are you at, howlogical is your thinking


Examining Emotional Response Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify emotions associated with knowledge andanalyze the logic behind these emotions

• Use terms and phrases like the following: what are your feelings about,what is the logic underlying your thinking, how reasonable is your thinking


Examining Motivation Objectives and Tasks

• Require students to identify their level of motivation for learning specifictypes of knowledge and the logic behind the identified level of motivation.Ideally students include their perception of importance, efficacy, and emo-tional response in their analyses.

• Use terms and phrases like the following: how interested are you, howmotivated are you, how would you explain your level of interest, how rea-sonable is your thinking



167

CH A P T E R NI N E

The New Taxonomy as a Scalefor Student Performance

chomotor procedures) for each of the six levels of the New The previous eight chapters have addressed objectives and tasks across the

three domains of knowledge (information, mental procedures, and psy-Taxonomy. In effect

the New Taxonomy represents a tacit scale of student performance. Objectives andassessment tasks could be designed across all six levels of the New Taxonomy fora knowledge component that is the focus of a particular unit of instruction or a par-ticular grading period. To illustrate, assume that a district, school, or teacher hasidentified information about the solar system as the focus of instruction at theeighth grade. Figure 9.1 lists potential objectives and tasks regarding the solar system for all six levels of the New Taxonomy.

Figure 9.1 illustrates that it is possible to generate objectives and tasks for spe-cific types of knowledge at a specific grade level for all six levels of the NewTaxonomy. Here the knowledge focus is information about the solar system at theeighth grade. For each level of the New Taxonomy, specific objectives and sam-ple tasks have been articulated. Using these guidelines, teachers could constructtheir own tasks or use those designed by the school or district to determine eachstudent’s position on the six levels of the New Taxonomy for this particular topic.This is probably not advisable for at least two reasons.

First, as described in the New Taxonomy (Marzano & Kendall, 2007), themetacognitive and self-system processes are meant to be addressed as an integralpart of academic content. Unfortunately, this perception is not commonly sharedthroughout K–12 education. However, metacognitive and self-system skills arebecoming accepted as a viable type of supporting or complimentary curriculum toacademic content. We discuss this later in this chapter.

The second reason for not using all six levels of the New Taxonomy as a scale formeasuring students is that within a school system, different grade levels focus on verydifferent types of knowledge. For example, at the eighth-grade level, the expectation


Figure 9.1 Complete Articulation of New Taxonomy Regarding Information

Knowledge About the Solar System

New TaxonomyLevel Objective Sample Task

Level 6— The student will be able How would you describe your level of interestSelf-System: to analyze his or her to learn more about the solar system? WhatExamining motivation to learn about are your reasons for this level of motivation?Motivation the solar system. How logical is your thinking?

Level 5— The student will be able Identify something about the solar systemMetacognition: to identify aspects of the about which you are confused. Develop a planMonitoring solar system about which to clear up your confusion.Clarity he or she is not clear.

Level 4— The student will be able Select one of the current discoveries aboutKnowledge to investigate the gradual the solar system we have studied in class.Utilization: growth of knowledge Investigate how the discovery came about andInvestigating about the solar system. how it changed our thinking about the solar

system.

Level 3— The student will be able Identify two planets in our solar system andAnalysis: to identify similarities and compare them on two or more characteristicsMatching differences between

various planets in thesolar system.

of your choice.

Level 2— The student will be able Explain what you consider to be the mostComprehension: to explain the critical important features of our solar system in termsIntegrating features of the solar

system.of understanding how it operates.

Level 1—Retrieval:Recognizing andRecalling

The student will be ableto recognize and recallimportant details aboutthe solar system.

Briefly explain the following terms:

• Planetary rings• Light year• Astronomical unit

Determine if the following statements aretrue or false:

1. The path of objects traveling around thesun follows a law of planetary motiondiscovered by German astronomerJohannes Kepler in the early 1600s.

