definitions of research good defines research as a “cheerful, critical, disciplined inquiry,...

Definitions of Research

Good defines research as a “cheerful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem”.

Aquino has a more detailed definition of research. He says that “research is simply, simply, the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem. After a careful, systematic search for pertinent information or data on a specific topic or problem, and after the research worker has analyzed and interpreted the data, he eventually faces another essential task – that of preparing the research report”.

Research has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner”.

Parel defines research as “a systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher”.

Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation”.

Formulated in amore comprehensive form, research may be defined as a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

Research is a studied inquiry or examination having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation; the revision of accepted conclusions, theories or laws in the lights of the newly discovered facts or the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws.

Purpose of research (Aims, Objective, Goals)

The definition of research says that research is purposive. The main or principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed toward this end. “The purpose of research is to serve man”, and the goal of research is the good life”. Due to research, man has attained great accelerating progress and is enjoying the products of research such as the fast and comfortable land, sea, and air means of transportation, the wonders of electricity like the radio, telephone, air conditioning, light in the homes, movies, running machinery for many other countless things. “To satisfy man’s craving for more understanding, relieve suffering, and to increase satisfactions in multitudinous ways – these are the large and fundamental goals of research”.

Specific and Goals of Research

To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality to gasoline)

To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods an information. (Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on)

Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products. (This goal envisages the invention of new gadgets and machines, food products and others used by-man)

To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. (Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than 100)

Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. (Due to research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances)

To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science. Schlofeldt. (lbid.) (The result of this purpose of research is the science we are now studying in school)

To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-making is the research approach. (This basing important decisions upon the results of research)

To satisfy the research’s curiosity To find answer to queries by means of scientific methods. One

important question that may be asked which can be answered only by means of research is: In what settings is life expectancy higher, in the city or in the barrio?

To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research is why women are generally smaller that men.

To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research of verified if the same facts are found.

To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products. Research surveys often results in the revision of curricula and instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning process.

To promote health and prolong life. This purpose is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research.

To provide man with more of this basic needs – more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc. the work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños Laguna is a good example of this purpose

To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-saving machines have been inverted and improved, radio, and more wonders of electricity are making life easier and better.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

SEARCH FOR A THEORY

TEST A THEORY

SOLVE A PROBLEM

• Method of inquiry for the purpose of obtaining facts in response to questions

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• CHARACTERISTICS

SYSTEMATIC Series of steps & stages - problem

PRECISE Quantify the incidence of events - statistics

ACCURATE Link observations and occurence

RECORDED Documented observations

OBJECTIVITY What is rather than what ought to be

CONTROLLED Elimination of factors – control

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

• CHARACTERISTICS

TENTATIVE

EMPIRICALLY VERIFIABLE

SHARED

NEUTRAL

Open to further questions

Validity of results can be tested

Communicated to public – publish or perish

Not reflecting bias of investigator

Characteristics of Good Research Crawford definition – Research is simply a

systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedure in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem that would be possible under ordinary means. It involves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to prove something, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore a central feature of it.

Research gathers new knowledge of data from primary or firsthand sources. It is not research when one merely restates or merely reorganizes what is already known or what has been written. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles. It goes beyond the specific groups and situations investigated and by careful sampling procedure, infers qualities of the entire population from those observed in the smaller group.

Research is expert, systematic accurate investigation. The research knows what is already known about his problem. He proceeds from this point, carefully planning his procedures. Data are gathered, recorded, and analyzed with as much accuracy as possible. He uses such valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or devise, and employs mechanical means to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, and computation of data.

Research is logical objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives to eliminate personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than on proving the hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.

Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms, if possible, and express them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The researcher is willing to exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to permit the data and logic to lead to a sound conclusion. He realizes that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless procedures. Research requires courage. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.

Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined, all procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded. All conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with due consideration for all of the limitations of methodology, data collected, and errors of human interpretation.

Summarized Characteristics of Research

Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

Research is controlled. All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) sot that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an experimental research.

Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. For instance, one says that there are five persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five persons. However, if one may believe if because not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data that are not empirical.

Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.

Research is objective. Unbiased and logical. All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter results of the research.

Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub problems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved.

Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.

Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or theses, etc.)

Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.

Research is accurate investigation observation

and description. In fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.

Research requires an effort-making capacity. No

research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity can conduct a research because research involves much work and time.

Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.

WHAT IS A GOOD RESEARCHER?

• QUALITIES

HONESTY Report all information gathered

Open to Criticism Improvement of methods & analysis

SKEPTICISM Search for truth in the research process

CREATIVE Methodologies for gathering information

RESOURCEFUL Explore sources of information

LOGICAL MIND Apply reasoning to arguments

PATIENCE Answers to questions not immediate

GOOD SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

• CHARACTERISTICS

•Clearly defined purpose or problem involved

•Procedures described in detail, defensible, replicable

•Appropriate methods of analysis

•Conclusions confined by results or findings

•Objectivity of researcher

TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

BASIC •Search for knowledge for knowledge’s sake

•Establish general principles

•Test an aspect or expanding domain of a theory

ACTION •Feature of applied research

•Identify/solve problems in local setting

•No intention of generalizing results

APPLIED •Applications of theory to solutions of problems

•Practical-solving emphasis - decisions

•Closely related to action or policy needs

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROCESS?

• BOTH FACT-FINDING AND THEORY-BUILDING

FACTS •Theory formulation

•Theory reformulation/rejection

•Theory clarification

THEORY •Scheme for data gathering

•Scheme for data analysis

•Gaps in knowledge

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

TOPIC & PROBLEM

METHODOLOGY

DATA COLLECTION

DATA PROCESSING

REPORT GENERATION

Variable, hypothesis, theoretical framework,

definitions, significance, literature review

Research design, sources of information, data

collection techniques, statistical tools

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

• Influenced by overall comfort, training and commitment of researcher

QUALITATIVEFacts gathered before theory

QUANTITATIVETrace interconnections

among concepts

Derive patterns to formulate concepts and to posit interrelationships among concepts or theory building

Public-Private Partnership in Development Administration: GO-NGO Collaboration in

Agricultural Development

Determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true

Profile of Marine Personnel in terms of Socio-Demographic Factors and Work Performance

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

LOGIC OF INFERENCE

Inductive – fact to theory

RELATIONSHIPS OF FACTORS

Explore factors that could explain why a given event occurs

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Establish patterns or develop a theory for understanding how and why an event occurs

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

LOGIC OF INFERENCE

Deductive

RELATIONSHIPS OF FACTORS

Relate occurrence of a variable with other variables – cause/effect

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Establish generalizations for predictions and control

RESEARCH METHODS

Purpose Gather information about present conditions

Set-up conditions which can be evaluated

Focus Collection of data to test hypotheses concerning the current status of the subject in the study

At least one condition is manipulated while others are not, then the differential effect of said variable is measured

Characteristic No control over what is and can only measure what already exists

All other variables except the dependent variable are held constant

Example CASE STUDIES

SURVEYS

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP

DESCRIPTIVE EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH AREAS

OPERATIONS RESEARCH

Recognition of a problem that affect management or

organization

EVALUATION RESEARCH

Measure performance of programs and projects

POLICY RESEARCH

Formulation or reformulation of policy

DISCIPLINE RESEARCH

Gain knowledge for knowledge’s sake

INTTERRELATIONSHIPS OF RESEARCH

• While a particular study is basically of a certain type, it may at the same time incorporate feature of another type

IMPACT EVALUATION STUDY MAY CONSIDER ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL

COMPONENTS

EVALUATION RESEARCH COULD BE AN INPUT TO

POLICY RESEARCH

WHAT IS OPERATIONS RESEARCH?

• Change-oriented type of research since the study is not complete unless recommendations are accepted or put in place

LeadersHuman resourcesFinancial resourcesPolicy statement

Planning ImplementationMonitoring Evaluation

ServicesGoodsRegulatory measureManpower

INPUT(RESOURCES)

OUTPUT(PRODUCTS)

PROCESS(ACTIVITIES)

HELP DECISION MAKERS DETERMINE WHAT CORRECTIVE MEASURES CAN BE INSTITUTED TO IMPROVE THE FLOW OF RESOURCES OR

PROCESSES

SOURCES OF QUESTIONS

• Identifying and testing the best possible solution to the problem

ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEM

Problem with one or combination of inputs or processes affecting outputs

ADMIN. CAPABILITY INDICATORS

Adequacy, timeliness and appropriateness used to assess inputs utilization

PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES

Compliance and responsiveness of processes and procedures to needs

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• Elements from whom/which data are collected

INTERNAL COMPONENTS

OF THE ORGANIZATIO

N

Obtain information about such factors as

the inputs and the process applied and its

effect on outputs

WHAT IS EVALUATION RESEARCH?

