department of economic development and environmental...

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS

DRAFT WORK IN PROGRESS

Working Draft

The Eastern Cape

State of the Environment Report (2nd Edition) November 2009 J29119

P:\J29119_DEDEA_Enviro_Plans\Task_300_SOER\05_Tasks\Reports\ECape SOER work in progress draft.doc

THE EASTERN CAPE STATE OF ENVIRONMENT REPORT (2nd Edition)

CONTENTS

Chapter Description Page

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 What is a State of the Environment Report? 1

1.2 Why was this Report Produced? 1

1.3 The Motivation behind a State of Environment Report for the Eastern Cape 2

2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN CAPE ENVIRONMENT 4

2.1 Location 4

2.2 Climate 6

2.3 Topography 6

2.4 Drainage 7

2.5 Geology and Soils 7

2.6 Hydrology and Oceanography 9

2.7 Flora and Fauna 9

2.8 Land use 11

2.9 Demographics 12

2.10 Economic Environment 12

2.11 Provincial Challenges Associated with the Socio-Economic Environment 13

2.12 Strategic Priorities and Targets 14

3 APPROACH TO THIS SOER 16

3.2 Identification of Environmental Issues 19

3.3 Broad Categories of Environmental Issues 20

3.4 Grouping of Key Issues into Themes 24

4 THEME: LAND 26


4.1 Introduction 26

4.2 Drivers and Pressures 27

4.3 State of Land 30

4.4 Land Degradation / Land Use Impacts 35

4.5 Responses 36

4.6 Linkages and Inter-Dependencies 37

4.7 Identified Gaps 38

5 THEME: AIR 39

5.1 Introduction 39


5.3 State 42

5.4 Impacts 51

5.5 Responses 53

5.6 Linkages and inter-dependencies 54

5.7 Identified gaps 55

6 THEME: FRESHWATER 56

6.1 Introduction 56


6.3 State 64

6.4 Impacts 78

6.5 Responses 79



7 THEME: COAST AND ESTUARIES 81

7.1 Introduction 81


7.3 State 88

7.4 Impacts 92

7.5 Responses 93


7.7 Identified gaps 95

8 THEME: BIODIVERSITY 96

8.1 Introduction 96


8.3 State 98

8.4 Threatened Species per taxonomic group 104

8.5 Impacts 110

8.6 Responses 112



9 THEME: ENERGY AND WASTE 115

9.1 Introduction 115


9.3 State 120

9.4 Impacts 128

9.5 Responses 129


9.7 Information Gaps 136

10 THEME: HUMAN LIVELIHOODS 137



10.3 State 138

10.4 Impacts 150

10.5 Responses 151



11 THEME: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE 154



11.3 State 156

11.4 Impacts 161

11.5 Responses 161


12 REFERENCES 164


1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is a State of the Environment Report?

A State of the Environment Report (SOER) is used to highlight changes in the environment, the causes of these changes and to identify appropriate responses (DEAT, 2004). It also includes a description and discussion of the condition of the environment within a defined study area. A SOER is a component of the Integrated Environmental Management toolbox and is prepared to guide future decision-making and policy. It is important to recognise that State of Environment (SOE) reporting is not an end in itself. It is part of a broader process aimed at achieving sustainable resource management, through providing accurate and relevant information to the correct target audience, and influencing decisions through effective communication (DEAT, 2006). “A State of the Environment Report is a description and discussion of the condition of the environment. It provides information to inform decisions for sustainable management, and measures the impact of these decisions on the environment” (DEAT, 2006). DEAT (2002) list a number of principles of SOE reporting. With modification, this list states that SoE reporting should: • Meet the demands of the end-user; • Incorporate public and stakeholder input; • Identify spatial and temporal trends; • Analyse scientific information for the benefit of decision-makers and other

end-users; and • Work within a framework that highlights links between society, the economy

and the environment.

1.2 Why was this Report Produced?

SOER has developed to become a regular reporting tool for national, provincial and local government structures. Although there is no direct legislative requirement that government structures undertake SOER. Chapter 3 of NEMA provides for cooperative governance in the exercise of provincial functions which may effect the environment. The SOER therefore provides baseline information against which provincial plans and programs maybe assessed to determine the extent of their potential/likely effects on the environment. Although reporting on the state of the environment is not legislatively mandatory in South Africa, there is a solid and logical basis for their compilation and use.


Various legislative structures require the government to provide the public with information on the state of the environment and are listed as follows: • The National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998) (NEMA)

access to information clause is the most significant requirement for state of the environment reporting. Section 31(1) (a) of NEMA states that “every person is entitled to have access to information held by the State and organs of state that relates to the implementation of this Act and any other law affecting the environment”.

• The Promotion of Access to Information Act (Act No. 2 of 2000) makes provisions and conditions specifically for right of access and application for access to information and records.

• The Eastern Cape State of the Environment Report is further a cooperative governance reporting requirement as identified in the 1st Edition Provincial Environmental Implementation Plan.

Some of the benefits of SOE Reports are that they: • Provide an early warning system for emerging environmental problems; • Identify knowledge and information deficiencies impeding the understanding

and interpretation of environmental conditions and trends; • Contribute to the evaluation of societal response to environmental issues

through policy and programme performance assessment; and • Encourage the incorporation of environmental considerations in the

development of economic and social policies (Knysna Local Municipality SOER, 2005).

1.3 The Motivation behind a State of Environment Report for the Eastern Cape

Sustainable development and the interdependence between environmental, social and economic forces and resources is fundamental to the thinking behind State of Environment reporting, where environmental issues are monitored and reported from a holistic perspective (DEAT, 2006). This report therefore takes into account the full scope of the term ‘environment’ and as such, deals with societal, economic and biophysical issues. The Eastern Cape Province has an obligation and the responsibility to manage the natural environment in a sustainable manner as detailed in national legislation and policy. The Eastern Cape has numerous unique and sensitive environments, many of which are near-pristine and are of high conservation importance. These include the coastal areas (rocky shores, beaches, dune systems, estuaries), freshwater resources (rivers, streams and groundwater), inland forests and mountain ecosystems to name a few.


There are many pressures on the biophysical environment within the Eastern Cape. These include (but are not limited to): • Increased development pressure, especially along the coastline, estuaries

and rivers; • Demand for low income housing and associated services; • Demand for economic growth to provide wealth and job creation; • Poverty and associated increased human pressures on natural resources; • Poor operational state of certain waste water treatment infrastructure; • Poor stormwater management; and • Illegal industrial effluent discharges and illegal dumping. The pressures described above have a serious impact on the state and quality of Eastern Cape’s natural environment. This results in: • Polluted water resources, including coastal waters, estuaries, rivers and

groundwater; • Polluted air; • Loss of biodiversity in sensitive coastal areas, natural forests and other

important ecosystems; • Increased invasion by alien species (invasive plants, fish and terrestrial

fauna); • Erosion; particularly in the peri-urban and rural areas; • Loss of agriculturally valuable land; and • Damage to the natural landscape and associated visual pollution, with the

resultant loss of important scenic resources. This State of the Environment report therefore aims to identify key areas in the environment which require intervention and guide provincial environmental planning such that the environment can be managed in a more sustainable way.


2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN CAPE ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Location

The Eastern Cape Province is one of nine provinces in South Africa. It is bordered by the southern Indian Ocean to the southeast, Lesotho to the northeast and shares its boundaries with four neighbouring provinces. Geographically, it is the second largest Province with a surface area of approximately 161 550 square kilometres (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2009). Subsequent to the 2004 SOER, the Eastern Cape provincial boundary changed to include the Matatiele Local Municipality. The Eastern Cape is the second largest province and has the third largest population. The Eastern Cape is comprised of six district municipalities. These are further divided into 38 local municipalities and one metropolitan area. (Municipal Demarcation Board, 2009). The Eastern Cape was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of the former independent Transkei and Ciskei homelands as well as the eastern portion of the Cape Province. The capital is Bhisho, which is located approximately 60 km from East London and is where many provincial government departments have their head offices. Port Elizabeth and east London are the two largest urban centres.


Figure 1: Map of the Eastern Cape, showing district and local municipal boundaries

The coastline stretches from Port Edward in the north to Tstitsikama in the south. The coastline is dominated by rocky shores, interspersed by sandy beaches, while inland areas of the province are hilly (e.g. Transkei) to very mountainous (e.g. Drakensberg). There are six district municipalities, 38 local municipalities and one metro within the Eastern Cape. Table 1: District and Metropolitan Municipalities within Eastern Cape.

Municipality Area in km2 Towns and villages

Cacadu 5 824 328

Willowmore, Graaf-Reinet, Somerset East, Grahamstown, Humansdorp

Amatole 2 357 882 East London, Bhisho, Fort Beaufort, Butterworth

Chris Hani 3 669 476 Cradock, Queenstown, Engcobo

Ukhahlamba 2 566 265 Aliwal North, Barkely East, Maclear, Mt Flether

O.R. Tambo 15 695 795 Mthatha, Port St Johns


Alfred Nzo 685 874 Mt Frere, Matatiele

Nelson Mandela Bay Metro 195 890 Port Elizabeth, Uitenhage

Total 16 896 510

2.2 Climate

Like the South African climate, that of the Eastern Cape is characterized by high spatial and seasonal rainfall variability. Not only does the climate vary according to proximity to the ocean, but also in an West-east direction, getting progressively wetter more eastwards. The Western Cape receives mostly winter rainfall, whereas the KwaZulu-Natal Province receives most of its rainfall in the summer months. The Eastern Cape therefore incorporates aspects of both winter and summer seasonal rainfall. Mean annual precipitation varies considerably across the Eastern Cape, from 300 mm per annum in the west to 1000 mm per annum in the east (Smakhtina, 1998). Eastern Cape rain producing systems include orographic forcing, frontal activity, convective action and tropical storms (Graf, 1988). Winds and alternating cold and warm fronts thus make for a very variable climate throughout the region. Alternating with the cold westerly winds, which may drop maximum temperatures to as low as 10-15 °C, are hot berg winds from the interior north or north west which rapidly raise temperature to 20-25°C in the winter and to over 35°C in the summer. Winds generally have a cooling or drying effect so that humidity levels are not extremely high. Humidity gradually increases along the northern parts of the coast. The coastal zones experience very moderate summer and winter temperatures, while further east become more subtropical with summer rainfall but generally windy conditions throughout the year. The interior experiences more extreme conditions and can become very cold in winter, with heavy snowfalls occurring at times in the mountainous regions between Molteno and Rhodes.

2.3 Topography

“The Eastern Cape extends from the mountains of the Drakensberg, along the border with Lesotho to the subtropical swamps of the Transkei coast, from the rolling plateau of the highveld to the deeply incised valleys of the coast” (Lewis, 2008). The province rises gradually from the coastline towards the escarpment where the maximum altitude reached is approximately 2 500 metres above mean sea level. The escarpment separates the coastal regions from the interior plateau and is also responsible for precipitation production through orographic forcing within the Eastern Cape and adjacent KwaZulu-Natal.


Figure 2: Eastern Cape Topography with the escarpment areas highlighted

2.4 Drainage

The Eastern Cape is drained by four major rivers which are classified as Order 5 rivers, namely the Mzimvubu, Great Kei, Great Fish and the Gamtoos. These rivers form integral parts of two of South Africa’s Water Management Areas (which are?). Apart from these four rivers other major rivers include the Mbashe and Sundays Rivers.

Although rivers take up only a small portion of the land surface, their role in the landscape is more far reaching than their own specific channels. Although they meander and erode through the landscape they are also influential in transporting sediments and water that is brought down from hill slopes and valley sides. Hence, rivers are responsible for landscape evolution, and therefore superimpose their influence onto local populations (Lewis, 2008). This influence can be in the form of water availability, soil cultivation and flood disaster management.

2.5 Geology and Soils

The geology of the Eastern Cape is characterised by sediments of the Cape Supergroup and the Karoo Supergroup.


60 million years ago the Cape Supergroup and Karoo Supergroup were deposited above the Namqua-Natal Belt and the Pan African Belt. The Cape Supergroup was deposited first and is characterised by Witteberg group, Bokkeveld Group rocks and Table Mountain group rocks in the south and Natal Group rocks in the east. The Cape Supergroup is characterised by highly folded and contorted sandstones, quartizites and shales. Above the Cape Supergroup, the Karoo Supergroup was deposited. The Karoo Supergroup covers two-thirds of the country and is made up of the Dwyka, Ecca and Beaufort Groups, over which the Stromsberg and Drakensberg Groups were deposited. This Karoo Supergroup contains glacial deposits (Tillite) of the Dwyka Group, fossiliferous shale of the Ecca Group and mudstone and sandstone beds of the Beaufort Group. The Drakensberg and Stormsberg group were later formed by the outpouring of basaltic lavas resulting in the prominent outcrop in the northern portions of the province. Not all magma reached the surface, and some intruded into the older Karoo Supergroup rocks, resulting in the many dolerite intrusions found in the province.

Figure 2: The dominant geology of Eastern Cape


2.6 Hydrology and Oceanography

The coast can be defined in many ways. This report adopts the definition of the White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development in South Africa, 2000. Thus, the ‘coast’ includes the:

• Coastal waters, which reach from the low water mark into the sea to where water is no longer influenced by land-associated activities;

• Coastline, between the low and high water mark; and

• Coastlands, which lie above the high water mark but still influence the coastal waters.

The coast of the Eastern Cape is approximately 800 km long and is highly diverse, harbouring a great variety of life. It is characterised by a rocky shoreline interspersed with bays, sandy beaches, dunes, rivers, and estuaries. The most prominent oceanographic feature of the region is the Agulhas Current that carries warm tropical water south-westwards past the south coast of South Africa.

2.6.1 Estuarine systems At least 139 estuaries have been categorised along the Eastern Cape coast (Berliner and Desmet, 2007), more than half of the estuaries in South Africa. Some of the larger estuaries include those at the mouths of the Kromme, Gamtoos, Swartkops, Sundays, Bushmans, Great Fish, Keiskamma, Buffalo, Great Kei, Mbashe, Mtata, Mzimvubu, Msikaba and Mtamvuna Rivers.

2.7 Flora and Fauna

Biodiversity is important for the Eastern Cape because of the role it plays in maintaining ecosystem functioning. The Eastern Cape is the only South African province with eight of nine South African Biomes and includes twenty-eight named vegetation types, classified by Low & Rebelo (1996). It incorporates five centres of endemism, the largest of which, the Albany Centre of Endemism, extends almost nine million hectares across the province (van Wyk and Smith, 2001). Because endemic centres are thought of as ‘islands’ their health is of great importance, thus their protection is a priority. According to Low & Rebelo (1996), about 51 percent of the Albany Thicket has been transformed to other land uses. Goat and sheep farming, which often results in over grazing is responsible for large tracts of degraded land within the Albany Thicket, some of which will never recover. Lubke et al. (1986) rated Albany Thicket as highest among the plant communities of the Eastern Cape in order of priority for conservation.

2.7.1 Flora


The Eastern Cape forms a transition zone for a great complexity of flora and fauna types, due to the regions transitional climate nature, geomorphology and geology. It is therefore the only province to contain all three of South Africa’s global biodiversity hotspots (Cape Floristic Region, Succulent Karoo and Maputoland-Pondoland-Albany), but also incorporates seven biomes that occur in South Africa. Of nine major biomes found in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) seven biomes occur within the Eastern Cape (Table 2). The spatial extent of the major biomes occurring within the Eastern Cape is shown in Error! Reference source not found. (Data source SANBI, 2006). Grassland is by far the dominant biome in Eastern Cape. Table 2. Percent contribution of the seven biomes found within Eastern Cape to the total area of the province

Biome Area occupied within Eastern Cape (%)

Albany Thicket 16.28% Forest 0.86% Fynbos 6.79% Grassland 41.78% Nama Karoo 19.50% Succulent Karoo 2.24% Savanna 10.98% Indian Ocean Coastal Belt 1.57% Total 100%

Figure 3: The seven biomes occurring within Eastern Cape


2.7.2 Fauna The Eastern Cape has a rich diversity of terrestrial fauna including many endemic species as a result of the range of habitat types from the Karoo, Drakensberg Mountains, Grasslands, Thicket areas and the coast. Much of the large mammalian fauna is now found in the protected areas and game farms which occur throughout the province. A more detailed description of the Fauna and its diversity is provide in the Biodiversity Theme, Section ???.

2.8 Land use

A diversity of land uses are found within Eastern Cape. These include the following broad categories: Urban and rural settlements The Eastern Cape has 29 major towns and 89 minor towns located throughout the province of which Port Elizabeth, East London and Mthatha are the major cities. Larger towns include Queenstown, Grahamstown, Graaf Reinet and Humansdorp. Towns along coasts are orientated towards tourism, marine resources and retail activity, while inland towns have much more of an agricultural focus or historically were formed around trading stores particularly in the former homeland areas. Distinguishing rural settlements is particularly complex with the communal style of settlement that prevails in the former Transkei and Ciskei Areas. The high population and dense settlement pattern almost classifies these areas as peri-urban. Productive areas Most of the province remains under agriculture in one form or another whether commercial or subsistence. In the former South African areas where a formal land tenure system exists with title, farms are predominantly extensive and are large commercial operations. Beef Cattle and sheep farming are common along with goats and game farming in the drier areas towards the west. In the former homeland areas, agricultural activities are mixed, largely subsistence and communal and include croplands, vegetables and sheep, goat and cattle grazing lands. There has been a substantial increase in plantation forestry particularly in the North East Cape. Natural areas The Eastern Cape is well known for its diverse natural areas, which include national parks, nature reserves, indigenously vegetated areas (particularly along the mountain ranges) and areas of unspoilt coastline. Transformed areas


Apart from those productive areas that are under agriculture and plantation forestry, certain natural areas have been transformed, largely as a result of alien plant invasions and desertification.

2.9 Demographics

According to the national censuses, the Eastern Cape had a population of 6 308 398 persons in 2001 (StatsSA, 2001) and 6 579 300 in 2009 (PGDP, 2009) which represents an annual gain of approximately 38 700 persons over the period. Using the 2008 population estimate, the mean density was 38.9 persons per km2. This is marginally above the mean density for South Africa which is 36.8 persons per km2. The Nelson Mandela Metro has a mean population density of 515,3 persons per km2 and the lowest district municipality is the Cacadu at 6,7 persons per km2. Key features that further summarise the demography of the Eastern Cape are: • The Eastern Cape houses 14,4% of South Africa’s population • There are slightly more females than males (for every 100 women, there are

86 men) • 49% of the population are under 19 years of age. • The most common ethnic group is Black (86%) • IsiXhosa is by far the most common spoken language • In 2001, only 38,6 % of the population live in urban areas

2.10 Economic Environment

The Eastern Cape straddles two worlds: one of severe underdevelopment and one of a modern, growing industry. By many measures, it is still the country’s most impoverished area, having inherited the apartheid government’s deliberate underdevelopment of the ‘homeland’ areas. The province is, however, steadily instituting programmes and strategies to address underdevelopment, lack of jobs and poor services while harnessing the enterprise and skill of rural households in these former homeland areas. At the same time, the Eastern Cape economy is increasingly modern and export oriented, with great potential for growth of existing industry and establishment of new industry. Its geographic location, quality sea and air ports, abundance of natural resources and world-class infrastructure bodes particularly well for the growth of export-oriented industry. Total exports from the Eastern Cape grew by 20% in real terms in the year from 2000 to 2001. The province is committed to providing high-value goods to the world, rather than cheap raw materials. Over 80% of the Eastern Cape’s exports in 2001 were of manufactured goods.


The province is using innovative ways to draw rural people, who survive mostly on subsistence agriculture, migrant labour and welfare grants, into the mainstream economy. One of the most important of these interventions is the Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP), formulated by the Provincial Government and its social partners in line with the national policy framework for socio-economic planning at provincial level The provincial Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased by an estimated 4.7% in 2006 (from 4.8% in 2005), compared to national GDP growth of 5% in 2006 (5.1% in 2005). Prospects for further sustained growth trends from 2007/8 are extremely favourable in both the provincial and national economic systems. In 2003, the provincial economy’s estimated value was R88-billion, making up 8.1% of South Africa’s GDP. Statistics South Africa figures show that the Eastern Cape economy grew by 2.8% during 2003, up from just 1.2% the previous year. Unemployment remains a challenge, but as the economy has grown, improvements have been evident. The province created 152,000 formal jobs between 2004 and 2006, reducing unemployment from 32% to 22%. (Labour Force Survey, March 2006) (ECDC Economic Web Page). The GDPR contribution of the Eastern Cape to the country was 8.1% - making it the fourth highest overall. In 2002, Eastern Cape had the largest number of farming options in terms of land area, but the quantity of crops harvested did not necessarily match the size of the farming operations. Only maize for grain had a high crop harvest (StatsSA Provincial Profile EC 2004).

2.11 Provincial Challenges Associated with the Socio-Economic Environment

The Provincial Growth and Development Plan summarises the state of the socio-economic environment as follows: • Wide-spread and deep rooted poverty with some 67% of the provincial

population living below the poverty datum line. • Sub-optimal economic growth – estimated at 2,4% between 1995-2001, and

stagnation in key labour absorptive sectors such as agriculture • Rising unemployment – estimated at 55%. • Geo-political and economic bifurcation between the western former Cape

Provincial Administration region of the Province and the former Bantustans in the east.

• Labour market fragmentation that mirrors the spatial fragmentation of the Province, with a provincial labour market characterized by those employed in the core consumer economy, consisting of the dominant high-wage modern sectors of manufacturing, government service, and the other industries and services; those employed in the marginal modern sectors such as the two low-wage sectors of commercial agriculture and domestic service; and the peripheral labour force, including the unemployed, and those engaged in subsistence agriculture and the informal sector.


• Constraints on Provincial expenditure, with some 83% being allocated to social services and only 17% to economic programmes and infrastructure, compounded by an extremely weak revenue base at municipal level.

• High HIV/AIDS prevalence throughout the Province, exacerbated by high levels of poverty, and backlogs in water, sanitation, and access to health care.

• Delivery and co-ordination failures within the state.

2.12 Strategic Priorities and Targets

The Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP) provides government’s vision for growth and development over a 10 year period. Some of the key developmental challenges in the province addressed by the PGDP include the following: • Maintain a higher growth rate, especially outside the traditional high growth

areas such as Buffalo City and the Nelson Mandela Metro • Fighting unemployment • Fighting poverty, hunger and malnutrition • Accelerating basic service delivery, including water, electricity and sanitation • Agrarian transformation • Manufacturing Diversification • Public Sector and Institutional Transformation Targets have been set by government for the period 2004-2014 (adapted from the Eastern Cape Provincial Strategic Framework) as follows: • To maintain an economic growth rate of between 5% and 8% per annum • To halve the unemployment rate by 2014 • To reduce by between 60% and 80% the number of households living below

the poverty line in 2014 • To reduce by between 60% and 80% the number of people suffering from

hunger by 2014 • To establish food self sufficiency in the province by 2014 • To ensure universal primary education (UPE) by 2014, with all children

proceeding to the first exit point in secondary education • To improve the literacy rate in the Province by 50% by 2014 • To eliminate gender disparity in education and employment by 2014 • To reduce by two-thirds under-five mortality rate by 2014 • To reduce by three-quarters the maternal mortality rate by 2014 • To halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDs by 2014 • To halt and begin to reverse the spread of tuberculosis by 2014 • To provide clean water to all in the Province by 2014 • To eliminate sanitation problems by 2014


The above challenges and targets all have future ramifications on environment and its resources within the province and are essentially government driven forces behind the state of environment.


3 APPROACH TO THIS SOER

The approach adopted to prepare and compile this SOER is illustrated in the following Figure 4.

Figure 4: Eastern Cape SOER approach.

The state of the Eastern Cape environment was assessed and measured in 2004. The 2004 SOER will therefore be treated as a baseline by which the environmental issues assessed and measured in the 2009 SOER can be gauged. For this to be possible it is essential that the 2009 SOER use similar indicators to those used in the 2004 SOER for comparison. Furthermore, because of the time period between reports (five years) it will be possible to create a time series analysis and hence quantify the further degradation or improvement in the state of the Eastern Cape environment with regards to specific indicators, environmental issues and themes from 2004 to 2009. From this analysis it is possible to determine where the environment has been, what the status is at present and also give an indication of its likely path into the future. The evolution of environmental issues should not be forgotten and their assessment should not be neglected. It is essential that the 2009 SOER provides future SOER’s with a new baseline by which the future state of the provinces’ environment can be measured. This report therefore includes a list of environmental issues which were not necessarily relevant in 2004 but which have become, and are becoming more important for environmental quality in the Eastern Cape.

3.1.1 Approach taken for this 2009 State of the Environment Report The approach undertaken to compile the 2nd Edition Eastern Cape State of the Environment Report was based on:

Identify Key Environmental Issues

Group Issues into Study Themes

Develop Set of Indicators

Assess current State of Environment

Prioritize Actions


• A thorough review of the 1st Edition Eastern Cape SOER • Review of relevant SOER’s from other provinces or municipalities • Information gathering and planning from stakeholder workshops • Internal information sharing from the multi-disciplinary project team • Terms of Reference defined for this project With regards to the hierarchy of State of the Environment Reporting in South Africa, this SOER falls below that of the national scale SOER. As reporting moves down the tiers of government the focus shifts from overarching issues of national significance to matters of provincial importance, hence the scope covers topics in greater detail. This is a logical process as national level government is involved in a more strategic manner as opposed to being on the forefront of environmental management, as local and district municipalities are. However, most LM’s and DM’s have not yet prepared their own SOERs. This document therefore serves as an umbrella for LM’s and DM’s to follow suit in fulfilling their role in environmental management. This report focuses on a limited number of relevant issues while at the same time ensuring consistency with global, national and provincial SOER guidelines and initiatives.

3.1.2 Applying the Reporting Framework Until fairly recently, environmental, social and economic information has not been reported in an integrated manner. However, there is increasing acceptance of the need to report in an integrated manner that reflects the (biophysical, social and economic) triple bottom line. SoE reporting, which has traditionally had a more biophysical focus, is also now moving towards more integrated reporting that aims to emphasise the linkages between the human and natural components of the environment. Several different reporting frameworks or systems have been identified in SoE reporting. The system that is selected influences the relevance and ease of understanding for the end user and the scope and format of different reporting products. The framework commonly used in South Africa is an Environmental Processes Framework, known conventionally as the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR) reporting framework and it is this framework which will be adopted for this study (See Table 3 and Figure 5).. The categories of the framework are closely related and interlinked and have been applied to all the themes identified from the key issues within the Eastern Cape. The previous 2004 SOER used the Issues- Based Framework reporting approach. Since most provincial SOER’s utilise the DPSIR reporting framework (CSIR, 2005) it seems logical that for the sake of uniformity it is applied in this report.


Table 3: Reporting framework categories and associated definitions.

Category Definition

Drivers Drivers are the human influences and activities that, when combined with environmental conditions, underpin environmental change. Indicators for driving forces describe the social, demographic and economic development in societies and the corresponding changes in lifestyles, overall levels of consumption and production patterns.

Pressures Pressures are exerted on resources and ecosystems as a result of human activities (i.e. driving forces), and include consumption and waste generation patterns and trends.

State State refers to the condition of the environment resulting from pressures (e.g. level of air pollution, land degradation or deforestation).

Impacts Impacts are the results of pressures on the current state of the environment, which occur in a certain sequence. For instance, air pollution, may cause global warming (primary effect), which may in turn cause an increase in temperature (secondary effect), which may provoke a rise of sea level (tertiary impact), which could result in a loss of biodiversity and thus impact on human health and wellbeing

Responses Responses are the societal actions taken to ease or prevent negative environmental impacts, correct environmental damage or conserve natural resources. Responses may include regulatory action, environmental or research expenditure, public opinion and consumer preferences, changes in management strategy, and provision of environmental information.

The above framework is applied to all the themes identified from the key issues within the Eastern Cape. The above framework categories are closely related and interlinked. To make the report more fluid, the Drivers and Pressures have been combined into a single reporting framework category.

State

Less water available; water not fit for

drinking

Theme: Water Quality

Response

Drivers

Pressure

e.g. Policy & other measures to make users less wasteful & to

ensure sufficient water remains in natural system for proper

functioning; waste water treatment.

e.g. Quality & quantity of freshwater resources

e.g. Population growth, agricultural & industrial

expansion (Socio-economic

activities)

e.g. Increased water use by industry, agriculture

& domestically.

Impact


Figure 5. Applying the DPSIR framework to a Water Quality theme (example only)

3.1.3 Drivers of Environmental Change

Drivers can be defined as the human influences and activities that, when combined with environmental conditions, underpin environmental change (DEAT, 1999). Direct drivers are characterised by clearly defined cause and effect relationships, whereas indirect drivers are typically more complex relationships with multiple linkages to the environmental change evident (DEAT, 2006). Because drivers often emanate from collective human activity they can be highly context specific, with connections to local, national and even international activities. Although drivers of change are often negative, resulting from the combination of human influences and activities and the specific environmental conditions, their effects are not always negative in nature. Pressure on biophysical resources to increase economic productivity, for example, may result in environmental conservation feedbacks, in turn providing a higher degree of management and a ‘healthier’ environment. The South African Environmental Outlook (DEAT, 2006) identifies four driving forces, namely: • Demography and Well Being • Economic Development • Governance • Science and Technology

3.2 Identification of Environmental Issues

Environmental Issues are topics of strategic concern that will influence the environmental sustainability of the province (Muller et al., 2003a). One must realise however that not all issues are of equal importance and that the issues that contributed to the 2004 SOER have changed in character and importance over time. Also, the need to include further issues into the 2009 SOER may be a necessity. The scale at which the reporting structure is to be implemented is also of importance to the nature and weight of issues. The approach taken to report on the current state of the environment in the Eastern Cape Province was an issues-based framework. Key issues were grouped into ‘Themes’. Themes will be reported on separately, as this will help draw comparisons between the state of the environment as of 2004 and 2009.