2. There are seventy-three known moonsin the solar system.

3. Jupiter is a dwarf planet.

4. The term celestial object does notinclude earth.

5. Mercury has fifteen planetary rings.

6. The moon is about one-third the size ofearth.

7. Venus is the coldest planet in the solarsystem.

8. Astronomers most often measuredistances within the solar system inastronomical units.

for students might be that they can analyze information about the topic of the solarsystem—in the parlance of the New Taxonomy, the expectation is that studentsdemonstrate competence in matching, classifying, analyzing errors, generalizing, andspecifying regarding information about the solar system. At the fifth-grade level, theexpectation might be that students can comprehend the important characteristics of thesolar system—in New Taxonomy terms, the expectation is that they demonstrate com-petence in integrating and symbolizing information about the solar system. At thethird-grade level, the expectation might be that students can retrieve basic informationabout the solar system—they can recognize and recall basic facts about the solar sys-tem. Thus it would be impractical and unwise to expect students to exhibit all levelsof the New Taxonomy for all topics at each grade level. For measurement purposes,what is needed is a flexible scale that can translate the New Taxonomy into reasonableexpectations and be easily used by teachers to design and score assessments.

A FLEXIBLE SCALE TO USE WITH THE NEW TAXONOMY

In a series of works, Marzano (2006; Marzano & Haystead, 2008) has a developeda scale that can be used to design and score assessments based on the first four levels of the New Taxonomy. That scale is depicted in Figure 9.2.

The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 169

Figure 9.2 Scale for Use With the First Four Levels of the New Taxonomy

Score 4.0: In addition to Score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications thatgo beyond what was taught.

Score 3.5: In addition to Score 3.0 performance, partial success at inferences and applicationsthat go beyond what was taught.

Score 3.0: No major errors or omissions regarding any of the information and/or processes(simple or complex) that were explicitly taught.

Score 2.5. No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes and partialknowledge of the more complex ideas and processes.

Score 2.0: No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes butmajor errors or omissions regarding the more complex ideas and processes.

Score 1.5: Partial knowledge of the simpler details and processes but major errors or omissionsregarding the more complex ideas and processes.

Score 1.0: With help, a partial understanding of some of the simpler details and processesand some of the more complex ideas and processes.

Score 0.5: With help, a partial understanding of some of the simpler details and processes butnot the more complex ideas and processes.

Score 0.0: Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.

© Copyright 2004. Marzano & Associates. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

The scale in Figure 9.2 is generic. It is intended to be rewritten for specificgrade level expectations using the New Taxonomy. To illustrate, assume that atfifth grade students are expected to comprehend the critical characteristics of thesolar system. That is, the stated objective for fifth grade students is this: “Thestudent will be able to explain the critical characteristics of the solar system.” Thisexpectation would be placed at score 3.0 in the scale. To determine score level 2.0,one simply moves down one level of the New Taxonomy. In effect the objectivefor score level 2.0 would be, “The student will be able to recall important detailsabout the solar system.” To determine score level 4.0, one moves up one level inthe New Taxonomy. In effect, the objective for score level 4.0 would be, “Thestudent will be able to analyze information about the solar system.” As discussed,below score 4.0, objectives are more general in nature. With these three referencepoints identified, a scale specific to the topic of the solar system for the fifth gradecan be written. This is depicted in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 is a scale written specifically for the fifth-grade target objectivesfor the solar system. Note that for score 3.0 and 2.0, rather specific guidance isprovided that allows teachers to generate and score assessments. We address thisin the next section. Score value 4.0 is less specific because it involves inferencesand applications that go beyond what was directly taught in class. Here teachersare provided guidance as to the type of inferences and applications students areexpected to make. In this case, those inferences and applications address theanalysis processes of the New Taxonomy.

Now consider a different grade level using the same general content—thesolar system. Assume that at third grade, the target objective is that studentswill be able to retrieve important information about the solar system. Again thiswould occupy score 3.0 on the scale. To define score 2.0, one would movedown a level on the New Taxonomy. However, retrieval is the lowest level ofthe New Taxonomy. In such cases, one looks for a hierarchic structure within agiven taxonomic level. In this case, recognition is a lower level than recall.Recall then, is the expectation at score value 3.0; recognition is the expectationat score value 2.0. To define score value 4.0, one moves up one level in the NewTaxonomy, to comprehension. Again a specific scale would be written. This isdepicted in Figure 9.4.

