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Technical Communication

Design of a hydrogen community

Vijay Mohan*, Aanchal Shah, John W. Sheffield, Kevin B. Martin

Missouri University of Science and Technology, Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, 400 W 13th St., Rolla,

MO 65409-0050, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 4 July 2011

Received in revised form

11 October 2011

Accepted 16 October 2011

Available online 21 November 2011

Keywords:

Hydrogen fueling station

Biogas

Early market customers

Safety

Well-to-wheel

Abbreviations: DFC, direct fuel cell; SAE, Sosquare inch gauge; PEM, proton exchangeAssociation; SAE TIR, SAE Technical Informportation; FCV, fuel cell vehicle.* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 573 308 712E-mail addresses: vmvwf@mst.edu (V. Mo

(K.B. Martin).0360-3199/$ e see front matter Copyright ªdoi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.10.039

a b s t r a c t

This paper discusses the conceptual design of a scalable and reproducible hydrogen fueling

station at Santa Monica, California. Hydrogen production using renewable energy sources

such as biogas, which accounts for 100% of the total production, has been discussed. The

fueling station consists of a direct fuel cell (DFC) 300 fuel cell for on-site generation of

136 kg/day of hydrogen and 300 kW of electric power, five hydrogen storage tanks (storage

capacity of 198 kg of H2 at 350 and 700 bar), four compressors which assist in dispensing

400 kg of hydrogen in 14 h, two hydrogen dispensers operating at 350 bar and 700 bar

independently and a SAE J2600 compliant hydrogen nozzle. Potential early market

customers for hydrogen fuel cells and their daily fuel requirements have been computed.

The safety codes, potential failure modes and the methods to mitigate risks have been

explained. A well-to-wheel analysis is performed to compare the emissions and the total

energy requirements of conventional gasoline and fuel cell vehicles.

Copyright ª 2011, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights

reserved.

1. Introduction Plan released in February 2009, California Fuel Cell Partner-

In recent years, a number of innovative alternative energy

projects have been encouraged across the United States to

reduce the dependence on oil imports, leading to increased

environmental benefits and better energy security. Commu-

nities play an important role in the pre-commercial deploy-

ment and acceptance of emerging hydrogen technologies. The

hydrogen infrastructure development is critical for the

commercialization of fuel cell vehicles and transition to

a sustainable hydrogen economy [1]. According to the Action

ciety of Automotive Enginmembrane; UCLA, Univeation Report; GREET, Gr

9.han), aanchal.shah@mst

2011, Hydrogen Energy P

ship (CaFCP) has plans for developing hydrogen communities

in Southern California [2]. This paper discusses the conceptual

design of a reproducible and scalable hydrogen fueling

station, and outlines the strategic development of a hydrogen

community in Santa Monica, California [3]. Water electrolysis,

steammethane reformation and on-site hydrogen production

are some of the hydrogen production methods which are

being evaluated. Usage of local renewable energy sources such

as biogas is also emphasized for these production processes.

Potential early market customers in material handling

eers; APCI, Air Products and Chemicals Inc.; psig, pound-force perrsity of California, Los Angeles; NFPA, National Fire Protectioneenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Trans-

.edu (A. Shah), sheffld@mst.edu (J.W. Sheffield), kmartin@mst.edu

ublications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 4e1 2 1 9 1215

vehicles, stationary back-up power and portable power

systems at various utilities are identified [4]. The hydrogen

fueling station technical design including hydrogen produc-

tion, compression, storage and dispensing is discussed.

Significant failure modes, and the safety codes and standards

to mitigate risks associated with hydrogen are identified. The

greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted during the generation of

hydrogen is compared with the gasoline-fueled internal

combustion engines through a well-to-wheel analysis.

2. Hydrogen production evaluation

The potential for hydrogen production from various sources is

evaluated and identified within 25 miles of Santa Monica city

limits. Two existing facilities are listed below:

a. Hyperion Treatment Plant, Playa Del Rey

b. Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant, San Pedro

Biogas (50e75% methane) is produced at Hyperion Treat-

ment Plant and Terminal IslandWater Reclamation Plant. The

methane produced at these plants is separated and further

processed at steam methane reformer to generate hydrogen.