3.3 Broad Categories of Environmental Issues

Environmental issues have been grouped into three broad categories: • Biophysical Environment • Socio-Economic Environment • Environmental Governance These broad categories have been chosen because they encompass the range of environmental issues common to the Eastern Cape. Subsequent to meeting with the Project Steering Committee (PSC), those key environmental issues specific to the Eastern Cape context will be finalised and grouped into themes, which will from the basis for the reporting framework. The issues listed here are not in any order of priority or importance and the broad categories are not necessarily reporting themes


3.3.1 Biophysical Environment

(a) Terrestrial Environment • Habitat fragmentation and destruction threatens numerous species and

ecological processes in the Eastern Cape • Alien invasive vegetation is spreading throughout the region, and this is

having detrimental impacts on land use and biodiversity. Alien vegetation is also prevalent within most water courses negatively effecting water resources

• Soil erosion is causing permanent loss of arable lands, and is a major issue throughout the area

• The Eastern Cape has a host of Red Data Species outside of protected areas;

• Poor management of areas of high conservation value outside of protected areas

• Illegal bush clearing outside of EIA approved activities and DWAF permits • Overgrazing, over burning and land degradation in rural areas • Five centres of endemism of which Albany Centre has been permanently

transformed by 51% • High percentage of natural habitats that have been transformed to agricultural

and urban environments • Demand for coastal properties and associated development (Ribbon

development) is leading to transformation within the coastal zone • All major industrial centres are along the coastline • Health of estuaries in urban areas is poor as a result of industrial effluent and

waste • Unsustainable resource use (e.g. sand mining, fishing, etc) • Unsustainable harvesting of plants for medicinal purposes, firewood, curios,

furniture and building is having a major impact on local species diversity, as it places selective pressure on endangered and threatened species

• Informal hunting • Loss of agricultural land to infrastructure development, city growth, etc.

(b) Water Resources and Supply • Need for formal domestic solid waste handling as well as the installation of

adequate non-polluting toilet facilities • Flows in rivers and streams are highly regulated by impoundments. Stream

flows are limited, particularly during periods of drought • Water shortages in urban areas and droughts are an increasing phenomenon • Water demand is increasing annually with population growth and migration of

people to urban areas • River systems are highly polluted • Riparian habitats and wetlands are highly transformed or infested with alien

vegetation • Water abstraction from underground sources is common and the effect of this

is unknown


• Water harvesting is limited and has not been considered as a priority resource, particularly during high intensity rainfall, during which harvesting can reduce storm water run off

• Borehole contamination by pit toilets, inadequate septic tanks and French drains, agricultural pesticides and solid wastes

• Poor catchment management (land clearing, degradation, improper agricultural practices) results in flooding and damage to infrastructure (dams and weirs)

(c) Atmosphere Air Quality • Increased industrial development (East London Industrial Development Zone

(IDZ) & Coega IDZ) can result in atmospheric pollution and change in chemical composition of the atmosphere

• Air pollution from informal settlements largely as result of the lack of electrified housing

• Air pollution in urban areas from vehicle emissions, fires, dust, etc. • Dust pollution from un-surfaced roads in rural areas influences surrounding

communities

Climate Change • Changing weather patterns result in increased severe weather events (floods,

droughts etc.) • Rainfall variability influences agriculture (planting routines, seasonal

agriculture)

(d) Marine and Coast • Health of estuaries in urban areas is poor as a result of industrial effluent and

waste • Ribbon development along the coastline • Unsustainable resource use • Percentage of coastline that is protected • High percentage of formal dwellings along the coastline • All major industrial centres are along the coastline

3.3.2 Socio-Economic Environment

(a) Poverty • High levels of unemployment, high adult illiteracy and lack of job

opportunities. This limits development and discourages potential investors. Migration of skilled labourers to urban areas leaves behind those that are either unskilled, children or aged


• Conflicting land claims and complexity regarding land tenure in former homeland areas

• Low food security, particularly amongst subsistence farmers. Communities are therefore highly vulnerable to drought periods resulting on increased pressure on already depleted natural resources

• High crime rates

(b) Energy and Waste

Waste • Capacity of landfill sites and management of these sites. Increasing

urbanisation exacerbated by an ever-growing population implies increased waste production for rural and especially urban areas

• Rural areas lack the formal waste treatment and disposal facilities of urban areas. Waste is typically burnt which results in smoke, air pollution with potentially unhealthy chemicals. Groundwater can also become polluted

• Insufficient recycling and investigation into closed-systems technology • Education for the general community waste treatment/recycling or reduction

of solid waste • Uncontrolled illegal dumping • Uncoordinated hazardous waste management and unsafe waste disposal

Energy • Un-sustainable use • Increased costs associated with electricity is forcing communities to utilise

unsustainable sources such as fossil fuels • Electricity production has negative implications on climate change • Hazards associated with burning fuels such as paraffin, coal and candles

(burns, respiratory diseases, paraffin poisoning)

3.3.3 Environmental Governance

(a) Capacity Building: Environmental awareness and education A lack of environmental awareness and education has been identified as an issue directly related to authorities responsible for environmental governance. More specifically, a need for education regarding environmental legislation is necessary to solve the problem at a strategic level. Furthermore, a lack of monitoring due to insufficient capacity compounds the problem.

(b) EIA Regulations Non-compliance with the EIA regulations, waste management policies, and other non-conformances occur throughout the area, although at different intensities. Monitoring compliance by Local and Provincial Authorities is important, however their capacity to do so is insufficient and hence monitoring and prosecution of transgressors is not at the required level.

(c) Alignment of planning processes


Provincial and municipal authorities exercising functions which may effect the environment should incorporate assessment of their operational plans against the various bioregions of the Eastern Cape and their annual and medium term planning.

3.4 Grouping of Key Issues into Themes

3.4.1 2004 SOER Reporting Themes

The 2004 SOER, compiled by CSIR Division of Water, Environment and Forestry Technology, can be used as a baseline in order to assess whether there has been environmental degradation or improvement over a period of five years, allowing for comparisons between the SOER in 2004 and 2009 to be drawn in each of the theme chapters of this report. The 2004 SOER identified the following themes: • Atmosphere and Climate • Biodiversity • Environmental Management and Governance • Freshwater • Human Settlements • Land • Marine and Coast • Poverty

3.4.2 Themes for the 2009 State of the Environment Report In keeping with the strategic nature of a provincial SOER, it is our opinion that themes should be broad categories and specific issues can be reported on under each theme. All documented issues were grouped into reporting themes, which have in turn become the reporting chapters of this SOER. Themes were not prioritized and are listed as follows:

1) Land

2) Air (Atmosphere and Climate Change)

3) Freshwater

4) Coast and Estuaries

5) Biodiversity

6) Energy and Waste

7) Human Livelihoods

8) Environmental Governance


The 2004 SOER differed in that it included Poverty and Human Settlements as separate themes. It is our opinion that these two themes can be incorporated into a single cross-cutting theme which we have titled Human Livelihoods. Other State of the Environment Reports also include Health as a reporting Theme but issues of Health have been reported on in the Human Livelihoods Theme.


4 THEME: LAND

4.1 Introduction

The Eastern Cape’s land coverage constitutes approximately 161 550 km2. The most basic division of land use includes areas of human settlement (urban and rural settlements), productive areas (agriculture and forestry) and natural areas (protected areas, areas under indigenous vegetation, undeveloped coastline, the escarpment of the Southern Drakensberg and associated mountainous areas. The Eastern Cape’s landscape is diverse with the most prominent features being the varied coastline from the rocky wildcoast in the east to the sandy shores in the west, the predominantly grassland areas to and the Drakensberg mountains the north and east to the Karoo in the west. The value of land within the Eastern Cape is insurmountable as it provides the sustenance that supports the many subsistence-based livelihoods, houses the terrestrial ecosystems that support life, and provides raw materials and space for housing and recreation. Agriculture, predominantly in subsistence form, dominates the majority of land use within the Eastern Cape. Other important land uses are areas of plantation forestry, protected areas and areas of settlement. The unsustainable utilisation of lands resources, chiefly through agriculture and unmanaged urban development, has led to a decline in productivity of land within South Africa and ultimately land degradation. In the Eastern Cape, urban expansion, farming and the demand to meet the resources of an increasing population (primarily food production) are all contributing factors leading to a loss of land productivity. Secondary pressures, such as climate change, desertification and alien plant invasion, are further contributing factors. Land degradation is defined as ” ...any form of deterioration of the natural potential of the land that affects ecosystem integrity either in terms if reducing its sustainable ecological productivity or in terms of its native biological richness and maintenance of resilience” (World Resources Institute, 2000 in: Western Cape SOER, 2005). The consequences of land degradation include declining productivity and diversity of resources to support human livelihoods and commercial activities, as well as reduced biodiversity and loss of ecosystem services, such as water and air quality regulation. This chapter explores land issues pertinent to the Eastern Cape and the consequences of future loss in productivity.


4.2 Drivers and Pressures

Change in land use patterns is the result of change in human behaviour driven by socio-economic forces. With the growing population and need to provide increased production, increased pressure is being placed on land resources with the ultimate fate of land degradation. Hoffman (1999) identifies three tiers in which humans influence land degradation: 1. Productive land use drivers: The primary form of human influence is the use

of land resources for productive purposes: in other words, agriculture, the collection of plant resources for purposes such as fuel, building and, to a much lesser and more localised extent, mineral extraction and water collection.

2. Economic and social land use drivers: A secondary form of human influence is the use of land resources for other economic and social purposes that do not directly depend on resource extraction or interference with biotic processes: for example, settlement, infrastructure and recreation.

3. A tertiary set of influences is incidental but often significant. It comprises the unintended and often remote impacts of economic activity on land resources: for example, pollution of (sub) surface and atmospheric water resources by industry, alien plant invasion and climate change. Finally, conservation efforts are a form of human influence that is often positive.

4.2.1 Productive land use drivers

(a) Agriculture

The Eastern Cape’s agricultural economy is well established and most of the province remains under agriculture in one form or another whether commercial or subsistence. In the former South African areas where a formal land tenure system exists with title, farms are predominantly extensive and are large commercial operations. Beef Cattle and sheep farming are common along with goats and game farming in the drier areas towards the west. In the former homeland areas, agricultural activities are mixed, largely subsistence and communal. These include croplands, vegetables and sheep, goat and cattle grazing lands. The Langkloof area is a well-recognised fruit growing area where the favourable climate gives this area a competitive edge over many other citrus growing areas (Eden, 2003). Other productive areas include the citrus growing areas around the Kat and Fish River Valley, the dairy farms around Alexandria, the Alexandria-Grahamstown area which produces pineapples, chicory and dairy products, while coffee and tea are cultivated at Magwa. Extensive irrigation schemes are being planned for the Mzimvubu Catchment and those at Qamata and Ncora are being revived.


In the Karoo areas, more extensive farming methods are practised such as livestock production, (sheep, beef, goats, ostriches etc.) and game farming. Pineapple farming was a common crop in the greater East London area but many farms have reverted back to other more productive agricultural forms. Changing economic forces are largely responsible for encouraging the agricultural exploitation of marginal farming areas and the loss of high-value agricultural land.

(b) Afforestation Approximately 272 257ha (2%) of the Eastern Cape has been transformed to plantation forestry. The high potential of many areas and the attractive economic returns are encouraging the growth of the commercial forestry sector. Governments Accelerated Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa’s ASGISA plan involves the identification of future suitable forestry areas as part of an economic development and social upliftment programme.

4.2.2 Economic and social land use drivers

(a) Population growth and resultant high demand for agricultural produce and land for housing The Eastern Cape’s population growth rate has been estimated at 1.02 %, which translates to approximately 6 500 new people in the province per year. This rising population places further pressure on the environmental resources to sustain the population increase (e.g. food production and land for housing). The rapid increase in demand for agricultural produce has contributed to soil degradation through overuse of agrochemicals, monoculture and intensive grazing pressure. In addition, suitable land space is required to house the increasing population and to meet current housing backlogs as well as recreation and infrastructure. The future expansion of towns is also limited by topography, such as mountain slopes, the coastline and river valleys which causes high value agricultural land to be targeted for urban expansion.

(b) Diminishing economic returns from agriculture against more attractive development and tourism opportunities The Eastern Cape, especially in the coastal areas along established urban nodes, has been exposed to a recent development boom with a vast growth in residential development. The attractiveness of the Eastern Cape, with its scenic vistas of mountains and coastline, mild climate and diverse landscape, make the area extremely attractive as a tourism destination for holidaymakers. This has provided the opportunity for property investors who have targeted coastal areas and the peripheral areas of inland towns for the development of residential lifestyle estates and tourism ventures. This has increased the land value of properties, especially farms in areas with such development opportunity.


Furthermore, diminishing agricultural returns for farmers as a result of external economic market forces as well as high production costs provides further pressure for farmers to subdivide and sell off portions of their land. Once farms are subdivided, the subdivided units themselves represent economically unsustainable farming units and these are targeted by people seeking a quiet rural lifestyle (small holdings) or alternatively are targeted by property developers who are turning what was, in many cases, high value agricultural land into residential estates.

4.2.3 Tertiary impact land use drivers

(a) Alien plant invasion The Eastern Cape, particularly along water courses and mountain slopes, is vulnerable to alien plant invasion. Hoffman and Todd (1999) state that alien plant invasion in such areas is the most common problem leading to veld degradation. Alien invasive plants threaten indigenous plants and animal communities. They can also greatly reduce river flow compared to the more water prudent indigenous varieties. Invasion by alien plants is facilitated by anthropogenic activities such as:

• Disturbances as a result of vegetation clearing for agriculture and urbanisation (alien plants thrive on disturbed soils as they are competitive colonists); and

• Afforestation (species planted commercially tend to be invasive and spread into unplanted areas).

(b) Global warming and associated climate change

Current climate change scenarios suggest that less rain can be expected in the future with increased variability in rainfall amounts. As far as ambient temperature is concerned, there are predicted increases in response to increasing carbon dioxide concentrations. This may lead to increased desertification and associated loss in productivity. A typical case in example in which climate change may have influenced the land is the recent portions of the Eastern Cape that were declared official disaster areas in terms of drought. These drought stricken areas These factors are likely to have a profound influence on land degradation accelerating desertification rates and erosion in the future.


4.3 State of Land

This section explores the state of the environment within the Eastern Cape with regards to land. Where feasible, the same indicators used to assess the state on the 2004 SOER have been utilised. Comparisons are made with the 2004 SOER, the Natiional status and in comparison to other provinces. The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape presented the following indicators of the status of Land and its associated resources:

• Land use (Land cover change) • Land degradation (Combined Land Degradation Index) • Desertification • Soil loss • Land tenure reform

Desertification and soil loss are reported on under the indicators of Land Degradation.

4.3.1 Land use “Land use profoundly influences the productivity and condition of the land, as well as its biodiversity integrity,” South African Environmental Outlook, 2006. The condition of land and how it is used and managed is further directly related to important industries, such as mining, agriculture, forestry and tourism, in the Eastern Cape and South Africa. According to the 2004 SOER, just over half the province was classified as largely open areas of natural vegetation. Agricultural practices, industrial expansion, alien invader species and the overgrazing by domestic livestock were the main contributors to extensive degradation of indigenous thicket areas. In 2004, it was approximated that 8% of land is cultivated and just over 1% was used for forest plantations. What about now? What is the intention of this section to reflect the change or compare change over time? The Eastern Cape is one of the three most degraded provinces in the country. Most of the land area of the province is classed as ‘Affected Drylands’ and it has one of the highest provincial indices of soil degradation, especially within commercial farmland areas. With regards to soil loss those areas most affected are the degraded unimproved grasslands, although the more than half the province shows moderate or high soil loss.

(a) Land cover The term “land cover” describes which parts of the land retain their natural cover (such as indigenous vegetation, water systems or bare rock) and which parts have been changed by human hand, for example by housing, cultivation or


forestry. Land cover, the state of the land, can be used as a measure to determine the spatial extent of land transformation. Table 4: Distribution of land cover for the Eastern Cape (ENPAT, 2001 and the ECBCP, 2004).

2004 (ENPAT, 2001) 2009 (ECBCP)

Land cover Hectares Percentage of EC

Hectares Percentage of EC

Built-up land 270 520 2 515 731 3

Cultivated land 1 212 494 7 1 273 969 8

Bare rock and soil 68 915 0.4 No data

Degraded land 1 575 966 9 2 374 606 15

Exotic plantations 190 955 1 272 257 2

Grassland 4 876 532 29 6 473 363 40

Indigenous forest 153 000 1 135 147 1

Shrubland / Fynbos 5 625 719 33 1 075 556 7

Thicket and bushland 2 684 931 16 2 658 987 16

Mines and quarries 1323 0.01 No data

Water bodies 69249 0.4 96 752 1

Wetlands 17504 0.1 No data

TOTAL 17 006 986 16 154 667

Table 4 presents estimates of land cover within the Eastern Cape as presented in the 2004 SOER and the increase in Built Up Land (an increase of 47.5%) and aforestation (an increase of 29.8%). Of note is the increase in Degraded Land, which has increased in extent by 33.6%. A large difference occurs in the Shrubland/Fynbos category. This is presumably due to the large scale at which the 2004 landcover dataset was captured. It can be seen that agriculture has transformed 8% of the natural landscape to cultivated lands, as has afforestation (exotic plantations) by 2. %. By comparison, built-up land only covers 3% of the Eastern Cape area. However, with the recent urban development, this figure is likely to have increased and is not likely to represent peripheral urban development.


By far the majority of the land cover falls within the category Grassland (Error! Reference source not found.). This area includes most of the areas of the former Transkei and highland interior which are under extensive agriculture, communal grazing and game farming land uses. Land under formal conservation protection is poorly represented within The Eastern Cape with a total of 4.2% (6785 km2, see Section 7.3.2). This listing excludes land under private conservation management (type 3 protected areas).

Figure 6: Land cover within the Eastern Cape (ECBCP, 2008)

(b) Land degradation

A widely recognised measure for land degradation is the Combined Land Degradation Index (CDI) which provides a combined measure of soil and veld degradation (Soil Degradation Index (SDI) & Veld Degradation Index (VDI)), (Hoffman 1999). High values of the CDI signify a high degree of land degradation. The scoring system for the CDI is shown in Table 5. Table 5: Categories of the Soil and Veld Degradation Index

Category Description Range Percentage Area (2004 SOER)

Insignificant Productivity and biological functioning unaffected

< 72 5.5


Light Somewhat reduced productivity, restoration possible. Biology intact

72 - 277 36.5

Moderate Greatly reduced productivity, major improvements required for restoration. Biology compromised

277 - 482 47

Severe Not reclaimable at farmer level, major engineering works required. Biology largely destroyed

> 482 11.1

Land degradation manifests itself in the soil and in the veld. The main types of soil degradation are erosive forms, such as water and wind erosion, and non-erosive forms, such as acidification or salinisation. Sheet erosion is the most common form of soil degradation, with some rill and gully erosion in the southern Cape. Salinisation affects some croplands in the north-east. Veld degradation consists of loss of cover and change in species composition, bush encroachment, deforestation and alien plant invasions. Particularly in the Karoo areas, invasion by unpalatable species, such as the Australian salt bush Atriplex lindleyi, causes a reduction in the carrying capacity of the veld. Although active programmes are in place to remove alien plants, the rehabilitated areas often have little vegetation cover making them highly prone to erosion. The Eastern Cape’s Soil Degradation Index was approximately 255, the Vegetation Degradation Index in the order of 180. The Combined Degradation Index for the Eastern Cape was in the order 310 which was the third highest ranked province (South African Environmental Outlook, 2006). The Eastern Cape has a fairly high provincial veld degradation index, with commercial farming areas amongst the worst affected. The areas in the vicinity of Komga, East London, Queenstown, Uitenhage and Herschel have the highest veld degradation index values. In commercial farming areas, bush encroachment, change in species composition and alien plant invasions are the most serious veld degradation problems. Agriculturally important alien species include black wattle, prosopis, prickly pear and nasella tussock. In communal areas where mixed herds of cattle and goats limit bush encroachment, deforestation and loss of plant cover due to overgrazing are of greater concern. The levels of soil and veld degradation are declining in some commercial farming areas of the Eastern Cape. Reasons for this include good agricultural extension services, farmer study groups, government-subsidised soil conservation works, bush clearing and stock reduction schemes, conversion to game farming, and strict application of agricultural legislation. On the other hand, insufficient access to land, poor infrastructure and a lack of education and finance have resulted in overstocking and poor land management in many communal areas. These conditions should be taken into account when developing sustainable land use


policies and programmes to address land degradation in the Eastern Cape (Hoffman and Ashwell, Provincial Fact Sheet on Land Degredation www.sanbi.org/landdeg). Unfortunately there has been no revision to the Hoffman study and therefore there is no updated data source in which to provide a comparison in terms of the current state of Land Degradation. The ECBCP identified and mapped Degraded Land from the Agricultural Research Council Natural Resource Database (Error! Reference source not found.). According to this coverage, it is estimated that 15% of the Eastern Cape is classified as Degraded in terms of ecosystem integrity. If we compare the portion of land classified as degraded in the ENPAT, 2001 data source with that of the ECBCP, we can see that there has been an increase in degraded land by 6%, albeit this maybe due to inaccuracies in data capture and scales.

4.3.2 Desertification and soil loss The Eastern Cape has one of the highest provincial indices of soil degradation. In general, the communal areas are significantly more degraded than the commercial farming areas. Settlement areas with the highest soil degradation index values include Herschel, Qumbu, Mount Fletcher, Engcobo and Middledrift, (Hoffman, 1999). Cropland, grazing land and forestry areas are all affected by gully and sheet erosion. Wind erosion and salinisation are problems in croplands, particularly in commercial farming areas. The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape presented a predicted soil loss map for the eastern cape which was extrapolated from the ‘Erosion Prediction Map of South Africa’ which was produced by the National Department of Agriculture in 2003. There is no updated calculation and which makes reporting further on the state of change within this report a futile exercise.

4.3.3 Land Tenure and Reform Land rights and access to land resources make up one of the most important social and political issues in South Africa today. Communal and freehold commercial land ownership constitutes the two main systems of land tenure in South Africa. Pre-1994 land policies of separate development led to the crowding of black people into the so-called ‘bantustans’ or ‘homelands’. High population densities in many of these areas resulted in over-utilization of the land. Communal areas are used for residence and for producing crops and livestock for subsistence purposes or for sale in local markets. These communal areas have a long history of environmental and political neglect and most are characterised by overgrazing and soil erosion, with livestock numbers 1.85 times higher on average than the estimated carrying capacity (SA Environmental Outlook, 2006).


Many social, economic, and environmental consequences arise from the inequities in access to land and its resources, and insecurity of tenure. Overcrowding in former homeland areas continues to put pressure on terrestrial resources including soil productivity and biodiversity, where unsustainable land use practices and lack of basic services (such as electricity and sanitation facilities) contribute to increased land degradation and desertification. Where there is no electricity, for example, wood is harvested for energy, which causes deforestation of usually indigenous forest clumps. Where there is no sanitation, soil and water can become contaminated. On private farms, workers and their families face continued tenure insecurity and inadequacy or absence of basic services. It is estimated that nearly one million people have been evicted from farms since 1994. Most (77%) of these are women and children and, with little education and work experience, it is difficult for them to re-establish their lives in their places of relocation (SA Environmental Outlook, 2006). Growing urbanization is leading to the expansion of informal settlements characterised by poverty, crime, lack of basic services, and lack of security of tenure. Land Tenure or ownership presented in the 2004 state of the environment report Eastern Cape was as follows and has been recalculated using cadastral data supplied by the Surveyor General (Table 6). There are marked differences in the two data sources. Table 6: Percentage of land ownership in the Eastern Cape

Tenure 2004 Status Current (as calculated from the 2009 cadastral from surveyor general)

Private 66.5% 82.3% Communal 29.5% 5.7% State Owned 4% 12% Government’s land reform programme has been active in the Eastern Cape with many land claims that have been processed. In 2004, 12 973 land claims had been settled. The current number processed was not available but nationally, Out of 79 696 claims lodged with the commission, there are about 4 589 claims that are still outstanding.

4.4 Land Degradation / Land Use Impacts

The following table (Table 7) illustrates the typical impacts associated with the land degradation drivers within The Eastern Cape: Table 7: Impacts associated with land degradation drivers in The Eastern Cape

Driver Main impacts


Driver Main impacts

Farming in marginal areas Loss of ecosystem integrity

Natural habitat loss

Increased stress on capacity of natural resource base (e.g. irrigation)

Increased use of agrochemicals, fertilizers to boost production

Veld degradation

Soil degradation

Afforestation Habitat fragmentation

Natural habitat loss

Alien plant invasion

Reduction in water quantity and quality

Diminishing agricultural returns Subdivision of agricultural land into uneconomically viable units

Urban sprawl

Population growth and urban expansion Loss of agriculturally productive land

Increased land conflicts (conservation vs. urban development)

Habitat loss

Alien plant invasion Species loss

Veld degradation

Reduction in water quantity and quality

Global warming Species loss

Change in rainfall patterns

Increased droughts/ flooding

Increased weather intensity

Desertification

4.5 Responses

Government responses at the national and provincial level in terms of policy and legislation are discussed below.

4.5.1 National responses

The Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act 43 of 1983). The objectives of this Act are to provide for the conservation of the natural agricultural


resources of the Republic through the maintenance of the production potential of the land; by the combating and prevention of erosion and weakening or destruction of water sources and wetlands; and by the protection of vegetation and combating of weeds and invader plants. The Subdivision of Agricultural Land Act, (Act 70 of 1970) prevents the subdivision of viable agricultural portions smaller than 9 ha. National Environmental Management Acts - all except air quality.

National Action Programme on Combating Land Degradation - The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention to Combat Desertification requires South Africa to draw up a National Action Programme, which will be integrated into a regional programme for the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. National Landcare Programme (NLP) – The programme aims to have communities and individuals adopt an ecologically sustainable approach to the management of the environment and natural resources, while improving their quality of life. Working for Water (WfW) Programme – The main goals of the WfW programme are to improve the ecological integrity of natural ecosystems through the control of invasive alien plants; to enhance water security; restore and rehabilitate degraded land in order to secure the productive potential of land and thereby provide economic benefits and social upliftment.

4.5.2 Provincial responses The following provincial planning policy has been developed to control land use:

• Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan

• Eastern Cape Spatial Development Framework (currently under review);

4.6 Linkages and Inter-Dependencies

Land issues have an influence on and are influenced by almost all other themes discussed in this report. The following themes are pertinent to land issues: Biodiversity The link to biodiversity is both direct and indirect. In The Eastern Cape, cultivated lands, commercial forestry activities and rapid expansion of human settlements result in a loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. The spread of invasive alien vegetation poses a further threat to biodiversity conservation in the municipal area. Climate Change


The predicted increase in ambient temperatures as well as increased variability in rainfall pattern has an influence on land degradation. Human Livelihoods The loss of agricultural land can directly affect the livelihoods of people in the rural areas relying on food and income from agricultural activities.

4.7 Identified Gaps

The ENPAT (2001) land cover database is outdated. Fine-scale information on land transformation are as yet only available at a scale utilised for the planning domain covered by the ECBCP. The Hoffman Veld Degradation, Soil Degradation and Combined Land Degradation Indices are outdated and require revision. Data regarding desertification and soil loss should be collected frequently as these are possible impacts associated with Climate Change.


5 THEME: AIR

5.1 Introduction

Air as a theme will be dealt with by considering Atmosphere and Climate Change separately within the issues based framework.

5.1.1 Climate and Climate Change

(a) Eastern Cape Climate The climate of the Eastern Cape is affected by a variety of local, regional and even global weather producing systems. For example, global teleconnections, through the swaying of pressure backward and forward between the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the Southern Oscillation), affects the climate of South Africa. ENSO and non-ENSO events, or El Nińo and La Nińa as they are commonly known, produce drier and wetter periods respectively (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). The Eastern Cape climate is therefore highly complex and difficult to simplify. Furthermore the climate is dynamic due to the ability of natural or anthropogenic forces to change the composition of the atmosphere. Hence, the scope for climate change is easy to recognise, but difficult to understand. (b) Eastern Cape Climate Change The South African climate has changed, is changing and will change. Hence, so will the climate of the Eastern Cape. This is a natural phenomenon. Recorded climatic history provides evidence of such variations over time, although the availability of these records varies from place to place. Historically significant changes in global climate have been published in various academic literatures. According to Tyson and Preston-Whyte (2000) pre-Quaternary climate change included at least three major ice ages known to have affected southern Africa. Warmer periods did however provide favourable conditions between these events. Evidence of these variations is presented in tillites of the early pre-Cambrian (2 000 million years ago or more). The causes of these early ice ages are however not clearly understood. Oxygen isotope records from deep-sea sediment cores and cave deposits have provided scientists with some of the best records of Quaternary (last two million years) climatic change. Glacial (more continental ice) and interglacial (less continental ice) conditions have occurred frequently with quasi-periodicity of approximately 100 000 years throughout the Quaternary. Although the climate will change in the future, research into climate change forcing will contribute to our understanding of the complexities involved, as well as our role in speeding up or slowing down the rate of change. Climate Change could pose a considerable danger to the livelihoods of those directly reliant on the natural environment. Atmospheric pollution therefore impacts not only on the health of the atmosphere, but on the eight biomes


present in the Eastern Cape as well. Because of this it is essential that we do not resign ourselves, as a population, to the fact that the climate will change. Climate change predictions do not fall into the scope of this report. Specific ‘measureable’ characteristics of the Eastern Cape climate are useful in summarising the course the climate has taken, resulting in the changes experienced through time. Short term changes are also of importance. ‘Measureable’ characteristics may then contribute to long or short term climate records.