• Concerns with the level of performance of programs and the factors that influence performance

EX-ANTEFeasibility

Study

Potential performance of a program and the factors affecting program performance

IN-VIVOProcess Study

Relationship between inputs and outputs in terms of efficiency, productivity, profitability, economy

EX-POSTImpact Study

Determine whether the program merits expansion or replication in other areas – effectiveness

HELP POLICY MAKERS TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE PROGRAM HAS ATTAINED ITS OBJECTIVE

WHY USE EX-ANTE EVALUATION?

PROBLEM • Determine the potential performance (failure/success)

• Determine the factors that may affect performance

PURPOSE • Ascertain whether program is worth implementing

• Determine what aspects of the program can be modified to assure success

WHY USE IN-VIVO EVALUATION?

PROBLEM • Determine how the program is performing

• Determine the factors that influence how it is being implemented

PURPOSE • Determine what corrective measures to apply to improve implementation

• Determine if the program should be stopped or continued

WHY USE EX-POST EVALUATION?

PROBLEM •Determine whether the program succeeded or failed in accomplishing its mission

• Determine the factors that led to success/failure

PURPOSE • Determine whether the program merits expansion

• Ascertain what aspects can be modified to improve implementation in other sites

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

EFFICIENCY Comparison of actual accomplishments with the target of the program

PRODUCTIVITY Ratio of output per particular input

ECONOMY Reduction in cost in the delivery of outputs

PROFITABILITY Monetary returns after the output is delivered minus the costs involved

EFFECTIVENESS Measure the extent to which the objectives of the program are fulfilled

HOW EFFECTIVENESS IS MEASURED?

ADEQUACY Are the outputs enough to meet the needs of clients?

APPROPRIATENESS Are they relevant to those needs?

TIMELINESS Are they delivered at the right time?

PROGRESSIVENESS Can the organization upgrade its outputs to meet changing needs?

EQUITY Is there provision to give priority to those who are depressed, deprived and underserved?

CONTINUITY Can the organization sustain delivery of outputs or services?

DEMEANOR Is the service delivered in an appropriate way?

SOURCES OF QUESTIONS

INTERNAL COMPONENTS

Inputs and processes

EXTERNAL COMPONENTS

Clients and environment

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• Include other elements those outside the organization

PROGRAM

PROJECT

WHAT IS POLICY RESEARCH?

• Not all problems are policy problems

PROBLEM ADDRESSED BY

POLICY

HELP POLICY MAKERS MAKE A DECISION TOWARD THE ISSUANCE OF A POLICY DIRECTIVE

OR STATEMENT

?

WHAT IS POLICY RESEARCH?

• Study of policy options and their implications or consequences

VALIDATION OF A PROBLEM THAT REQUIRES POLICY INTERVENTION

UNDERSTANDING OF PAST AND CURRENT POLICIES TO PROBLEM

IDENTIFICATION OF POLICY OPTIONS TO ADDRESS PROBLEM

DETAILING THE CONSEQUENCES OF EVERY POLICY OPTION

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

POLICY OPTION

TO BE EVALUATED

WHAT IS DISCIPLINE RESEARCH?

• Study conducted to formulate a theory or build on an existing one

ACADEMIC RESEARCH

INTEREST IN EXPLAINING A GIVEN EVENT THAT IS NOT FULLY UNDERSTOOD

GENERATE CONCEPTS OR BUILD THEORY

SOURCES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• Vary depending on the interest of the researcher

CHARACTERIZE LEADERSHIP THAT INFLUENCE GOOD

GOVERNANCE

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• Not restricted

RANGE FROM

BROAD TO EXREMELY SPECIFIC

Values of Research

1. Educational Benefits- Improve teaching and learning process- Acquisition of information, knowledge and understanding of a given phenomenon is accelerated.- Desirable habits and skills, ideals, aesthetic and creative appreciation is enhanced.- Personal and social adjustment is another end product of research.

2. Moral-Spiritual Fulfillment

- Moral – spiritual upliftment because end result of research is for his own good.

3. Sociological value Through research results we understand other people better and we are place in a better position to make adjustment in life.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

The respondents must be informed about the purpose of the research and its consequence.

Must have the right to expect experimenter’s responsibility.

Have the right to confidentiality of information. Have the right to privacy.

Difficulties Encountered in Research

Recognizing problem- problem awareness Is their a felt need? A. Solution of a problem

B. Contributing new knowledge Is the problem clear?

Duplication-Hypothesis needs strengthening of its validity.

Indifference of people to research. Lack of facilities-Crude facilities may not bear

the data gathered for the analysis of data. Limited time duration. Financial difficulities. Lack of adequate and expert research consultant

Characteristics of a Research Problem

The Heart of the entire research process is the problem. Therefore the first responsibility of the researcher is to articulate an acceptable research problem. This implies that certain problems are not suitable for research. Just what is a research problem? Simply put, a problem can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsetting. It is a difficulty, a state of affairs that need to be changed or anything that is not working. Problem may pertain to areas of concern that need improvement, difficulties that need to be eliminated or questions that need answers.

Researchable Problem “Do’s in the selection of a Problem”

Interesting. The problem must be of great interest not only to the researcher but most especially to others. To be interesting, the problem must be within the researcher’s field of specialization because he is not only acquainted with the content but also he can choose are or areas that would be of interest to others.

Useful. We must consider the significant contribution of our investigation to the field of knowledge that we are exploring. We must consider the practical value of our study. It must be able to contribute to the improvement of the quality of life either in the local, regional or national and global levels. In thesis/dissertation writing, the usefulness of the problem being investigated is defined in the part called” significance of the study”. In essence, the significance of the study depends on the extent to which it can add to the existing knowledge and can offer contribution in a meaningful way.

Original This does not meant that our problem is the first of its kind. The requirement for originality is that the research topic must have an element of novelty. This means that the approach and research methodology must not be a repetition of previous researches. We should therefore have an intensive reading of the topic that we have chosen for investigation in order to find out if it is already over studied, still unexplored or may be already saturated. However, a completely original research idea is rare. It is more likely that the research will be an extension of some already completed project. The extent of replication that is desirable in such studies depends on the specific area and the condition of the research.

Feasible. Even if problems are researchable. doing the research may not be feasible. The necessary data may be too excessive or may too difficult to obtain. Ethical considerations may be involved too, especially for information that invade the privacy of individuals or institutions. Also necessary resources such as laboratory facilities and funds may not be available. Henceforth in the choice of a problem, opportunities and conditions for gathering data should be considered.

Don’ts to avoid in Considering a problem

Don’t use a problem as a means for achieving self-enlightenment. Our lack of information may be a personal problem and we may want to know more about certain area of knowledge. But the quest for answers to quench our thirst for knowledge is entirely different from the purpose of gathering data that is characteristic of research process.

Problem whose sole purpose is merely to compare two sets of data are not suitable reseach problems. Since the statement of the problem is taken at its face value, it precisely tells what the research ought to do. For example, “The purpose of this study is to compare the number of women employed during that last 20 years with the employment of men over the same time span”

Fine! This can be completed without much effort. It takes only tow lines to do this:

1976 1996Women employed 23,970,000 80,745,000Men employed 28,478,000 85,903,000

Findings a coefficient of correlation between two sets of data to show a relationship is not acceptable as problem for reseach. Why Because a coefficient of correlation merely show a decimal fraction to express how closely two sets of data are related to each other. This fraction is merely a signpost to look deeper into the cause of that relationship. When the relationship has been established, we must not stop there. We have to find out whether the cause of the relationship is genetic, social, environment or any other factor that brought about the relationship.

Problems that result in a yes or no answer are not suitable for research. If we ask “Is Homework beneficial to children”? This question is flimsy since it does not involve the utilization of scientific method. If all we want to know is a simple yes or no, give students homework to see what happens. But if we dwell into the factual components of homework that might be beneficial to children, then our wisdom would be enlarged and we could structure the homework with more purpose and greater intelligence that we can know.

Research is a cyclic process

Research interprets the meaning of the facts which leads to a resolution of the problem, thus confirmed or rejecting the hypotheses and providing an answer to the question which began the research cycle.

Research begins with a problem: an unanswered question in the mind of the researcher.

Research sees the goal in a clear statement of the problem.

Research subdivides the problem into appropriate sub-problems. Each sub-problem seeks guidance through an appropriate hypothesis

Research posits tentative solutions to the problem(s) through appropriate hypotheses. These hypotheses direct the researcher to the facts.

Research looks for facts-directed by the hypotheses and guided by the problem. The facts are collected and organized.

Research holds the hypotheses until all the facts are in and interpreted. At that point the hypotheses are supported or rejected.

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Figure 1

Analysis of Figure I will show that research is not a haphazard activity. It follows a standard procedure in a logical sequence of steps that form its methodology. Thus, we can generalize that research:

Begins in the mind of the researcher brought about by his intellectual curiosity and inquisitive attitude.

Requires a specific goal or purpose for investigating the problem.This is known as the statement of the problem.

Demands a specific plan of procedure. This is the research Methodology.

Necessitates the breaking down of the major problem into Sub-problems to make it more manageable.

Needs a hypothesis to give direction to the study and make the areas for investigation more specific.