The hydrogen is compressed on-site and transported to the

hydrogen station through tube trailers. Table 1 shows

a description of the hydrogen production at each plant.

The Hyperion Treatment plant is Los Angeles’ oldest and

largestwastewater treatmentplant. It produces650 tonsofbio-

solids and 226,534 m3 of biogas per day.Due to thehigh volume

of biogas production, the facility is considered as a major

hydrogen production location [5]. The biogas produced at the

facility is used to generate hydrogen using a fuel cell through

combined heat, hydrogen and power process (CHHP) using

a molten carbonate fuel cell [6]. Biogas produced during the

wastewater treatment is converted to energy using a steam

turbine at the City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and

Power’s Scattergood Steam Power Plant. The plant employs

a DFC 1500 fuel cell from FuelCell Energy (FCE) to internally

reform natural gas to produce power, heat and hydrogen. The

power generated by the fuel cell will be sold to the local utility

company and the heat produced will be sent to the facility.

The Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant is located in

San Pedro, CA and produces 50 wet tons of bio-solids, and

6768 m3/day of biogas [7]. This facility employs similar

equipment as the Hyperion Treatment plant to produce

Table 1 e Hydrogen production plants.

Name of plant Productionmethod

Hydrogenproduction

Productionfacility

availability

Hyperion

Treatment

Plant

Steam methane

reformation of

biogas

544 kg/day >97%

Terminal Island

Water

Reclamation

Plant

Steam methane

reformation of

biogas

544 kg/day >97%

544 kg/day of hydrogen using DFC 1500 FCE fuel cell. The

usage of same system at both locationswill aid in lowering the

cost and will benefit the design in various ways. The power

produced from the Hyperion Treatment plant will be sold to

the local utility company and the heat generated will be

transferred to the fueling station. The Terminal Island Fuel

Cell Power Plant was developed by the Bureau of Sanitation

andDepartment ofWater and Power to harness the renewable

hydrogen produced using biogas. A 250 kW molten carbonate

fuel cell has been installed to generate renewable energy to

provide power to the city of Los Angeles.

Hydrogen produced at the Hyperion Treatment plant and

Terminal Island Water Reclamation plant is compressed by

employing a two-stage diaphragm compressor from PDC

machines and the compressed hydrogen is transported by

tube trailers.

3. Hydrogen station technical design

This section explains the design of the proposed hydrogen

fueling station in Santa Monica which includes the hydrogen

production, compression, storage, and dispensing of fuel.

Renewable sources account for 100%of the suppliedhydrogen.

Several options were considered but the on-site hydrogen

production with tube trailer delivery of renewable hydrogen

was chosen [8,9]. The station has a dispensing capacity of

400 kg of H2 per day at 350 bar and 700 bar. It can continuously

dispense up to 240 kg of hydrogen without recharging the

storage tanks with a high customer service level.

Fig. 1 shows the conceptual hydrogen fueling station at

Olympic Boulevard, a suitable location chosen for the instal-

lation. The decision was based on its proximity to existing

hydrogen stations, potential customers and easy access from

the roads and nearby highways.

The piping and instrumentation diagram shown in Fig. 2,

illustrates the major equipment employed in the design. The

figure also shows the pathway of hydrogen from the tube

trailer to the dispenser at the hydrogen station.

Themain sources of hydrogen include renewable hydrogen

from Hyperion Treatment plant and Terminal Island Water

Reclamation plant which will be transported to the station

througha tube trailer. The total amountof hydrogendispensed

during the three day time period using renewable energy

sources was estimated to be approximately 100% of the total

fuel supplied during the period. DFC 300 FCE fuel cell generates

Fig. 1 e Hydrogen fueling station.

Fig. 2 e Major components of hydrogen fueling station.

Table 2 e Specification of major components.