5.1.2 Atmosphere The atmosphere extends to approximately 600 km above the Earth’s surface. It consists of four distinct layers, characterised by specific temperature and chemical properties. Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) account for the majority of gases within the atmosphere. Other gases including Argon (1%) and greenhouse gases, such as Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide and Chlorofluorocarbons, comprise the remainder of the gases in the atmosphere (Ledley et al. 1999). Without this chemical balance and the resulting greenhouse effect the Earth would be 33°C cooler, therefore uninhabitable. Recent disturbance (pollution) of this chemical balance by the addition of green house gases like Carbon Dioxide and Nitrous Oxide has resulted in what is being termed Global Warming. The South African atmosphere is not a closed system. It is subject to Global Circulations because of differential heating of the Earths surface, largely attributed to the poles which receive less direct sunlight, and therefore heat, than the tropics (Pidwirny, 2006). The Eastern Cape is therefore nationally and globally responsible for its anthropogenic gas emissions (e.g. Carbon Dioxide) which influence the chemical composition of the atmosphere. According to the United Nations Millennium Goals Indicators South Africa was ranked 47th in 2006 with regards to Carbon Dioxide emissions per capita. However South Africa is ranked 12th where total Carbon Dioxide emissions are concerned.


5.2.1 Climate change

Carbon dioxide, the principal greenhouse gas, is released to the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal. This is exacerbated by deforestation and the conversion of natural vegetation to agriculture, which results in reduced uptake of carbon dioxide by plant matter. Factors behind the increased release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere are industrialisation, inefficient use of energy, inefficient methods of production and excessive global consumption. Relative to national figures the Eastern Cape contributes relatively little carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Sources include vehicles, forest and veld fires,


Industrial Development Zones and associated industry, as well as household energy usage (paraffin and wood). Dairy farming located in the province is also a recognised source of the greenhouse gas, methane.

5.2.2 Air quality

There are few large polluting industries in the Eastern Cape. Most well known of these are the automotive industries and related supplier, as well as the Coega IDZ and ELIDZ. Although the IDZ’s are still in early stages of growth their impact on air quality is likely to be significant. Sources driving pollution are considered below.


(a) Vehicle emissions

A substantial road network links major centres within the province. Due to the lack of public transport such as trains, the most common forms of transport are private cars, mini-bus taxis, shuttle buses and long distance public buses. The economic hubs of Port Elizabeth and East London are associated with a high concentration of vehicles. Vehicle emissions can be considered as one of the chief sources of air pollution in the Eastern Cape. This source gives rise to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and volatile hydrocarbons. As economic development and in-migration occurs in the Eastern Cape, an increase in vehicles and associated pollution can be expected.

(b) Forestry Wild fires in forests are significant sources of pollution, while the timber milling industry causes pollution through the burning of waste. Veld fires also contribute to substantial CO² input to the atmosphere.

(c) Construction and urban development A significant portion of the Eastern Cape is classed as rural. In the attempt to establish proper housing and services in these areas particulate matter associated with construction activities is released into the atmosphere. According to ECDC (2009) former ‘homeland’ areas have been earmarked for development and service provision.

(d) IDZ’s and associated industry IDZ’s attract a variety of activities that are likely contributors to global warming. Although these contribute significantly to the economy their impact should not be forgotten.

5.3 State

5.3.1 Selected Indicators

• Climate Change

• Precipitation • Air Temperature

• Air Quality • Average concentrations of key atmospheric pollutants (SO2, NO2, PM10) • Ambient Particulate Matter concentration

Where data specific to the Eastern Cape is lacking, coarse scale projections will be utilised to summarise the state of Air in the Eastern Cape.



To date climate change reporting in the Eastern Cape has been quite sparse when compared to the rest of South Africa and the world. It is therefore quite difficult to report on the state of the Eastern Cape climate. Because of this, where data is lacking the state of climate change will be reported on using relevant broad-scale literature to establish some sort of a status quo of present and projected climate change.

(a) Historical trends in precipitation

Eastern Cape precipitation is characterised by considerable inter- and intra-annual variability. Without fine resolution data on historical trends it is difficult to report on the trend in precipitation concentration within the province. It is however possible to select characteristics of Eastern Cape rainfall, such as mean, median and standard deviation, and report on these. According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment (2007) decreases in precipitation were found through the period 1900 to 2005 for southern Africa. Historical precipitation data covering the last 50 years was sourced from SAWS. The data for selected sites was analysed with regards to inter-annual variability.


Table 8: Precipitation statistics for selected stations throughout the province, according to predefined time frames (1959 – 1984 and 1985 – 2008)

Mean (mm) Median (mm) Standard Deviation (mm)

Station

1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd Zuur Anys 580.6 498 594.8 522.2 174.8 149.9 Adolphskraal 252.8 251.7 253.4 270.2 92.2 84.6 Van Stadens RSV

846.5

843.4 818.6 830.5 203.6 196.4

PE 656.6 582.4 617.8 572.2 178.1 115 PE (Humewood)

555.6 509.2 527.7 482.2 162.1 109.3

Mooredale 259 318 219.2 308 122.6 93.6 Steytlerville 243.6 253.6 213.7 256.9 116.3 91 Struishoek 474.9 461.2 459.5 439 147.9 112.8 Umzoniana 871.2 1140.3 916.3 1054.7 235.8 384.1 Exwell Park 452.8 427.9 427.5 426.2 124.3 138.5 Cezu Plantation

770.5

763.4

734

765.3

190.4

247.5

Ellesmere 486.6 506.6 457.2 489.4 175.1 174.2 Burgersdorp 465.7 490.3 410.8 453.1 170.8 141.8 Barkley East 615.4 629.9 626.2 612.5 149.6 212.5

Higher Stdev Higher Mean

Inter-annual variability seems to have decreased from period one to period two, especially for those stations in the western half of the province (


Table 8).The majority of stations to the east show higher standard deviations for the second half of the record. However, this apparent trend does not hold for the entire province.

Figure 7: Statistical comparison of rainfall between two different periods


Table 9: Precipitation statistics for selected stations throughout the province, according to predefined time frames (1999 – 2003 and 2004 – 2008)

Mean (mm) Median (mm) Standard Deviation (mm)

Station

1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd Jeffreys Bay 552.9 564.9 568.6 635.9 130.4 184.8 Zuur Anys 482.2 573.3 450.3 612 109.7 195.9

Adolphskraal 268.9 287.2 285.8 305.1 67.7 93.1 Van Stadens

RSV 769.6 829.5 790.2 782.3 153.4 155.9

PE 662.9 572.9 662.8 554.6 116.5 156.2 PE (Humewood) 560.5 509.4 551.4 470.3 174.3 126.8

Port Alfred 602.2 798 649.8 722.3 168.8 301.3 Umzoniana 591 1410.9 1481.4 1287.5 247.4 449.7 Mooredale 312.3 302 316 300.5 112.9 17.8 Steytlerville 274.5 242.8 245.7 257.2 115.6 68.7 Struishoek 452.9 525.2 461.3 548.2 116.3 60

Vanderwaltshoek 361 395.1 376 372.5 119.4 83.9 Exwell Park 449.1 433.6 482 457 198 104

Cezu Plantation 605.6 855.8 664 781.6 362.9 255.7 Ellesmere 498.7 511 540.5 439 167.5 193.6

Burgersdorp 469.9 501.8 526.1 445.5 176.5 112.1 Funnystone 849.2 834.2 952.3 822.4 358.9 196.3 Barkley East 551.9 582.9 671.5 645.1 191.1 145.7

Higher Stdev Higher Mean

It is difficult to discern any differences between the periods summarised in Figure . It seems as though standard deviations have risen for stations along the coastline in the western half of the province, whereas those stations inland show the opposite (). It is evident, however, that inter-annual variability has played a significant role in the Eastern Cape with, at times, very high standard deviations apparent. and Figure do not agree with regards to standard deviation. It may therefore be concluded that the precipitation trend over the last 25 years may have evolved, reaching the most significant change over the last 10 years.

(b) High intensity events According to Mason et al. (1999) extreme rainfall events can severely impact on society, so changes in the intensity of these events is a concern in the context of climate change. In the light of global warming it is expected that increases in atmospheric moisture would occur. Mason et al. (1999) therefore predict the following: “Over South Africa, increases in rain per rainday are expected to occur at the same time as decreases in the number of low rainfall days such that the net effect on annual rainfall totals is minimal.”


As far as drought is concerned the Eastern Cape was gazetted in 2009 as being a drought disaster area. Losses are summarised in


Table 10.


Table 10: District Municipality losses due to drought in 2009 (Source: Provincial Gazette Extraordinary, 2009)

District Municipality Amount (Rands) Alfred Nzo 105 844 674 Amathole 156 930 105.64 Cacadu 328 525 284.67

Chris Hani 253 627 667.44 OR Tambo 255 325 047

Ukhahlamba 84 208 219 Grand Total 1 184 460 997.75

(c) Projected trends

Projected trends are downscaled from Global Circulation Models. Trends for a particular locality should be considered in this context. In other words the projected trends are very general and do not account particularly for the dynamics of the local climate of an area. Projected trends for the Eastern Cape are listed below (Hewitson, 2000): R A FF T • An increase in the annual average temperature of at least 1 °C • Possible increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events • Extension of summer season characteristics • Reduced recharge rate of groundwater • Decreased water resources • Reduced soil moisture • Temperature impacts on crop activities, crop burn, drought, pests and

microbes resulting in yield reductions, and loss of rural livelihoods

There are obvious differences in projections with regards to future climate in the Eastern Cape. Schulze & Perks (2000) state that the climate will change with regards to rainfall in the summer months. Depending on the GCM used, and the input variables, the alteration of summer rainfall could mean either a 25 to 50% increase or a 25% decrease.

(d) Predicted trends in atmospheric circulation over South Africa Unfortunately specific projections for the Eastern Cape are unavailable. However, Hewitson (2000) summarises trends in atmospheric circulation over South Africa below: “For summer, an increased frequency of days with: • a strong trough in the easterly wave over the centre of the country, • a more southerly and stronger South Atlantic high pressure system, • an increase in high-pressure ridging. For winter,


• an increased frequency of mid-latitude cyclones / frontal systems to the southwest of the continent (CSM only) with matching decrease on cyclones to the southeast,

• an increased frequency of ridging highs accompanied by a thermal trough over the centre of the country.”

(e) Predicted trends in air temperature

Atmospheric warming is easier to model than precipitation (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). Models are dynamic and change with the inclusion or exclusion of different variables. With a doubling of greenhouse gases alone, by approximately the middle of the 21st century temperatures may be expected to rise by up to 2 or 2.5 °C. Incorporating a variable like aerosols, which retards the rise in greenhouse warming, lowers the rise in temperature to between 0 and 1.5 °C. To date no specific temperature projections have been published for the Eastern Cape.

5.3.3 Air quality

Table 11: Estimated industrial emissions for Eden

Pollutant Emissions (t/a)

Particulate matter 854

Sulphur dioxide 815

Nitrogen oxides 3,021

Carbon monoxide 8,115

Carbon dioxide 1,799,135

Total hydrocarbons 1,979

Benzene 43

Xylene 111

Aromatic hydrocarbons 333

The inventory lists the burning of fuel wood and anthracite for domestic cooking and heating as a substantial source of pollution. The emissions estimates set out in the inventory are given in Table 12.

Table 12: Emissions due to burning of fuel wood and anthracite for domestic purposes

Emissions (t/a) Pollutant

Anthracite Wood

Particulates 16.2 100

Sulphur dioxide 63.7 8.6

Nitrogen oxides 4.7 10.1


Carbon monoxide 1.1 754

Carbon dioxide 9,288 *

Total hydrocarbons 13.0 271 *Not regarded as greenhouse gas emissions. Considered part of the short-term CO2 cycle of the biosphere.

The study by C&M Consulting Engineers (2007b) calculated that aircraft emissions generate 2.4 t/a of hydrocarbons, 10.5 t/a of carbon monoxide, and 6.1 t/a of nitrogen oxide. Other sources of pollution for which estimates cannot be generated due to lack of data are motor-vehicle emissions, burning of refuse, burning of drums, recovery of metals, and the burning of vegetation. The study strongly recommends that Eden undertake a programme for the collection of reliable emissions data. Furthermore it recommends the installation of air quality monitoring stations across Eden in order to enable air quality management. The air quality management plan sets out 13 objectives. These include:

• Formalising an air pollution control function in Eden;

• Compiling a reliable emissions inventory for the region;

• Air quality monitoring and meteorological monitoring; and

• Establishing a dispersion modelling facility.

5.4 Impacts

5.4.1 Water resources

The natural water resources in the Eastern Cape are not currently under pressure (2000 estimates). However, future industrial pressure, urban development and water retention by alien invasive plants will cause resource requirements to surpass the resource availability, and hence result in water deficits. Climate change could exacerbate this if projections are realised. This increase in resource requirements could result in competition with in-stream flow requirements which are important for maintaining aquatic and riparian biological diversity. Increased temperatures could also lead to higher evaporation and salinisation.

5.4.2 Rivers, wetlands and estuaries

Projected precipitation changes include an increase in high intensity rainfall events without increasing mean annual rainfall. Projections regarding runoff range from small decreases to increases of up to 100 mm (Schulze & Perks, 2000). A non-linear relationship exists between rainfall and runoff. It is therefore to be expected that slight increases in rainfall will be amplified in changes of surface runoff. Should this occur valley side erosion could become an issue, resulting in increased sediment load within rivers.


With regards to groundwater, precipitation is required to recharge these resources. With changing precipitation characteristics it is possible for a reduction in recharge. Apart from direct abstraction, groundwater resources feed rivers and contribute to dam leve. Increased withdrawal of water from rivers and dams could result in reduced base flow. Also, reduced flows in periods when flows take place can be expected both within the rivers and in the estuaries. Changes to the seasonal nature of precipitation could threaten seasonal ecosystem interactions within wetlands. Such impacts are likely to further threaten the biodiversity of freshwater resources, which in turn will impair the environmental services they provide. Estuaries are highly productive and diverse ecosystems at the interface between terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. Several estuaries are already classified as degraded, but reduced run-off from the estuaries’ headwaters, changes in the temperature regime and sea-level rise are likely to exacerbate current impacts. Changes in precipitation and run-off would alter the frequency and duration of estuarine mouth closures. This would retard the flushing of pollutants and increase sediment deposition.

5.4.3 Terrestrial ecosystems

Impacts caused by climate change in terrestrial ecosystems include the detrimental effects associated with wildfires due to increased berg-wind conditions, and the possibility of changes in the distribution of alien invasive species, apart from changes in indigenous species distribution and interactions.

5.4.4 Economic impacts

Numerous economic sectors could be affected by changes in temperature and precipitation patterns. Impacts are likely to be felt in agriculture, fisheries, forestry, the manufacturing industry, tourism, finance and investment, transport, communication and trade, and construction. Water is seen as a limiting resource for developing countries (Schulze & Perks, 2000). This is particularly important with regards to the substantial subsistence and commercial rain fed farming located within the Eastern Cape.

5.4.5 Health

The principal factor affecting health is a possible increase in air pollution due to a decrease in the number of days on which it rains, and an increase in the number of days when there is a temperature inversion. Other impacts are likely to be increased exposure to climatic extremes, particularly by poor communities, a possible increase in infectious diseases, and increased exposure to hazards such as wildfires and flooding.

5.4.6 Infrastructure and utilities


Climate change is likely to impact water services in terms of diminishing reserves on the one hand, and damage to infrastructure due to heavier precipitation events on the other. Other services on low lying ground such as storm-water drainage, roads and rail, housing and property could be affected in terms of sea-level rise and flooding events.

5.4.7 Livelihoods

Livelihoods potentially impacted by climate change include informal settlements situated in marginal areas such a flood plains. Other livelihoods that may be impacted include coastal livelihoods, and food security.

5.4.8 Disasters

Droughts and floods are synonymous with climate change projections. They have the ability to substantially endanger natural and human systems, especially where marginalised communities are concerned. Their impact may be most severe when flooding is followed by drought and vice versa. High intensity events can have severe impacts on society. Research into the frequency of ‘extreme’ events throughout South Africa, although not specifically the Eastern Cape, has been published. According to Mason et al. (1999) significant increases in the intensity of extreme rainfall events between 1931–1960 and 1961–1990 are identified over about 70% of the country.

5.5 Responses

5.5.1 Climate change (a) Current responses

• The DEDEA has included the preparation of a provincial Climate Change Response Strategy in its 2009/2010 Annual Performance Plan.

• The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has drafted a National Climate Change Response Strategy for South Africa (DEAT 2004).

(b) Recommended responses

• The Eastern Cape Climate Change Response Strategy will set out key adaptations to climate change in the province. The results of the higher resolution study should be incorporated into the provincial IDP, Spatial Development Framework and Disaster Management Plan.

• Within the framework of the Response Strategy, it is recommended that a study into risks and key adaptations specific to the Eastern Cape be conducted.


• The provincial Spatial Development Framework is under preparation. The potential impacts and projections of climate change should be included in this framework.

5.5.2 Air quality (a) Current responses

• The DEDEA has included the preparation of a provincial Air Quality Monitoring plan in its 2009/2010 Annual Performance Plan.

• The Air Quality Management Directorate of DEAT is currently developing a national framework for air quality management. The framework aims to attain and maintain compliance with ambient air quality standards and to give effect to obligations in terms of international agreements.

(b) Recommended responses

• Once completed, the Air Quality Management Plan should be incorporated into the Eastern Cape Integrated Development Plan, Spatial Development Framework and Disaster Management Plan.

5.6 Linkages and inter-dependencies

Inland water: Increased flood events, changes in annual precipitation and increased desiccation and droughts are likely to significantly affect the state of inland water resources. Biodiversity: Changes in environmental conditions due to climate change are likely to impact species population and ecosystem dynamics. Land degradation: Changes in climatic condition may increase the extent of water-stressed environments, or it may increase the extent to which inappropriate land-uses take place in marginal areas. Coasts and estuaries: Sea-level rise due to climate change will have an impact on the coastal environment, while changes in temperature and precipitation will change the nature of freshwater delivery to coastal estuaries. Extreme climatic events will have an impact on both coasts and estuaries. Urban and rural development: Changes in environmental conditions due to climate change may affect population dynamics in the area. It is possible that marginalized populations in rural areas will increase rates of migration to urban areas. Human Livelihoods: Changes with regards to provision of water to industry and marginalised communities may have an impact on the general economy and


levels of poverty within the Eastern Cape. High concentrations of atmospheric pollutants may increase the incidence of respiratory diseases in the province. Energy and Waste – Hydro-electricity could contribute to reducing the significant energy demand within the province, especially if flow regimes should change to suit such endeavours in the light of climate change. Air quality in the province is directly related to energy sources and their uses.

5.7 Identified gaps

• Studies considering the impact of climate change have not been conducted for the Eastern Cape, specifically. More specific studies are required regarding the particular dynamics of climate change for the province;

• Little air quality data is available for the Eastern Cape. Although a few monitoring points have been established these do not offer a representative indication of air quality throughout the province, mainly in identified industrial areas; and

• Rainfall and temperature data is available through the SAWS. However, testing for long term trends can be complicated by data homogeneities resulting from site and instrumentation changes (Mason et al, 1999). These are variables which can jeopardise accurate and precise results.


6 THEME: FRESHWATER

6.1 Introduction

This section considers the quality and quantity of water as part of an integrated freshwater system. In other words not only do we consider how much water there is in rivers and wetlands, and what the quality of that water is, but also the dynamics of the catchment from which it flows, and the way that it flows through that system. Naturally any pressures on any element of the freshwater system (such as the integrity of the river banks), will ultimately affect the quality and quantity of water flowing through the system over space and time. The Eastern Cape incorporates portions five national Water Management Areas within its boundary. Table 13: National WMAs and their coverage within the Eastern Cape (DWAF, 2004)

National WMA EC Coverage (ha) Fish to Tsitsikama 8 073 633 Mzimvubu to Keiskamma 6 376 102 Upper Orange 2 179 102 Gouritz 178 899 Mvoti to Umzimkulu 83 936 TOTAL 16 891 672

Of the five WMAs only the Fish to Tsitsikamma and the Mzimvubu to Keiskamma WMAs will be included in this section because the majority of their surface area falls within the provincial boundary. Primary catchments that are within or intersect the extent of the Eastern Cape include the Umzimvubu to the north east of the province, the Great Kei in the central north east, the Upper Orange to the north, the Great Fish in the central south west, the Swartkops and the Sundays rivers in the south west and the Gamtoos to the far south west. The catchments are diverse in nature: those to the northeast are situated in a region with higher rainfall compared with those to the southwest and northern interior. Mean Annual Precipitation for the Eastern Cape is 552mm and the coefficient of variation is 43%. Rainfall varies from 300mm in the west to 1000mm in the east. East of East London MAP is approximately 800mm to 1000mm whereas between East London and Port Elizabeth MAP ranges between 800mm and 500mm respectively. Rainfall in the far west can be as low as 200mm whereas the northern interior’s MAP is approximately 500mm. This variation in MAP contributes to significantly different flow regimes across the province. The drier regions of the province experience slower groundwater recharge rates and therefore place higher value on these resources (Braune & Xu, 2009). Mean Annual Runoff is closely related to precipitation and, as is to be expected, varies considerably with 80% of the Eastern Cape having a CV of 71%. With a mean value of 95mm per annum and a range of between 348mm and 35mm per


annum the Eastern Cape is highly variable with regards to precipitation as well as runoff. Potential evaporation is defined as the amount of water that could be evaporated were it available. It is a function of surface and air temperatures, insolation, and wind, all of which affect water-vapour concentrations immediately above the evaporating surface. The trend in evaporation potential is opposite to the provincial precipitation trend, decreasing from west to east. In the far west evaporation potential can be as high as 2 600 mm pa, compared to that of the far east, 1 600 mm pa. Evaporation potential for the interior of the province follows the same trend as along the coast. Areas where evaporation potential exceeds rainfall are water stressed areas (i.e. on average the entire province is water stressed). As can be expected, different water conditions require different management approaches.


Figure 8 The Water Management Areas present in the Eastern Cape, as well as associated major rivers

Figure 9: Mean Annual Precipitation for the Eastern Cape


Figure 10: Mean Annual Potential Evaporation for the Eastern Cape

6.1.1 Water Supply (a) Surface Water Resources

The MAR is the average total amount of water flowing from each catchment per year. The Ecological Reserve shown in the table indicates the amount set aside to cater for the biological requirements of river and estuarine systems. By law, the Ecological Reserve may not be extracted from the river.

Table 14: Mean Annual Runoff, Ecological Reserve and Dam Storage per WMA - 2000 (Source: DWAF, 2004)

WMA MAR

(million m³/a) Ecological Reserve

(million m³/a) Storage in Dams

(million m³)

Fish to Tsitsikama 2 154 243 739

Mzimvubu to Keiskamma 7 241 1 122 1 115

Gouritz 1 679 325 301 Mvoti to Umzimkulu 4 798 1 160 827

Upper Orange 6 981 1 349 11 711

Total 22 853 4 199 14 693


(b) Groundwater resources According to DWAF (2004) groundwater plays an especially pivotal role in rural communities where services such as piped water and sanitation have not yet been established. Persistent cholera outbreaks in certain areas of the province have emphasised the necessity for proper groundwater management. Effective management is heavily reliant on adequate information to ensure responsible guidance. The groundwater data gaps indicate the neglect with which this valuable resource has been treated, and the national groundwater strategy will aim to elevate groundwater to the level of surface water in the context of integrated water resource management.

Figure 11: Mean Annual Runoff for WMAs and Primary Catchments within the Eastern Cape


The inland water resources are under severe pressure from diverse sources as detailed below.

6.2.1 Population growth and urban development The population in the Eastern Cape grew by 1.6% between 1996 (6.3 million) and 2001 (6.4 million) and it is estimated that the growth rate from 2001 to 2008 was 1.02%. In relation to the national total however, the provincial population has shrunk to 14.4% down from 15.5% five years ago. The province is nevertheless the third most populous province after Kwazulu Natal and Gauteng. The provincial population is distributed disproportionately between the districts, with the two largest districts, OR Tambo and Amathole, just short of two million inhabitants each (1.7 million people each respectively). Nelson Mandela Metro


represents the next largest concentration of people (1 million people) and Ukhahlamba the least populous (341,312), (EC Provincial Growth & Development Plan – Section 2). Population growth increases pressure on resource supply, waste management systems and hence the natural environment.


6.2.2 Industrial activities

Industries consume water and are often sources of pollution. Economic expansion in South Africa, together with favourable export markets, have led to an increase in the number of industries in the country. The development of Coega IDZ and ELIDZ are expected to contribute to freshwater depletion in the future, although this driver may have already been realised. According to the ECDC (2009) former ‘homeland’ areas have been earmarked for development with public spending in these areas rising dramatically. R6.5 billion was allocated to infrastructure development in the Eastern Cape in 2004/2005, up from R3.9 billion in 2002/2003. This is expected to place increased pressure on the inland water resources in these areas.

6.2.3 Forestry

Approximately 210 905 ha (2%) of the Eastern Capes land surface is covered by plantations. Plantation forestry has been declared a stream-flow reduction activity in terms of the National Water Act (36 of 1998). These man-made forests hold water that would otherwise have been available for instream flow. Plantation forestry occurs in the majority of District Municipalities. Forestry in the Eastern Cape has grown since 2004. The Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative (ASGISA) has contributed to this growth through the Mzimvubu Development Zone and the Forestry and Timber Industries Development Programme.

Figure 12: Eastern Cape Plantations (ECBCP, 2007)

6.2.4 Alien Invasives


Alien invasive plant and animal species, introduced by human actions either accidentally or for commercial purposes, are proving a major threat to the quality and quantity water, as well as to the biodiversity of freshwater systems.



Climate change in the Eastern Cape is expected to lead to slightly altered rainfall in the summer months (Schulze & Perks, 2000). Depending on the Global Circulation Model used, and the input variables, the alteration of summer rainfall could mean either a 25 to 50% increase or a 25% decrease. Increased variability of rainfall, fewer but heavier precipitation events and increased temperatures and evaporation are also predicted. These effects could work together to increase flooding, but could also reduce base-flow (long term low flow). Climate change has the capacity to alter groundwater recharge rates, stream flow and dam levels, as well as contribute to ecosystem functioning through desiccation or destruction of riverine habitats.

6.2.6 Eutrophication Excess nitrates and phosphates stimulate nuisance growths of aquatic plants in water. This is detrimental for plants which do not live on the surface and are therefore prevented from capturing sunlight for important photosynthetic processes.

6.2.7 Waste water discharge Discharge of waste water into rivers and dams has secondary and even tertiary impacts. The source of the waste water and the chemicals or nutrients it carries will determine its target effect. Eutrophication is an example of an example of a primary impact and secondary driver which may result from the deposition of waste water into rivers.

6.3 State

The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape lists the following indicators as suitable for determining the state of inland water in the province: • Surface water nutrients • Surface water toxicity • Groundwater nutrients • Total surface water demand • Effectiveness of water resource management However due to the availability of new data and the frequency at which it is reported at, this report utilises the following indicators to determine the state:

6.3.1 Indicators • Surface water

Quantity – Demand and Supply


Quality – Numerous indicators such as habitat integrity are proxies for quality.


• Ground water

Quantity Quality

6.3.2 Surface Water

(a) Water quantity

Excessive water demand leads to over-abstraction of water from rivers and indirectly, wetlands. This in turn means that there is less water available to the rivers and wetlands to maintain their functions and support freshwater ecosystems. Population growth, urban expansion, increased agricultural and industrial activity, forestry and alien plant invasion have contributed to a high levels of water demand. The data presented in the NWRS (2004) on surface water resources is the most up to date data available. Because of this reporting on the change of state of surface water resources is unachievable. Table 15: Water Availability per sub-WMA within the Eastern Cape – 2000 (million m3/a) (Adapted from DWAF 2004)

Natural resource Usable return flow WMAs Sub-WMAs Surface

Water Ground water Irrigation Urban Transfers in Total resource

available

85 3 1 2 0 91 Mzimvubu 129 1 0 6 0 136 Mthatha 112 1 0 1 85 199 Mbashe 325 14 14 6 0 359 Kei 122 1 2 25 0 150 Amatola 4 1 0 0 0 5

Mzimvubu to Keiskamma

Wild Coast -21 6 77 6 51 639 Fish 16 2 0 4 1 23 Bushmans 81 16 29 2 120 248 Sundays 119 5 7 1 0 132 Gamtoos 21 6 1 6 68 102 Algoa 49 1 1 2 0 53

Fish to Tsitskamma

Tsitsikamma 34 10 0 0 0 44 Upper

Orange Kraai 1076 6 132 61 845 2181 Total in Eastern Cape

Boundary


Key: 2004 2009 Table 16 examines the sectoral water requirements per sub-WMA as of 2000. This data was taken from the 2004 NWRS, the revision of which has not yet been released. Updated data is therefore unavailable at present, hence it is not practical to report on current water requirements for the province. Table 16: Sectoral Water Requirements according to sub-WMA within the Eastern Cape - 2000 (million m3/a) (Adapted from DWAF 2004)

Sectoral Requirements (volume in m³/a) WMAs Sub-WMAs Irrigation Urban Rural Afforestation Transfers

Out Total Local

Requirements 15 6 10 3 0 34 Mzimvubu 4 13 5 28 0 50 Mthatha 3 2 6 0 0 11 Mbashe

135 18 10 11 85 259 Kei 33 60 5 4 0 102 Amatola 0 1 3 0 0 4

Mzimvubu to Keiskamma

Wild Coast 453 12 6 2 120 593 Fish 11 10 2 0 0 23 Bushmans 174 5 3 0 35 217 Sundays 103 3 3 0 12 121 Gamtoos 11 81 1 0 0 93 Algoa 11 5 1 5 22 44

Fish to Tsitskamma

Tsitsikamma 84 6 13 0 0 103 Upper

Orange Kraai 1037 222 68 53 274 1654 Total Sectoral Requirement

Key: 2004 2009 The DWAF is set to release a revised National Water Resource Strategy in 2010/2011 (pers. Comm. Viljoen, 2009). The first edition document described “how the water resources of South Africa will be protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in accordance with the requirements of the policy and law” (DWAF, 2004). The NWRS also provides estimates of the water requirements and availability per sub-WMA.