This scale, although on the same general topic as that depicted in Figure 9.3,is quite different in that score values 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 involve recognition, recall,and integration, respectively, whereas in Figure 9.3, score values 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0involve recall, integration and analysis, respectively.

As the foregoing examples illustrate, when a grade-level statement of studentexpectations is specific enough to be placed on the New Taxonomy, a scale can beconstructed using the generic scale in Figure 9.2. The grade-level expectation isplaced in score value 3.0. Score value 2.0 is defined using one level down in the



Figure 9.3 Scale for the Topic of the Solar System at the Fifth Grade

Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0, in-depth inferences and applications that involveidentifying implied similarities and differences, classifying, analyzing errors,generalizing, and specifying.

Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications withpartial success.

Score 3.0 While engaged in tasks that address the topic of the solar system, the studentdemonstrates comprehension of critical characteristics of the solar system,such as

• Basic interactions between the sun and planets in the solar system(e.g., explains why the planets stay in orbit around the sun)

• Basic distinctions between the sun and planets in the solar system (e.g.,shape, size, characteristics of rings, characteristics of moons, distance fromthe sun)

The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.

Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements and partialknowledge of the score 3.0 elements.

Score 2.0 No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes,such as

• Recalling specific terminology, such as� Planetary rings� Light-year� Astronomical unit

• Recalling isolated details, such as� The moon is about one-third the size of earth.� Astronomers most often measure distances within the solar system in

astronomical units.� Objects around the sun travel according to a law of planetary motion

discovered by German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s.� The term celestial object does not include earth.

However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with score 3.0elements.

Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors or omissions regardingthe score 3.0 elements.

Score 1.0 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements andsome of the score 3.0 elements.

Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements but not thescore 3.0 elements.

Score 0.0 Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.

New Taxonomy and score value 4.0 is defined using one level up on the NewTaxonomy. When recall is the focus of score value 3.0, recognition is used as thefocus of score value 2.0.


Figure 9.4 Scale for the Topic of the Solar System at the Third Grade

Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0, in-depth inferences and applications that involveidentifying critical versus noncritical aspects of the solar system.

Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications withpartial success.

Score 3.0 While engaged in tasks that address the topic of the solar system, thestudent demonstrates recall of important information about the solar system,such as

• There are eight planets in our solar system.• The earth is the third planet from the sun.• The earth is assumed to be the only planet that supports life.• There are many solar systems in the universe.• There are four gas giant planets in our solar system.• There are three dwarf planets in our solar system.• There are four inner planets and four outer planets in our solar system.


Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements and partialknowledge of the score 3.0 elements.

Score 2.0 No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes,such as

• Recognizing isolated details, such as� Our planet is called Earth.� The sun is a star.� Each planet orbits the sun.� Mercury is the name of the planet closest to the sun.� Earth is the only planet with just one moon.


Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors or omissions regardingthe score 3.0 elements.


Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements but not thescore 3.0 elements.


DESIGNING AND SCORING ASSESSMENTS

Once a scale has been constructed for a grade-level expectation, assessments canbe constructed and scored. Again consider the scale in Figure 9.4. There recog-nition is the focus of score value 2.0. Based on the scale, the teacher can designrecognition items like the following:

Determine if the following statements are true or false:

• The sun orbits Earth.• Mercury appears blue when viewed through a telescope.• Saturn has rings.• Earth is between Venus and Mars.• We live on the third planet from the Sun.

These true–false items are recognition items because students are providedwith statements about the solar system and must recognize whether each statementis correct. Forced-choice items, like true–false, matching, and multiple choice,are commonly used for recognition items. (For a detailed discussion of commonrecognition items, see Marzano, 2006.)

The focus of score value 3.0 is recall. The teacher might design items likethe following for score value 3.0:

Briefly answer the following:

• What are the different planets in the solar system? Start from the sun andidentify each planet from the first to the last.

• Pick three planets and describe some of the important things we’ve learnedabout each.

Recall items require students to produce accurate information as opposed tosimply recognizing it when it is provided. Consequently, recall items typically useshort constructed-response formats. (For a discussion, see Chapter 3.)