Requires specific and measurable data as evidence in resolving the problem

Follow a circular pattern.

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

CURRENT PROBLEMS Economic crisis and expenditure patterns

UNRESOLVED ISSUES Issues regarding the implementation of a project

HUNCH OR GUT FEEL Disbursement of money to poverty alleviation

LITERATURE REVIEW Gaps and needs in both theory or facts

COMMITMENT Sustained interest in a given issue - expertise

FUND AVAILABILITY Determining factor in research projects

AGENCY NEED Computerization program thrust of organization

HOW TO DISCOVER PROBLEMS?

LITERATURE SEARCH

ATTENDANCE TO SEMINARS

EVALUATION OF COMPLETED RESEARCHES

SUBSCRIBING TO JOURNALS

BUILDING A LIBRARY OF MATERIALS

ENVIRONMENTAL MAPPING

RESEARCH PROBLEM EXPLORATION

THEORIES AND PROBLEMS

“Questions”

METHODS

OBSERVATIONS

“Use of senses”

EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATION

“Pattern”

HYPOTHESES

“Answers”

Logical Deduction

Logical Induction

OperationalizationScales, Measurements

SELECTION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Guidelines in the determination of a research topic

IS IT WORTH DOING?

ARE FACTORS MEASURABLE?

IS IT FEASIBLE?

TIME

MONETARY RESOURCES

HUMAN RESOURCES

ACCESS TO DATA

RESEARCHER’S COMPETENCE

GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

• GREAT INTEREST TO THE RESEARCHER

• PRACTICAL VALUE AND CONTRIBUTION

• NOVELTY

• COMPLETED IN ALLOTED TIME DESIRED

• NO ETHICAL OR MORAL EMPEDIMENTS

GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Should ask about a relationship of two or more variables

• Should be clearly stated

• Should be stated in question form, or alternatively in the form of an implicit question

• Should be testable by empirical methods – possible to collect data to answer the questions asked

• Should not represent a moral or ethical position

How to formulate a research problem?

Identify main area of interest

Dissect the main area of interest into sub-areas

Select the sub-area to be the study focus

Identify main research questions to be answered

Formulate the specific objectives of the study

Assess the feasibility of time, literature

Develop a title for the study

How to select a research problem?

SCOPE HOW WIDESPREAD A PROBLEM?

Universality of a problem – number based and takes place in geographic dimension

Are a lot of people as concerned about the situation as you are?

INTENSITY HOW TROUBLESOME A PROBLEM?

Degree to which people become concerned about a problem

How upset or worried are they about the situation?

DURATION HOW LONG A PROBLEM?

Length of time that a situation has bothered people

Has this situation been troubling other persons, for a long time?

RESOURCES WHAT OR HOW MUCH IS AT STATKE WITH THE EMERGENCE OF PROBLEM?

Costliness of the problem

How much will it cost to remedy the problem, and at whose expense?

Considerations in choosing a research problem

WORKABILITY •Does the contemplated study remain within the limits of your resource and time?

•Will you have access to the necessary sample in the numbers required?

•Can you come up with an answer to the problem?

•Is the required methodology manageable and understandable to you?

CRITICAL MASS •Is the problem of sufficient magnitude and scope to fulfill the requirement that motivated the study in the first place?

•Does the study target enough variables?

•Has it identified enough potential results?

•Will it give enough to write about?


INTEREST •Are you interested in the problem area, specific problem and potential solution?

•Does it relate to your background? To your career interests?

•Will you learn useful skills from pursuing the study?

•Will others be interested in it?

THEORETICAL VALUE

•Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?

•Will others recognize its importance?

•Does it improve upon the state of the art?

•Will it lead to a publishable report?

•Does it help explain why something happened?


PRACTICAL VALUE

•Will the solution to the problem improve police practice?

•Are practitioners likely to be interested in the results?

•Will public safety be changed by the outcome?

•Will your own practice likely change as a result?

Model for Problem Consideration

AVAILABLE INPUTS

ACTIVITIES & ORGANIZATION

ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES

Community perceptions

Anti-corruption tactics

Strategic corruption plan

How to state a research problem?

BROAD:

What is the effect of the family planning program of the

government?

SPECIFIC:

What is the effect of the family planning program on the knowledge,

attitude and practice of family planning among married couples?

BE SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE

(time, place, context)


QUESTION IN A DEBATE:

Should Charter Change be implemented during the term of

President Arroyo?

VIEWS OF A GROUP:

What do masteral students of PCU feel about Charter Change? Are they in favor or against its implementation during the term of President Arroyo?

RAISE QUESTION THAT IS ETHICALLY NEUTRAL

(avoid the word should or ought)


Is the Area Integrated Development approach an effective mechanism to coordinate planning and implementation of development projects?

The study will attempt to evaluate the Integrated Area Development approach as an effective mechanism in coordinating planning and implementation of development projects.

Do students learn more from a directive or non-directive teacher?

The study will investigate whether students learn more from directive than those under a non-directive teacher.

INTERROGATIVE FORM DECLARATIVE FORM

What is the relationship between role learning and officer’s status?

The purpose of the study is to discover the relationship between role learning and officer’s status

ELEMENTS OF PROBLEM FORMULATION

• VARIABLES OF THE STUDY

• HYPOTHESIS

• OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

• MEASURES/INDICATORS

• ASSUMPTIONS

• REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

• RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

WHAT IS A VARIABLE?• Factor as focus in a given study or property being investigated

ATTRIBUTE OBSERVED OR CLASSIFIED

MEASURABLE ASPECT OF A CONCEPT

Nature of participation in a decision making

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Number of activities community members are engaged in

TYPES OF VARIABLES

“What is the impact of devolution on the morale of devolved health workers?”

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

The cause or antecedent condition

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

The assumed effect or consequence of the independent variable

TYPES OF VARIABLES

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:• Variate• Basis• Manipulated• Stimulus

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:• Criterion variable• Result• Measured outcome• Response

CONTROL VARIABLE:• Affects the relationship of the independent and dependent variables

Factor that is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon

Factor that is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable

Factor controlled by the experimenter to cancel out or neutralize any effect they might otherwise have on observed phenomena

TYPES OF VARIABLES

MODERATOR VARIABLE:

• A special type of independent variable

• Factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomena

INTERVENING VARIABLE

• A factor that theoretically affects observed phenomena, but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated

• Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomena

COMBINED VARIABLES


Causes Relationship Effects

CONTROL VARIABLE

MODERATOR VARIABLE

INTERVENING VARIABLE

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

SAMPLE VARIABLES

Among police officers of the same age and intelligence, skill performance is directly related to the number of practice trials, the

relationship being particularly strong among males, but also holding, though less directly, among females.

(Hypothesis indicating practice increases learning)

Independent Variable: Number of practice trials

Dependent Variable : Skill performance

Moderator Variable : Gender

Control Variable : Age and intelligence

Intervening Variable : Learning



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





What is a research hypothesis?• Tentative statement of what is expected to occur

Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more

variables


(cause)

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

(effect)

precedes

RELEVANCE OF HYPOTHESIS• Predictions of the outcome of the study

INTRODUCE THE RESEARCHER’S THINKING AT THE START OF THE STUDY

PROVIDE FORMAT FOR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS,

INTEPRETATION

STRUCTURE THE NEXT STAGES OR PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS

Called working or substantive hypothesis indicate the direction of results

Statement about one or more parameters that are measures of the population

Practical exercises enhances the student’s understanding of a topic over an instructional

approach limited to lecture, discussion and theoretical problem solution.

Mean reading achievement of students taught by Method A equals the mean

reading achievement of the students taught by Method B.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

DIRECTIONAL Nature of expected relationship is stated

Used when the investigator anticipates the specific outcome of the study

• Declarative statement of the results the investigator expects to find

NON-DIRECTIONAL

Researcher believes that there will be a difference of relationship but is unsure about the nature of it

Not very common

Usually either previous research or the experience and intuition of the investigator suggests a

direction

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS• Rationale for the relationship gives meaning to the pattern being established and is normally embodied in the theoretical framework

NULL No existence of effect, of interaction, of relationships, and of difference

Recommended so that errors in accepting or rejecting a hypothesis can be easier avoided; and since it is a statistical hypothesis – it is intended for testing

“There is no significant relationship between age, and knowledge, attitude

and practice (KAP) scores on family planning among

married couples of reproductive age

(MCRAs).”

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESISALTERNATIVE Considered the operational

statement of the research hypothesisExpectation based on theory

Non-Directional Form -relationship is posited but the pattern is not indicated

Directional Form –

show positive or direct argument if dealing with variables that can be scored

“There is a relationship between age and KAP scores on family

planning among MCRAs.”

“There is a positive relationship between age and KAP scores

among MCRAs. More specifically, the older MCRAs will have higher

KAP scores than younger MCRAs.”