(i) Situation Analysis for selected areas In view of the above data shortfall on updated water requirements of the province, the DWAF have undertaken a more focused study on the water requirements of identified growth areas throughout South Africa. Both East London and Port Elizabeth were included in this report and hence are discussed in detail in the following section.


Port Elizabeth Area

According to DWAF (2009) the NMBM is the economic hub of the Eastern Cape. It focuses primarily on the automotive industry and agriculture. The Algoa Water Supply System supplies water to about 1.5 million people, large irrigation developments and a large number of industries, as well as the Coega IDZ. Table 17: Total volume of water used from the Algoa System as of 2007 (Adapted from DWA, 2009)

Sector Usage (Million m³) Urban and Industry 96.6 Irrigation 50.4 Ecological Requirements 2 Water Loss 8.4 TOTAL 157.4

According to DWA (2009) the total water available is 157.7 million m³ /a. One can see that the system has reached its limit with regards to available supply. Any increase in use would stress the system, therefore requiring some form of immediate intervention. Future pressure is expected to come from the Urban and Industry sector.

East London Area

The Amatole Water Supply System consists of six major dams in various rivers. According to DWAF, total water requirements for 2005 were estimated at 86 million m³/a. This figure is expected to rise to 127 million m³/a by 2030 due to increased service levels of water supply and sanitation. The present available water is about 95 million m³/a, which implies the need for significantly more water by 2030.

(b) Eastern Cape Dams

Total stored water is an indicator of water use and supply, as well as an indicator of the extent to which rivers in the Eastern Cape are impacted in general. Table 18: Present water storage situation in dams along major rivers in the Eastern Cape (DWAF, 2009)

Dam Name River *FSC (Nett) in

million m³ As of

02/11/2009 Beervlei Dam Groot River 85 0 Binfield Dam Tyume River 36 84.5 Bridle Drift Dam Buffalo River 101 41.2 Darlington Dam Sondags River 187 21.8 De Mistkraal Dam Little Fish River 2 83.8 Doornrivier Dam Doorn River 17 61.2 Gcuwa Dam Gcuwa River 0 94.4 Grassridge Dam Groot Brak River 46 26.5 Groendal Dam Swartkops River 11 38.6


Dam Name River *FSC (Nett) in

million m³ As of

02/11/2009 Gubu Dam Gubu River 8 89.3 Impofu Dam Krom River 105 61.2 Katrivier Dam Kat River 24 59.5 Kommandodrift Dam Tarka River 58 54.3 Kouga Dam Kouga River 125 54.3 Kromrivier Dam Krom River 35 36.4 Laing Dam Buffalo River 18 94.5 Loerie Dam Loerie Spruit 3 53.9 Lubisi Dam Indwe River 158 72.8 Nahoon Dam Nahoon River 19 55.6 Ncora Dam Tsomo River 150 53.4 Nqweba Sondags River 46 70.8 Oxkraal Dam Oskraal River 15 22.2 Rooikrantz Dam Buffalo River 4 67.1 Sandile Dam Keiskamma River 29 72 Umtata Dam Mthatha River 248 57.3 Waterdown Dam Klipplaat River 37 79.8 Wriggleswade Dam Kubisi River 91 88.6 Xilinxa Dam Xilinxa River 14 67 Xonxa Dam White Kei River 115 87.5 Eastern Cape Total 1802.8 55.1 *FSC – Full Storage Capacity At present only half of the Eastern Cape’s water storage capacity is being utilised. However, the 2009 winter was Gazetted as a state of drought within the Eastern Cape, due to the persistent lack of rain. One would then assume a dire state of water storage for the province.

(c) Surface Water quality Water quality refers to the suitability of water for human consumption, for irrigation and for natural aquatic ecosystems. Just as water management includes transferring water to water scarce areas, so does it mean transferring water to improve the water quality of specific areas. The following definitions explain important aspects that need to be considered when assessing water quality. Salinity: High salinity can be natural, resulting from the geology which through which the river flows. The Fish River which flows through the saliferous Karoo region is an example of this (DWAF, 2004). Point source pollution: Potential sources of pollution include poorly managed or non-compliant solid waste landfill sites, and sources from industrial activity. The State of the Buffalo River report identifies potential point source pollution,


implicating rural and urban settlements, a textile factory and a tanning dumping site which has since been closed. Nutrient enrichment (eutrophication): Excess nitrates and phosphates are the two major nutrient pollutants stimulating nuisance growths of aquatic plants in water bodies. Over-fertilization reduces habitat integrity and hampers the provision of environmental goods and services (RHP, 2004). Nutrient sources include industrial and sewage effluent and runoff from cultivated lands and pastures where inorganic fertilizers are used. A 2003 assessment of eutrophication in dams considered the Wriggleswade and Nahoon dams outside of East London. This study described the Nahoon dam as Oligotrophic (low in nutrients and not productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life) whereas the Wriggleswade dam was Mesotrophic (intermediate levels of nutrients, fairly productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life and showing emerging signs of water quality problems). Faecal contamination: This refers to the presence of undesirable microbes in water resulting from the discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies. Enteric bacteria of human origin, in particular faecal coliforms, and more specifically Escherichia coli type 1, are commonly used as indicators of the general hygienic quality of water. Exposure to high concentrations of these bacteria carries a serious health risk for people.

(d) DWAF Blue Drop Assessment DWAF has initiated the Blue Drop project which awards ‘Blue Drop Status’ to Provinces, District Municipalities and Local Municipalities that meet certain drinking water standards. Other programmes, such as the National Chemical Monitoring Programme for surface water consistently monitor and update information on surface water quality. The NCMP falls within Resource Quality Service, which also includes other water quality monitoring programmes. The Blue Drop project considers current drinking water quality status of South Africa. According to September 2009 information (DWAF, 2009), only the Amathole District Municipality reached ‘Blue Drop’ status in the Eastern Cape.

6.3.3 Case studies of selected Eastern Cape Rivers The integrity of freshwater systems is not easily indicated by simple numbers. For example the “number of days of no flow or flood flow” are difficult to attribute statistical significance to over a five year period. The River Health Programme used the following indicators in reporting on the state of the Buffalo River: Index of Habitat Integrity, Geomorphological Index, Riparian Vegetation Index, South African Scoring System and the Fish Assemblage Integrity Index. Water quality and quantity are tightly linked to the integrity of the aquatic environment through which it flows. The better the state of wetlands, rivers and the catchments from which they flow, the more able they are to yield high quality


water while absorbing flood events and releasing water more slowly over longer periods of time.

(a) The River Health Programme The River Health Programme concluded reports on the Buffalo River and the Swartkops Estuary. Due to the absence of a provincial inventory on the status of rivers within the Eastern Cape, the state of various rivers (near the main urban centres) is discussed further. It is highly likely that these rivers are reflective of the poorer end of the conditional state of the Eastern Cape rivers.

(i) State of the Buffalo River The Buffalo River drains the Amatola Mountains of the Eastern Cape, flowing eastwards across the coastal plateau before entering the Indian Ocean at East London harbour (RHP, 2004). The report assesses the state of the Buffalo Rivers headwaters, major tributaries, portions upstream of the Laing Dam, coastal plain and the lower river, estuary and harbour reaches. Indicators used are: Index of Habitat Integrity, Geomorphological Index, Riparian Vegetation Index, South African Scoring System and the Fish Assemblage Integrity Index. Driving Forces, Pressures and Impacts include: • Alien plant and fish species; • High population density impacts; • Waste water discharge; • Eutrophication; • Industrial Development; and • Pollution from industry. Overall, the state of the Buffalo River worsens from source to mouth, although indicators vary along the profile.

(ii) State of the Swartkops River A draft situation assessment for the Swartkops Estuary has been produced Enviro-Fish Africa (2009). Although it does not consider the entire river profile, an estuary based assessment is comprehensive enough to establish drivers, pressures and impacts which may be present along the profile. The mouth of the estuary is located close to Port Elizabeth and is fed by two rivers, the Swartkops and the Elands. The river drains the M10 catchment and is related with the following tributaries and pressures: • Kwa-Zunga River: The presence of alien fish and operation of Groendal Dam. • Elands River: The presence of extensive alien vegetation, the abstraction of

water, physical manipulation of the channel and the presence of alien fish species.


• Swartkops River: The river is overall in a highly degraded state due to severe water quality problems, alien vegetation and fish, and physical manipulation of the channel as well as increased low flows.

• Chatty River: The lower Chatty River is also in a highly degraded state and basically functions as a storm and sewage drain.

• Brak River: The section of the river was also in a highly degraded state, with hardly any instream biota. The major problem seems to be extensive alien vegetation.

• Point sources of pollution that include the Motherwell Canal (litter, dead animals and sewage), Markman Canal (industrial waste and litter) and smaller sources from a variety of industries.

(b) Port Alfred water quality study (CES, 2008)

Coastal and Environmental Services produced a draft report based on their assessment of the water quality of the Kowie River, with its mouth at Port Alfred. The aim of the study was to assess the impact the planned Hollingrove Share Block Development would have on water quality and quantity.


(i) Present water quality

Table 19: DWAF station water quality data (Adapted from CES, 2008)

Table 19 summarises the data collected over a 25 year period at the Bathurst/Wolfscrag station, operated by DWAF.

According to the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (Nel et al., 2004) the Kowie is categorised as critically endangered to endangered.

(c) Study of Fish River Long term salinity changes were assessed along the profile of the Great Fish, at three specific monitoring stations over 25 years. The results are tabulated below.

Parameter n 90th percentile Range Median Rating Flow m³/s 12229 0.681 0 – 461.266 0.024 NA Conductivity mS/m 495 484.3 55.6 – 689 273 Elevated TDS mg/L 374 2711.281 320 – 3999.276 1679.812 Poor pH 384 8.48 6.64 – 9.08 8.23 NA Calcium (mg/L) 377 94.96 14.7 – 172.863 62.9 Poor Magnesium (mg/L) 377 126.504 11.6 – 210.091 73.886 Poor Potassium (mg/L) 376 9.974 0.75 – 24.16 6.915 Poor Sodium (mg/L) 376 705.729 72.2 – 1016.665 405.371 Poor Alkalinity (mg/L) 377 269.277 34.1 – 325.2 202.336 Elevated Chloride (mg/L) 377 1344.98 112.7 – 2035.949 751.7 Poor Fluoride (mg/L) 377 0.46 0.05 – 0.69 0.32 Good Silica (mg/L) 382 4.772 0.2 – 14.03 1.035 NA Sulphate (mg/L) 377 154.09 6.6 – 661 91 NA Ammonia (mg/L) 378 0.1 0.015 – 31.58 0.02 Good

Nitrate (mg/L) 383 0.811 0.02 – 20.72 0.04 Good (Oligotrophic)

Phosphate (mg/L) 383 0.09 0.003 – 7.117 0.022 Mesotrophic


Table 20: Electrical conductivity (mSm-1) statistics for the Great Fish River (Adapted from van Niekerk et al., 2009)

Site 1980 - 1984

1985 - 1989

1990 - 1994

1995 - 1999

2000 - 2004

1980 - 2004

Estimated slope (mSm-1a-1) 1980 - 2004

SKT significant trend P<0.005

GF1 219.6 227.4 187.6 175 150 191 - 3.96 Yes GF2 209 251 203.6 181 144.6 198 - 4.17 Yes GF3 76.4 89 68 56.8 54.5 69 - 0.81 Yes

Total Dissolved Solids, which can be reflected as electrical conductivity, seem to have decreased. Evidence of this can be seen on examination of the estimated slope of data trends. Electrical conductivity is not as high further inland (GF3).

(d) Mthatha River Basin Study The study considered water quality within the entire Mthatha Basin and concluded that the most impacted river was the Mthatha River itself (DWAF, 2001). The main drivers of impacts were found to be the large settlements in the area and the lack of proper sanitation. Sewage and other waste water was found to be discharged into the river resulting in bacteriological pollution from sewage and increased lead and manganese from industry. Point sources of faecal Coliforms, especially ammonia, were from the Mthatha Municipal sewage works and the Mthatha Prison sewage works.

6.3.4 Elements of degradation: Table 21 details the environmental state of the Buffalo and Swartkops rivers as a result of degradation pressures.


Table 21: Environmental state of selected rivers within the Eastern Cape

Affected Rivers

Degradation pressure River and wetland environmental state and impacts

Mtha

tha

Basin

Bu

ffalo

Swar

tkop

s

Urban development and rural settlements.

Catchment hardening modifies runoff into rivers, with reduced infiltration, greater risk of flooding during heavy rains, and reduced base flow in the drier seasons.

X X X

Storage dams

Storage dams interrupt the natural flow regimes of the river, as well as ecosystem and geomorphological processes along the river channel.

X X X

Over-abstraction

Over-abstraction reduces the availability of water for ecological processes in the river. It also modifies the natural flow regime, reducing the habitat suitability for instream organisms. Reduced flows also threaten the integrity of estuaries at the river mouth.

X X X

Invasive alien plants

Invasive aliens occupy riparian zones, invade wetlands, and choke up tributaries. In so doing, they modify the runoff characteristics of the catchment, out-compete natural vegetation, reduce the habitat available to aquatic organisms and cause deep erosion of river channels and banks.

X X X

Invasive alien fish

Invasion by exotic species such as large-mouth bass and rainbow trout have reduced the population of indigenous fish. X X X

Poor agricultural practices

Draining of wetlands for ploughing reduces the ability of a catchment to act as a sponge, absorbing excess water during heavy rains, and releasing it slowly during drier periods. Overgrazing reduces water infiltration in the river catchment.

X X X

Industrial pollutants Industrial development results in loss of terrestrial and aquatic habitats and the consequent decline in biodiversity (fauna and flora). Pollution output of industries is high, leading to water contamination.

X X X

Non-point source pollution (fertilizer and pesticide runoff, runoff from roads and informal settlements).

Pollution modifies the water quality of natural aquatic systems. This results in algal blooms and excessive growth of certain vegetation types. This modifies ecosystem interactions within the aquatic environment. Some aquatic species such as the stone-fly (Plecoptera) are directly threatened by changes in the chemical and physical properties of water.

X X X


(a) Biodiversity According to Nel et al. (2004) a critically endangered ecosystem has lost so much of its original natural habitat that ecosystem functioning has broken down. Species which are associated with a critically endangered ecosystem are said to have been lost or are likely to be lost (Nel et al., 2004). Endangered ecosystems have lost significant amounts of their original habitat. Their functioning is therefore compromised. Vulnerable ecosystems have lost some of their original natural habitat, and their functioning will be compromised if continued natural habitat loss takes place (Nel et al., 2004). Least/Not threatened ecosystems, only present in the upper-Orange WMA, have lost only a small portion of their original natural habitat. Although they may be variably degraded they are largely intact (Nel et al., 2004). The state of river health for the Eastern Cape has a cumulative detrimental effect on biological diversity within the river. This trend is identified in the table above. The more modified or degraded the river, the more threatened the habitat and natural species complement of the river ecosystem. Figure 13 details the conservation status of the rivers within the Eastern Cape as defined by the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (Nel et al., 2004). It is clear from Figure 13 that most of the rivers in the western half of the province are generally critically endangered whereas the majority of rivers in the east are vulnerable.

Figure 13: Rivers of the Eastern Cape showing the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment status of river reaches.


6.3.5 Groundwater In 2003 the DWAF launched the Groundwater Resource Assessment (GRA) Phase 2 Project. This initiative seeks to quantify the groundwater resources of South Africa at a national scale. The GRA II is currently under review. The lack of information therefore limits reporting on the state of Groundwater.

6.4 Impacts

The state of inland water resources has a number of impacts for Eastern Cape.

6.4.1 Availability of water Changes in flow regime due to degraded wetlands, overgrazing, catchment hardening and alien invasion means that there are more floods in the wet season and reduced base-flow in the dry season. A large proportion of the mean annual runoff of a river flows to the sea as floods, reducing the year round availability of water for human use. According to DWAF (2009) water is not managed optimally in East London because of a dual management system: The Amatole System consists of six dams, four Departmentally owned and run by Amatola Water, and two owned and run by BCM. The Department completed the Wriggleswade Dam to supplement the BCM water supply, however it has not been integrated into the system due to BCM’s view that their own sources supply cheaper water.

6.4.2 Cap on industrial development The 2000 water availability figures presented by DWAF seem limiting in the face of future industrial growth within the province. Urban development is expected to further deplete current resources. Water may well and truly turn out to be a limiting factor within the province if further in-transfers or alternate sources are not utilised.

6.4.3 Greater vulnerability to droughts and floods The Eastern Cape has effectively reached its carrying capacity in terms of water availability. Exceeding the carrying capacity of water reserves could lead to serious water shortages during drought years. In contrast, the increased likelihood of flooding due to catchment degradation could threaten marginal communities and developments in low-lying areas.

6.4.4 Loss of ecosystem goods and services A healthy and intact river and associated riparian ecosystem, wetlands and catchments provides numerous ecological functions. It ensures moderate, year


round flows, the break-down of pollutants and pathogens, and reduces suspended sediments, among others. These services reduce the cost of providing healthy potable water within the Eastern Cape. The loss of these goods and services leads to poor quality water.

6.5 Responses

6.5.1 Current responses

There are numerous national and regional initiatives aimed at improving the management of inland water:

(a) National Working for Water: Working for Water is a national initiative driven by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry to eradicate alien invasive vegetation in river catchments. Working for Wetlands: The Working for Wetlands Project undertaken by the South African National Biodiversity Institute, which focuses on the rehabilitation and wise use of wetlands in South Africa. River Health Programme: The River Health Programme assesses the biological and habitat integrity of rivers in order identify areas of unacceptable ecological deterioration and to reflect the effectiveness of river management policies and actions. A State of Rivers Report was completed for the Buffalo River in 2004 and a draft report was completed for the Swartkops Estuary in 2008. Ecological Reserve: The National Water Act of 1998 requires that water in a river be set aside for sustaining healthy river ecosystems. Currently no provisional estimates have been conducted for the requirements of the rivers of the Eastern Cape.

6.5.2 Recommended responses Catchment Management Agency: CMAs should be established for catchments within the Eastern Cape. Establish a database of wetland systems in the province. This will provide a much needed inventory of wetlands in the province which could include:

• A GIS database of wetlands, regularly updated and ground-truthed

• The delineation of wetlands at the 1:10 000 scale

• The listing of threatened wetlands

• The identification of threats to wetlands

• Identification of rehabilitation measures


This project could ensure sustainability of the highly sensitive wetland systems present in the Eastern Cape.


Coast and Estuaries – the volume, quality and periodicity of water flowing into estuaries affects the environmental state of these systems. Biodiversity – loss of biodiversity within inland water ecosystems constitutes a cumulative loss within the combined environment for the region. Human Livelihoods – poor quality water affects livelihoods, while limited water availability is likely to constrain economic growth. Limited availability of water affects the ability of municipalities to provide potable water for urban development. Poor quality water, particularly water containing microbial pathogens, is likely to affect the health of people within the province. Air – Climate change, driven by anthropogenic sources, is inextricably linked to the Eastern Capes water supplies, river and estuary health and overall development. Energy and Waste – Effluent discharge into rivers degrades their integrity. Hydro-electricity could contribute to reducing the significant energy demand within the province, especially if flow regimes should change to suit such endeavours in the light of climate change.

6.7 Identified Gaps

• Lack of detailed river quality data

• Lack of synthesised gauging weir statistics

• Lack of detailed ground water quality data


7 THEME: COAST AND ESTUARIES

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Geographical setting The Eastern Cape’s remarkable diversity of landscapes also includes the coast with 15 of the 47 constituent local municipalities bordering the Indian Ocean. The coastline extends from the mouth of the Blaauwkrantz River in the Kou-Kamma Municipality, marking the boundary between the Eastern Cape and the Western Cape, to the Umtumnvuna River, which marks the boundary between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal provinces. The Eastern Cape’s coastline extends for approximately 970km and constitutes 35% of South Africa’s coast. The coastline of the former Transkei to the north is typically undulatory and sometimes extremely rugged (Wooldridge, 2005). Population density along this part of the coastline is relatively low when compared with the hinterland, due largely to poor accessibility, and this has resulted in one of the most unspoilt and scenic stretches of the South African coastline. As one travels further south so the coastal topography becomes less undulatory and in places an extensive flat coastal plain exists (e.g. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan and Kouga Municipalities). Here population density is centred around the large coastal cities such as Port Elizabeth and the hinterland is comparatively less populated. Both East London and Port Elizabeth have deep-water harbours which are important drives in the provincial economy. The coastline in the far south (Kou-Kamma Municipality) is again undulatory with steep-sided cliffs falling away to the sea. It is here that the province’s only coastal national park is found, the 6205 ha Tsitsikamma National Park.

7.1.2 Local oceanography The most prominent oceanographic feature of the region is the Agulhas Current that carries warm tropical water south-westwards past the south coast of South Africa. These waters have an average temperature of 22 °C in August 27 °C in March. The current flows along the edge of the continental shelf and is thus closest to the shore where the continental shelf is narrowest, as at Cape Morgan near Kei Mouth (Heydorn and Tinley, 1980.). Under the influence of the predominately westerly winds, irregular influxes of Agulhas water enter the coasts sheltered bays with the associated warm-water fauna, especially in winter. Wind-induced upwelling associated with easterlies may result in sea temperatures dropping as low as 14 °C in summer. The inshore, northeastward

A working definition of the coast: For the purpose of this report the coastcomprises the coastal waters as far as they are influenced by land and land-associated activities, the sea shore, which is the area between the low and highwater marks, and the coastlands, which are inland areas above the high watermark that influence or are influenced by their proximity to coastal waters.


trending littoral drift countercurrent carries sand along the coastline, eroding it at some places and depositing sand at others to form new beaches. The entire coastline experiences strong wave action because of its exposure to the southern swell. Swell heights in excess of five meters occur frequently. The prevailing swell direction is from the southwest and peak roughness occurs along the rocky sections oriented south-west. The large semi-lunate bays and the rocky headlands and promontories provide isolated areas of relative calm along a generally exposed shoreline, providing contrasts on a bay scale.

7.1.3 Estuaries A stand-out feature of the Eastern Cape’s coast is its estuaries. A total of 139 estuaries are found along the Eastern Cape coast (Berliner and Desmet, 2007; See Figure 14), more than half of the estuaries in South Africa. Some of the larger estuaries include those at the mouths of the Kromme, Gamtoos, Swartkops, Sundays, Bushmans, Great Fish, Keiskamma, Buffalo, Great Kei, Mbashe, Mtata, Mzimvubu, Msikaba and Mtamvuna Rivers. Estuaries are not only important in terms of their biodiversity and ecology (fish nurseries), they have a high recreational value and when navigable by boat can give rise to extensive human settlements. The Buffalo River Estuary forms South Africa’s largest River Port and is arguably the most important driver in East London’s economy. Also estuaries, being places of high scenic beauty, have resulted in tourism development including numerous small coastal holiday towns and coastal resorts, mostly located at the mouths of the province’s many rivers.

Figure 14: Major estuaries, marine protected areas and conservation areas along the coastline of the Eastern Cape


7.1.4 In-shore Fishery The Eastern Cape has a diverse and economically important in-shore fishery. This fishery is targeted by subsistence, recreational and commercial fishers. The use of coastal resources by subsistence fishers, focussed along the former Transkei coast, is important in sustaining the rural livelihoods in what are largely impoverished communities. Both the recreational and commercial line-fisheries play important role in the local and regional economy. Important commercially targeted marine species include a variety of line-fish (e.g. kob, geelbek, yellowtail, carpenter, mackerel, panga and several shark species), chokka, oysters and mussels. Seaweed harvesting in the Eastern Cape has been ongoing since 1951 with 40 – 80 tons (dry weight) being harvested per year in recent years. The species, Gelidium sp., is harvested, dried and then exported for the international market. The in-shore fishery is under threat from over-exploitation with resources continuing to decrease. Most of the stocks of the commercial line fish species have collapsed (i.e. have reached less than 10% of their optimal resource level). Intervention by the Marine and Coastal Management branch of DEAT has been focussed on the recreational line-fishers with bag limit restrictions being placed on certain species (e.g. kob and geelbeck) in recent years. The 2004 SOER reported that nationally the number of commercial licenses issued to target these species has been reduced by half in an effort to curb the dwindling resource. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are also effective in conserving coastal fisheries, particularly reef species which are resident and particularly sensitive to over-exploitation. Currently the Eastern Cape’s MPAs jointly occupy approximately 258 km (26.6%) of the province’s coastline and include the following: • Pondoland MPA • Hluleka MPA • Dwesa-Cwebe MPA • Bird Island MPA • Sardinia Bay MPA • Tsitsikamma MPA SA by comparison has 23 MPAs covering approximately 15% of coastline.

7.1.5 Terrestrial Coastal Resources Terrestrial coastal resources are considered to be resources that are located within 2.5 km of the High Water Mark of the sea and are under the influence of the marine environment (Lubke, 2000). Coastal forests are important natural coastal resources which are found predominantly in the former Transkei and in the Kou-Kamma Municipal area. The traditional use of forest products by local people dates back to pre-colonial times when forest products were used in weaving, as traditional medicine and in the construction of dwellings and livestock enclosures. In more recent times, due to increases in demand, the levels of use have increased causing reductions in the species richness as specific species are targeted. Also a form of slash-and-burn crop farming has


become prevalent resulting in the clear-felling of significant areas of coastal forest to create arable lands. While not yet mined in the Eastern Cape, the mining of heavy minerals in the coastal strip is likely to become a major contributor to environmental degradation given that viable resources of heavy minerals have been found along certain parts of the former Transkei coast with an international mining concern having been given prospecting rights.

7.1.6 Economy Along the former Transkei coast, economic activity is primarily associated with tourism. There is an active albeit limited commercial line fishery and agriculture also contributes minimally to the coastal economy. Economic development along the coast in the Transkei is significantly hampered by poor infrastructure, particularly road access and the availability of services. This differs significantly from the coastal economies prevalent in the regions two large coastal cities, East London and Port Elizabeth which are both characterized by high levels of industry, particularly in the manufacturing sector. Significant in this regard is the Coega Industrial Development Zone (IDZ) and the recently constructed Ngura Deep Water Harbour which is an initiative by National Government to stimulate the regional economy.


The coast is a meeting place for many different users and stakeholders often with conflicting interests. The scenic quality and recreational value of the coast creates a demand for coastal property development. These attributes also give rise to the coast’s high tourism potential that in the Eastern Cape is yet to be fully developed. With urban development come other pressures such as pollution of the marine environment. Coastal ecosystems provide critical services and yield valuable products. They are extremely sensitive to disturbance, particularly disturbance associated with urban development, and there is a high risk that the capacity of these systems to provide the services and products will be lost. The challenges of poverty and unemployment give rise to the need to create employment opportunities in industrial and commercial sectors that use finite coastal and marine resources. On a global scale there is the pressure that natural systems are placed under as result of climate change. While there is widespread acceptance of the phenomenon not much is known about the manner in which coastal and marine ecosystems will be affected. In summary, the coast, finding itself at the interface between the terrestrial and marine environment is subject to a wide range of pressures that inevitably result in negative impacts. These impacts need to be managed carefully so that the coast’s role in the regional economy is optimised without foregoing is aesthetic and biophysical value.

7.2.1 Urban development within Coastal Zone


Urban development along the Eastern Cape coast is primarily driven by the demand for holiday coastal property by the more affluent South Africans. Tourism also has a role to play and some coastal towns have grown considerably as a result of tourism (e.g. Jeffries Bay, once a small sleepy fisherman’s town but due to its popularity as a tourist destination is now one of South Africa’s fastest growing urban areas). At certain places such as East London and Port Elizabeth the presence of deep water harbours results in urban development generated largely by commerce and industry. Whereas the coastal area of the Eastern Cape and its southern neighbour, the Southern Cape are undeniably similar is scenic quality, the Eastern Cape’s coastline has not been subject to the levels of urban development characteristic in the Southern Cape where undesirable leap frog and extensive ribbon development has taken place. A challenge for provincial government is to stimulate economic development and create jobs without causing the undesirable impacts that have taken place in the Southern Cape. Environmentally sensitive coastal development is the key to addressing these national priorities. To indicate the extent of urban development the coastal demographics and coastal land cover are presented.

7.2.2 Coastal demographics According to the 2007 community survey (StatsSA, 2007) 3,8 million peoples were permanently resident in the coastal municipalities, which represented 58% of the entire population of the Eastern Cape. Seasonally the balance tips even more towards the coast as tourists head towards the coastal holiday towns over the Christmas and New Year season.

7.2.3 Coastal land cover Landcover along the coast (5 km wide strip) is presented in (Table 22). Table 22: Land cover in the Eastern Cape within 5 km from the coast

Land cover Hectares Percentage

Built-up land 27 434 7.98%

Cultivated land 39 734 11.56%

Bare rock and soil N/A -

Degraded land 40 597 11.81%

Exotic plantations 16 010 4.66%

Grassland 0 0.00%

Indigenous forest 39 050 11.36%

Shrubland and fynbos 54 379 15.83%


Land cover Hectares Percentage

Thicket and bushland 118 261 34.42%

Mines and quarries N/A -

Waterbodies and wetlands 8 146 2.37%

Total 343611 100

Land under formal conservation protection is not well represented in the coastal belt of the Eastern Cape with a total of ??% (?? km2) distributed over ?? reserves. This listing excludes land under private conservation management.

7.2.4 Modification of freshwater runoff

Agricultural practices and urban development inland of the coastal zone are associated with coastal zone impacts which are transmitted by water courses. For example erosion as a result of overgrazing modifies the natural sedimentation patterns that determine the nutrient and energy flows in coastal areas. Siltation in estuaries can severely affect the role that estuaries play as nurseries for fish. Water abstraction from rivers and impoundment (dams), as well as the presence of alien invasive vegetation, which have reduced freshwater runoff into the estuaries and have modified river flow. As the availability of fresh water is an important economic driver, any modifications in flow could constrain future development options.