The focus of score value 4.0 is integration. Here students must distinguishbetween critical versus noncritical elements for a given topic. An item like thefollowing would elicit this type of thinking:

We have learned about earth’s ability to support life. Pick three characteris-tics we have studied and explain why they are critical to support life on earth.

Here students must go beyond simply recalling information that has beentaught. They must explain why certain characteristics are important to a specificphenomenon—the ability of earth to support life.

The three types of items generated by the teacher would be put together toform the assessment depicted in Figure 9.5.

To score the assessment in Figure 9.5, a teacher would first address each itemand determine if a student’s response received full credit (possibly signified by +),no credit (possibly signified by 0), or partial credit (possibly signified by P). Theteacher then examines the pattern of response across score 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 itemsand tasks. To understand how best to interpret response patterns, it is useful tobegin with the score value of 3.0.



Figure 9.5 Assessment Based on Third-Grade Scale for the Solar System

Section I: For each item, identify whether it is true or false:

1. The sun orbits Earth.

2. Mercury appears blue when viewed through a telescope.

3. Saturn has rings.

4. Earth is between Venus and Mars.

5. We live on the third planet from the sun.

Section II: Briefly answer the following:

1. What are the different planets in the solar system? Start from the sun and identify eachplanet from the first to the last.

2. Pick three planets and describe some of the important things we’ve learned about each.

Section III: We have learned about earth’s ability to support life. Pick three characteristics we havestudied and explain why they are critical to support life on earth.

• A score of 3.0 indicates that a student has answered all items or tasks cor-rectly that involve simpler details and processes (all score 2.0 items andtasks) as well as all items and tasks that involve more complex ideas andprocesses that were explicitly taught (all score 3.0 items and tasks). Ineffect, the score of 3.0 is the fulcrum of the scale. It represents the instruc-tional goal for a specific topic.

• A score of 2.0 indicates that the student has answered all items and taskscorrectly that involve simpler details and processes (all score 2.0 items andtasks), but has missed all items and tasks that involve more complex ideasand processes (all score 3.0 items and tasks).

• If a student has answered all items and tasks correctly regarding simpler detailsand processes (score 2.0 items and tasks) and some items and tasks correctlyinvolving more complex ideas and processes (score 3.0 items and tasks) or hasreceived partial credit on those items and tasks, a score of 2.5 is assigned.

• A score of 1.5 is assigned if a student receives partial credit on the score 2.0items and tasks but misses all other types of items.

• A score of 1.0 is assigned if a student misses all items and tasks on anassessment but with help from the teacher demonstrates partial credit on thescore 2.0 and score 3.0 items and tasks.

• A score of 0.5 is assigned if the student misses all items and tasks but withhelp demonstrates partial credit on the score 2.0 items and tasks (but doesnot demonstrate partial credit on the score 3.0 items and tasks).

• A score of 0.0 indicates that even with help, the student cannot answer anyitems or perform any tasks correctly.

• At the top end of the scale, a score of 4.0 is assigned if a student answersall items and tasks correctly (score 4.0 items and tasks, score 3.0 items andtasks, and score 2.0 items and tasks).

• A score of 3.5 is assigned if a student answers score 2.0 and score 3.0 itemsand tasks correctly and receives partial credit on score 4.0 items and tasks.

To illustrate, assume that a particular student answered all items correctly inSections I and II of the assessment depicted in Figure 9.5 but did not answer theitem in Section III correctly. The student would receive a score of 3.0 on theassessment. Had the student received partial credit on the items in Section III, hisor her score would have been 3.5. If the student had answered all items correctlyin Section I and answered some of the items correctly in Section II or received par-tial credit on some of these items, he or she would have received a score of 2.5. Ifthe student answered no items correctly on the assessment but upon a discussionwith the teacher was able to partially answer some questions in Section I andSection II with prompting, the student’s score would be 1.0. For a more detaileddiscussion of various types of score patterns see Marzano (2006).

One of the advantages to scoring assessments using the scale presented in thischapter is that it is particularly useful in tracking student progress over time. Toillustrate, consider Figure 9.6.