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS

DIRECTIONAL FORM

A direction of results is implied

“The achievement of high ability officers exceeds that of average ability

officers”

Exceeds

Higher

Positive relationship

Increases

NON-DIRECTIONAL FORM

No direction is specified

“There is no difference between the achievement of average and

high ability officers”

No difference

Equals

The same

No relationship

independent

“THE FORM USED SHOULD BE BASED ON INFORMATION FROM RESEARCH LITERATURE”



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCEPTUAL LEVEL

researchable PRESTIGE

Abstract representation of a phenomenon

OPERATIONAL LEVEL

empirical NO. OF AWARDS

Provide guidelines to assess the variable

translated

Hypothetical criteria

Observable criteria

DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCEPTUAL Theoretical, given in dictionariesAcademic or universal meaning attributable to a word or group of wordsMeaning understood by many peopleMostly abstract or more formalMeaning of a concept by reference to another concept

Farmer – a person who cultivates an agricultural land.

OPERATIONAL Functional definitionProvide understanding and measurement of conceptsHas empirical referents (able to count, measure)Translated into tangible ones – concreteUsed to define variables in the research paradigmMeaning by reference to observable characteristics of reality

Farmer – a person who has cultivated an agricultural land for at least five years.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Indicate the activities or procedures undertaken to measure a variable, especially if it is going to be scored, and may indicate from whom the information is collected

DEFINE THE WAYS BY WHICH A GIVEN VARIABLE WILL BE MEASURED, AND DETERMINE THE TOOLS FOR

ANALYSIS TO PROCESS THE GATHERED DATA

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION

Effect of family planning program refers to the impact of family planning on targeted MCRAs.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Effect of family planning program is based on the change in number of

children couples desire to have before the program was introduced and at

present.



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





MEASURES/INDICATORS• Assignment of numbers to objects to represent amount or degree of property possessed by all objects

STANDARD OF COMPARISON

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT:

• Nominal scale

• Ordinal scale

• Interval scale

• Fixed ratio scale

Scales for measuring variable influence tools for analysis

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTNOMINAL LEVEL

Focus on the qualitative characteristicsCategories under which the elements being observed will be classified

GENDER - Male, Female

RELIGION is based on the respondent’s affiliation with any of the following religious denominations - Catholic, Muslim, Protestant, Aglipay, etc.

• NO ORDER, DISTANCE OR ORIGIN

• CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR STATISTICS

“Indicates that two or more classification are different”

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTORDINAL LEVEL

Not only classifies the elements studied but also attempts to determine which are higher or lower in manifesting an attribute or characteristic, through rankingAssessment does not provide actual score of value to the magnitude of parameters studied

OPENNESS OF LEADERS TO PARTICIPATORY DECISION MAKINGa. Participatory Categoryb. Non-participatory Category

LEADERS CATEGORY RANK A Yes 3 B No 1 C Yes 2 D Yes 5 E Yes 4

“Measurements classification are different and can be ranked”

• ORDER BUT NO DISTANCE & UNIQUE ORIGIN

• ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE STATISTICS

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTINTERVAL SCALE

Scores are assigned to enable quantification of the attribute assessedScore formulated in an arbitrary manner by the researcherScale formulated to depict the actual valueAdvantage of specifying the exact number of units involved in the differentiation instead of relying on the qualitative distinction of who has more or less the attribute


LEADERS CATEGORY RANK INTERVAL SCALE A Yes 3 2.5 B No 1 0 C Yes 2 1.0 D Yes 5 4.5 E Yes 4 3.0Scale: 0 - none at all 1- very little 2 – little 3 – occasionally 4 – much 5 - very much

“With order and numericaly equal distances in the scale”

• Order & distance

• Equality of interval

• Mean, SD, Anova

• Pearson correlation

• t-test, F-test

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTFIXED RATIO SCALE

Enable to score the magnitude of manifestation of a given attribute, similar to interval scale except the assessment is based on standardized zero point


LEADERS NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL FIXED RATIO SCALE SCALE SCALE SCALE A Yes 3 2.5 5 B No 1 0 0 C Yes 2 1.0 4 D Yes 5 4.5 16 E Yes 4 3.5 10

Nominal – whether or not leader encourage participation.Ordinal – how each leader is ranked in relation to the others.Interval – assess each leader in a scale of 0 – 5.Fixed ratio – no. of policies on which staff were involved in decision.

“Absolute zero or true point in addition to equal unit”

• Order, distance, unique origin

• Absolute zero origin

• Majority of statistics

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTRESCALING When evaluating variables at different scale levels

GENDER SALARY

HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW

INDICATORS• Formulated when variables are complex and cannot be adequately measured by just one operational definitions

ATTRIBUTES OR PROPERTIES THAT CHARACTERIZE A

COMPLEX VARIABLE

IMPACT OF PROGRAM – analyzed based on three indicators

1. Reduction in Morbidity – number of diseases reduced2. Cleanliness of Surroundings Unclean - 0 Partly clean - 1 Clean - 23. Sustainability plans Infrastructure facilities - 1 Livelihood - 2 Linkage - 3 Training/capability building - 4 Resource generation/mobilization - 5



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY• Propositions about reality that are not researched on, and instead serve as given in the research investigation

“Primary Health Care (PHC) is one of the innovative strategies introduced under the Marcos

Regime that is still being carried out under the Aquino administration. PHC merits attention as it recognizes the importance of both participatory

and integrated strategies in planning and implementing health care activities.”

THE PROPOSITION THAT PHC IS AN INNOVATIVE STRATEGY IS THE ASSUMPTION OR BASIS OF

FOCUSING ON THE RESEARCH TOPIC.

Sometimes assumptions are not discussed separately, and could be woven into the justification or backgrounder on why

a given topic is the focus of the research.



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





REVIEW OF LITERATURE

KNOWLEDGE HIGHWAY

RESEARCH ABSTRACTS, EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES, INDEXES

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS:Findings, conclusions, implications, recommendations

KNOWLEDGE AREAS:Theories, generalizations, operationalization of variables, research designs, sampling strategies, statistical techniques, data instruments

REVIEW OF LITERATUREAn important component in the preparation of the research proposal and of the research report

PROPOSAL PREPARATION

• Identification of problem• Point gaps in data• Shape theoretical framework• Basis of methodology

REPORT GENERATION

• Details previous investigations• Links research with past efforts• Justifies new researchable area• Gives mastery of information

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Where is the information found?

The specific sources of written reports

Determine what others have learned about similar research problems and gather information relevant to the research problem

What should be done with information after it has been found?

What is made of the information?

What parts of the reported results are relevant to the research problem?

Making judgment about the information for the research report

How information is assembled and summarized

VALUE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Limits and identify the research problem and hypothesis

Providing a context for the research study

Informs what has already been done in the area

Provides research design and methodological procedures

Identifies possible gaps in research

Provides a backdrop for interpreting results of the study

LITERATURE REVIEW POINTERS

Select studies that relate most directly to the problem

Establish the need for the research

Tie together studies so that their relevance is clear

Examine variations in findings and their explanations

Determine if research area reviewed requires extension

Organize according to major points relevant to problem

Indicate relative importance of results from studies

Provide a summary and pull together important points

LITERATURE REVIEW PRESENTATION

SEPARATE HEADING

INCORPORATED WITH THE INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 of research report

• Results of studies brought in

• Decide which references are included

• Information tied together providing context for the problem

• Ideas from literature integrated into a logical discussion focusing on the problem

• At least five (5) number of source references



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY• Rationale for undertaking the study

EMPHASIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF “DOING THE STUDY NOW”

DESCRIBE EXPLICIT BENEFITS THAT WILL ACRRUE FROM THE STUDY

STATE WHO ARE GOING TO USE THE RESULTS AND IN WHAT MANNER

EXPLAIN THE DATA TO BE COLLECTED WILL COMPLETELY MEET THE

IDENTIFIED NEEDS

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY• Refer to the justification of a problem as its significance

THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION

Use literature citations in support of the justification

APPLIED JUSTIFICATION

Applicability of research backstopped by prior studies

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY• Significance of proposed research established on the basis of anticipated outcomes, in the form of products or processes

Contribute to the extension of

knowledge in the area

Fill gaps in the existing

knowledge

Present practical

significance

• What will the results mean to the practitioner?

• Will the results regardless of outcome, influence programs or methods?

• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?