7.2.5 Overfishing and poaching The Eastern Cape’s in-shore marine resources are intensively harvested by boat-based commercial fishers, recreational fishers, fishing either from boats or the shore, and subsistence users for personal consumption or informal trade purposes. As a result nearly all commercial line fish species stocks have collapsed and the abundance and availability of many shellfish species has declined significantly. Subsistence fishers, driven by the need to support a livelihood, tend to overfish and poach illegal species such as abalone. Given the stronger capacity of law enforcement agencies in the Western Cape the pressure on the Eastern Cape’s abalone population is likely to increase dramatically.

7.2.6 Marine pollution The marine discharge of untreated and partially treated domestic and industrial effluent is arguably the greatest source of marine pollution in the province. The total number of registered domestic marine discharge points is unchanged from 2004 at 7 and the total number of registered industrial discharge points is also unchanged at 5 (need to check this).


Uncontrolled dumping of litter from passing ships and pumping of bilges cause water quality impacts which in turn impact on sensitive species. Marine-generated litter and petroleum-based pollutants spoil bathing beaches. Some oil spills have had disastrous consequences for seabirds. Marine stormwater outfalls discharging stormwater runoff from urban areas (e.g. streets, parking lots) affect near-shore water quality through petro-chemical pollutants and heavy metals that they contain. When pollutants accumulate within surficial sediment they can become toxic to benthic fauna, which can lead to developmental deformities and loss of reproductive capacity. Moreover, these pollutants can be passed on and magnified in the food chain when eaten by a predator. Such magnification can have disastrous effects, including the incomplete development of eggshells of birds (De Kock and Randall, 1984) and increased susceptibility to disease in mammals (e.g. dolphins; Cockcroft et al. ,1991).

7.2.7 Climate change A key characteristic of climate change is that extreme weather events such as storms become more frequent. This coupled with tidal surges and sea-level rise can cause widespread yet temporary inundation of low-lying coastal areas. If these areas are developed then the consequences can be disastrous. The influence of climate change on ecosystem functioning remains largely unknown. Climate change may induce regime shifts (e.g. sardines may be replaced by anchovies), or result in radical changes to the recruitment success of certain species. The location of South Africa at mid-latitudes and at the confluence of two major ocean current systems makes the whole ecosystem vulnerable to large-scale climate changes. This is in some way mitigated by the opportunistic nature of many of the key organisms present in the marine environment, which are highly adaptable to changed circumstances.

7.2.8 Invasive aliens Many ecologists consider alterations caused by invasive alien species to biological diversity as a threat second in impact to habitat destruction. This threat is growing daily with the accelerated rate of species’ movements through trade, transport, travel and tourism. Their effects are exacerbated by global change, and chemical or physical disturbance to species and ecosystems. Every alien species that becomes established in a new environment alters the composition of native biological communities in some way. These alterations can disturb the structure and functioning of the invaded ecosystem and have profound socio-economic impacts. Invasive alien plants (notably rooikrans Acacia cyclops but also many others) have altered coastal habitats resulting in loss of biodiversity. They are also responsible for reducing run-off and as result the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has developed the national Working for Water (WfW) programme which aims to remove large tracts of these invasive species and provide employment for previously disadvantaged communities. Under the WfW


programme is a pilot project Cape St. Francis where local woman are planting back thatch grass in cleared areas which is in high demand in the area. Industrial ports and yacht harbours are places where invasive alien organisms arrive in South Africa. These organisms are typically transmitted through ballast water release and hull fouling. There are no known efforts at any of South Africa’s major ports to address this problem.

7.3 State

7.3.1 Indicators of state of the coast

The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape presented the following indicators of the status of Coastal and Marine environment and resources:

• Estuarine Health Index • Catch and Total Allowable Catch per fishery sector • Distribution and abundance of resource species • Pollutant loading entering the seas from land-based sources • Number of functional co-management initiatives • Blue Flag Beaches

The estuarine health index is presented in this revision. Catch data and Total Allowable Catch have only been included for the in-shore line (including chokka squid) and coast rock lobster fisheries. The demersal and pelagic fisheries have been excluded because these fisheries are situated offshore and is not of importance the province’s coastal zone. The status of these offshore fisheries is more appropriately presented in the National Environmental Outlook / SOE Report. The distribution and abundance of certain resource species have been included but again resource species of the demersal and pelagic fisheries have been excluded for reasons mentioned above. Pollutant loading from land-based sources is again presented and an update of the co-management initiatives presented in the 2004 report is provided. An update of the number of beaches that have been awarded full blue-flag status as well as those that have lost their status is also presented.

7.3.2 Estuarine health status An estuary is a portion of a river system that has, or can have, interaction with the sea. Estuaries are more than links between rivers and the sea. They are best thought of as ecosystems in their own right (or coastal resources in this case) owing to their peculiarities and their dynamic nature triggered by tidal movements and flooding. Estuaries provide many services; to name just a few, they serve as important nursery areas for fish, their wetlands and salt marshes act as natural filters, and they are attractive places for human recreational activities. Current problems facing estuaries are pollution, reduced freshwater inputs due to extraction and impoundments in the upstream catchments, habitat disruption, channel modification and siltation issues. Many of these problems are interlinked.


In 2000, an assessment by Whitfield on the condition of South African estuaries (including those of the old Ciskei and Transkei) classified them as follows: Excellent: estuary in near pristine condition (negligible human impact) Good: no major negative anthropogenic influences on either the estuary or catchment (low impact) Fair: noticeable degree of ecological degradation in the catchment and/or estuary (moderate impact) Poor: major ecological degradation arising from a combination of anthropogenic influences (high impact) The 2004 SOER reported on Whitfield’s classification system. This report identified and ranked 213 estuaries in the Eastern Cape. The Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (Berliner & Desmet, 2007) included a revised assessment of the Eastern Cape estuaries. They however only identify 137 existing estuaries as occurring within the province (see Table 23). The South African Outlook Report identifies 259 estuaries as occurring in South Africa and therefore over half the countries estuaries fall within the Eastern Cape. The Eastern Cape’s estuaries are in relatively good health with 29% being considered to be excellent; 25% to be good; 14% are classified as fair and 15% as poor. The estuaries along the Wild Coast are healthiest of all. Estuaries tend to be in fair to poor health along the intensively developed areas around Port Elizabeth and East London reflecting anthropogenic pressures associated with urban areas. Note that according to Berliner & Desmet (2007) there is no data available for 26% of the Eastern Cape’s estuaries. If this is taken into account the percentages, particularly for the healthier systems, could be significantly higher. Table 23: Comparison in the State of the Eastern Cape’s Estuaries.

2004 (from Eastern Cape SOER)

2008 (Adapted from Berliner & Desmet, 2008)

State of Estuaries

Number of Estuaries

Percentage Number of Estuaries Percentage

No information 78 36% 35 26% Poor - - 8 6% Fair 18 9% 19 14% Good 44 21% 34 25% Excellent 73 34% 41 29% Total 213 100% 137 100%

7.3.3 Catch and Total Allowable Catch per In-shore Fishery Sector Seaweed Harvesting Attwood (1997, 1998) provides catch data for the period ’96, ’97 and ’98 and this lies at about 140 tons (dry weight) with exception that in ’97 when only 119 tons were harvested. Need to get updated data. The amount harvested is approximately 70% of the standing crop in the concession area and the resource is regarded to be optimally exploited. Is this still the case?


Chokka Fishery This is arguably the province’s most important fishery and is worth approximately R180 Million per annum. Catch data from 90’s indicate a stable average annual catch at around 6000 tons per annum. In 2003 / 2004 this figure doubled to 12 000 tons. Need recent data to confirm that the stock is still stable. South Coast Rock Lobster Landed catch in 2001/2002 season totalled 290 tons tail mass. What are the more recent catch records? Commercial Line Fishery Catch data presented in 2004 report was for the period 1998 – 1999. This data shows a decline in catches for most species over this short period. What do more recent records indicate?

7.3.4 Distribution and Abundance of Resource Species In-shore shellfish Included here are mussels, oysters, crayfish and abalone. While it is commonly known that the distribution and abundance of these shellfish species is on the decline, due mainly to over-exploitation by subsistence and recreational fishers, it is not possible to quantify the catch and the overall status of the resource. Monitoring the use of these shellfish species is hampered by the informal nature of the trade whereby subsistence fishers, particularly along the former Transkei coast, harvest shellfish and sell these to the coast’s many backpacker lodges and hotels. There is also a growing illegal trade in the bait which is sold by subsistence fishers to recreational fisherman. This is particularly prevalent in the Swartkops River estuary. In response to the rampant poaching of abalone the national authorities have placed a ban on the harvesting of wild abalone throughout South Africa. This ban may not be having the desired effect of protecting the wild abalone stocks as many subsistence divers may have turned to poaching. Chokka The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape notes that the province’s Chokka stocks are considered to be in a healthy condition. Need updated figures to confirm. South Coast Rock Lobster This lobster species is exclusively caught by commercial fishers who use lobster pots in waters in both inshore and offshore areas. The abundance of the South Coast Rock Lobster has shown a steady decline since 1988. Between 1994 and 1998 the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) or this species was reduced by 15% but this had no impact on the declining trend. Need more recent figures. Commercial Line Fish Species The 2004 SOER reported that the stocks of most of the popular linefish species had collapsed. Of 100 marine linefish species 2% of species had been closed to commercial and recreational exploitation, 10% were protected, 14% critical and 42% were categorised as exploitable (DEAT, 1999.) Is there any more recent information?


7.3.5 Pollutant Loading entering the seas from land-based sources Marine discharges of Industrial and Domestic Effluent Marine discharges of treated and partially treated industrial and domestic effluent occur in close proximity to the province’s major cities and are the province’s major contributor to marine pollution. DWAF and/or the respective Local Authorities monitor these discharges in terms of the licence conditions – get data from DWAF. It is evident that the discharges often exceed DWAF’s general limits (DWAF, 1999) for many pollutants. This is most likely a consequence of the capacity of the sewerage infrastructure being exceeded, particularly where Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTW) are operating way beyond the design capacity. Stormwater discharges In addition to effluent discharge, the discharge of urban run-off via stormwater outfalls into the sea contributes to an unquantifiable yet potentially significant source of marine pollution. Hydrocarbons and heavy metals form the pollutants of most concern in urban run-off.

7.3.6 Number of Functional Co-management Initiatives In responding to policy directives aimed to ensure greater participation from local communities in the management of natural resources there are a number of co-management initiatives underway in the province. These are focussed in the former homeland areas, particularly the Transkei, where resource use plays an important role in supporting rural livelihoods and therefore needs careful management. Over-exploitation by the rural users can lead to socio-economic impacts associated with an exhausted resource base and biodiversity impacts. Coastal resources commonly utilised include shellfish and plant products including mangroves, traditional medicines harvested from the region’s coastal forests and fibre products for weaving. Of the co-management initiatives listed in the 2004 SOER ?? now have formal agreements as provided for under the NEMA legal framework for continue to function and ?? are no-longer functional.

7.3.7 Blue Flag beaches Twenty South African beaches won international recognition at the 2006 Blue Flag Awards, a European-based campaign which measures beaches against strict environmental, tourist and safety standards. The Blue Flag is given to beaches that meet 14 criteria spanning three aspects of coastal management: water quality, environmental education and information, and safety and services, which include excellent life-saving standards, good parking and clean ablution facilities. The Blue Flag is awarded for one year only based on the performance of that beach during the previous season. In 2004 only Humewood Beach was awarded Blue Flag Status. Three other beaches were in the Pilot Phase. According to the Blue Flag Foundation Website, www.blueflag.org the Eastern Cape now has nine beaches holding full Blue Flag status (see Table 24).


Table 24: Beaches with Blue Flag status in the Eastern Cape.

Beach Name Municipality 2004 Status 2009 Status Gonubie Beach Buffalo City Municipality - Full Blue Flag Status Boknes Beach Ndlambe Municipality - Full Blue Flag Status Kariega Beach Ndlambe Municipality - Full Blue Flag Status Kelly’s Beach Ndlambe Municipality Pilot Phase Full Blue Flag Status Wells Estate Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

Municipality Pilot Phase Full Blue Flag Status

Humewood Beach Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality

Full Blue Flag Status

Full Blue Flag Status

Hobie Beach Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality

- Full Blue Flag Status

Kings Beach Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality

- Full Blue Flag Status

Dolphin Beach Kouga Municipality Pilot Phase Full Blue Flag Status While this does certainly does not indicate any improvement in the status of the Eastern Cape’s beaches since 2004, it does represent a baseline from which a trend can be ascertained. For example should any of the above-mentioned beaches not retain their Blue Flag status then their condition can be regarded as having declined. For the 2007/2008 summer season Gonubie Beach was stripped of its Blue Flag status, mainly due to water quality problems. Since it is currently listed having full Blue Flag status it can be assumed that water quality is no-longer regarded as a problem.

7.4 Impacts

The National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment of 2004 (Lombard et al., 2004) identified nine major impact categories in the coastal zone. With the exception of mining, which is currently of no significance in the coastal parts of the Eastern Cape, the coastal impacts that are important nationally are also acting in this region. Table 25 summarises the impacts in the context of the responsible drivers and pressures. Table 25: Impacts from environmental degradation in the coastal zone

No. Drivers / Pressures Impacts

1 Rampant coastal development, ribbon and leapfrog development

Job losses in the agricultural sector Increased cost of traffic Public transport and services infrastructure solutions Loss of biodiversity and conservation resources Loss of the scenic qualities of the Eastern Cape coast, one of its main marketing features

2 Modification of freshwater runoff, catchment issues of rivers feeding estuaries

Change of natural sedimentation patterns Changes in estuary mouth dynamics Changes in nutrient and energy flows (e.g. salinity, temperature)


No. Drivers / Pressures Impacts

Reduction in freshwater runoff Loss of biodiversity and conservation resources

3 Non-extractive recreational activities, incl. boating, offroad vehicles

Disturbance of breeding animals, e.g. waterbirds Litter pollution Noise Trampling of sensitive vegetation Increased fire risk Bow wave wake damage to estuary shores

4 Harvesting of marine living resources, fishing, by-catch mortality and dumping, poaching

Severely threatened linefish populations Critically endangered shellfish populations Deterioration of marine ecosystem health Substrate damage by trawls Substrate damage by prawn pumps Incidental mortality of associated bird and mammal predators Insufficient food for predators

5 Waste management practises Litter pollution of beaches and estuary shores Deterioration of water quality Acute poisoning Oiling of seabirds Toxic effects in wildlife, fish and invertebrates Loss of scenic qualities

6 Alien invasive species Disruption of natural sand transport patterns through alien plants Biodiversity losses Knock-on socio-economic impacts

7 Climate change, global warming, sea level rise

Flooding and destruction of coastal properties Regime shifts (e.g. Sardines to Anchovies) Radical changes to the recruitment success of certain marine species

8 Mariculture Habitat loss Eutrophication Introduction of invasive species Spread of disease

9 Mining Currently insignificant in Eastern Cape.

7.5 Responses

The Eastern Cape can make a meaningful contribution towards addressing the most urgent biodiversity crises in South Africa’s marine environment as spelt out in the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (Lombard et al. 2004) by supporting the following actions:


• Fishing pressures must be reduced, for example, by reducing commercial and/or recreational fishing quotas

• Successful alien eradication programmes for alien invasive trees (e.g. rooikrans) must continue. The eradication of the European shore crab (Carcinus maenas) must be attempted

• Access points to the coast must be limited, and possibly reduced (sea access from e.g. launch sites, slipways and storm water pipes, and shore access from e.g. parking areas and paths). These are also areas where alien species are likely to become established

• Abalone poaching must be stopped. Specific abalone reserves are needed, with strict control

• A complete investigation into the impacts of pollution is required (e.g. marine impacts as a result of discharge of sewage and stormwater into the sea and estuaries). Mass migration of people into coastal areas is placing many coastal municipalities under pressure and their waste management capacity is inadequate

• Infrastructure upgrading needs to be prioritised and careful monitoring and regulation in terms of license conditions needs to occur. The new Integrated Coastal Management Bill intends to regulate the discharge of effluent into coastal waters from any source on land (section 74) by requiring permits to authorise such discharges

• Coastal developments and their associated impacts need to be very strictly controlled. These developments pose a major threat to many components of the coastal and marine environment, owing to their cumulative effects, which are often not taken into account by impact assessments. These effects include organic pollution of run off and sewage, transformation of the supratidal environment, alteration of dune movement, increased access to the coast and sea, and the negative impacts on estuaries

Coastal matters must be given prominence in the Spatial Development Framework and in the Integrated Development Plan of the province’s Municipalities. With the enactment of the National Environmental Management: Coastal Management Act (NEM: CMA 24 of 2008) all provinces have to develop their own Coastal Management Plans (CMPs) within four years of the Act’s commencement (i.e. by 2012). The NEM: CMA also stipulates the establishment of provincial coastal committees. It is also anticipated that a coastal management unit will be required for the province. The unit would be the natural convener of regional/district coastal forum meetings on a regular basis and attended by representatives from organs of state mandated with coastal management, as well as NGOs and other coastal stakeholders. The issues raised in the coastal forums would then be taken forward to the provincial coastal committee. Further recommended responses by the Eastern Cape include:

• Lending support to stewardship programmes aimed at helping to protect coastal and river corridors important for biodiversity conservation (e.g. the Eastern Cape Estuaries Management Programme)

• More recommendations here



Of the many inter-dependencies with key themes discussed in this report, three stand out:

1. Inland waters: estuarine ecosystem health is closely linked to the health of the rivers that feed the estuary.

2. Biodiversity: as areas of great diversity of life, estuaries and the coast make a major contribution to the province’s overall biodiversity.

3. Economics: coastal tourism contributes greatly to economic activity in the province.

4. Waste Management: limited effluent treatment capacity within the province results in marine pollution.

7.7 Identified gaps

To be completed following outcome of data search.


8 THEME: BIODIVERSITY

8.1 Introduction

The word biodiversity has a variety of meanings. At its simplest it is species richness, the number of species present in a given area. More often biodiversity is used to mean the variety of life on our planet, measurable as the variety within species, between species, and the variety of ecosystems. South Africa has a very substantial share of global biodiversity within its borders, ranking third of any country in the world. Owing to its broad range of climatic conditions, geology, soils and landscapes, the Eastern Cape’s contribution to the national ranking is important. In fact, three renowned biodiversity hotspots of global significance, the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot the Succulent Karoo hotpsot and the Cape Floral Kingdom, all partially fall within the Eastern Cape. Other noteworthy features are the scenic and diverse coastline, the expansive grasslands, the southern Drakensburg Mountains, the karoo and the indigenous forests that attract eco-tourists to the area. Our biological heritage is important to us in many ways – providing us with ecosystem services like clean water, contributing directly to the economy through industries like fishing and tourism, supporting livelihoods by providing food, medicines and building materials and generally improving our health and well-being. The value of biological diversity has three components:

1. Many species have a direct value through the products that can be harvested, for instance, many medicines used throughout the world have active ingredients extracted from plants and animals.

2. The pollination of agricultural crops by insects is an example of the indirect value where aspects of biodiversity bring economic benefit without the need to consume the resource.

3. There is also an ethical value to the diversity of life. Although it does not always lend itself to economic valuation in monetary terms, we still appreciate the beauty of the rose flower.

Through the most powerful human influence, habitat destruction and ill-conceived developments, biodiversity is under threat world-wide. The focus is frequently on the accelerated rate of disappearance of a species in the face of human influence. The fossil record tells us that individual species evolve all the time and that they last on average 1 – 10 million years. With an estimated total of 10 million species on earth, between 100 (0.001%) and 1,000 (0.01%) species would go extinct each century. Alarmingly, the current observed rate of extinction of birds and mammals is about 1% per century, which is 100 – 1,000 times greater than the ‘natural’ background rate (Begon et al., 1996). To counteract this mass extinction, conservation action is needed that is effective in maintaining the ecosystem services (e.g. fishing, grazing, clean water and air) provided by high levels of biodiversity.


Biodiversity encompasses more than just species richness. We should ensure that we protect representatives of as many types of communities and ecosystems as possible. By conserving suitable habitat we are also improving the survival chances of the species and populations contained therein. Living landscapes preserve the option value of biodiversity – the potential to provide benefits in the future. To protect biodiversity effectively, we need to conserve (Driver et al., 2003): • A representative sample of all biodiversity • The ecological and evolutionary processes that allow this biodiversity to

persist over time The systematic approach to conservation planning involves setting quantitative conservation targets, for instance the number of hectares of river corridor that need to be set aside to remain undeveloped. Quantitative conservation targets show how much we need to conserve in order to achieve the goal of living landscapes. Currently there are a number of regional and national conservation planning initiatives overlapping with the province these include: NSBA, DWAF Forest Conservation Planning, Wild Coast Conservation Plan, Pondoland Systematic Conservation Plan, STEP, SKEP, C.A.P.E and Grasslands Programme conservation plans, and the Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project conservation plan, (Berliner & Desmet, 2007). In order to integrate these initiatives, the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan was compiled in 2007 as a single, user friendly, biodiversity landuse decision support tool for the whole province. Much of the statistical information and interpretation presented in this chapter has been derived from this comprehensive resource. This chapter explores the current state of biodiversity in comparison to that reported on in the 2004 EC SOER.


Important driving forces putting pressure on the biodiversity resources of Eastern Cape are: • Population growth • The demand for economic growth to provide wealth and job creation • Demand for housing and associated services for historically disadvantaged

people • Unsustainable extraction of natural resources as a result of poverty or greed • Poor land use practices promoting soil erosion and infestation by invasive

alien plants • Altered veld fire regimes and runaway fires


• Poor waste and pollution management • Aforestation • Emerging biofuels industry • Climate change • Lack of understanding (ignorance of the importance of conserving

biodiversity) With an estimated annual population growth rate of 1% for the period 2001 – 2005 (Lehola, 2006) more and more South Africans are born every day whose basic human needs for food, freshwater and fuel are making unprecedented demands on our global and local ecosystems. Beyond the necessities of survival, there is increasing demand of society for more material goods and services. South Africans already consume more resources per capita than people in any other African nation. As previously disadvantaged people strive to increase material wealth and the comforts and conveniences they have been denied before the new political dispensation, the strain on natural resources and biodiversity will only increase. Ignorance of the importance of conserving biodiversity through lack of understanding should not be underestimated as a contributing factor. Subjects dealing with the conservation of our biological heritage are only recent arrivals in the school curriculum and the demand for environmental education by appropriately qualified teachers exceeds the supply by far, especially in out-of-town places.

8.3 State

The 2004 SOER of the Eastern Cape reported on the State of the Biodiversity Environment through the following indicators: • Habitat transformation • Extinct, threatened and endemic species per taxonomic group • Distribution and abundance of selected alien species • Extent of conserved areas in the province

8.3.1 Habitat Transformation Habitat transformation was presented in the 2004 as per percentage of a municipal area using the National Land Cover Data Set dated in 1996. The National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (NSBA, Driver et al., 2005) expanded on this data set and used maps of land classes, such as vegetation types or habitat types (e.g. Southern Mistbelt Forest), to represent biodiversity features (pattern and process), habitat transformation, protected areas and future land use pressure, across the nation.


Ecosystem status therefore represents a better indicator of biodiversity as it incorporates habitat transformation, irreversibility, threatened species status, etc. and is therefore used as an indicator in this section. The NSBA should be seen as a conservative assessment because the data it uses from the 2004 South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) vegetation map for South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) took a number of years to collect. It is likely that further loss of natural habitat has taken place since then, but these are the best available data. By using land classes incorporating expert knowledge about biological characteristics as surrogates of biodiversity (Lombard et al., 2003), the NSBA was able to overcome the problem of species-based inventories being hampered by incomplete data (Driver et al., 2003). They also avoided the collection bias (museum collection species distribution records tend to be concentrated along roads and other easily accessible places) and problems with extrapolating from one species group to another. In the absence of comprehensive data sets of the occurrence and status of species of conservation concern in the Eastern Cape, the NSBA approach of using land classes as stand-ins for biodiversity is adopted. If required at some stage, this makes for an easy comparison between the national performance of biodiversity protection and that of the Eastern Cape. The classification of how intact and well functioning they are is based on four categories (Table 26):

Table 26: Definition of ecosystem status categories of land classes

Remaining natural habitat % Category Definition

80 - 100 Least threatened Still largely intact

60 - 80 Vulnerable Reasonably intact, but nearing the threshold beyond which they will start to lose ecosystem functioning

20 - 60 Endangered Have lost significant amounts of their original natural habitat, impairing their functioning

0 - 20 Critically endangered Have so little of the original habitat left that not only their functioning has been severely impaired, but species are being lost

The ecosystem status measures the amount of habitat lost in ecosystems (measured as land classes) relative to the conservation targets for those ecosystems. In Eastern Cape 5% of land classes are Endangered or Critically Endangered, with a further 14% Vulnerable to lose ecosystem functioning (Figure 15).


Conservation Status of Land Classes

0% 5%14%

81%

Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Least Threatened

Figure 15: Percent breakdown of the ecosystem status of Eastern Cape land classes

The spatial representation in shows, that the western parts of the Eastern Cape are still largely intact, whereas the eastern areas particularly the former Transkei area and those along the southern area, are under greater threat to lose their ecological integrity. Only 170 ha of Critically Endangered land classes were revealed in the GIS analysis which represented less than 1% of the Eastern Cape. These were all Mangrove Forests found along some of the estuaries north of the Kei River. Endangered areas occur in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth and along the central Transkei areas. The entire Wildcoast area is classified as Vulnerable which is further cause for concern.

<1%


Figure 16: Ecosystem status of the land classes occurring in the Eastern Cape

8.3.2 Extent of formally conserved areas

Baseline information on formally conserved areas falling into Eastern Cape was extracted from the South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (Rouget et al., 2004). The data was released by SANBI in 2005 and is current as of 2004. Results are presented in Table 27. Table 27. Extent of formally conserved areas of type 1 and 2* in Eastern Cape. Their percent contribution to the total Eastern Cape area (16,898,531 ha) is also shown

Protection type Description

Area [ha]/ % of

Eastern Cape

Source

Area [ha]/ % of

Eastern Cape

Source

Type 1 National Parks, Nature Reserves, Provincial Nature Reserves, Local Authority Nature Reserves and DWAF Forest Nature Reserves

558,848 ha

3.2%

SANBI

638,622 ha 3.78%

ECBCP

Type 2 Catchment Areas, Wildlife Management Area, Private Nature Reserves, National Heritage Sites, SANDF property, Bird Sanctuary, Botanical Garden, State Land, Mountain Catchment Area, DWAF Forest Area

112,036 ha

0.6%

SANBI

71,291 ha 0.42%

ECBCP

Total in types 1 and 2

667,981 ha

3.95%

709,913 ha 4.2%

*Type 3 protected areas include game farms and other conservation areas. Due to the low level of protection that they are afforded and frequent changes in their status they are not considered further here.


Currently, nearly 6% of land in South Africa is under protection in Type 1 and Type 2 protected areas (Rouget et al., 2004). With a total area of 4.2% under formal type 1 and 2 protection, the Eastern Cape is still well below the national average. The total area under Type 3 protection amounts to 234,910ha (ECBCP) which is an additional 1.3% of the Eastern Cape under informal conservation. Substantial plans are in progress to expand the protected area network. For example, proposals are to expand the Addo Elephant National Park to 360 000ha and the Tsitsikamma National Park is to be incorporated into the Garden Route Mega Park.

(a) Protected Area Expansion

Responsibility Approximate

Hectares Approximate

% of the Eastern

Cape Province

Approximate Hectares (ECBCP)

Approximate % of the Eastern

Cape Province

Approximate Hectares (SANBI)

Approximate % of the Eastern

Cape Province

National1 370,462 2.19 265,316 1.57 Provincial 419,351 2.47 404,780 2.39 330,184 Local Municipality

13,818 0.01 71,291 0.42 46,474

Subtotal 903,631 4.74 Private 921,350 5.43 TOTAL 1,724,981 10.18 Name 2004 (SOER, 2004) Current status Comment National Parks Addo Elephant National Park

127556 140 000 Plans to expand to 360 000ha Mega Reserve

Mountain Zebra National Park

7259 24 596 (SANBI)/ 28 412

(www.sanparks.org)

Tsitsikamma National Park

6205 12 954 Plans to incorporate into Garden Route

National Park Camdeboo National Park Not listed 19 405 TOTAL 141020 196955

8.3.3 Ecosystem protection It is informative to compare the level of ecosystem functioning (Figure 17) with the protection level enjoyed by each of the land classes in Eden. This tells how well the protected area network in the district municipality is performing in terms of representing terrestrial biodiversity.

1 This includes National Parks, State Owned Land and DWAF Forest Areas.


The analysis presented graphically in Figure 15 is based on a lenient definition of what constitutes protected areas. There are many types of protected areas and they do not confer equal amounts of protection to the vegetation type/land class in which they are located. National Parks, Provincial Nature Reserves, Local Authority Nature Reserves and DWAF Forest Nature Reserves present the highest level of formal protection. At the other end of the scale are game farms, private game reserves and conservancies that are informal by nature (un-gazetted) and do not provide secure long-term protection of biodiversity. Still, for the valuable contributions that they make – albeit at a variable quality – they have been included in the suite of protected areas. Regional gradients in the protection levels are clearly evident in Figure 17. All large protected areas are situated in the mountains in the north and many hardly or poorly conserved land classes are found in the west. Overall, the hardly (27.3%), poorly (40.1%) and not protected (6.8%) areas make up 74.2% of Eden, with the balance being made up by the moderately and well protected areas. Table 28 shows that there is a mismatch between the conservation status groups of ecosystems/land classes and the level of protection that they enjoy. Eden’s Critically Endangered Ruens Renosterveld and Cape Lowland Alluvial land classes are hardly protected but 12 of the Least threatened land classes receive full protection. A plausible explanation for this mismatch is that Eden’s network of protected areas was not established to conserve a representative sample of its biodiversity. Rather, the nature reserves etc. were mostly created in scenic places where the economic potential of the landscapes was low and where land was cheap (Driver et al., 2003). Table 28: Evaluation matrix of ecosystem status by protection status for the 55 land classes occurring in Eden.