Topic: Solar System

4

3

2

1

0a b c d e f g

a. October 6

b. October 12

c. October 20

d. October 29

e. November 8

f.

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Figure 9.6 Tracking Student Progress

Figure 9.6 depicts five scores for a particular student over time on the topic of thesolar system. Assume that all assessments were similar to that shown in Figure 9.5.The student’s scores have been graphed by the teacher and the student. This allowsthe teacher and student to examine growth over time. This particular student startedwith a score of 1.0—the student answered no questions on the test without help, butwith help was able to receive partial credit on some score 2.0 and 3.0 items. By thefourth and fifth assessments, the student was able to independently answer score 2.0and 3.0 items thus receiving a score of 3.0 on both assessments. Marzano (2006) hasdemonstrated how this type of graphing of student progress fulfills some of the defin-ing features of formative assessment. It allows students to see their growth over timeand provides assessment information about status at a particular point in time.

THE UNIQUE ROLE OF METACOGNITIVE

AND SELF-SYSTEM PROCESSES

It is certainly possible to incorporate metacognitive and self-system processesinto a scale like those depicted in Figure 9.3 and 9.4. Indeed if score 3.0 on ascale focuses on a knowledge utilization process such as investigation, it wouldmake logical sense for score value 4.0 to address a metacognitive process likeexamining accuracy or examining clarity. And if score value 3.0 on a scalefocuses on a metacognitive process such as examining accuracy or examiningclarity, it would make logical sense for score value 4.0 to address a self-systemprocess like examining motivation. This notwithstanding, K–12 educators typi-cally want to isolate academic content as the centerpiece of the curriculum. Thisis evidenced by the current emphasis on national and state academic standards(for a discussion, see Marzano and Haystead, 2008). Consequently, districts andschools might reasonably elect to consider the metacognitive and self-systemprocesses as a separate type of curriculum. This is in keeping with current dis-cussions of personal and social skills. There is growing evidence that when sucha curriculum is combined with a sound academic curriculum, students benefitboth in terms of learning academic content as well as learning personal and socialskills. Specifically, a meta-analysis by Durlak and Weissberg (2007) indicatesthat when skills like those in the metacognitive and self-system components ofthe New Taxonomy are taught in tandem with academic skills, both can beenhanced. They explain that “the association between academic performanceand personal and social development is of great interest to educators, researchers,and policy makers” (p. 18). It should be noted that Durlak and Weissbergdefine personal and social development in a much broader manner than wedefine metacognition and self-system thinking; however, an examination of thetypes of skills they consider within their framework of personal and social devel-opment demonstrates that many of their personal skills are closely related to whatwe refer to in the later two categories of the New Taxonomy.


According to Durlak and Weissberg (2007), one important aspect of teachingmetacognitive and self-system skills (i.e., personal skills) is to provide studentswith explicit models and practice in those skills. They note,

New skill cannot be acquired immediately. It takes time and effort todevelop new behaviors and often more complicated skills must be brokendown into smaller steps and sequentially mastered. Therefore, a coordi-nated sequence of activities is required that links the learning steps andprovides youth with opportunities to connect these steps. (p. 10)

In terms of the metacognitive and self-system processes listed in the NewTaxonomy, these findings imply that teachers should teach specific strategies formetacognitive and self-systems skills. Consider, for example, the metacognitiveprocess of specifying goals. To use this process as a supportive structure for learn-ing content, teachers should provide students with explicit guidance in how to setconcrete, measurable goals and how to design explicit plans that include time lines,resources and milestones. This is consistent with current discussions regardingenhancing student thinking. For example, Swartz, Costa, Beyer, Reagan, and Kallick(2008) discuss teaching students how to climb the “ladder of metacognition” (p. 99)as a critical aspect of teaching thinking. They also recommend teaching studentshow to gain control of their emotions and thought processes as a form of higherorder thinking. Of course, these two components are similar to metacognitive andself-system thinking in the New Taxonomy.