• How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

“RELEVANCE TO PRACTICE & THEORY”



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY• Help integrate the different factors or variables of the study

THEORETICAL CONCEPTUAL

Basis of research problem Set of interrelated concepts, definitions, propositions that presents a systematic view of a phenomena by specifying relations among variables Define problem and link theory of what has been done and said about the problem Shows inconsistencies and gaps

THEORY – body of principles to explain a phenomena

Based on theoretical framework Idea generalized from particular instances New conceptual schemes, models or patterns Provide a representation of the problem Provide interrelationship of variables

CONCEPT – something conceived in the mind

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

IPO FRAMEWORK:

INPUT OUTPUTPROCESS

CAUSE-EFFECT FRAMEWORK:


DEPENDENT VARIABLE

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

CONCEPTUAL MODEL FRAMEWORK:

• Proposed set of linkages between variables, often along a path from input to process to outcome, with the expressed purpose of predicting or accounting for specific outcomes

• Provides expectations about relationships between variables

From such a model, any number of

researchable problems may be identified

Strategic Anti-

Corruption Program

Community Participation

Police Operations

Summation of hypotheses in relation to the title and statement of the problem



• HYPOTHESIS



• ASSUMPTIONS





OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY• Statement of the purpose of investigation

Focused on the desired output or outcome of the study in terms of the

relationship of the variables

PARALLEL TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

TERMS USED

DETERMINE

COMPARE

EVALUATE

GATHER

DESCRIBE

TEST CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

SAMPLING• Process which involve taking a part of the population, making observations on this representative sample, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger population

IDENTIFICATION OF THE POPULATION

SELECTION OF SAMPLE

RESPONDENTS

DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED SAMPLE

SIZE

PROBABILITY SAMPLING STRATEGIES• Elements are randomly selected from a population

BIAS IS AVOIDED IN THE

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• All elements are given an equal chance of being included in the sample

EASILY IMPLEMENTED TO HOMOGENOUS POPULATION

THE LOTTERY METHOD

Names of entire population are written on paper, and a given number of sample are

drawn at random

TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS

Number the list of names of the population and use table

of random numbers to get samples

ALL NAMES IN THE POPULATION SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE SAMPLING FRAME, AND

CONSIDER THE SAMPLE SIZE OF THE POPULATION

SAMPLE SIZE OF THE POPULATION SLOVIN

FORMULA N n = ------------ 1 + Ne2

Where: n - sample size N - population size e - desired margin of error that samples are representative of the populationPOPULATION ±1 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±5 ±10

500

1500

9000

10000

50000

*

*

*

5000

8333

*

*

1957

2000

2381

*

638

989

1000

1087

*

441

584

588

617

222

316

383

385

387

83

94

99

99

100

SAMPLE SIZE OF THE POPULATION LYNCH

FORMULA NZ2 p(1 – p) n = ----------------------- Nd2 + Z2 p (1- p)Where: Z - 1.96 (value of the normal variable for a reliability level of 0.95 in obtaining the sample size) p - 0.50 (proportion of getting a good sample) 1- p - 0.50 (proportion of getting a poor sample) d - .025 or 0.05 or 0.10 (choice of sampling error) N - population size n - sample size

“IN STATISTICAL PARLANCE, THE SAMPLE SIZE DECREASES IN NUMBER AS THE POPULATION SIZE INCREASES, ALTHOUGH THE RELIABILITY LEVEL

IS NOT REDUCED.”

SAMPLE SIZE OF THE POPULATION GAY (1976)

RESEARCH TYPE MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE

Descriptive 10% of the population

Correlational 30 subjects

Causal Comparative 15 subjects per group

Experimental 30 subjects per group

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING• Sampling after every regular interval

Not applicable if it is important to get REPRESENTATION for particular subgroups of the same

population that have different sample sizes

Decide on the sample size Sample size of 200 from a population of

2000

Assign a number to each member of the population

Start with 0001

Divide the population size by the sample size to get sampling interval

Sampling interval is 10

Randomly select a number between the sampling interval as the first sample

Pick number 0003

Add the selected number to the sampling interval to get the second sample

Number 013 is the second

sample

Continue adding the interval to the recently selected number until all the samples are determined

Number 023 is the third sample

*When numbers in the list is exhausted, continue counting from the beginning or pick other number as the next random start.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING• Entails subdividing the population according to a certain characteristics, then select the samples from every subgroups

Useful if there is a need to differentiate the characteristics of a HETEROGENOUS population,

and elements are geographically CONCENTRATED in a given area

*Identify other strata and follow the same process.

Divide population into groups of same stratum Population of 1000

Decide sample size Sample size of 100

Identify the different strata of population Stratify based on gender

Get percentage based on stratum identified First stratum – 200 males (20%) and 800 females (80%)

Multiply percent share by sample size to obtain sample units for the stratum identified

Sample units – 20 males, 80 females

CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING• Random selection of groups in a population who could serve as the respondents of the study or from whom random samples could be drawn

Applied if dealing with populations with HOMOGENOUS characteristics but are geographically DISPERSED in

different parts of the country

Select members of the sample in clusters rather than in using separate individuals

Choose a number of cooperatives from the list of

cooperatives

Known as area sampling since it is based on geographical area

All farmers in the selected list are included in the sample since they belong to the same cooperatives

If the sample is large, randomization of the population of the selected cluster should be applied

Randomly select farmers in the identified cooperatives

“Cluster sampling differs from stratified sampling since all elements in the population are considered in the latter but samples are drawn per group. In cluster sampling, only the randomly selected groups are considered and the bases for

drawing the respondents.”

MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING STRATEGY• Possible to use a combination of approaches in determining the sample size in accordance with features of the population

POPULATION CHARACTERISTIC(heterogenous or

homogenous)

GEOGRAPHIC SPREAD

(concentrated or dispersed)

Stratify by islands

Cluster sample

province per island

Cluster sample

barangay per

province

Stratify responden

ts per barangay

Random selection

of responden

ts per stratum

Variation in Culture

Homogenous province

Homogenous

barangay

Variation of characteris

tics

Sample size

SAMPLING STRATEGIES• Appropriate to features of population

PERSONAL ATRRIBUTES

GEOGRAPHIC SPREAD

SAMPLING STRATEGIES

Homogenous Concentrated

Dispersed

1. Simple or systematic sampling

1. Cluster sampling


Heterogenous Concentrated

Dispersed

1. Stratified sampling


1. Stratified sampling

2. Cluster sampling


NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING• Entails the identification of participants in the study based on criteria spelled-out by the researcher

APPLIED WHEN DIFFICULT TO ESTIMATE THE POPULATION –

MOBILE/TRANSITORYUSEFUL IN DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES

WITH QUALITATIVE THRUST

NOT POSSIBLE TO APPLY STATISTICAL THEORY TO GENERALIZE POPULATION

AND TO PROVE SAMPLE ACCURACY

MORE ECONOMICAL AND EASIER TO IMPLEMENT – NO POPULATION

ESTIMATE

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TYPES•

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

REFERRAL SAMPLING

QUOTA SAMPLING

Use of elements who are readily available to respond to questions – LRT survey

Researcher’s judgment as basis for selecting the element –

qualitative studies

Similar to stratified sampling but selection of elements per

stratum is not random

Having a respondent refer other people to answer questions –

sensitive topics

PROBLEMS IN SAMPLING FRAME• Non-probability sampling resorted to due to difficulty in defining the sampling frame

MISSING ELEMENTS

INTRUSIVE ELEMENTS

DOUBLE ELEMENTS

Sampling frame may not contain updated list of population -

residence

Elements included but should not be part of the list - family

Name of a respondent is double-listed – single/married female

In instances, where probability sampling cannot be applied in various groups due to sensitivity of a topic, non-probability sampling may be resorted to. However, it is important to

define the criteria for preferring groups over others. Then, the final elements of the study could be based on probability

sampling.”

TYPES OF RESEARCH AS TO PURPOSE

Basic Research/Pure/Fundamental- has a general purpose. It aims to add something to existing body of knowledge in the discipline. It does not necessarily provide immediate or practice use.

Applied / Technological Research-used to solve an immediate or practical problem.

TYPES OF RESEARCH AS TO METHOD/GENERAL METHODOLOGY

Qualitative Research – describes phenomena in words instead of numbers on measures. Conditions are studied in their natural setting.

Ethnographic study is an example.

Quantitative Research- is done to determine relationships, Effects and causes. It places a high value on outcomes and products w/c can be measured objectively.

In thesis/ dissertation, qualitative and quantitative can be both used in the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

METHODS OF RESEARCH/ R ESEARCH METHODS

1.) Historical Research- accumulation of facts in relations to a particular time sequence to determine whether events in history actually happen.

- Describe what occurred in the past and then makes a critical inquiry into the truth of what occurred.

- You want to find the truth about what happened long ago.

Gathering of documentary evidence Subjecting the evidence to criticism and

verification Writing the report

3 procedures are involved

2.Desccriptive Research- consist of a set of gathered data or information analyzed, summarized and interpreted along certain line of thought for the pursuant of specific purpose or study.

- It purports to present facts concerning the nature or status or anything.

-You want to find the current status or present condition of a topic.

3 ways of gathering this type of data:

interviews use of descriptive survey instruments observation

TYPES OF RESEARCH AS TO VENUE

Library research Laboratory research Field research

TYPES OF RESEARCH AS TO SUBJECT

Psychological Sociological Educational Business

Types of Descriptive Research

There are Seven types of descriptive research. these are (1) descriptive-survey, (2) descriptive-normative, (3) descriptive-status, (4) descriptive-analysis (5) descriptive-comparative, (6) correlational-survey and (7) logitidunal surveys.