Least

threatened Vulnerable Endangered

Critically

endangered N/A

Well protected 12 0 0 0 0

Moderately protected

5 1 0 0 0

Hardly protected

5 0 3 3 0

Poorly protected

13 4 3 0 0

Not protected 0 0 4 0 0

N/A 0 0 0 0 2


Figure 17: Protection level of land classes in Eastern Cape

8.4 Threatened Species per taxonomic group

In 2004, the province was found to contain 4 endemic freshwater fish species, 8 threatened marine fish species, 6 threatened frog species (4 of these are endemic), and 19 threatened reptile species (18 of these are endemic), (SOER 2004).


8.4.1 Threatened Mammals

Table 29: Threatened Species Status of Mammals occurring within the Eastern Cape.

Name Scientific Name 2004 SOER (Smithers, 1986)

Current IUCN Redlist

(www.iucnredlist.org) Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Vulnerable Critically endangered Oribi Ourebia ourebi Vulnerable Endangered Wild dog Lycaon pictus Endangered Endangered Black-footed cat Felis nigripes Rare Vulnerable Cape Mountain zebra Equus zebra Vulnerable Vulnerable Leopard Panthera pardus Rare Near threatened Brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea Rare Near threatened Blue duiker Philantomba monticola Rare Least concern Honey badger Mellivora capensis Vulnerable Least concern Aardvark Orycteropus afer Vulnerable Least concern Pangolin Manis temminckii Vulnerable Least concern Aardwolf Proteles cristatus Rare Least concern Serval Felis serval Rare Not listed African wild cat Felis lybica Vulnerable Not listed Small-spotted cat Felis nigripes nigripes Rare Not listed The 2004 SOER listed fifteen mammal species as Threatened. Only one species was categorized as Endangered (Wild Dog), (See Table 29). A search on the IUCN Red List reveled that only twelve species are listed as Threatened. Of concern is that the Black rhinoceros has jumped two categories and is now listed as Critically Endangered. Other noticeable changes are the Oribi, which has moved into the Endangered category and the Black footed cat which is now classified as Vulnerable from Rare. In summary, there are now three mammal species that fall into the Endangered and Critically Endangered categories whereas previously there was only one species that fall into this category.

8.4.2 Threatened Bird Species

Sixty-three bird species were listed as threatened as falling within the Eastern Cape. The 2004 SOER lists 62 species and omits the Grey Crowned Crane. This represents approximately 10% of all birds occurring within the Eastern Cape. Of these 63 threatened species, 2 are Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered and 14 Vulnerable, (Barnes, 2000). A search on the global red list (IUCN Red List) revealed that of the above species, none are Critically Endangered or Endangered, only 12 are Vulnerable, 15 are Near Threatened and 33 are Near Threatened. Locally, the SANBI Database lists the Knysna Warbler and the Cape Parrot as Critically Endangered, (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org). Furthermore the Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, Bearded Vulture and the Cape Vulture are listed as Endangered (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org).


The Egyptian Vulture is listed in SANBI as occurring in the Eastern Cape, but is regarded as a vagrant with less than 50 sitings since 1945 (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org). Noticeable changes are the Blue Crane and Cape Vulture which are now Endangered from Vulnerable, the Cape Parrot which is now Critically Endangered from Endangered and the Knysna Warbler which has moved up two categories from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered. Table 30: Threatened Bird Species Occurring in the Eastern Cape as categorised by Barnes, 2000 and the IUCN Red List.

Common Name Scientific Name 2004 Status (Barnes, 2000)

Current Status IUCN Redlist (www.iucnredlist.org)

SANBI Species Status

Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus Endangered Least Concern Endangered Bittern Botaurus stellaris Critical Least Concern Black Harrier Circus maurus Near-threatened Vulnerable Black Oystercatcher Haematopus moquini Near-threatened Near threatened Black Stork Ciconia nigra Near-threatened Least Concern Blackbellied Korhaan Eupodotis melanogaster Near-threatened Least Concern Blackbrowed Albatross Diomedea melanophris Near-threatened Least Concern Blackwinged Plover Vanellus melanopterus Near-threatened Least Concern Blue Crane Anthropoides paradisea Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Blue Korhaan Eupodotis caerulescens Near-threatened Near-threatened Broadtailed Warbler Schoenicola brevirostris Near-threatened Least Concern Bush Blackcap Lioptilus nigricapillus Near-threatened Near threatened Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis Near-threatened Near threatened Cape Gannet Morus capensis Vulnerable Vulnerable Cape Parrot Poicephalus robustus Endangered Least Concern Critically Endangered Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia Near-threatened Least Concern Chestnutbanded Plover Charadrius pallidus Near-threatened Near threatened Corncrake Crex crex Vulnerable Near threatened Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum Vulnerable Endangered Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus

coronatus Near-threatened Least Concern

Damara Tern Sterna balaenarum Endangered Near threatened Delegorgue's Pigeon Columba delegorguei Vulnerable Least Concern Finfoot Podica senegalensis Vulnerable Least Concern Grass Owl Tyto capensis Vulnerable Least Concern Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus Near-threatened Least Concern Grey Petrel Procellaria cinerea Near-threatened Near threatened Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri Vulnerable Least concern Halfcollared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata Near-threatened Least African Penguin Spheniscus demersus Vulnerable Vulnerable Knysna Warbler Bradypterus sylvaticus Vulnerable Vulnerable Critically Endangered Knysna Woodpecker Campethera notata Near-threatened Near Threatened Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori Vulnerable Least Concern Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Near-threatened Least Concern Lesser Flamingo Phoenicopterus minor Near-threatened Near threatened


Common Name Scientific Name 2004 Status (Barnes, 2000)

Current Status IUCN Redlist (www.iucnredlist.org)

SANBI Species Status

Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni Vulnerable Vulnerable Ludwig's Bustard Neotis ludwigii Vulnerable Least Concern Mangrove Kingfisher Halcyon senegaloides Vulnerable Least Concern Marabou Leptoptilos crumeniferus Near-threatened Least Concern Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus Vulnerable Least Concern Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus Vulnerable Near threatened Melodious Lark Mirafra cheniana Near-threatened Near threatened Orange Thrush Turdus gurneyi Near-threatened Not Listed Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis Near-threatened Least Concern Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus Near-threatened Near threatened Peregrine Falco peregrinus Near-threatened Least Concern RoseateTern Sterna dougallii Endangered Least Concern Rudd's Lark Mirafra ruddi Critical Not Listed Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius Near-threatened Least Concern Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta Vulnerable Near threatened Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus Near-threatened Least Concern Stanley's Bustard Neotis denhami Vulnerable Near threatened Striped Flufftail Sarothrura affinis Vulnerable Least Concern Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Vulnerable Least Concern Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans Vulnerable Vulnerable Wattled Crane Burgeranus carunculatus Endangered Vulnerable White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus Near-threatened Least Concern Whitebacked Night Heron

Gorsachias leuconotus Vulnerable Least Concern

Whitebellied Korhaan Eupodotis cafra Vulnerable Not Listed Whitechinned Petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis Near-threatened Vulnerable Whitecrowned plover Vanellus albiceps Near-threatened Least Concern Yellowbilled Stork Mycteria ibis Near-threatened Least Concern Yellowbreasted Pipit Anthus chloris Vulnerable Vulnerable


2 5

2431

Critically EndangeredEndangeredVulnerableNear Threatened

Figure 18: Threatened Bird Species Status indicating number of bird species within each category, (Barnes, 2000.)

0

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Critically EndangeredEndangeredVulnerableNear ThreatenedLeast Concern

Figure 19: Threatened Bird Species Status indicating number of bird species within each category according to IUCN Red List, (www.iucnredlist.org)

8.4.3 Threatened Plant Species

The 2004 SOER provides a thorough overview of the 316 threatened plant species as occurring within the Eastern Cape. The overall threatened status of these plants has been revised by SANBI.


Table 31: Status of Threatened Plants Occuring within the Eastern Cape.

Noticeable changes are the increase in the number of species falling within the Critically Endangered (0 –10), Endangered (16 – 33) and Vulnerable (54 –67) Categories. There were no more recorded extinctions in terms of the comparison presented in Table 31.

8.4.4 Other Threatened Species The Eastern Cape Rocky (Sandelia bainsii) is also listed as Critically Endangered (Cambray pers. comm..)

8.4.5 Endangered Species Seven Endangered Species falling within the Eastern Cape are listed on the SANBI Database (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org) as follows:

Bat Species Swinny's Horseshoe Bat

Rhinolophus swinnyi

Camp, 2000

Mammal Species Oribi Ourebia ourebi http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.orgBlack Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis

bicornis http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org

Cape Mountain Zebra Equus zebra zebra

http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org

Category No. of Species (2004 SOER)

No. of Species Revised SANBI Category

Extinct 1 1 Critically Endangered 0 10 Endangered 16 33 Vulnerable 54 67 Intermediate/ Near threatened

44 33

Insufficiently Known/ Data Deficient

70 32

Rare 132 66 Total 316 315


Endangered species include the Knysna Seahorse (Hippocampus carpensis), found in the Knysna Lagoon and the Cape Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra zebra), which occurs in the Kammanassie Mountains.

(a) Avifauna Over 600 bird species are found within the Eastern Cape (Roberts Bird CD, 2002). The Blackrumped Buttonquail has been recorded in the study area and is listed as an Endangered species. Threats to this species are due to habitat loss where mountain Fynbos and grassland are the preferred habitats (Barnes, 2000). This includes a combined total of eleven Red Data species (Barnes, 2000). Of these Red Data species, seven are ‘vulnerable’ and four ‘near-threatened’. In addition, for the purposes of this study, the White Stork was considered as threatened as it is protected internationally under the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species. The Red Data species of most concern to this study include the Cape Vulture, Grey Crowned Crane, Denham’s Bustard, Secretarybird, Southern Ground Hornbill, and White Stork.

(b) Freshwater fish An overview of the Freshwater Fish of Southern Africa (Skelton, 2001) revealed red data fish species that may be found within the freshwater streams and rivers of the Eastern Cape (Table 32). Alien invasive fish species such as Tilapia, Trout and Bass species are a significant threat to local indigenous species and are prevalent in most freshwater streams and rivers. Table 32: Freshwater fish species of conservation concern found within Eastern Cape (adapted from Skelton, 2001).

Common name Species Red Data Status

Eastern Cape Redfin Pseudobarbus afer Near Threatened

Eastern Cape Rocky Sandelia bainsii Endangered

8.5 Impacts

The driving forces listed earlier in this chapter that are placing pressure on the biodiversity resources of the Eastern Cape often act in combination (change in land use frequently goes together with changed fire regimes in fynbos) and so the resulting impacts are impossible to apportion neatly.


This is, of course, a reflection of the multitudes of inter-dependencies of patterns and processes in the natural world. A selection of the most important impacts of the loss of biodiversity must suffice here. Habitat fragmentation and habitat loss is an important cause of the decline in biodiversity resources. The more specific the food and habitat needs of a species are, the greater its vulnerability to agricultural activity, roads, cities and associated sources of pollution. At the bitter end, the only surviving species will be human commensals (rats, cockroaches etc.) whose habitat requirements correspond to the degraded state associated with human activity. For all species that became extinct in the process the potential to provide benefits in the future - the option value of biodiversity – is lost forever. Sprawled development is a leading cause of habitat loss and thus biodiversity loss. Sprawl also exacerbates air and water pollution, both of which degrade environments and further reduce biodiversity. New construction often increases erosion of land cleared for development. This in turn increases stream siltation. As the land area for natural ecosystems shrinks, there is less natural capacity to filter pollutants and detoxify waters and less capacity to cycle nutrients and compost organic wastes. Thus, as sprawl increases, species and ecosystem services decrease. Ecosystem degradation and subsequent loss of ecosystem services tends to harm poor rural people more than affluent city dwellers. Poor people have limited assets and are more dependent on common property resources (e.g. fire wood), while the wealthy are buffered against loss of ecosystem services by being able to purchase basic necessities and scarce commodities. Grasslands and Fynbos, important vegetation types in the Eastern Cape, require fires to stimulate seed germination, but the fire frequency is important. Plants that are killed by fire and that depend on re-seeding to survive as species have not enough time to mature and to set seeds if fires occur too often. Conversely, if natural fynbos is prevented from burning because the fire would bring an unacceptably high risk to houses nearby, the fire-dependent plant components it contains will eventually die from senescence. Weakened immune systems and failure to reproduce are common effects of toxic pollution in a wide array of species. Under the attack from pollution an ecosystem's ability to function breaks down. This is how wetlands become cesspits. Pollution from silt and excess nutrients chokes the life out of aquatic ecosystems, while in-stream dams prevent anadromous fish species from reproducing upstream before returning to the sea. Global warming represents a profound and emerging threat to biodiversity around the world. As temperatures rise, habitats for many plants and animals will change, depriving them of the homes and niches to which they have adapted. For example, in Antarctica, Adelie Penguins, which feed by diving through cracks in sea-ice, are decreasing while sea-ice intolerant, open water loving species such as Chinstrap Penguins and Gentoo Penguins are on the increase. These changes are the forerunners of future dramatic alterations in the location and species composition of ecosystems, with as yet unquantified consequences.


(Birdlife International, 2007). Small-scale range shifts with profound consequences may also occur. The altitudinal limits of vegetation are broadly determined by the prevailing climate, particularly in relation to thermal characteristics, and altitudinal shifts in these will affect the distribution of animals dependent on these habitats.

8.6 Responses

8.6.1 Mainstreaming biodiversity in land use planning and decision-making

Increasing numbers of people placing greater demands on the natural environment are compromising ecological integrity at an unprecedented rate. Mainstreaming biodiversity considerations into socio-economic agendas holds most promise to turn the situation around. It is necessary to: • Integrate the protection and management of biodiversity resources with all

human development by means of regional and national conservation initiatives;

• Build capacity in the areas of conservation assessment, taxonomy, green technology and knowledge transfer;

• Increase capacity in environmental law enforcement, management and education;

• Strengthen existing biodiversity conservation programmes to identify ecosystems, species and genetic resources that are at imminent risk of extinction; and

• Implement strong countermeasures to slow down the speed with which the loss of biodiversity occurs.

8.6.2 Improving interactions with biodiversity conservation programmes

The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, no. 10 of 2004, provides for the management and conservation of South Africa’s biodiversity within the framework of the National Environmental Management Act, no. 107 of 1998. Since the promulgation of the Act and the establishment of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) existing biodiversity conservation programmes (e.g CAPE, SKEP) have been strengthened considerably and a host of new initiatives aimed at the protection of species and ecosystems have emerged in their wake. The Cape Action for People and Environment (CAPE) Programme is driven by 23 partner organisations of SANBI and is aimed at addressing conservation and development priorities in the Cape Floristic Region, into which Eden falls. CAPE is supported by several project management units, located in key biodiversity corridors across the regions, such as the Garden Route Initiative (hosted by SANParks) and the Gouritz Initiative (hosted by CapeNature). The Gouritz Initiative is preparing a systematic conservation plan for the Gouritz domain (Little Karoo, includes Kannaland, Oudtshorrn, Eden DMA).


The Succulent Karoo Ecosystem Programme (SKEP) is an overarching framework for conservation action and sustainable development of the Succulent Karoo Hotspot. The Succulent Karoo is a global biodiversity treasure with over 6,000 plant species, 250 species of birds, 78 species of mammals, 132 species of reptiles and amphibians and an unknown number of insects. It is the world’s most diverse arid environment and parts of Kannaland LM, Oudtshoorn LM, Hessequa LM and Eden DMA fall into it. Other programmes and initiatives that should be mentioned in this context are the Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Plan (STEP, a bioregional conservation assessment of the thicket biome), the Cape Fine Scale Biodiversity Plan (hosted by CapeNature), and the Marine Conservation Assessment for the Agulhas Bioregion (a joint project of CapeNature, SANParks and WWF-SA). These programmes and initiatives are generating new data on species distributions and insight into functional relationships between species and landclasses that can inform the appraisal of Eden’s biodiversity resources. The appraisal should include a review of the network of protected areas in Eden how well they are serving biodiversity conservation. Flowing from this will be recommendations which land parcels must come under protection to achieve conservation planning biodiversity targets. The conservation plans should be incorporated into the Eden Spatial Development Framework Plan and into the Integrated Development Plan as part of the Environmental Management Programme (Sector Plan), as an integrated layer.

8.6.3 Strengthening institutional capacity and cooperation Environmental institutional capacity must be strengthened. Eden currently has only one Environmental Manager who is located within the Planning Department. Without an Environmental Services Department Eden will not be able to keep up with its obligations. As a minimum, the Environmental Services Department should have staff dedicated to management and biodiversity conservation, coastal management, waste management and regulatory services. Inter-departmental cooperation in environmental matters must be improved. For instance, the Department of Land Affairs (Eden District) is undertaking area based planning to ensure effective implementation of the land reform process. This process needs to be aligned with existing conservation plans.

8.6.4 Linking biodiversity protection and economic upliftment Biodiversity protection provides an opportunity for less formal, nature-based community initiatives to act as economic engines and job creators. A few examples are introduced below. Some of these initiatives are good examples of collaborative programmes that involve a range of national agencies and include municipalities at a local level. • Expanded public works programme, eco-tourism, bee farming, wild-flower

harvesting linked to IDP projects • LandCare Programme


• Working for Water • Working for Wetlands • Working for the Coast


Of the many inter-dependencies with key themes discussed in this report, the following linkages stand out: • There is an obvious link to land degradation as it is a driver of biodiversity

loss • Climate change and global warming: The predicted increase in ambient

temperatures as well as increased variability in rainfall pattern influences biodiversity patterns and processes

• Urbanisation: Increasing pressure on local authorities to approve applications for proposed developments in urban areas is resulting in greater pressure on undeveloped land in the district

8.8 Identified Gaps

In the absence of comprehensive data sets of the occurrence and status of species of conservation concern in the Eden, the NSBA approach of using land classes as “stand-ins” for biodiversity was adopted. It would have been informative to track the population dynamics of ecosystem keystone species obtained from actual field data.


9 THEME: ENERGY AND WASTE

9.1 Introduction

With an increase in population growth and consumerism, energy consumption and waste generation is on the increase. The Eastern Cape is recognised as a place with a great potential for renewable energy sources and many applications/projects are in progress. Both energy consumption and waste generation have significant environmental impacts and therefore warrant their own reporting theme. Energy consumption is a major impact that needs to be considered but was not reported in the 2004 First Edition State of the Environment Report. Close links Between Energy and Waste and air quality and climate change exist. There is no energy strategy or policy which monitors the state of energy on a provincial scale. Similarly the department of Economic Development has recently commicsioned an integrated waste management plan and hazardous waste management plan for the province. These plans focus primarily on solid and hazardous waste. Other forms of waste such as sewage and effluent are not reported on. This report provides a useful avenue to monitor the state of energy and the state of waste on a provincial scale and this chapter explores the trends in energy consumption within the Eastern Cape, as well as waste generation, with a particular focus on solid waste generation.

9.1.1 Energy Energy is a necessity to all humans and drives all human activities. As population numbers and the standards of living increases, an increase in energy consumption and waste generation is expected. This was evidenced by the ESKOM energy generation demand shortfall experienced in 2008, where impediments on economic development, poverty alleviation, job creation, transport and the conveniences of daily living were experienced (EMISA). Energy consumption is regarded not only as the consumption of electricity but also the consumption of petroleum products and wood for fuel. Services requiring energy are mainly cooking, heating and lighting but also transport, communication and entertainment. Fossil fuels have dominated energy provision over the past two centuries and energy types are often associated with affluence. For example, as a developing country increases development, population numbers and the standard of living, the amounts of energy utilised (mostly fossil fuels) will increase due to other forms of energy being unavailable, expensive or incompatible with the countries capacity (EMISA).


Energy consumption will almost always be associated with a by-product that will be released into the environment. The amount of by-product produced increases with increased energy use, resulting in the earth being unable to cope with the increased volumes through natural cleaning processes. The increased consumption of fossil fuels, due to human development, has seen the employment of artificial cleaning systems but the environment is still overburdened. Three main forms of energy are recognised. Namely: Fossil fuels; nuclear energy and renewable energy. Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and Nuclear energy are termed “banked” energy resources. Banked energy sources are those that are locked away, therefore can be accessed when ever required. However theses energy sources are non-renewable and may be exhausted. Renewable energy (Solar radiation, biofuels, wind and hydro) are energy sources that are produced natural and continuously. These energy sources are lost if not utilised (EMISA). South Africa relies on more than 90% of its energy from non-renewable resources (Eden SOER, 2008). According to the Department of Minerals and Energy Statistics Digest (2006), 89 % of South Africa’s energy is generated through the use of fossil fuels, and is expected to rise as the demand for electricity increases. Up to 79.7% of electricity is produced though the burning of coal in coal powered power stations (Western Cape SOER, 2005). This form of energy is a great contributor to green houses gasses, reduced air quality and land degradation through coal extraction. Nuclear energy is responsible for approximately 2.8% of the primary energy supply in South Africa. The environmental impacts associated with electricity production are not directly experienced within the boarders of the Eastern Cape. The Eastern Cape however is a consumer of Eskom electricity and large amounts of gas, paraffin and wood and are therefore are a contributor to the impacts associated with energy consumption on a national or even international scale. DEAT 2004 identified that the energy sector in South Africa is responsible for 78.3% of greenhouse gas emissions. The Eastern Cape, due its large rural component, has a high reliability on biofuels for services requiring energy. Biofuels (e.g. fire wood) are unsustainable in the present form and sustainable methods of utilisation and regeneration must be addressed.

9.1.2 Energy Supply Approximately 89% of primary energy in South Africa is derived from fossil fuels and this figure is expected to rise due to the construction of further coal powered electricity generating power stations (EMISA). From the Figures below, it is evident that energy supply in South Africa is dominated by coal power. This is reasoned by the fact the coal is plentiful and inexpensive by international standards as well as it being the only significant and economically viable energy resource in South Africa. However, coal is a finite resources and the burning of coal and other fossil fuels has been recognised as a major factor influencing climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. Coal generated electricity has increased from ???% in 2003 to ??% in


2006 (refernce from pie chart) South Africa has double the world’s average per-capita carbon emissions footprint: the global average is 4 tons CO2 per year, while South Africa averages 8 tons of CO2 per year. In so doing, South Africa is the 11th highest global per capita contributor to global carbon emissions, and therefore it can expect to come under major pressure to reduce its utilisation of fossil fuels over the next few decades (Sustainable Energy Africa, 2007). Nuclear power is progressively becoming more prevalent, as a nuclear energy supply increase was observed between the year 2000 and 2006. Eskom is currently boosting the nuclear energy supply by the construction of further nuclear plants, both conventional as well as a Pebble Bed modular reactor, which is currently under development (EMISA). Biomass is regarded as a renewable energy and is an important energy source within the Eastern Cape. Biofuels within in the Eastern Cape are dominated mostly by fuel wood and is the form of energy that is utilised most in rural areas.

2003

CoalOilGasNuclearHydroRenewable

Figure 20: Pie chart depicting the various energy supply sources in South Africa (Digest of South African Energy Statistics)

2004

CoalOilNucleargas

Figure 21: Pie chart depicting the various energy supply sources in South Africa (Environmental Management in South Africa)


2004

Coal

OilGasNuclearHydroRenewables

Figure 22: Pie chart depicting the various energy supply sources in South Africa (Digest of South African Energy Statistics, 2003)

2006

CoalOilHydroNuclear

Figure 23: Pie chart depicting the various energy supply sources in South Africa (Environmental Management in South Africa)

Electricity is generated in the Eastern Cape at at the following hydro-electric plants, Collywobbles, Umtata River, Ncora scheme. (data from state of energy report). Very little energy is generated within the Eastern Cape and may be down to the province being a waster scarce province. However there is a strong move towards the establishment of renewable energy plants, like wind power farms (list ones identified in newspaper) and other renewable forms. Electricity generation accounts for 53% of South Africa’s total coal usage or approximately 118 tons per annum.

9.1.3 Waste Waste is often associated as pollution, however this is not always the case. Waste as define by EMISA is the unwanted materials or substances produced by human activities that have the potential to cause pollution when released into the environment. Waste results form all activities of human kind and in the broader sense, includes solid waste, hazardous waste, mining waste, sewage, sludges, wastewater, effluent, ash, etc. The environment becomes the ultimate receptacle for such waste and when not managed and treated effectively, results in pollution of air, soil, water and associated adverse environmental impacts. Increasing


waste generation is further cause for concern as landfill space is a limited resource. Illegal dumping is prevalent causing pollution to surface and ground water systems.


The primary driving force behind increased energy consumption as well as increased waste generation is the consumption pattern synonymous with social causes (current population growth, unsustainable consumer culture and lifestyle) and economic causes (industrialisation, affluence and economic standing) (Ethekweni, 2004). Waste generation and energy consumption is almost in direct relation to the growth of the economy (EMISA).

9.2.1 Energy consumption Drivers associated with increased energy consumption include the following: • Increased income: Eastern Cape net income per individual has increased

which ultimately results in increased energy consumption • Industrialisation: As the level of industrialisation increases the amount of

energy and resources utilised increases. This results in increased energy consumption and waste production

• Urbanisation and migration of people: The net migration of people into the Eastern Cape and its cities results in an increased need for housing and urban expansion which results in greater energy consumption through greater houses that require electrification, increased travel distances etc

• Poorly developed public transport systems result in increased vehicular traffic, particularly use of cars that are energy inefficient. Research shows that there is a strong correlation between income and mode of transport, with a move from non-motorised to public and finally private vehicle transport as income increases (SEA, 2006). On a national scale it is estimated that transport is responsible for 56% of energy consumption with industrial and manufacturing use accounting for 14% of energy consumption within South Africa (SEA, 2006)

• Changing economic markets: A shift in the economy from primary sector economic activities (industry) to tertiary sector activities (service orientated) is influencing energy consumption patterns. This shift usually results in less energy consumption

• Government’s Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) strive to supply all people with basic service including a house and electricity

• Affordability of electricity: One quarter of South African city dwellers are considered to be living in “energy poverty” as they cannot afford electricity. Despite electrification, households continue to make use of fossil fuels as energy sources, which pose safety risks from fires, burns and poisonings (SEA, 2006). In addition, the electrification of rural households to the electricity grid is expensive and therefore is less affordable to impoverished rural communities (Western Cape SOER, 2005). In June 2009, the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) approved the 2009/2010 price increase for electricity in South Africa. The NERSA decision was for a 31.3%


price increase to standard tariffs, including the environmental levy. This results in an increase in the average standard tariff from 25.24c/kWh to 33.14c/kWh. With the anticipated Eskom electricity prices hikes scheduled, it is anticipated energy consumption will reduce and alternative forms of energy will be encouraged

• International pressure on climate change: Numerous policies and initiatives exist to control the environmental impacts of energy and waste production. These should result positively on the impacts associated with energy and waste and result in a reduction of both

9.2.2 Waste Generation

Drivers associated with increased waste generation are similar to those listed above. More specific drivers related to waste production include: • Increased commercial and industrial development translates to more waste

being produced by the residential, industrial and commercial sectors • Increased housing in urban areas requires increased collection and

associated quantities of solid waste as well as increased sewage in waterborne systems where present.

• Increased packaging for products typically results in more packaging waste • Lack of awareness towards waste minimisation as well as real recycling

incentives to waste generators (markets etc.)

9.3 State


The following indicators can be employed to monitor energy consumption and waste production within the Eastern Cape:

• Energy - Energy use within households - Number of renewable energy systems feeding the grid

• Solid Waste - Waste generation per capita - Number of permitted sites - Available landfill lifespan - Household access to refuse collection

• Sewage - Access to formal sanitation (water-borne sewage systems) - Number of compliant permitted sewage plants - Number of outfalls not receiving treatment

9.3.2 Energy Very little data regarding energy usage on a provincial level is reported on regularly and is easily obtainable. StatsSA record energy usage on a household level in terms of sources used for lighting, heating and cooking. Actual electricity consumption for the province was not available at the time of this report. A useful


future indicator is that of the number of renewable sources feeding the power grid. Number of IPP’s in the province.