# Item Specifications Company

1 Fuel cell e DFC 300 250 kW; 136 kg H2/day FuelCell

Energy

2 Buffer tank w5 kg at 14 bar e

3 Tube trailer (rent) 300 kg at 207 bar APCI

4 Hydrogen compressor 8e207 bar at 6 kg/h APCI

5 Hydrogen Compressor 8e415 bar at 13 kg/h APCI

6 Hydrogen compressor 415e830 bar at 18.5 kg/h Hydro-Pac

7 Storage unit (350 bar) 33� 4¼ 132 kg APCI

8 Hydrogen dispenser 350 bar & 700 bar APCI

i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 4e1 2 1 91216

approximately 136 kg/day of hydrogen. It runs 24 h aday and is

stored in the buffer tank. The fuel cell produces amaximumof

300 kWofelectric powerwhen the tank is full. The total storage

capacity at the fueling station is approximately 198 kgwith the

capability of reaching 240 kg of hydrogen. The heat produced

from the fuel cell is used at the fueling station and the conve-

nience store. The four storage tanks ST1, ST2, ST3 and ST4 can

accumulate 11 kg of hydrogen at 450 bar. The storage tank ST5

consists of three tanks which can store up to 22 kg each at

700 bar. Check valves CV1, CV2, CV3, CV4 and CV5 ensure that

Fig. 3 e Cascade simulation r

the hydrogen does not flow back to the electrolyzer and

compressors Comp1, Comp2, Comp3 and Comp4. The nozzle

dispensing hydrogen into the vehicle is compliant with SAE

J2600 standards. Table 2 provides the specifications of the

major components of the hydrogen fueling station.

The compressors listed in the above table are oversized to

achieve high customer service level at the fueling station. The

dispensing capability can go up to 400 kg of hydrogen in 14 h

due to the presence of compressors and storage tanks. The two

dispensers provided by Air Products are capable of dispensing

hydrogen at 350 bar and 700 bar. The fueling time for the

vehicles varies from 5 min for 350 bar to 7 min for the 700 bar

vehicle. The hydrogen fueling process shown in Figs. 3 and 4, is

simulated for 350 bar and700 bar fuelingusingCascade fueling

system analysis engineering software to select the compo-

nents for the hydrogen station. Cascade storage results in

accessing individual storage vessels controlled by valves, thus

more efficiently filling a vehicle than bulk storage. In cascade

storage operation the compressor fills the ground storage

banks which in turn fill the vehicle storage tank. Simulations

were performed for a total demand of 201 kg i.e. 67 vehicles

with 3 kg demand of hydrogen at 350 bar and the compressor

running throughout the fueling process. Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate

the variation of pressure in the storage banks over a certain

esults for 350 bar fueling.

Fig. 4 e Cascade simulation results for 700 bar fueling.

Table 3 e Early market applications of fuel cells.

Purpose Customer Model Average dailyhydrogen consumption

Material handling Los Angeles International Airport,

City of Santa Monica, Lowe’s Home

Improvement

Hydrogenics HyPM HD12

PEM fuel cell

88 kg/day

Back-up power Crossroads School, LA Orthopaedic

Hospital, Will Rogers State Historic

Park, Wachovia Bank

Altergy Freedom Power FCM 5

PEM fuel cell

153 kg/day

Portable power City TV 16, UCLA Medical Center,

Boy Scout Camping

Jadoo Power XRT N-Gen180

fuel cell

9 kg/day

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 4e1 2 1 9 1217

time period. There is a high reduction in the pressure of the

first storage bank compared to the banks 2 and 3. Forty one

vehicles are fueled continuously in 7 h using the 350 bar

hydrogen dispenser. The 700 bar hydrogen dispenser fuels

twenty vehicles continuously in 4 h.

4. Early market applications

Earlymarket customers play an important role in providing an

accurate picture of the market conditions and spreading

awareness about the applications of hydrogen technologies.

In Southern California, Santa Monica is a leader in the area of

fuel cell vehicles with approximately 87 of them operating on

hydrogen [4,10]. Table 3 discusses the early market applica-

tions include material handling at warehouses and distribu-

tion centers, back-up power and portable power [11,12].

The concept considers material handling equipment

including forklifts, gators (small utility vehicles that serve at

worksites), lift-trucks, palter jacks and stock pickers as one of

the fastest growing applications for fuel cell technologies [13].

They are used by large manufacturing units, warehouses and

airports for transporting heavy materials at high efficiency.

Hydrogen fuel cells are also a great source of back-up power at

various locations including schools, universities, banks and

hospitals. Another area where fuel cells are used is in portable

power applications such as law enforcement, security

cameras, emergency response system, telecommunication

and recreational purposes [14]. The advantages of operating

with fuel cells include lower maintenance cost, longer

running times, higher reliability and higher energy efficiency.