Descriptive-survey. “This approach is appropriate wherever the object of any class vary among themselves and one is interest in knowing the extent to which different conditions obtain among these objects.” (Good and Seates, 1972). the word survey signifies the gathering of data regarding present conditions. a survey is useful in: (1) proving the value if facts, and (2) focusing attention on the most important things to be reported. for instance, a researcher wants to determine the problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors in relation to administration and supervision, instructional materials, teacher factor, and student factor. the researcher uses a questionnaire as his measuring instrument in gathering and collecting data. each item in the questionnaire may be rated according to four levels to be chosen by the subjects or respondents namely, 4, of very much concern; 3, of much concern; 2, of less concern, and 1, of no concern at all. the weighted arithmetic mean is the statistical tool used to determine the problems met by the Science and Mathematics instructors and professors.

Descriptive-normative survey. Good and Seates (1972) stressed that “the term normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain the normal or typical condition (or practice), or to compare local test results with a state or national norms.”

Descriptive-status. This approach to problem-solving seeks to answer questions to real facts relating to existing conditions. this is technique of quantitative descriptive which determines the prevailing.

Descriptive analysis. this method determines or describes the nature of an object by separating it into parts. Its purpose it to discover the nature of things. in Chemistry, descriptive analysis means the determination of the kind, quantity, and proportions of constituents forming a compound or substances. it aims to discover the nature of things.

Descriptive-classification. This method is employed in natural scences subjects such as Botany, Zoology, Biology, Ichthyology, Conchology and the like. the specimens collected are classified from phylum to species.

Descriptive-evaluative. This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.

Descriptive-comparative. It is a “comparative survey where the researcher considers at least two entities (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is better.” (De Jesus et al., 1984)

Types of Hypothesis

There are two types of hypothesis, namely null (H0) and the alternative (H1). these hypotheses are always stated in declarative sentence form.

The null hypothesis (H0) is a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a difference of an effect.” (Ardales, 1992). It is always stated in a negative form. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis is an affirmation of the existence of an observed phenomenon.

Theoretical and Conceptual FrameworkSome thesis/dissertation writers use both the

theoretical and the conceptual framework, however, it is advisable to use only one, either the theoretical or the conceptual framework.

Both theoretical and conceptual frameworks provide clear explanations regarding the relationships of variables. “the fact that variables can shown to be associated but does not guarantee that the relationship of variables has significance.” (de Jesus et al., 1984), Hence, research study must have theoretical framework as a legal basis to describe properly the process of the study.

Definition of Terms (arranged in alphabetical order)

This is necessary in order for the researcher and the reader to be thinking in terms of the same thing.

Important words used in the research are defined, arranged alphabetically and stated in complete sentences.

Conceptual definition – that which is given in dictionaries.

Operational definition – words are defined according to how it is used.

What is a research design?

MAP OF THE STRUCTURE FOR THE CONDUCT OF INVESTIGATION

DESCRIPTIVE Describe the individual variables

REGRESSION AND CORRELATION

Establish the relationship of several variables under study

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Define the differences among variables in the study

RESEARCH DESIGNS• According to type of research problem and overall research approach

APPROACH DESCRIPTIVE EXPLANATORY RELATIONAL

EXPLANATORY CAUSAL

QUANTITATIVE SURVEY SURVEY ExperimentalQuasi-ExperimentsPre-experimental survey

QUALITATIVE Case Study

Historical

Comparative Case StudiesHistorical

Comparative Case StudiesHistorical

SURVEY is the common approach for quantitative types of research that focus on descriptive research problem and the explanatory-relational type.

THE SURVEY METHOD• Study in the natural setting wherein the researcher can not manipulate the event nor control extraneous variables

RESEARCHPAST

PRESENT

FUTURE

RECONSTRUCTION OF PAST EVENTS

PREDICTION OF PROSPECTIVE EVENTS

ALLOW STUDY OF MANY VARIABLES

PERMIT STUDY OF MANY RESPONDENTS

SUMMARIZE DATA INTO NUMBERS

Identify study focus

Determine samples

Identify time of survey

SURVEY FOR DESCRIPTIVE PURPOSE• Quantify facts based on a large number of elements drawn from the population

CHARACTERIZE WHAT A GIVEN GROUP

MIGHT THINK OR BELIEVE IN

QUALITIES OF A PRESIDENT

SURVEY FOR RELATIONAL PURPOSE• Groups compared in terms of a particular variable to show that the dependent variable is affected more often in one group than in the other

SHOW RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES

DEMOGRAPHIC

POLITICAL

SOCIO-FACTORS

ATTITUDE TOWARDS A

POLICY

SURVEY FOR CAUSATIVE PURPOSES• Require comparison groups to demonstrate the impact of an independent variable

STATIC GROUP COMPARISON

Measurements taken after the event has taken place

Criteria set to refine comparability of

groups(MBN – income level)

PANEL DESIGN2 or more groups compared at points in time as events occur

Assess improvements over time

(GO/NGO efforts)

CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGNRespondents not assessed over

time but asked to recollect

Individual ability to recollect the past or

personal experiences is critical

TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

DIRECT OBSERVATION

DIRECT INTERACTION

Persons may be conscious or unaware that information is being collected

Interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions

“Direct observation may also be combined with interviews and focus group discussion

techniques.”

TYPES OF DIRECT OBSERVATION

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

Variables or factors for the study are more delineated – leader demeanor

Due to lack of specificity in variables, researcher captures as much as he can

INTERVIEWS• Encompass a set of questions raised through person-to-person or telephone interaction between interviewers and respondents

STANDARDIZED INTERVIEW

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

Use a well-structured instrument called interview schedule

Use list of key topics as guide called interview guide - qualitative

• Ease of getting respondent’s cooperation• Applied to illiterates• Opportunity to clarify questions• Researcher’s understanding of answers to questions• Ascertain identity of respondents• Can raise open-ended questions which need probing

Principles to be considered in constructing the questionnaire

The questionnaire must be adequately sponsored either by the school, entity or any individual interest in its success.

The purpose of the study must be frankly stated in the note to the respondents.

The questionnaire must be well organized and within the comprehension of those who are to answer it.

The questionnaire must be on a worthy educational topic worth investigating.

The questionnaire must be clearly and briefly worded. Most questions should be briefly answered with a check mark or by a

fact or figure and the numbers of questions requiring extensive subjective replies be kept to a minimum.

The information requested is not available elsewhere and is obtainable only through the questionnaire.

The questionnaire must be set up in a proper mechanical form.

The demands of the questionnaire must be reasonable. The questionnaire should require a minimum amount of

writing only. The questionnaire must be directed primarily to matters

ascertainable fact and less often to matters of opinion. All aspects of the subject matter must be covered by the

questionnaire. Sampling of questions and persons answering the

questionnaire must be attended to; that all of the aspects of the problem are covered and all regions of the study are represented.

The questionnaire must apply to the situation of the respondent.

Questions in the questionnaire must elicit unequivocal replied especially if these are later to be subject to statistical treatment.

QUESTIONNAIRES

• Instrument that embodies a set of questions asked in a standardized manner to each respondent who fills out the instrument

• LESS EXPENSIVE• WIDER COVERAGE OF RESPONDENTS• ANONYMITY OF RESPONDENTS MAINTAINED• ANSWER AT RESPONDENT’S CONVENIENCE

RULES IN QUESTION FORMULATION• For interview schedule and questionnaire

1 Purpose must be clearly stated in the instrument.

2 Directions on how to answer the questions must be very clear.

3 Questions must be clear and unequivocal.

4 A question should cover only one topic at a time.

5 Respondents must be in a position to answer questions.

6 Avoid influencing respondents to answer in a particular way.

7 Avoid posing embarrassing questions.

8 Arrange questions in a logical order – time, general to specific.

9 Items in instrument must cover all variables of the study.

10 Translate the instrument into the dialect of the respondents.

PRE-TESTING THE INSTRUMENT

• Indicate whether the questions are understood by the respondents, and are posed in such a way that respondents are not embarrassed or turned off

PRETESTS ADMINISTERED IN SAME LOCALE WHERE RESPONDENTS WILL BE CHOSEN

PRETESTS DONE FROM A GROUP OUTSIDE OF SAMPLING FRAME BUT WITH SAME

CHARACTERISTICS

STRUCTURED OR CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

Dichotomous Question offering 2 answer choices

In arranging the trip, did you personally phone Delta? ___Yes ___ No

Multiple choice Question offering 3 or more answer choices

With whom are you traveling on this flight? ___ No one ___ Children only ____ Spouse

Likert scale Statement with which the respondent shows the amount of agreement or disagreement

Small airlines generally give better service than large ones. 1 __Strongly Disagree 2 __Disagree 3 __Neither agree or disagree 4 ___Agree 5 __Strongly agree

Semantic differential scale

Scale is inscribed between two bi-polar words, and respondent selects the point that represents the direction and intensity of his feelings

DELTA AIRLINES

Large :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: Small Modern :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: Old

Importance scale Scale that rates the importance of some attribute from ‘not all important’ to ‘extremely important’

Airline food service to me is:

1__Extremely important 2__Very important 3__Somewhat important 4__Not very imp. 5__Not all important

Rating scale Scale that rates some attribute from ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’

Delta’s food service is:

1__Excellent 2__Very good 3__Good 4__Fair 5__Poor

UNSTRUCTURED OR OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONSCompletely unstructured

Questions that respondents can answer in an almost unlimited number of ways

What is your opinion of Delta Airline? _______________________________

Word association

Words are presented, one at a time and respondents mention the first word that comes to mind

What is the first word that comes to mind when you hear the following:

Airline ____ Delta ______ Travel _____

Sentence completion

Incomplete sentences are presented, one at a time and respondents complete the sentence

When I choose an airline, the most important consideration in my decision is ______________________________

Story completion

An incomplete story is presented and respondents are asked to complete it

I flew Delta a few days ago. I noticed the plane exterior and interior had very bright colors. This aroused in me the following thoughts and feeling. Complete the story.