(a) Energy use within households On average 80% of South Africans utilise electricity for lighting, heating and cooking. The Eastern Cape however, has a lower average of approximately 66% of households using electricity for lighting (65.9%), heating (32.6%) and cooking (45.3%) (Community Survey, 2007). This compared to the estimated 83.5% of the Western Cape households having access to electricity. Between 2001 and 2007 there was a national increase in the percentage of households that utilised electricity for lighting (69.7% - 80.0%), cooking (51.4% - 66.5%) and heating (49.0% - 58.8%). Figures 5 – 7 illustrate the primary energy sources used by households within the Eastern Cape for cooking, lighting and heating. In all three instances it can be seen that the majority of households are reliant on electricity as a primary source of energy (STATS SA, 2001, 2004, 2007). The increase in the use of electricity for lighting, cooking and heating, may have resulted from initiatives and policies such as Network Strengthening Projects undertaken by Eskom and Free Basic Electricity Policies launched by the Department of Minerals and Energy in 2003. Eastern Cape had the highest percentage (61,5%) of municipalities whose proportion of households using electricity for lighting exceeded the provincial average. Some of these municipalities in the Eastern Cape were Amahlathi (67,4%), Camdeboo (98,1%), Inxuba Yethemba (94,1%), and Senqu (78,7%). Nelson Mandela Metopolitan displayed the highest percentage of households that use electricity for lighting, heating and cooking, while the lowest was displayed by Alfred Nzo and O.R. Tambo, where less than 10% of the households utilised electricity for cooking and heating. Report on biomass and other noticables e.g. paraffin – fires, health, air quality


0

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Census 2001

Provincial Profile 2004

Community Survey 2007

LightingElectricityGasParaffinCandlesSolarOther

Figure 24: Energy source for lighting within the Eastern Cape

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Figure 25: Energy source for cooking within the Eastern Cape

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HeatingElectricityGasParaffinSolar

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Figure 26: Energy source for heating within the Eastern Cape

(b) Number of renewable energy systems feeding the grid

In South Africa energy expenditure constitutes around 15% of the GDP. Energy efficiency is therefore a factor that must be considered. South Africa is one of the world’s best potential countries for solar, biomass, microhydro and wind resources, however less than 1% of the total electricity generated in South Africa is based on renewable energy resources (Guidelines for the Development of Renewable Energy Projects in South Africa). The implementation of renewable energy systems (solar, hydro or wind) in industry as well as residents may well have the potential to defer the need for building new powerplants. For example, the energy required for water heating in industry consumes energy produced by three average power stations (National Energy Strategy, 2008). The main issue regarding the installation of renewable energy sources is cost. Some initiatives have however been initiated for the subsidised installation of solar water heaters and the likes. As indicated in the Digest of South African Energy Statistics (2006), a recent study suggested that the county has a high potential for renewable energy with up to 43 TWh of electricity that could be displaced by solar water heating and 66 TWh of electricity that could be displaced by wind energy. South Africa has 661 MW of domestic installed hydropower and some hydropower is also imported form neighbouring states. Biomass is a form of energy utilised mainly in the rural areas for cooking and heating. Annual estimates of renewable energy consumption is provided below (Digest of South African Energy Statistics, 2006):


Table 33: Annual Renewable Energy Consumption

Energy Consumption Sources Energy Consumption Estimated fuel consumption (households) 52 889 GWh Commercially exploitable Bagasse, wood and Sawmill waste and pulp

65 010 GWh

Wind Energy 32 GWh Solar Energy 532 GWh

This equates to roughly 118 463 GWh annual consumption. There are however other sources of energy that are distributed either directly or indirectly all over the county. For example; Landfill Gas with a potential of 7.2TWh and estimated to grow to 10.8 TWH by 2040 and Wave Energy that is estimated potential annual yield of 70TWh per year. In 2004, indigenous production resulted in a total primary Renewable and Waste energy supply of 428 396 TJ. However, the consumption of 237 996 TJ by the autoproducer CHP plant resulted in a total final consumption of 190 400 TJ. Apart form the use of renewable energy sources, the efficient use of energy may its self save energy. For example thermally efficient houses, which are designed to save energy can reduce household space heating requirements. The Department of Housing, together with the Department of Mineral Affairs and Energy have created some guidelines and the SANS 204 standards for the construction of thermally designed housing, incorporating passive solar heating. The measure mentioned above, amongst others, will clearly reduce the need for power and can be considered energy efficiency interventions that reduce demand. Within the transport sector, potential for energy efficiency measures are been explored. For example, the generation of renewable power through the use of regenerative braking systems in locomotives. This form may also provide a means of generating power for the National Grid (National Energy Strategy, 2008). Government has undertaken a massive investment programme for Spoornet to improve its efficiencies and thus win back customers lost to road transport.

To establish new renewable energy generating projects, so to meet South Africa’s 2013 Renewable Energy target, as set out by the White Paper on Renewable Energy (2003), a Renewable Energy Framework has been established. This framework has a short term focus and applies to projects that use renewable energy sources for power generation within the borders of South Africa. The Renewable Energy target of 10 000 GWh is to be met by 60% electric and 40% non-electric sources. A 6000GWh electric target will be divided between Eskom and Independent Power Producers. Eskom are encouraged to provide at least 40% of the 6000GWh and Independent Power Producers are encouraged to provide 60% and should receive a production tariff, so to ensure commercial feasibility. According to the White Paper on Renewable Energy, the target could be met from sources such as solar water heating and biofuels. Biofuels are expected to contribute at least 35% towards the non-electric target, aided by the


Biofuels Industry Strategy and roll-out of SWH systems. Technologies considered under this framework are: • Solar Photovoltaic (PV) – currently used in programmes to promote Solar

Home Systems for remote rural areas • Small wind turbine applications • Ocean energy (still within the validation stage) • Other solar thermal electric options Achieving the targets set out in the White Paper on Renewable Energy (2003) will: • Add about 1.667MW new renewable energy capacity, with a net impact on

GDP as high as R1.071-billion a year • Create additional government revenue of R299-million • Stimulate additional income that will flow to low-income households by as

much as R128-million, creating just over 20 000 new jobs • Contribute to water savings of 16.5-million kilolitres, which translates into a

R26.6-million saving The White Paper on Renewable Energy (2003) also highlighted the technologies to be implemented first, based on the level of commercialisation of the technology and natural resource availability. These technologies include: • Sugar-cane bagasse (the fibre that comes from crushing the sugar cane) for

cogeneration • Landfill gas extraction • Mini-hydroelectric schemes • Commercial and domestic solar water heaters Through a vision undertaken by the Department of Minerals and Energy adequate and affordable energy will be made available to developing communities through providing a mix of alternative energy resources at a reasonable cost. The cornerstone of the plan is to satisfy the basic needs of the developing sector and at the same time promoting the effective utilisation of South Africa’s vast alternative energy sources. To monitor and evaluate the progress towards the White Paper’s targets, a monitoring and Evaluation project has been set up. Data on renewable energy contribution from relevant stakeholders is collected annually so to assess or evaluate progress towards this goal. Data relating specifically to the Eastern Cape is largely unavailable.

9.3.3 Solid waste Environmental impacts associated with solid waste are related to the quantities of waste generated, access to services (as this is an indication of possible illegal dumping) as well as the status of disposal sites. Non-permitted disposal sites have many negative environmental impacts, such as surface and ground water contamination, pollution, health risks, etc.


Data for reporting on the state of solid waste has been limited to waste generation per capita, number of permitted landfill sites and household access to refuse collection.

(a) Waste generation

A recent report entitled General and Hazardous Waste Management Plans; Interim report (GIBB, 2009), has assessed the status quo of the different District Municipalities within the Eastern Cape. By extrapolation from this report the quantities of waste generated are as follows: Table 34: Estimated waste generation within the Eastern Cape

Municipality Total waste generation in

tons/day

Total waste generation in

tons/year

Amathole Distinct Municipality 1 165 425 344

Cacadu District Municipality 480 175 147

Chris Hani District Municipality 623 227 300

Ukhahlamba District Municipality 102 37 046

O R Tambo District Municipality 188 68 500

Alfred Nzo District Municipality 55 20 000

Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality 890 325 000

Total 3503 1 278 337

This generation rate (3503 tons/day) applied to the total population within the Eastern Cape (6 436 763) equates to a total of 0.54 kg of waste per person per day. Comparing this waste generation rate to rates suggested by the South African Environmental Outlook; A report on the state of the environment, waste generation is fairly low and is indicative of a low income level. This is due to a large percentage of the population within the Eastern Cape living in unserviced rural areas and/or the difficulty of acquiring reliable statistics. Table 35: Recognised waste generation figures (South African Environmental Outlook, 2006)

(b) Income Level (c) Waste generation (kg/person/day)

Low 0.41

Middle 0.74

High 1.29


It is difficult to compare waste generation rate with time, due to waste generation rate mostly based on population numbers and not actual disposal rates. Therefore based on the total population growth between 1996 (6 147 244) and 2007 (6 527 747) there is a 5.8% change. It can therefore be assumed that an increase of approximately 0.5% of waste can be expected per annum (population figures acquired form Census 1996 and Community Survey 2007). The only reliable waste statistics are those of Nelson Mandela Metropolitan, which were acquired form the South African Waste Information Centre. Based on these statistics the over amount of waste generated between the year of 2005 and 2008 is 5.4%, roughly 1.8% per annum.

(d) Number of Permitted Sites Please refer to Appendix ?? for a table identifying the number, size, permit status and predicted life span of all landfill sites in the Eastern Cape on a Municipal level. Of the 113 waste sites identified, only 43, and therefore 38% of them are licensed. A recent drive for fewer regional landfill sites has been encouraged. These regional landfill sites eliminate the need for numerous smaller sites throughout the province. Recent landfill developments include; the East London regional solid waste disposal site at Berlin and the Ibeka regional solid waste disposal site near Butterworth.

(e) Household access to refuse collection

According to StatisticsSA Census 2001 and Community Survey 2007, only 39.3% and 40% of the households respectively within the Eastern Cape received waste removal services. This is low as compared to the national average of 57% and 61.6% for 2001 and 2007 respectively. As compared to the other provinces, the Eastern Cape and Limpopo provinces had the highest proportion of households without refuse facilities

9.3.4 Sewage (check state of sanitation study for Buffalo City for some data)

(a) Access to formal sanitation

Sewage is one of the main constituents of liquid waste. In 2007 it was estimated that 23.5% of households within the Eastern Cape had no access to toilet system. This has decreased from 30.8% in 2000 and 26.8% in 2004, (PGDP, 2009). As indicated by the Provincial Profile 2004, 33% of all households within the Eastern Cape have access to water-borne sewage systems. Of more concern is that 31% of households within the Eastern Cape have no formal sanitation. However, the amount of houses with access to water-borne sewage increased from 33.6% in 2001 to 38.2% in 2007 and the percentage of households with no


formal sanitation decreased form 31.3% in 2001 to 23.5 in 2007 (Census 2001 and Community Survey 2007).

(b) Number of compliant sewage plants Even though it appears that in excess of 38% of households has access to a water-borne sewer system, the quality of treatment is of further environmental concern, in terms of water quality. The number of compliant sewage plants with the DWAF effluent release standard is therefore a useful indicator in this regard. At the time of writing this report the data was not available, but is on request. At the time of compiling this report, the state of the municipal sanitation was not available.

9.4 Impacts

Table 36 illustrates the typical impacts associated with the energy and waste drivers within the Eastern Cape: Table 36: Typical impacts associated with energy consumption and waste generation.

Driver Main impacts

Increased Income Increased consumption

Increased depletion of fossil fuels

Increased pollution (air quality)

Energy

Increased population Increased demand for land space

Increased pressure on municipal systems (e.g. water, sanitation, electricity etc.)

Increased waste generation

Solid waste

Increased waste generation quantities

Increased collection areas

Increased waste to landfill

Reduction in lifespan of landfills

Illegal dumping

Increased health risk and pollution

Liquid

waste

(sewage)

Increased quantities Increased pressure on treatment facilities

Increased health risk and pollution

Contamination of ground, surface and coastal water resources


9.5 Responses

9.5.1 Energy Related Policy or Programmes

(a) International responses

(i) Local Agenda 21

Local Agenda 21 is an outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. It provides a local framework for sustainable and equitable development.

(ii) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee drafted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was opened for signature in June 1992 at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. The fundamental objective of the UNFCCC is to achieve stabilisation of the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. South Africa ratified the UNFCCC in 1997, which enables South Africa to apply for financial assistance for climate change related activities from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF).

(iii) Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was introduced in 1997 at the third Conference of Parties. The conference resulted in a consensus decision to adopt the Protocol under which industrialised countries (Annex 1 countries) will reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% compared to 1990 levels by the period 2008 to 2012. The Protocol will come into force after it has been ratified by at least 55 parties to the UNFCCC, including Annex 1 parties accounting for at least 55% of the total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions in this industrialised group. South Africa acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in March 2002. Although the Kyoto Protocol does not commit the non-Annex 1 (developing) countries, like South Africa, to any quantified emission targets in the first commitment period (2008 to 2012), there is potential for low cost emission reduction options in these countries. The Clean Development Mechanism provides for trade in certified emission reductions between non- Annex 1 countries and Annex 1 countries and thus supports sustainable development with respect to greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries while helping Annex 1 countries to comply with their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

(b) National responses


(i) White Paper on Energy Policy in South Africa (1998)

The 1998 white paper on energy policy provided the first energy related policy developed in the post-apartheid South Africa. The policy introduced the concept of integrated energy planning and created the shift from the traditional approach where policy focused on the supply side to demand side management as well. The Energy white paper covers a wide scope of policy problems and challenges. For example, emissions from coal based power stations have dire environmental implications, with potential long-term effects on the environment. The objectives set by the white paper focus on the forever increasing need for access to affordable energy services, improving energy governance, stimulating economic development, managing energy related environmental and health impacts.

(ii) White Paper on the Promotion of Renewable Energy and Clean Energy Development This white paper sets out Government’s vision, policy principles, strategic goals and objectives for promoting and implementing renewable energy in South Africa. In response to global concerns in terms of South Africa’s contribution to the emission of greenhouse gases through of the use of coal for power generation purposes, the white paper presents Government’s policy for promoting renewable forms of energy and its efficient use there of. The white paper is split into two parts: • Part 1 – deals with the promotion of renewable energy. It explores various

resources for renewable energy including wind, biomass, hydro, solar, wave energy, ocean currents and energy from waste

• Part 2 - deals with the energy efficiency strategy of South Africa. It takes its mandate from the White Paper, which links energy sector development with national socio-economic development plans. It provides specific targets for reduction in energy demand by 2014 within given demand sectors, with an overall target of 12% reduction in consumption

(iii) National Energy Act 2008

The Minister of Minerals and Energy Affairs recently published in November 2008, the National Energy Act which provides the legislative backing for the objectives of the Energy White Paper. The objectives of the Act are to:

• Ensure diverse energy resources are available • Energy is available in sustainable quantities and at affordable prices • Energy is available to the South African economy in support of economic

growth and poverty alleviation • Take into account environmental management requirements and

interactions amongst economic sectors • Provide for energy planning, increased generation and consumption of

renewable energies, contingency energy supply, holding of strategic


energy feedstocks and carriers, adequate investments in, appropriate upkeep and access to energy infrastructure

• To provide measure for furnishing of specific data and information regarding energy demand, supply and generation

• To establish an institution to be responsible for the promotion of efficient generation and consumption of energy and energy research

• To provide for all matters connected therewith

(iv) Integrated Energy Plan, 2003 The Integrated Energy Plan (IEP) focuses its investigations on sustainable energy options, the development of the economy, poverty alleviation, energy efficiency, environmental protection and renewable technologies.

(v) National Energy Efficiency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa, Notice 908 of 2009 The national energy efficiency strategy for the Republic of South Africa was reviewed in 2006 after its publication in 2005. The document is focused on the development and implementation of energy efficiency practises in the country, as well as providing clear and practical guidelines for the implementation of efficient practises within our economy. Its mandate is developed from the White Paper on Energy Policy (1998) and links energy sector development with national socio-economic development plans as well as working together with other government departmental initiatives. The strategy takes into consideration low to no cost short term measures, to more higher-cost medium to long term measures.

(vi) The Energy Efficiency Strategy of South Africa (2005) The Energy Efficiency Strategy for the Republic of South Africa was released by the Department of Minerals and Energy in March 2005. The vision of the strategy is, among others, to encourage sustainable energy sector development and energy use through efficient practices.

(vii) Integrated Household Clean Energy Strategy This strategy was prepared by the Department of Minerals and Energy to minimise the harmful health impacts of utilising coal as an energy source primarily in low-income households. The strategy is more applicable in the highveld, where coal represents the cheapest form of energy for low-income households. The strategy looks at options such as: • Low smoke emission burning techniques • Low smoke emission fuels • Housing insulation options

(viii) EDI Restructuring Bill (April 2003)


The Bill followed the Restructuring Blueprint issued by the Department of Minerals & Energy in 2001. The Blueprint sets out the objectives with the restructuring of the RSA EDI. It further addresses some of the pertinent issues with respect to RED formation and transfer of resources to REDs.

(ix) NER Regulatory Policy on Energy Efficiency and Demand Side Management (EEDSM) for South African Electricity Industry (May 2004) This policy sets annual EEDSM targets and specifies the programmes that would qualify for EEDSM funding. Eskom is obliged to ensure that these targets are met, and all metros in South Africa are obliged to incorporate EEDSM in their planning and to ensure EEDSM implementation. The policy describes the regulatory mechanisms to be implemented by the NER and outlines the following: • Access to funding • Administration of funds • Assets ownership • Development of EEDSM plans • Establishment of the Energy Agency in the future • Obligation of the future REDs to implement EEDSM to all end-users

through ESCOs (Energy Services Companies) • The requirement of licensees (distributors) to create awareness (advertise

benefits) of EEDSM among customers and offer time-of-use tariffs to all industrial and commercial customers

(x) The Biofuels Industrial Strategy of South Africa (2007)

In December 2007 the government released the Biofuels Industrial Strategy of South Africa. The strategy aims for a 2% penetration of biofuels (bio-ethanol and bio-diesel) into the liquid fuels market over a five year time-frame. The following crops are proposed by the strategy for the production of biofuels in the country: • For Bioethanol: sugar cane and sugar beet • For Biodiesel: sunflower, canola and soya beans The exclusion of other crops and plants such as maize and Jatropha is based on the food security concerns.

(xi) Free Basic Electricity Policy The Free Basic Electricity Policy was launched by the Department of Minerals and Energy in 2003, with the aim to support indigent households in meeting their basic energy needs. Indigent (poor) households are allocated an allowance of up to 50 kWh of free electricity per month.

(xii) Free Basic Alternative Energy Policy The DME has established a draft policy for the supply of Free Basic Energy to households that do not have access to electricity. The policy is aimed specifically


at municipalities. The policy sets the fundamental basis on which Free Basic Alternative Energy (FBAE) needs to be embraced and applied. Guidance is provided by the policy on what a Municipality should consider before embarking on the FBAE roll out scheme. The policy recognizes funding limitations and thus encourages careful and sincere identification of beneficiaries.

(c) Provincial responses

At the time of writing this report the DEDEA advertised for the assistance towards the compilation of a provincial climate change strategy. It is highly likely that this strategy will include a policy at a provincial level with regards to energy.

9.5.2 Waste Related policy

(a) National Responses

(i) National Environmental Management: Waste Act (59 of 2008)

The National Environmental Management: Waste Act (59 of 2008) (NEMWA) was promulgated on 01 July 2009, marking a new era in waste management in South Africa. The act covers a wide spectrum of issues including requirements for a National Waste Management Strategy, IWMPs, definition of priority wastes, waste minimisation, treatment and disposal of waste, Industry Waste Management Plans, licensing of activities, and waste information management. The National Environmental Management: Waste Act’s objectives are:- a. to protect health, well-being and the environment by providing reasonable

measures to:

• minimising the consumption of natural resources • avoiding and minimising the generation of waste • reducing, re-using, recycling and recovering waste • treating and safely disposing of waste as a last resort • preventing pollution and ecological degradation • securing ecologically sustainable development while promoting justifiable

economic and social development • promoting and ensuring the effective delivery of waste services • remediating land where contamination presents, or may present a

significant risk of harm to health or the environment; and • achieving integrated waste management reporting and planning

b. to ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health well-

being and the environment; c. to provide for compliance with the measures set out in paragraph (a) and d. generally, to give effect to section24 of the Constitution in order to secure an

environment that is not harmful to health and well-being. The Minister has subsequently gazetted (on 03 July 2009) GN No. 718 (Gazette No. 32368) and 719 (Gazette No. 32369) which present a Waste Management


Activity Lists describing those waste activities, and thresholds, which require authorisation before they are undertaken. NEMWA Schedule 1 (Section 19) identifies activities which require a waste management licence. Activities include:

• Storage and transfer of wasteRecycling and recovery; • Treatment of waste • Disposal of waste on land • Storage, treatment and processing of animal waste • Expansion or decommissioning of facilities and associated structures and

infrastructure Either a Basic Assessment or Scoping and EIA process is to be carried out with regards to acquiring a licence as stipulated in the environmental impact assessment regulations made under section 24 (5) of NEMA. NEMWA Schedule 2 (Section 80) repeals numerous sections within the Environmental Conservation Act (1989). Certain sections of the act have ye to be enacted, including the following:

• Section 28 (7), which makes allowance for of a person, category of person or industry to compile and submit an industry waste management plan for approval to the MEC, without being required to do so by the MEC

• Part 8 (Section 35-41), which deals with contaminated land • Section 46, which allows the licensing authority to require an applicant

seeking a waste management licence to appoint an independent and qualified person to manage the application

(ii) Tyre Regulations (R149 of 2009)

The Waste Tyre Regulations of 2009 were promulgated (GG No. 31901 vol. 524) on 13 February 2009 came into effect on 30 June 2009. The purpose of the legislation is to regulate the management of waste tyres by providing for the regulatory mechanisms. The regulations apply uniformly in all provinces in South Africa and affect waste tyre producers, waste tyre dealers, waste tyre stockpile owners, landfill site owners and tyre recyclers.

(iii) National Waste Management Strategy (2009) The first National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) was published in 1999 by the then Department of Environmental and Tourism (DEAT) and the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). The NWMS is currently being revised. This is in line with the National Environmental Management: Waste Act (59 of 2008), Chapter 2, Part 1, which requires the establishment of a NWMS within two years of the Act coming into effect. It is anticipated that the ‘finalisation and consultation’ stage of the review will run from January 2010 to June 2010.

(iv) Minimum Requirements Documents; Department of Waster Affairs and Forestry (1998)


The objective of the Minimum Requirements is to establish a framework for standards for waste management in South Africa. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry published the second edition of the Minimum Requirements series in 1998, consisting of the following three documents: • Document 1: Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and

Disposal of Hazardous Waste • Document 2: Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill • Document 3: Minimum Requirements for Monitoring at Waste Management

Facilities The third edition was released in draft form in 2005 and has yet to be finalised.

9.5.3 Provincial Responses (i) Provincial Integrated Waste Management Plan and Provincial Integrated Hazardous

Waste management Plan The National Waste Management Strategy (DEAT, 1999) (NWMS) states that the primary objective of integrated waste management planning is to: “integrate and optimise waste management so that the efficiency of the waste management system is maximised and the impacts and financial costs associated with waste management are minimised, thereby improving the quality of life of all South Africans.” Hence Integrated Waste Management Plans (IWMPs) are seen as a tool to facilitate the move towards less fragmented and more coordinated and integrated waste management (IWM), which considers waste management throughout the life cycle of waste i.e. a “cradle to grave” approach. IWM therefore considers all components of the waste hierarchy, including waste avoidance, minimisation, recycling, collection and transportation, treatment and finally, disposal.

(ii) Provincial Growth and Development Strategy

The Provincial Growth and Development Strategy (PGDP) provides the strategic framework, sectoral strategies and programmes aimed at a rapid improvement in the quality of life for the poorest people of the Province. To do this, the PGDP sets out a vision with quantified and sequenced targets in the areas of economic growth, employment creation, poverty eradication and income redistribution for the 10-year period 2004-2014. The PGDP’s sets targets for service delivery and provides a target for 1% of the population not provided with sanitation facilities.



The following linkages are noteworthy: Air Quality and Climate Change: Especially with regards to energy consumption, the burning of fossil fuels creates greenhouse gases which have contributed to global warming. Biodiversity: Through pollution from illegal dumping and wastewater disposal, ecosystems are being impacted which are in turn impacting on biodiversity. Inland Water: Waste-water and pollution are impacting on water quality of freshwater systems. Coastal and Estuaries: Waste-water and pollution are impacting on water quality of estuarine systems and the in shore coastal waters. Human livelihoods: Energy and waste generation affect human livelihoods through the impacts on human health and land degradation.

9.7 Information Gaps

The following gaps are noted:

• Actual data on electricity consumption on a provincial level. Data is unavailable on a municipal level.

• Numbers of renewable energy connections into Eskom’s national grid within the Eastern Cape

• Actual data in terms of waste generation. Most of the figures used in this report are based in estimation though population figures and resultant extrapolation. This is largely unreliable. A more useful indicator to monitor would be the waste generation quantities entering actual disposal sites.

• Compliant sewage plants. The number of compliant sewage plants and degree of treatment before discharge needs to be studied.


10 THEME: HUMAN LIVELIHOODS

10.1 Introduction

The Eastern Cape is situated in the southeastern part of South Africa. This part of South Africa offers unique natural beauty, including beautiful coastlines, temperate forests, large areas of rolling rural hinterland and semi-desert landscapes. This chapter looks at Human Livelihoods in the Eastern Cape. A livelihood comprises of the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from external stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets now and in the future (UNDP, 2007). Human livelihoods is included as a cross-cutting theme that includes elements of human development and well-being, vulnerability, social protection, poverty, etc. The 2004 SOER for the Eastern Cape separated themes into Poverty and Human Settlements. This theme chapter reports on the state of a combination of poverty, human settlements and other social and economic topics, and is in line with the national reporting theme chapters.


Socio-economic change is itself a driver common to all themes in this State of Environment Report. These are listed below: Poverty: Poverty directly influences people’s dependence on natural resources, their standard of living, consumerism and ultimately their impact on the environment. Population growth: The population of the Eastern Cape has increased over the last decade. This growth places increased stress on the environment and the capacity of its resources to sustain the population. Housing: With the increasing population and a high number of people who still do not have adequate shelter, housing is a critical element of human livelihoods. Health: “Human vulnerability to environmental change is exacerbated by poor health, which predisposes people to disease”, DEAT (2006). Education: Education and environmental awareness, or the lack thereof has been identified as a major issue in terms of environmental management in the Eastern Cape.


Economy: Economic growth has been identified by government as a key objective for providing socio-economic upliftment in the Eastern Cape. (PGDP) With economic growth the environment is further put under pressure due to increased consumption of natural resources and increased waste production.

10.3 State


The selected indicators for human livelihoods are as follows: • Poverty

− Percentage of people living below the poverty line

− Household Income

− Employment

• Population Growth

• Housing

− Type of dwelling

− Access to services

• Health

− HIV Status

− Number of health facilities

− Incidence of Cholera

− Incidence of Tuberculosis

• Education

• Economy

− GDP

• Human Development Index

10.3.2 Poverty Poverty can be defined in many ways, but always implies that people living in poverty are significantly worse off than their fellow citizens and have less access to resources such as education, transport, health care or social networks. Poverty often creates a vicious cycle where the conditions under which poor people live lead to bad health, malnutrition or isolation. These effects can diminish productivity and drive poor people further into poverty (Knysna Municipality, 2005).


(a) Percentage of people living below the poverty line

Increasing levels of absolute poverty have been recorded in the Eastern Cape and 61.9% (PGDP, 2009) of the people of the Eastern Cape live below the poverty line of R800 or less a month). This has decreased from 67.2% recorded in 2004 (PGDP, 2009).

(b) Monthly household income Monthly household income is reflected in Table 37 below, it is clearly evident that the majority of households are surviving (55.9%) on a household income of less than R800 per month (2001). In comparison with 2007 [ ]. Table 37: Individual Income by Income Categories for Eastern Cape, Stats SA 200.

Income Category 2001 % 2007% R1-R400 20.2 R401-R800 35.7 R801-R1600 14.7 R1601-R3200 12.7 R3201-R6400 10.1 R6401-R12800 4.5 R12801-R25600 1.2 R25601-R51200 0.4 R51201-R102400 0.2 R102401-R204800 0.1 R204801 or more 0.1

Figure 27 below shows a breakdown of the household income categories for the district municipalities in the Eastern Cape. According to the Socio Economic Profile for 2004-2014, statistics show that poverty in the Province has increased dramatically between 1996 and 2001. The poverty rate is estimated to be 67.4%, compared to 34.3% in 1996. Even though poverty is highly evident throughout the Province, large pockets of poverty are found in the OR Tambo, Alfred Nzo and Chris Hani District Municipalities, which include the bulk of the former Transkei. The Nelson Mandela Metro and Cacadu District are the only areas with municipalities in which less than 50% of households live in poverty.


0

20

40

60

80

100

%

Cacadu

Amatole

Chris Hani

Ukhahlamba

OR Tambo

Alfred Nzo

Nelson Man

Eastern Cape

19962001

Figure 27: Household Poverty in Eastern Cape – Percentage of persons below the poverty line, Global Insight 2001

(c) Employment

Unemployment can be defined in many ways and can often include the economically unactive who are not actively seeking employment. The overall unemployment rate for the Eastern Cape is 53.3%2 (PGDP 2009). This is well below the national average of 44.7%, (DEAT, 2006). Unemployment in the Eastern Cape has decreased from 2004 (56.1%) but increased from 2000 (49.4%). On a district level, very high rates of unemployment are found in the Alfred Nzo and OR Tambo districts (Figure 28).

2 Unemployment rate: The unemployed as determined by StatsSA are those people within the economically active population who:

1) did not work during the seven days prior to interview

2) wanted to work and were available to start work within a week of the interview; and

3) have taken active steps to look for work or start some form of self-employment in four weeks prior to the interview


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

%

Cacadu

Amatole

Chris Hani

Ukhahlamba

OR Tambo

Alfred Nzo

Nelson Man

Eastern Cape

19962001

Figure 28: Percentage of Unemployment in Eastern Cape, Socio-economic profile – 2004-2014

10.3.3 Population Growth According to the 2007 Community Survey conducted by Statistics South Africa the total population of the Eastern Cape Province is 6, 527 747 people. The most recent estimate for mid 2008 is 6 579 300 (Stats SA, 2008). It is estimated that from 2001 to 2007 the growth rate was 0. 65% per annum. The Eastern Cape Province was the third most populated province after KwaZulu Natal and Gauteng in 2001, being home to some 14.4% of the South African population and had a population density of 38 people per square kilometre, which is slightly above the national average of 37 per square kilometre. Black Africans constituted of 86% of the total Eastern Cape population. Women constituted the highest proportion compared to men and this was quite evident in the sex ratios where for every 100 women there were 86 men (StatsSA Provincial Profile EC 2004). The provincial population is distributed disproportionately between the districts, with the two largest districts, OR Tambo and Amatole, just short of two million inhabitants each (1.7 million people each respectively) (Figure 29). Nelson Mandela Metro represents the next largest concentration of people (1 million people) and Ukhahlamba the least populous (341,312) (StatsSA, 2007).