5. Safety analysis

Hydrogen safety is a primary concern for the implementation

of any hydrogen energy system in a community. Precau-

tionary measures have to be in place during the production,

compression, storage and dispensing of hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen has proved to be safe for industrial applications but

the handling of the gas by the untrained personnel may

increase the initiation of hydrogen-related accidents. This will

result in slower growth of hydrogen system applications

leading to challenges in the commercialization of the tech-

nology. Therefore special care is required to not only identify

the probable failure modes of hydrogen systems but also

mitigate risks and provide the community with the necessary

instructions to operate the various hydrogen systems.

A failure mode effect analysis has been performed to

identify the different failure modes, causes of failure and the

steps taken to mitigate the risks associated with the applica-

tion of hydrogen technologies [15]. Important failure modes

considered are the fire caused due to static electric discharge

and improper connection leading to hydrogen leakage in

piping and storage tanks [16]. Some of the steps taken to

alleviate these risks are to install infrared sensors which can

Table 4 e Well-to-wheel analysis.

Gasoline vehicle: conventional gasoline and reformulated gasoline FCV: grams of H2

Item Feedstock Fuel Vehicle operation Item Feedstock Fuel Vehicleoperation

Total energy (kJ/km) 178 631 3218 Total energy (kJ/km) 92 1038 1399

Unit: g/km Unit: g/km

Fossil fuels 163.4 499 2986 Fossil fuels 86.4 805.3 1179

Coal 0.6 56 0 Coal 0 0 0

Natural gas 127.4 188.3 0 Natural gas 78.3 798 1179

Petroleum 35.4 254 2986 Petroleum 8 7.5 0

CO2 (w/C in VOC & CO) 9.4 35.4 234.3 CO2 (w/C in VOC & CO) �21 145 0

CH4 0.3 0 0 CH4 0.2 0.1 0

N2O 0 0 0 N2O 0 0 0

GHGs 16.8 36.7 237 GHGs �16.2 149 0

i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 4e1 2 1 91218

detect a flame in the vicinity of hydrogen systems and also

proper and timely inspections of the piping and connections.

The usage of hydrogen leak detectors is another option to

identify the presence of hydrogen in the area. The failure of

pressure relief devices on the dispenser and storage tanks

leads to dispenser cascade control failure and piping failure.

This issue can be resolved by regular inspection of the

hydrogen dispenser. Some of the other possible failure modes

considered are hardware failure, electrical power outage,

human operator error, fire and combustion of hydrogen and

natural disasters [15]. This design of the hydrogen fueling

station was chosen over the others due to its ability to reduce

the occurrence of failure. Some of the safety regulations fol-

lowed at the hydrogen fueling station comply with NFPA 55,

NFPA 52, NFPA 853, SAE J2600, SAE TIR J2601 and International

Codes Council [17].

6. Environmental analysis

Table 4 shows a well-to-wheel analysis comparing the emis-

sions of a fuel cell and a gasoline vehicle using GREET analysis

software. The carbon emissions of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle

(124 g/km) is 55.7% lesser than a gasoline vehicle (279.1 g/km).

In addition, nitrous oxide and greenhouse gas emissions are

also reduced.

7. Results and conclusion

This article describes the conceptual design of a hydrogen

community at Santa Monica, California. Themain focus of the

design is the production of hydrogen using renewable energy

sources. Biogas serves as an ideal renewable energy source for

the production of hydrogen contributing to 100% clean

hydrogen to be dispensed during the three day period. The

four compressors are coupled with three-bank cascade

storage system configuration to assist in the fueling using

both the dispensers.

The concept identifies forklift propulsion systems, back-up

power in the telecommunication sector and portable power

for emergency purposes as potential early market customers

in the near term. Early market customers account for

approximately a total of 250 kg/day of hydrogen. A well-to-

wheel analysis is performed to compare the total energy

consumption and emissions of CO2 and other harmful gases of

fuel cell and gasoline vehicles. The total energy consumption

of the fuel cell vehicle is approximately 37% lesser than the

gasoline vehicle.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Missouri S&T EcoCAR

team and Missouri S&T H2 Design Solutions team members

for providing the support and sharing their technical

expertise.

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