Picture completion

A picture of two characters is presented, with one making a statement. Respondents are asked to identify with the other and fill in to the empty balloon

Fill in the empty balloon.

Person A Person B

Thematic apperception tests

A picture is presented and respondents are asked to make up a story about what they think is happening or may happen in the picture

Make up a story about what you see.

Here’s the food

DATA PROCESSING• Transforming data into a form that will facilitate data analysis and interpretation

CATEGORIZATION

CODING

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS

DATA CATEGORIZATION• Normally, categories are incorporated in the interview schedule or questionnaire for fixed alternative types of questions

GENDER:

Male Female

DATA CATEGORIZATION1. For open-ended questions, categorization is undertaken after data collection.

NO. REASON FOR NOT VOTING CATEGORY TOTAL NOS.

1 I don’t believe it will do anything. Lack of faith in the process 4 1,4,5,6

2 I don’t know my precinct. Unfamiliarity with precinct 1 2

3 No answer. Physical incapacity 3 7,8,10

4 It’s a waste of time. I don’t agree with it. Other reasons 1 9

5 It will not do anything anyway. No answer 1 4

6 A big palabas. I don’t have faith it will do any good.

7 Paralyzed na ko.

8 I gave birth to a baby boy on same day.

9 Nobody could attend to my baby.

10 I was down with flu.

Develop a set of category from the list of responses.

Mutually exclusive – response can be subsumed in only one category.Inclusive – all responses can be subsumed in categories formulated.

DATA CATEGORIZATION2. For fixed ratio or interval scale, categories can be formulated according to cut-off scores for certain variables from reputable sources.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CLASSIFICATION:

Elementary - 7 to 12 years oldHigh School - 13 to 16 years old

DATA CATEGORIZATION2. In case there is no conceptual basis for the formulation of categories, use the following formula:

Highest Score – Lowest Score + 1 Interval = ------------------------------------------------- Number of Classes

Total number of activities a respondent is engaged in, with a range of scores from 1 to 9, and where the desired number of classes or category is 3, the interval is (9 – 1 + 1)/3 = 3.

Thus, the lower limit for the first category is 1. For the second, it is 1 plus 3 (the interval), which makes 4. So, category would be:

LOW - 1 - 3MEDIUM - 4 - 6 HIGH - 7 – 9

SCALE OF A VARIABLE

• Set of categories or range of scores on a variable

Interval scale requires the researcher to assign values along

various points in the scale

SCALING TECHNIQUE

Process of assigning scores to objects to yield a

measure of a variable

RULES IN SCALE FORMULATION

RULE #1:

Make sure the items formulated are related to the variables being studied.

Resource person’s effectiveness in

capability building program

INSTRUCTIONAL ABILITY not how the speaker dresses


RULE #2:

Principle of unidimensionality – each item in a scale should focus on one attribute at a time

AVOID RAISING DOUBLE-BARRELED

QUESTIONS


RULE #3:

Items constructed should be able to differentiate people along different points in the continuum, from one extreme to the other.

Question:

What do you think about the issue of computerizing electoral results?

Strongly Disagree Nuetral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 2 3 4 5


RULE #4:

In scoring items in a scale, assign equal units from one point of the continuum to another.

Question:

What do you think about the issue of computerizing electoral results?

Strongly Disagree Nuetral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 2 2.5 4 5

GRAPHIC RATING SCALE

• Rater indicates his assessment of the element being evaluated by placing a marking (check or X-mark)

Very VerySatisfactory (CONTINUUM) Unsatisfactory

VARIANTS – Use of boxes

1 2 3 4 5

VARIANTS – Two polar position

1 2 3 4 5VS US

Assumed respondent can & will make good judgment

ITEMIZED RATING SCALE

• Made up of a set of categories that are organized according to scale position on a continuum with a corresponding score given for each category

______ Very Satisfactory (5) ______ Satisfactory (4) ______ Neutral (3) ______ Unsatisfactory (2) ______ Very unsatisfactory (1)

Some statements may not say exactly what the respondent would

like to express

RANKING SCALE

• Respondent directly compares two or more objects and make choices among them

______ Pepsi Cola ______ Coca Cola ______ Fanta ______ Sarsi Cola ______ Virgin Cola

Useful in determining priority

COMPARATIVE RATING SCALE

• Requires rater to compare an element with a group with known characteristics

Rank-Order the element with respect to a few others:

Of the past two mayors in this municipality, how would you rank Mayor Belmonte in relation to Mayor Mathay and Mayor Dela Cruz in terms of their openness in accepting ideas of NGOs in local development council meetings?

Indicate their rank order in the following list with 1 as most open:

RANK NAME OF MAYOR 1 ________________ 2 ________________ 3 ________________

For bigger group being compared, its position in relation to the top or poor performing elements could be determined:

How would you rate Mayor Belmonte in relation to other mayors in the province in terms of openness to the ideas of NGOs in local development council meetings?

Circle the number that responds to your answer: 1 2 3Belongs to Belongs to Below the top 10% the top 20% the top 20%

SUMMATED SCALE

• Consists of several items showing either a favorable or unfavorable response to the person, event, concept or object being assessed

RATER RESPONDS TO ALL ITEMS BY INDICATING A CERTAIN DEGREE

OF AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT ALONG A

CONTINUUM, USUALLY RANGING FROM 1 TO 5 POINTS

Likert Scale treated as interval scale

SUMMATED SCALE PROCESS

TRIAL ITEM SA A N D SD

a. Delivers service on time ___ ___ ___ ___ ___b. Treats clients fairly ___ ___ ___ ___ ___c. Delivers responsive service to my needs ___ ___ ___ ___ ___d. Show concern when I talk ___ ___ ___ ___ ___e. Is fluent in speaking dialect ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

1. Items are assembled according to the attitude being investigated.

2. Respondents are made to indicate either agreement or disagreement to all the items.


3. Total score is obtained by adding item scores. The mean may also be used to determine the profile of the one evaluated.

If there is a total of 5 trial items, the highest possible

score is 25.

TRIAL ITEM SA A N D SD

a. Delivers service on time ___ ___ ___ ___ ___b. Treats clients fairly ___ ___ ___ ___ ___c. Delivers responsive service to my needs ___ ___ ___ ___ ___d. Show concern when I talk ___ ___ ___ ___ ___e. Is fluent in speaking dialect ___ ___ ___ ___ ___


4. The items that are finally selected are those that show a difference between the high scorers and the low scorers in the pretest.

Items that are finally selected are those that show to be consistently high in ratings and consistently low in ratings.

TRIAL ITEM

SA A N D SD SA A N D DS

a 28 2 3 27

b 25 5 1 4 24

c 26 4 1 29

d 27 2 1 3 27

e 5 3 10 3 9 5 6 10 7 2

Scores of High Performer (30 raters)

Scores of Low Performer (30 raters)

Discard trial item number ‘e’ since the two ratees have not been consistently marked as high performer and poor performer.


• Sample survey of 30 persons

Scale – (1) excellent; (2) very good; (3) good; (4) poor; (5) very poor

ITEM E (1) VG (2) G (3) P (4) VP (5)

A 25 5

B 10 10 10

C 15 10 5

D 15 15

E 30


• Sample survey of 30 persons

Multiply the number of raters in Item ‘a’ by the weight of the response per column:

ITEM E (1) VG (2) G (3) P (4) VP (5)

A 25 10

B 10 20 30

C 15 20 15

D 15 30

E 30

3560

50

45

30

Sum up the weighted score per item: 220

Mean score per rater: 220/30 = 7.3

Mean score per item: 7.3/5 =1.46

FACTOR SCALE

• Semantic differential scale consists of several scales instead of one scale composed of several items

EACH SCALE IS A BI-POLAR

OBJECTIVE PAIR ON A SEVEN-

POINT CONTINUUM

1. Identify the concepts to be rated.

EFFECTIVENESS

PARTICIPATIVENESS

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

2. Select the appropriate adjective pairs to depict the concept or concepts.

EFFECTIVENESS:Competent :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: IncompetentFair :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: UnfairFast :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: SlowUncaring :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: CaringIncapable :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: Capable

OPENNESS TO PARTICIPATION:Open :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: DogmaticMotivating :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: StiflingPoor listener :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: Good listenerDictatorial :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: Liberal

3. Scores can be analyzed for differences between concepts (effectiveness and participativeness), between scales (technical preparation and rapport with clients), and the overall components of the scale.