01234567

People

Millions

Cacadu

Amatole

Chris Hani

Ukhahlamba

OR Tambo

Alfred Nzo

Nelson Man

Eastern Cape

20012007

Figure 29: Estimated population for District Municipalities in the Eastern Cape, Community Survey – Census 2001 & 2007

10.3.4 Housing & Access to Services South Africa’s priorities are to meet the basic needs of all South African’s (in terms of water, sanitation, health services, education and housing and infrastructure) to redress disparities in wealth and access to resources, to create employment, to stimulate and sustain economic growth and to improve the quality of human livelihoods of all South Africans. (a) Type of dwelling 46.8% of the Eastern Cape are housed in a formal house or brick structure (see Table 38). This has increased since 2001. Of interest is the numbers of people that live in informal dwellings which has decreased from 11.2% to 8%.

Table 38: Percentage distribution of households by type of main dwelling, Community Survey – Census 2001 & 2007

Type of Dwelling Census 2001

CS 2007

House or brick structure on a separate stand or yard 42.1 46.8 Traditional dwelling/hut/structure made of traditional materials 37.1 36.7 Flat in block of flats 4.6 4.3 Town/cluster/semi-detached house (simplex: duplex: triplex) 1.4 1.2 House/flat/room in back yard 2.5 2.0 Informal dwelling/shack

In backyard NOT in backyard e.g. in an informal settlement

2.1 9.1

1.6 6.4

Room/flat not in back yard but on shared property 0.8 0.4 Caravan or tent 0.2 0.1 Private ship/boat - 0.0 Workers’ hostel (bed/room) - 0.2 Other - 0.3


Table 39: Estimated household numbers, Community Survey – Census 2001 & 2007

(b) Access to Services

This section explores the access to water as a service. Sections xxx discuss access to sanitation and solid waste services.

In terms of access to water there has been a slight increase in the percentage of households with access to piped water from 63.2% to 70.9% of an acceptable standard. Furthermore, more households are making use of rainwater harvesting which potentially is a more environmentally acceptable form of water use. Of concern is the number of households that still make use of springs, dams and rivers and streams which can have adverse environmental impacts and associated health risk.

Table 40: Percentage distribution of households by type of water sources, Community Survey - 2007

Water Source Census 2001

CS 2007

Piped Water Inside the dwelling Inside the yard From access point outside the yard

18.3 19.5 25.4

29.9 13.9 27.1

Borehole 1.6 1.1 Spring 6.5 3.7 Dam/pool 2.0 0.8 River/stream 22.5 19.8 Water vendor 0.3 0.5 Rainwater tank 2.3 3.0 Other 1.6 0.4

10.3.5 Health

In terms of the socio-economic environment, health is an important determinant of quality of life. It also influences a region’s resilience, stability and economic potential; because good health enables people to actively participate in their social environment and to work productively. Priority health issues identified for the Eastern Cape are the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, TB, Cholera and access to the primary health facilities.

Households District Municipality Census

2001 CS

2007 Cacadu 100 308 99 832 Amatole 416 992 458 582 Chris Hani 187 330 203 041 Ukhahlamba 84 854 90 309 OR Tambo 339 294 356 085 Alfred Nzo 92 063 102 010 Nelson Mandela 260 799 276 881 Total (Eastern Cape) 1 481 640 1 586 740


(a) HIV Status The Eastern Cape has an HIV status of 29.4% (2007), which has grown from 28% in 2004 (PGDP, 2009). Comparison to the national statistic is complicated as there are various defining methods of prevalence rates some of which are only recorded for antenatal attendees. However, a provincial wide survey undertaken by the Department of Health in 2003 showed that the Eastern Cape was the sixth highest ranked province. In 2006, the Department of Health released national statistics on HIV prevalence. According to this, the highest region was the Nelson Mandela Metro at 31.9%. This was followed by Amatole at 28.7%, Ukhahlamba at 27.9%, Chris Hani at 27.1%, Alfred Nzo at 25.1, and Cacadu at 22.8%. It appears that where the population is densely settled, HIV prevalence is higher, while the more sparsely populated rural districts have the lowest prevalence.

Figure 30: HIV Antenatal Survey Prevalence by Districts – 2006, Dept. of Health Report - 2008

The Department of Health Report for 2008 suggests a tendency towards stabilization of the prevalence among pregnant women who access antenatal care services from the public health sector in South Africa. There is a particularly encouraging trend, a decline from 16% in 2004 to 13.5% in 2006, among women younger than 20 years of age as well as a decline in prevalence in those between 20 and 24 years of age (from 30.6% in 2005 to 28.0% in 2006).


(b) Number of health facilities In 2004 there were 1008 health facilities in the Eastern Cape. 683 clinics made up just over two thirds of the total. Amatole had a total of 271 health facilities followed by Chris Hani 188 and OR Tambo 181 accounted for the highest number of facilities. Ukhahlamba had 67 followed by Alfred Nzo with 62 at the lowest (see Table 41). The national average of healthcare facilities per person in South Africa during 2004 was estimated at 9471 people per facility and the Eastern Cape was estimated at 6349 people per facility. The General Household Survey of 2003 revealed that out of the 670 000 people who were sick in the Eastern Cape, about 85% of them consulted a health worker which were mostly doctors and nurses in public sector clinics and hospitals. According to the General Household Survey of 2003, almost 91% of the Eastern Cape population had no medical aid. Expenditure on primary health care per person has more than doubled over the past four years to R222 per capita, which is close to the national average of R232. The utilisation of primary health care facilities is at 2.4 visits per person per year, well above the national average of 2.1 visits (Healthlink Report). Table 41: Distribution of Health Facilities by type of institution - Eastern Cape 2004, Eastern Cape Dept. of Health - 2004

Type of Institution Number % Clinic 683 67.8

Community healthcare centre 27 2.7

Community healthcare centre (after hours) 1 0.1

District Hospital 63 6.3

Mobile Service 143 14.2

Provincial tertiary hospital 1 0.1

Regional hospital 11 1.1

Satellite clinic 35 3.5

Specialised hospital 12 1.2

Community health service 32 3.2

Total 1008 100

(c) Incidence of Cholera Cholera is both an indicator of health and water quality, which is therefore useful to monitor the state of Cholera cases within the province. There were no reported cholera cases from 1994 to 2001. In 2002, 2335 cholera cases with 45 deaths were reported while in 2003 the number increased to 3158 with 38 deaths reported. In 2004 the number of reported cases decreased to 487 with seven


deaths. Nationally in 2004, there were approximately 5000 cases of cholera reported, (DEAT, 2006).

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2335

3158

4870 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 38 70

500100015002000250030003500

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

No.

of p

eopl

e

NoDeaths

Figure 31: Cholera cases and deaths in Eastern Cape 1994-2004, Eastern Cape Department of Health, Epidemiology Unit

(d) Incidence of Tuberculosis (TB) The incidence of TB in the Eastern Cape has increased from 424 per 100,000 in 2000 to an estimated 680 per 100,000 in 2007. The current high TB case load and the high rate of TB patients who abandon treatment need to be tackled together with HIV and AIDS and other communicable diseases to reduce the burden of disease. The work of the TB tracer teams is crucial and needs to be closely monitored and supported (PGDP 2009). In South Africa TB has reached epidemic proportions – last year 337 641 people were reported to be living with the disease, and this figure is expected to rise to over 500 000 in 2008. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), South Africa is ranked as the country with the fourth highest TB burden in the world, and Statistics South Africa has calculated that TB is the leading cause of natural death in the country (health24).


Figure 32: Incidence of Tuberculosis in the Eastern Cape, 1998 – 2007, PGDP 2009

10.3.6 Education

The literacy rate for the Eastern Cape was estimated at 64%. This has increased from 58.1% in 2000 and 60.4% in 2004. According to the 2001 census, the lowest literacy rate was recorded among black Africans who had a rate of about 56% while the highest (about 98%) was among white people. District municipalities with the lowest levels of illiteracy are OR Tambo, Ukhahlamba and Chris Hani (see Table 42). Females in all population groups in the province had higher literacy rates compared to males. There was a low level of people with higher levels of education among people ages 20 years and above – only 20% of them had reported to have this educational attainment. The number of learners registered in Eastern Cape schools in 2004 showed a marked increase after they had been dropping sharply during the previous three years. The Grade 12 pass rate had also improved to about 60% in 2003 (StatsSA Provincial Profile EC 2004). On an individual level a better education means a better income, which leads to a higher standard of living. Table 42: Eastern Cape literacy rate

District Muncipality Literacy Rate %

1996

Literacy Rate %

2001 Cacadu 56.3 54.5 Amatole 54.5 61.3 Chris Hani 48.4 54.5 Ukhahlamba 46.3 52.8 OR Tambo 41.5 49.1 Alfred Nzo 50.4 58.1 Nelson Mandela 79.9 82.7


10.3.7 Economy The Eastern Cape is regarded as having the potential to substantially increase its contribution to the national economy with increased national levels of trade. The major sectors in the province are services, followed by manufacturing, with a large portion of the manufacturing sector being focused on the automotive industry. Other sectors include agriculture, textiles, clothing and leather, wool processing, timber and transport, as well as tourism. According to StatsSA the Eastern Cape recorded an increased economic growth rate of 4.5% in 2005, following on from 4.2% in 2004. In 2005 the largest industries in the economy were finance, real estate and business services (19.8%), government services (19.1%), and the manufacturing industry (16.7%) in terms of contribution to the GDP of the region. Figure 33 below shows that finance is the main sector driving the Eastern Cape’s economy, and is the fastest-growing sector, contributing 20 percent of total GDP-R in the province in 2006.

Figure 33: Contribution to GDP-R and Annual Growth Rate, 2006


Figure 34: Eastern cape GDP-R Growth Rate, 1996-2007, StatsSA 2007

Figure 34 shows the growth rate in the Eastern Cape Economy. From 2002 the growth rate increased rapidly from approximately 1.5% to 2006 at approximately 5%, the highest rate yet. Since then it has stabilised.

10.3.8 Human Development Index (HDI) The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index that combines measures of life expectancy at birth, standard of living measured as GDP or average household income, and education measured by the adult literacy rate and school enrolment ratios. A higher index indicates a better quality of life and development and vice versa. Average life expectancy, household income and education level are all strongly correlated. Poor people on average perform worse on all three measurements as they have less available resources and less access to services and facilities. The HDI therefore gives a good indication of relative poverty levels in a region and provides an appropriate measure of the many aspects of poverty The low Human Development Index (HDI) estimates large poverty gaps in the Eastern Cape’s districts, which confirm the high poverty rate in the Province. South Africa was ranked 120th out of 177 countries in terms of its HDI in 2003 (DEAT, 2006). The HDI for South Africa declined from 0.73 in 1995 to 0.67 in 2003 (UNDP, 2003). The Eastern Cape had an HDI of 0.53, in 2007. This has remained the same since 2004. According to this statistic the quality of life in the Eastern Cape is still fairly low and has not improved.


Table 43: Human Development Index, Global Insight 2002

Black White Coloured Asian Total 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001

Cacadu 0.41 0.49 0.85 0.84 0.46 0.50 0.73 0.73 0.53 0.56 Amatole 0.43 0.51 0.84 0.83 0.59 0.61 0.78 0.78 0.50 0.54 Chris Hani 0.42 0.48 0.81 0.80 0.50 0.52 - - 0.44 0.49 Ukhahlamba 0.41 0.46 0.81 0.79 0.49 0.50 - - 0.43 0.48 OR Tambo 0.40 0.45 0.81 0.75 0.66 0.67 0.78 0.74 0.40 0.45 Alfred Nzo 0.41 0.46 - - - - - - 0.41 0.47 Nelson Mandela

0.52 0.58 0.84 0.84 0.60 0.63 0.77 0.78 0.63 0.66

Despite the somewhat bleak picture painted by many of the poverty indicators above changes in the Human Development Index (HDI) between 1996-2001 suggest that as far as life expectancy, literacy and income are concerned the lot of the black population in the Eastern Cape has improved. The HDI for whites (between 0.75-0.84) is still vastly higher than that of other categories (0.45-0.58 for blacks or 0.5-0.67 for coloureds). However, the HDI for blacks has shown the greatest improvement between the two census periods with that for white declining. (Socio-Economic Plan 2004-2014)

10.4 Impacts

Broad impacts associated with the socio-economic drivers are listed in Table 44 below. Table 44: Typical impacts associated with socio-economic drivers

Drivers & Pressures Impacts Poverty • Increased pressure on natural resources.

• Increased use of fossil fuels Population Growth • Increased urbanisation

• Increased waste generation • Increased consumption • Increased land for housing • Increased pressure on services

Housing • Increased housing backlogs • Possible informal settlement growth • Increased pressure on municipalities to

supply and maintain services • Increased land take requirements

Health • Decreased labour force and economic productivity

• Increase welfare payments to the sick • Increased pressure on social services • Increased poverty

Education • Lack of environmental awareness Economy • Increased consumption

• Increased energy needs


10.5 Responses

It is recommended that the Eastern Cape focuses on developing the following key areas to achieve sustainable economic growth and alleviate poverty:-

10.5.1 National Responses Expanded Public Works Program (EPWP) – “The EPWP involves creating temporary work opportunities for the unemployed, using public sector expenditure. It builds on existing best-practice government infrastructure and social programmes either by deepening their labour absorption or extending them. Given that most of the unemployed are unskilled, the emphasis is on relatively unskilled work opportunities. All of the work opportunities generated by the EPWP are therefore combined with training, education or skills development, with the aim of increasing the ability of people to earn an income once they leave the programme. Together with the SETA’s, the Department of Labour (DOL) coordinates the training and skills development aspects of the programme. The EPWP is one of several government strategies aimed at addressing unemployment. The fundamental strategies are to increase economic growth so that the number of net new jobs being created starts to exceed the number of new entrants into the labour market, and to improve the education system such that the workforce is able to take up the largely skilled work opportunities which economic growth will generate. In the meantime, there is a need to put short to medium-term strategies in place, such as the EPWP” (http://www.epwp.gov.za/index.asp?c=About). ASGISA (Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa) was launched in 2006 and aims to guide and improve on the country's remarkable economic recovery since the removal of the crippling policies of apartheid. Its primary aim is to halve unemployment and poverty by 2014. In the Eastern Cape, there are many projects in the planning phases in the eastern half of the province. Some of these include planting commercial forestry, as well as the implementation of irrigation schemes along the Mzimvubu Development Zone (MDZ). The following are AsgiSA’a high impact priority projects: 1. Agriculture and Agro-processing The aim is to manage one million

livestock units and putting 40 000ha under irrigated cultivation and 346 000ha under dry-land cultivation, focusing on food and industrial crops for agro-processing and bio-fuel production.

2. Water Resource Development Water storage and transfer aimed at using 640 million m3 for forestry, agricultural, livestock watering, domestic and


industrial use within the Mzimvubu Development Zone (MDZ) and surrounding areas.

3. Hydro and Alternative energies Hydro-power and alternative energy aimed at generating 1 500 MW of clean, renewable energy.

4. Tourism development linking eco-tourism on the Wild Coast with the adventure hotspots of the Southern Drakensberg through a branded tourism corridor that includes Mandela’s birthplace and the Mandela Museum in Mthatha.

5. Forestry Development Forestry development through new afforestation, the improved management of existing forests, and the development of downstream manufacturing opportunities in the timber industry.

6. Human Settlement and Planning Addressing sustainable human settlement patterns in the MDZ through the urban and economic renewal of Mthatha, Port St Johns and other rural towns such as Lusikisiki.

Comprehensive Rural Development Programme Developed by the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform this programme focuses on the development of and job creation in the rural areas of South Africa.

10.5.2 Provincial Responses Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP) 2004-2014 has set targets and strategies for socio-economic upliftment to 2014. See section xxx Rural livelihood Programme Coega Industrial Development Zone The Coega IDZ is being developed as the logistics hub of Africa with its newly constructed deep water Port of Ngqura. It is seen to boost job creation and stimulate economic development and investment in the region. East London Industrial Development Zone Like the Coega IDZ, the ELIDZ is located near the Port of East London. It aims to encourage export investment by providing a duty free customs secure area and associated industrial park, manned by full time customs officials, next to good quality transport infrastructure (port and airport), allowing duty free imports and VAT-free purchases of SA goods, and combine with major investment incentives.



HIV


11 THEME: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE

11.1 Introduction

Environmental Governance commonly refers to the way in which authorities, municipalities, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the private sector manage the environment and natural resources. It deals with principles and processes applied in decision-making, such as transparency, social equity, justice, accountability, efficiency, effectiveness, inclusivity and representivity. Provinces are faced with a complexity of legal obligations to safeguard the environment in all decision-making, including provincial planning, land use planning and policy making. Through the Constitution, the National Environmental Management Act, and the Intergovernmental Relations Act, the Eastern Cape provincial government is obliged to take all reasonable measures to manage the environment and its sustainability. Environmental governance forms one line of the triple bottom line in sustainability accounting. It is thus as important to the individual or private sector business as it is to government. Environmental governance aims to ensure that responsible management is exercised. It is aimed at ensuring that those actions of a company, organ of state, local authority, government department, or NGO which may have a negative effect on the environment are identified and undertaken with due care for the protection of the environment. The environment, in both its bio-physical and socio-economic interpretations, is a shared resource which forms the foundation of all human existence. In order to safeguard people’s access to and use of the environment, now and in the future, it is essential that efforts to manage use of the environment are reported and, where feasible and practical, coordinated.


Important drivers of environmental governance within the Eastern Cape are: The Constitution of South Africa – Section 24 provides that “everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations,

Sustainable development is defined as “development that meets theneeds of present generations without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.” Bruntland, 1987


through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation; promote conservation; and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development.” National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) provides for the preparation and revision of Environmental Implementation Plans (EIP) by provinces, as the means by which the constitutional goals of co-operative governance in the realisation of environmental protection may be achieved. The State of Environment Report constitutes a mechanism for monitoring the implementation of the EIP. Section 2 of NEMA outlines development and decision making principles which are binding on all organs of state. Factors increasing pressure for strong, ethical environmental governance in the Eastern Cape include: Health, particularly human public health related issues which require integrated and coordinated effort on the part of authorities, the private sector and the public to maintain adequate environmental quality to prevent public health risks. This has become increasingly pertinent over the past year as the province wide drought and increasing demand for potable water have exacerbated pressure on water resources across the province. This has resulted in a number of instances of water-borne disease outbreaks or water quality failures being reported in the regional press. Lack of capacity. The lack of capacity is probably the most significant driver when it comes to environmental management. Financial, human and physical resources are required to implement the function. Such resources are frequently lacking from those departments within the provincial government and municipalities which are responsible for implementing those functions that impact on the environment. Poor cooperative governance. Communication between various government structures is reportedly poor and results in a misunderstanding in terms of roles and responsibilities, sharing resources and duplication of effort. Balancing of competing rights and service delivery demands. The rights enshrined within the Constitution are not exclusive. In providing for the fulfilment of a given right decision-makers have to give due consideration to the fulfilment of all the other rights, some of which may compete with the fulfilment of the right under consideration. For example, in fulfilling the right to adequate housing decision-makers must also give consideration to the potentially competing right to have the environment protected for the benefit of both present and future generations.


11.3 State


The first edition SoER for the Eastern Cape utilised the following governance indicators: • Budgetary allocation to environmental management, research, education and

awareness; • Institutional capacity for environmental management; • IDP commitment to environmental management; • Voluntary adoption of environmental management systems; and • Compliance with environmental legislation. In line with advances in thinking regarding State of Environment reporting, and the second edition National SoER the following indicators are suggested for the Eastern Cape: Laws and Institutions: • Provincial legislation pertaining to environment drafted since 2004 Systems and Tools: • Formal interdepartmental protocols on environmental governance • IDP commitment to environmental management Participation in Environmental Governance: • Access to information • Number of publicly accessible databases and information management

systems Accountability and Transparency in Governance: • Provincial budget expenditure on environmental management and

biodiversity • Posts allocated vs. current posts filled • Compliance with environmental legislation • Guidelines for public on how to participate in decision-making Corporate Environmental Governance: • Number of companies represented in the Eastern Cape listed on the Social

Responsibility Index of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange • Number of Eastern Cape companies that have been certified for ISO 14001

Highlights key policies, legislative and institutional changes introduced to ensure more effective decision-making, management, and environmental governance. DEAT, 2006. SA Env Outlook.


11.3.2 Laws and Institutions

This section provides an indication of provincial legislation, policy and institutional changes made to strengthen environmental governance. These are an adjunct to, and do not replace national legislation, policies and institutions.

(a) Provincial legislation pertaining to environment drafted since 2004 The provincial Environmental Management Act is in preparation / has been submitted for legal review prior to submission to the provincial legislature / has been promulgated.

11.3.3 Systems and Tools This section provides an indication of the numbers and types of

(a) Formal interdepartmental protocols on environmental governance No information was available on the number of formal protocols regarding environmental governance in terms of the Intergovernmental Relations Act.

(b) IDP commitment to environmental management Although all municipalities have produced IDPs, it is understood (L. Macanda and A. Mfenyana pers. com.) that the degree to which the environment is addressed as a crosscutting issue in these plans is not yet at the level where integrated environmental management or sound environmental governance can be said to have been achieved.

11.3.4 Participation in Environmental Governance

(a) Access to information South Africa has a number of pieces of legislation which facilitate public access to information, and in particular environmental information. These include: • Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) • Promotion of Access to Information Act (Act 2 of 2000) • Promotion of Administrative Justice Act (Act 3 of 2000) • Protected Disclosures Act (Act 26 of 2000) • National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998), chapters 3 and 7 There is thus a strong legal foundation for public access to environmental information. However, DEAT (2006) notes that internationally implementation of such legislation is weak, with few countries requiring public entities to provide or maintain publicly accessible environmental information services. Thus the fact that, at the time of writing this report the Department of Economic Development and Environmental Affairs website was under (re)construction is unsatisfactory, but not unexceptional.


An issue of concern is the apparent reliance on relatively sophisticated communications technologies in a province such as the Eastern Cape, where access to basic communications infrastructure is still uneven, to disseminate environmental information. This is to some extent addressed through the celebration of 6 national awareness days. A seventh, Clean Industry Awards, is proposed to be added.

(b) Number of publicly accessible databases and information management systems Although there are at least two national databases in development by the Department of Environmental Affairs neither are accessible to the general public at the time of writing. The Department of Water Affairs does provide publicly accessible information regarding volumes of water stored and quality of water supplied by municipalities.

11.3.5 Accountability and Transparency in Governance

(a) Provincial budget expenditure on environmental management and biodiversity The Chief Directorate: Environmental Affairs is divided into five sub-programmes, each of which is further divided as follows: • Policy Coordination and Environmental Planning

o Intergovernmental Coordination, Spatial and Development Planning

o Legislative Development o Research and Development Support o Information Management Services

• Compliance and Enforcement o Environmental Quality Management Authorisation, Compliance

and Enforcement o Biodiversity Management Authorisation, Compliance and

Enforcement • Environmental Quality Management

o Impact Management o Air Quality Management o Climate Change Management o Pollution and Waste Management

• Biodiversity Management o Biodiversity, Protected Area Planning and Management o Conservation Agencies and Services o Coastal Resource Use

• Environmental Empowerment Services o External Capacity Building and Support o Communication and Awareness Raising

The 2009/10 Annual Performance Plan of DEDEA indicates that budget expenditure for the Chief Directorate: Environmental Affairs has grown from R 67,175,000.00 in 2006/7 to R 84,215,000.00 in 2007/8. It is anticipated that this growth in expenditure will continue in 2008/9 (estimated expenditure is R 102,748,000.00) and 2009/10 (with a budget of R 177,473,000.00)


(b) Posts allocated vs. current posts filled The Capacity Audit and Needs Analysis Survey for EIA Administrators undertaken during 2007 provides the following snapshot of staffing levels in DEDEA:

Post level Number of approved posts

Number of filled posts Number of vacant posts

14 1 1 0 13 2 1 1 12 7 6 1 11 0 0 0 10 7 6 1 9 0 0 0 8 15 9 6 7 15 8 7 Total 47 31 16

This represents a vacancy rate of 35% in the Impact Management, Air Quality and Waste Management Sections. However, this ignores the Biodiversity Conservation and Coastal Zone Management; Enforcement, Compliance and Permit administration; and Environmental Education and Capacity Building components. Figures made available for Enforcement and Compliance personnel (Stegmann, in prep.) indicate the following staff numbers per Region:

Region Enforcement and Compliance Staff Enforcement & Compliance personnel per km2

People per Enforcement & Compliance Official

Alfred Nzo 3 2 288 159 797 Amathole 4 5 896 416 188 Cacadu 3 20 092 471 475 Chris Hani 2 18 353 399 299 OR Tambo 4 3 997 465 555 Ukahlamba 2 12 834 154 183

However, it should be noted that in some Regions the above figures do not reflect the reality of the situation. That is, that the staff figures quoted represent officials who are responsible for compliance and enforcement in addition to other duties. If one considers the geographical extent of each Region or the population of each Region in relation to the number of compliance and enforcement officials a rather sobering picture emerges.

(c) Compliance with environmental legislation


The first edition SoER appeared to focus solely on compliance monitoring and enforcement in relation to the EIA Regulations. This is, however, a very narrow interpretation and ignored a significant number of other pieces of environmental legislation, compliance with which must also be monitored. These include legislation relating to the management and protection of biodiversity resources, nature conservation (outside of protected areas), coastal management and the new waste management legislation. Stegmann (2009) provides the following consolidated statistics for detected environmental crime in the Eastern Cape for the annual reporting period 2008/9.

Process Outcome Region Crime

Incidents Administrative Action

Criminal Matter

Civil Matter

Conviction Other (e.g. Prosecutor declined to prosecute)

Complete

Alfred Nzo 38 16 22 0 1 8 9 Amathole 40 27 4 9 9 5 14 Chris Hani 8 1 7 0 4 2 6 Cacadu 32 18 14 0 2 9 11 OR Tambo 234 12 81 141 6 22 28 Ukuhlamba 6 4 2 0 0 0 0 H O 211 21 40 150 1 0 1

On the face of it this appears to be a significant advance over the figures reported in the first edition report. However, the following should be borne in mind: • A significant proportion of the cases recorded in the table have been “on the

books” for more than one annual reporting cycle; • Not all environmental crime is reported, nor are all environmental crimes

detected by the authorities; • Environmental crime is generally not perceived to be priority crime either by

the general public or by the judicial system; and • The number of compliance and enforcement personnel is very small in

relation to the geographical area to be covered

(d) Guidelines for public on how to participate in decision-making During 2007/8 a total of 5 draft environmental guidelines were developed. A further two environmental guidelines are estimated to have been developed during 2008/9. It is unknown whether these guidelines have been formally gazetted.


11.3.6 Corporate Environmental Governance

(a) Number of companies represented in the Eastern Cape listed on the Social

Responsibility Index of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange At least 31 of the 61 companies listed on the Social Responsibility Index operate in the Eastern Cape.

(b) Number of Eastern Cape companies that have been certified for ISO 14001 The SABS has certified 18 companies in the Eastern Cape. However, a further 5 companies with ISO 14001 certification are listed on the Port Elizabeth Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PERCCI) website. In addition the East London IDZ website indicates that this organisation is ISO 14001 certified. There are thus at least 24 companies in the province which have voluntarily adopted environmental management systems.

11.4 Impacts

The impacts of poor environmental governance are far reaching but largely influence the following: • Delays in service delivery on a number of critical provincial functions due to

clashes in provincial policies, plans, programmes and procedures resulting from misunderstandings and lack of clarity regarding environmental management requirements;

• Uncontrolled and inappropriate development; • Poor land use planning; • Uncontrolled resource extraction and utilization; • Loss of biodiversity; • Destruction of ecosystem functionality and the ability of the environment to

provide ecosystem services essential for human wellbeing (such as water purification, flood attenuation, soil genesis, and pollination);

• Land degradation; and • Pollution of the environment (e.g. air, water, soil, coast etc.).

11.5 Responses

These are the policy changes or programmes set by government, NGO’s etc. to influence or respond to the state of the theme.


11.5.1 National Reponses • The National State of Environment Report (DEAT, 2006) contains a chapter

on environmental governance, which may act as a reference in compiling provincial SoERs

• National River Health Programme, a programme of the Department of Water Affairs in conjunction with the Department of Environmental Affairs aimed at monitoring riverine ecosystem functioning and status

• NEMA Chapter 3 requirements for cooperative environmental governance, which includes the formulation of provincial EIPs

• Local Government iNdaba on Environment, organised by the Department of Environmental Affairs in conjunction with the Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, and the South African Local Government Association (SALGA), to improve amongst others environmental focus in integrated development planning among the 3 spheres of government

11.5.2 Provincial Reponses

The Eastern Cape provincial government needs to: • Continue to promote co-operative governance between departments within

the province as well as with municipalities and national departments in environmental management

• Encourage greater adherence to the provincial environmental implementation plan, both as a means of improving cooperative environmental governance and as a means of promoting the adoption of sound environmental management within the provincial and local spheres of government

• Implement an internal and external communications procedure to address environmental issues

• The Department of Economic Development and Environmental Affairs (DEDEA) should take the lead and provide greater environmental support to provincial departments and municipalities through training and capacity building

• Develop an environmental legal register to be used by internal staff linking daily activities with environmental impacts

• Ensure availability of environmental sensitivity maps


Since this is the second state of the environment report for the Eastern Cape, certain of the indicators used in the first edition have been expanded. This has two aims, firstly, to build on the lessons learned from the first edition. Secondly, to provide a more nuanced picture of the state of environmental governance in the province.


Nevertheless, a number of gaps in information still remain. These include:


12 REFERENCES

StatsSA, Provincial Profile EC 2001 & 2004 UNDP 2007 ECDC Economic Web Page Labour Force Survey 2004 & Global insight 2002 Community Survey – Census 2001 & 2007 Eastern Cape Dept. of Health, HIV & Syphillis antenatal sero-prevalance survey 2002 Dept. of Health Report 2008 Socio-Economic Plan 2004-2014 Knysna Municipality, 2005 Provincial Government Development Plan, 2009 Global Insight 2001 Dept. of Health Report – 2008 Eastern Cape Dept. of Health – 2004 Eastern Cape Department of Health, Epidemiology Unit health24 website Eastern Cape, 1998 – 2007, PGDP 2009


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