In addition to learning strategies for metacognitive and self-system thinking,we believe students should keep track of their progress on these skills using a scalepatterned after the generic scale in Figure 9.2. To illustrate, consider Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7 is designed for the metacognitive skill of specifying goals at thehigh school level. Scales at the lower grade levels would necessarily be differentto reflect differences in sophistication of expectations for this competency. Notethat the score values 3.0 and 2.0 are spelled out for teachers. This provides guid-ance for instruction and assessment. That is, the scale communicates to highschool teachers that they must explicitly teach the following:

• Strategies for setting specific learning goals with concrete ways to deter-mine when they are attained

• Strategies for designing explicit plans for completing the goals with clearmilestones along the way

• Strategies for identifying necessary resources and how the those resourceswill be acquired

Using the scale in Figure 9.7, students might systematically rate themselves.The teacher might also provide a rating. In addition to comparing teacher andstudent ratings, this system could be used to reinforce progress in the skill of spec-ifying goals and celebrate that progress.



Figure 9.7 High School Scale for Specifying Goals

Specifying Goals

High School (Grades 9–12)

Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applicationsthat go beyond what was taught.

Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences andapplications with partial success.

Score 3.0 While engaged in the metacognitive skills of specifying goals, the studentexhibits the following behaviors:

• Identifies a specific learning goal with an concrete way to determine when itis attained

• Identifies an explicit plan for completing the goal with clear milestones alongthe way

• Identifies necessary resources and how those resources will be acquired


Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements andpartial knowledge of the score 3.0 elements.

Score 2.0 The student is successful with the simpler details and behaviors such as

• Identifies a goal but the does not identify a concrete way to determine whenit is attained

• Identifies an explicit plan for completing the goal but does not includemilestones

• Identifies necessary resources but does not identify how those resources willbe acquired


Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors oromissions regarding the score 3.0 elements.


Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 but not thescore 3.0 elements.


Afterword

In this handbook, we have provided district, school, and classroom educatorswith a practical guide to designing and assessing educational objectives using

The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).Without a sound theoretical base, objectives and their assessments become subjec-tive and ultimately ineffectual. Where The New Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives provides the theory and research base to design objectives and theirrelated assessments, this handbook describes precisely how to go about designingthose objectives and assessments. It is our hope that educators use this hand-book to rethink and restructure their standards, assessments, and curriculum. Weacknowledge that the New Taxonomy and this handbook cannot address all issuesregarding standards, assessments, and curriculum for individual districts, schoolsand classrooms. Consequently we encourage educators to make the necessaryadaptations and alterations in the New Taxonomy to meet their specific needs.

179

180

References

Airasian, P. W. (1994). The impact of the Taxonomy on testing and evaluation. In L. W.Anderson & L. A. Sosniak (Eds.), Bloom’s Taxonomy: A forty-year retrospective:Ninety-third yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (pp. 82–102).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich,P. R., et al. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revisionof Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.).(1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2007). The impact of after-school programs promote personal and social skills. Chicago: Collaborative for Academic, Social, andEmotional Learning.

Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment & grading that work. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework foreffective instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Marzano, R. J., & Haystead, M. W. (2008). Making standards useful in the classroom.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (2007). The new taxonomy of educational objectives (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2005). Building academic vocabulary: Teacher’smanual. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Swartz, R. J., Costa, A. L., Beyer, B. K., Reagan, R., & Kallick, B. (2007). Thinking-basedlearning: Activating students’ potential. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.

181

Index

Algorithms, 13Analogy, 59

graphic organizer for, 61 (fig), 63 (fig)Analysis objectives and tasks, 17–19, 55–92

analyzing errors, 18–19, 72–80classifying, 18, 65–72defining, 6generalizing, 19, 80–86matching, 18, 55–64specifying, 19, 87–91summary of key points, 91–92

Analyzing errors, 18–19, 72–80across knowledge domains, 73 (fig)–76 (fig)logical error categories, 77, 78 (fig)–79 (fig)with information, 77–79with mental procedures, 79–80with psychomotor procedures, 80

Assessments, designing and scoring, 172–176assessment for solar system, third grade,

174 (fig)tracking student progress, 175 (fig)–176

Attack, as logical error, 78 (fig)