TAILOR-MADE SD SCALE

Semantic differential scale for analyzing candidates for leadership position

Sociable (7) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (1) UnsociableWeak (1) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (7) StrongActive (7) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (1) PassiveProgressive (7) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (1) RegressiveSlow (1) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (7) FastOpen (7) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (1) DogmaticMotivating (7) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (1) StiflingPoor listener (1) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (7) Good listenerDictatorial (1) :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: (7) Liberal


DEPENDENT ON THE VARIABLE AND RESEARCH PROBLEM


DEPENDENT ON THE VARIABLE

NOMINAL Percentage Chi-Square test

ORDINAL Analysis of Variance

INTERVAL Arithmetic Mean Standard Deviation Product Moment Correlation Analysis of Variance t-test F-test

FIXED RATIO Majority of statistical techniques

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Respondents Frequency Percent

MALE 100 40

FEMALE 150 60

Total 250 100

NOMINAL VARIABLES

• UNIVARIATES TABLES, AND CHARTS

• Proportions, percentages, and ratios are used to aggregate the information for every category of the variable.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

PERCENT

MALE

FEMALE

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

NOMINAL VARIABLES

NOMINAL VARIABLES:

• Univariate tables and charts may be used in simplifying data

• Proportions, percentages, and ratios are used to aggregate the information for every category of the variable.

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES:With assigned scores or values

•Central tendency or general patterns can be shown by the mean, median or mode

• Dispersion or variations can be shown by standard deviation and range.

APPLICATION OF STATISTICSEXPLANATORY RESEARCH PROBLEM

TWO NOMINAL VARIABLES:

• Chi-Square Test applied based on a bivariate or two-dimensional table

• Chi-Square Test can read only the significance of the relationship of two variables being examined but will not read the pattern of relationship. Analysis of percentages or proportions must be applied to show the pattern of relationship.

60

40

100

120

80

200

80

20

100

80

20

100

Got involved

Uninvolved

TOTAL

PERCENTFREQUENCYPERCENTFREQUENCY

MALEFEMALEMALENATURE OF PARTICIPATION


60

40

100

120

80

200

80

20

100

80

20

100

Got involved

Uninvolved

TOTAL



ANALYSIS OF TABLE – compute % downward & read data sideways.

Eighty percent of males got involved and 20 percent of them were uninvolved. On the other hand, among the females, 60 percent were involved as against 40 percent who were uninvolved.

Eighty percent of males got involved in community activities as against only 60 percent of the females. The data indicate that males, more than females, participate in community activities.


60

40

100

120

80

200

80

20

100

80

20

100

Got involved

Uninvolved

TOTAL



INTERPRETATION – bring in the theoretical foundation of the hypothesis embodied in the theoretical framework; an explanation for the pattern observed.

More males than females may be involved in community activities since males are expected to assume external responsibilities. Women, on the other hand, may be tied down to household chores, and therefore, find difficulty in engaging with additional responsibilities outside of the home.


52

48

100

130

120

250

61.5

38.5

100

160

100

260

High

Low

TOTAL


MALEFEMALEMALELEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT

NOMINAL and CONTINUOUS VARIABLES:

• Option 1 – reduce the continuous variable to a nominal variable. Then, apply a chi-square test.

Computed chi-square is 4.30; ⍺ = 0.04


NOMINAL and CONTINUOUS VARIABLES:

• Option 2 – obtain the mean of the continuous variable per category of the independent variable, applying either a difference of means test (Z-test and t-test), or an analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Obtain mean level of involvement – Male (4.8); Female (3.5)

Males and females differ significantly in the level of participation. Males demonstrate a mean level of involvement of 4.8 vis-à-vis females with a mean of 3.5. This is statistically borne out by a difference of means test with a Z of 3.5 (alpha of .0002). Thus, it can be argued here that gender is related to the level of community involvement, with males manifesting a higher level than females.


TWO OR MORE CONTINUOUS VARIABLES:

• Correlation or Linear Regression – for two continuous variables

• Multiple Regression – for more than two continuous variables

CORRELATION TEST

• The pattern of relationship is indicated by the positive or negative valence in the test result (r value) ranging from -1 to +1

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY:

Computed value of r = +.35Critical value = +/- .3065, with an alpha of .05

“Increase in educational attainment corresponds to increase in participation to community activities.”

Computed value of r = -.35

“The higher the educational attainment, the lower the level of participation.”

REGRESSION ANALYSIS

• R squared or coefficient of determination indicates the percentage of time the independent variable influences the dependent variable

• Regression coefficient can predict the value of y if x-value is varied

• Regression coefficient can indicate the pattern of relationship – positive or inverse

• Many independent variables can be included in the test

• LINEAR AND MULTIPLE REGRESSION

LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

• Study of two variables

Cars (x) Speed (y), kph

3

1

4

5

7

64

71

61

58

56

LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Variable Regression Coefficient

Standard Error

t-test Prob.

Cars

Constant

R squared = .94

R = - .97

- 2.55

72.20

0.36 - 7.005 .006

REGRESSION TEST

Source Sum of Squares

D. F. Mean Square

F ratio Prob.

Regression

Residual

Total

130.05

7.95

138.00

1

3

130.03

2.65

49.075 5.973E-03

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

• Significant relationship based on F ratio of 49.075 at alpha = .005• 94% of the time, x will influence y based from r squared• Influence of x on y is inverse• If the no. Of cars is 2.55, speed will be 72.20

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS• Demonstrate the significance of various independent variables in relation to a dependent variable

.0138

.5607

.0080

.55142

.00000

.65076

-.603

5.76

.458

3.662E-02

.24

1.110E-03

- 2.21E-02

1.37

5.085E-04

-.86

Age

Education

Income

Constant

Partial R2Prob. Errort-testStandard Coefficient

RegressionVariable

Standard Error of the Estimate = 1.72

Adjusted R2 = .62

R = .79

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

F ratio = 13.953; probability = 1.289E-05

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSISVariable Regression Standard

Coefficientt-test Prob. Error Partial R2

Age

Education

Income

Constant

- 2.21E-02

1.37

5.085E-04

.86

3.662E-02

.24

1.110E-03

-.603

5.76

.458

.55142

.00000

.65076

.0138

.5607

.0080

F ratio = 13.953; probability = 1.289E-05

• MODEL FITS – at least one independent variable influences the dependent variable since F test yields a significant level of .00001

• EDUCATION INFLUENCE DEPENDENT VARIABLE – indicated by t-test result with significance level of .00000. Other factors have low significance

• POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND INVOLVEMENT – shown by regression coefficient that an average grade improvement of 1.37 can yield a mean involvement of .86

• AGE AND INCOME DO NOT MATTER – in motivating a person to get involved

• NET INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION – 56% as based from partial R2. Other variables are insignificant with only 1.38% of the dependent variable attributed to age while 0.8% for income.

• INFLUENCE OF FACTORS – 58% based from the R2

LINEAR REGRESSION • Estimates the coefficients of the linear equation, involving one or more independent variables, that best predict the value of the dependent variable

“Is the number of games won by a basketball team in a season related to the average number of points the team

scores per game?”

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Age

Education

Years of experience

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Total yearly sales of a salesperson

VARIABLE MODEL

Number of valid cases Mean Standard deviation

Regression coefficients Correlation matrix Analysis of variance

STATISTICS

LOGISTIC REGRESSION • To predict the presence or absence of a characteristic or outcome based on values of a set of predictor variables; and suited to models where the dependent variable is dichotomous

“What lifestyle characteristics are risk factors for coronary heart disease? How

much more likely smokers are to develop CHD than non-smokers”


Smoking status

Diet

CHD status

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Presence or absence of CHD

VARIABLE MODEL

Coefficient Standard error

Goodness-of-fit Chi-square Correlation

STATISTICS

COX REGRESSION • For modeling time-to-event data in the presence of censored cases

“Do men and women have different risks of developing lung cancer based

on cigarette smoking?”

Predict effects of gender and cigarette usage on time-to-onset for lung cancer


Educational level

Job category

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Length of employment

VARIABLE MODEL

Parameter estimates Standard errors

Likelihood-ratio statistic Overall chi-square

STATISTICS

FACTOR ANALYSIS • Attempts to identify underlying factors that explain the pattern of correlations within a set of observed variables; and seeks to identify a small number of factors that explain most of the variance

“What underlying attitudes lead people to respond to the questions on a

political survey as they do?”


List of attitudes

DEPENDENT VARIABLE:

Responses

VARIABLE MODEL

Number of valid cases Mean Standard deviation

Correlation matrix of variables Factor coefficient matrix Factor covariance

STATISTICS