Benchmark statements, 30Beyer, B. K., 177Bloom’s taxonomy, 1, 2–3 (fig), 6–7

Classifying, 18, 65–72across knowledge domains, 66 (fig)–68 (fig)graphic organizer for, 69 (fig)–70 (fig)subordinate categories, 65, 69 (fig),

70 (fig), 71superordinate categories, 69 (fig), 70 (fig),

71, 72with information, 71with mental procedures, 71with psychomotor procedures, 71–72

Comparison matrix, 61 (fig), 62Complex combination procedures, 14–15Components of three knowledge domains,

15 (fig)Comprehension objectives and tasks, 43–54

defining, 6integrating, 17, 43–48

summary of key points, 54symbolizing, 17, 48–54

Costa, A. L., 177

Decision making, 20, 93–99across knowledge domains, 94 (fig)–97 (fig)matrix for, 98 (fig)with information, 98–99with mental procedures, 99with psychomotor procedures, 99

Decision-making matrix, 98 (fig)Declarative knowledge, 9, 12Details, as information type, 10Dispositional monitoring, 22Double bubble, 60 (fig), 62Durlak, J. A., 176, 177

Educational objectives, nature/format of, 3–6, 4 (fig)–5 (fig)

Examining efficacy, 149–154across knowledge domains, 150 (fig)–153 (fig)with information, 149with mental procedures, 149with psychomotor procedures, 154

Examining emotional response, 154–158across knowledge domains, 155 (fig)–157 (fig)with information, 154, 158with mental procedures, 158with psychomotor procedures, 158

Examining importance, 143–148across knowledge domains, 144 (fig)–147 (fig)with information, 148with mental procedures, 148with psychomotor procedures, 148

Examining motivation, 158–164across knowledge domains,

159 (fig)–162 (fig)graphic organizer for, 163 (fig)with information, 164with mental procedures, 164with psychomotor procedures, 164

Executing, 37–41across knowledge domains, 39 (fig)–40 (fig)with information, 37

with mental procedures, 37with psychomotor procedures, 37

Experimenting, 20–21, 104–109across knowledge domains, 105 (fig)–108 (fig)with information, 109with mental procedures, 109with psychomotor procedures, 109

Facts, 10, 11 (fig)Faulty logic, 78 (fig)Forced-choice items, 32 (fig)Foundational physical procedures, 14Framework for supporting claim, 79 (fig)

Generalizing, 10, 11 (fig), 19, 80–86across knowledge domains, 81 (fig)–84 (fig)matrix for, 85 (fig)with information, 86with mental procedures, 86with psychomotor procedures, 86

Graphic organizerfor classifying, 69 (fig)for details, 52 (fig)for generalizations, 53 (fig)for generalizing, 85 (fig)for matching, 60 (fig)–61 (fig)for motivation, 163 (fig)for skills and processes, 53 (fig)for specifying goals, 121 (fig)for subordinate categories, 70 (fig)for superordinate categories, 70 (fig)Information knowledge, 9–12types of, 11 (fig)–12 (fig)

Integrating, 17, 43–48across knowledge domains, 44 (fig)–46 (fig)with information, 47with mental procedures, 47with psychomotor procedures, 47–48

Investigating, 21, 109–115across knowledge domains, 111 (fig)–114 (fig)with information, 110with mental procedures, 110–114with psychomotor procedures, 115

Kallick, B, 177Knowledge domains, 9–15 (fig)

information, 9–12, 11 (fig)–12 (fig)mental procedures, 12–14 (fig)psychomotor procedures, 13, 14–15 (fig)

Knowledge utilization objectives and tasks,93–116

decision making, 20, 93–99defining, 6

experimenting, 20–21, 104–109investigating, 21, 109–115problem solving, 20, 99–104summary of key points, 115–116

Levels of processing dimension, 16–24Level 1: retrieval, 16–17Level 2: comprehension, 17Level 3: analysis, 17–19Level 4: knowledge utilization, 20–21Level 5: metacognition, 21–22Level 6: self-system thinking, 22–24overview, 16 (fig)

Macroprocedures, 13–14, 38Matching, 18, 55–64

across knowledge domains, 56 (fig)–58 (fig)graphic organizers for, 60 (fig)–61 (fig)with information, 64with mental procedures, 64with psychomotor procedures, 64

Matching objectives, defining, 6Matrix

comparison, 61 (fig)decision-making, 98 (fig)generalizing, 85 (fig)

Mental procedure domain overview, 12–14 (fig), 17

Metacognition objectives and tasks, 21–22,117–142

monitoring accuracy, 22, 135–141, 141–142monitoring clarity, 22, 129–135process monitoring, 22, 122–129specifying goals, 21, 117–122, 178 (fig)

Metacognitive processes, 6, 167Metaphor, 59

graphic organizer for, 61 (fig), 63 (fig)–64Misinformation, as logical error, 79 (fig)Monitoring accuracy, 22, 135–141, 141–142

across knowledge domains, 136 (fig)–139 (fig)

with information, 140with mental procedures, 140with psychomotor procedures, 141

Monitoring clarity, 22, 129–135across knowledge domains,

131 (fig)–134 (fig)with information, 130with mental procedures, 135with psychomotor procedures, 135

New Taxonomycomplete articulation example, 167, 168 (fig)defining, 2 (fig)


goal specification, high school scale, 178 (fig)metacognitive and self-system processes,

176–178scale for first four levels, generic,

169 (fig)–171scale for solar system, fifth grade,

170, 171 (fig)scale for solar system, third grade,

171, 172 (fig)See also Knowledge domains; Levels of

processing dimension

Organizing ideas, as information type, 10

Principles, 10, 12 (fig)Problem solving, 20, 99–104

across knowledge domains, 100 (fig)–103 (fig)with information, 104with mental procedures, 104with psychomotor procedures, 104

Procedural knowledge. See Mental proceduredomain

Process monitoring, 22, 122–129across knowledge domains, 123 (fig)–128 (fig)with information, 129with mental procedures, 129with psychomotor procedures, 129

Psychomotor procedures overview, 13, 14–15 (fig), 17

Reagan, R., 177Recall, 16–17Recalling, 33–37

across knowledge domains, 34 (fig)–36 (fig)with information, 33–37with mental procedures, 37with psychomotor procedures, 37

Recognition vs. recall, 16Recognizing, 25–33

across knowledge domains, 26 (fig)–29 (fig)using forced-choice items, 32 (fig)with information, 31with mental procedures, 31with psychomotor procedures, 31–33

Retrieval objectives and tasks, 16–17, 25–42defining, 6executing, 37–41recalling, 33–37recognizing, 25–33summary of key points, 42

Self-system objectives and tasks, 6, 143–165, 167

examining efficacy, 149–154examining emotional response, 154–158examining importance, 143–148examining motivation, 158–164summary of key points, 164–165See also Self-system thinking

Self-system thinking, 22–24aspects of motivation, 23 (fig)examining efficacy, 23examining emotional response, 23examining importance, 22examining overall motivation, 23–24

Sentence stem, 60 (fig), 62Simple combination procedures, 14Single rule, 13Specifying, 19, 87–91

across knowledge domains, 88 (fig)–90 (fig)with information, 87with mental procedures, 87–91with psychomotor procedures, 91

Specifying goals, 21, 117–122, 178 (fig)across knowledge domains, 118 (fig)–120 (fig)graphic organizer for, 121 (fig)with information, 121–122with mental procedures, 122with psychomotor procedures, 122

Swartz, R. J., 177Symbolizing, 17, 48–54

across knowledge domains, 49 (fig)–51 (fig)graphic organizers for details, 48, 52 (fig)graphic organizers for generalizations,

52–53 (fig)graphic organizers for skills and processes,

53 (fig)–54with information, 48–53with mental procedures, 53–54with psychomotor procedures, 54

Tactics, 13Time sequences, 10, 11 (fig)Tyler, Ralph, 1

Venn diagram, 60 (fig), 62

Vocabulary terms, 9–10, 11 (fig)

Weak reference, as logical error, 78 (fig)–79 (fig)Weissberg, R. P., 176, 177

Index 183

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