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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Two Concepts of International Organization

Jan Klabbers

One:

There is something of a debate going on about international

organizations, with many people (politicians as well as

academics) planning mechanisms to curtail the activities of

international organizations !nd small wonder, with "#

peace$eepers being routinely accused of involvement in se%ual

abuse and other violations of human rights& with the 'ecurity

ouncil being regarded as the vehicle for "' grudges& with

the orld *an$ and the +- being seen to somehow affect human

rights& with the TO being viewed as the hand maiden of

global capitalism, and with the ."/s reluctance to ta$e human

rights and democracy really seriously

any of these attempts to curtail the activities of

international organizations ta$e the form of insisting, along

models developed within states, on some $ind of formal

limits: where organizations e%ercise governmental tas$s,

their activities, 0ust li$e those of governments under the

1ule of 2aw, ought to be sub0ect to standards Those

standards may be internal to the organization (limits to

their mandates), or e%ternal (they are e%pected to adhere to

international law and human rights standards), and are oftensummarized under the heading of constitutionalism There is,

3uite obviously, much of value in this constitutionalism

debate, but on occasion it would seem to miss the point +t

is not 0ust the case that constitutionalism involves,

eventually, a set of parado%es that undermine it in a

fundamental way& it is also the case that constitutionalism

may end up throwing out the baby with the bathwater, for it

wor$s, as so much of the law on international organizations

does, on a flat, one4dimensional picture of organizations +t

presupposes, in other words, that there is but a single

concept of international organization, and aims its arrows atthat concept *ut in doing so it misses part of the picture:

there is a second concept of international organizations

Two:

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of the +2O, who held that 8international organizations

must remain constant in their fidelity to the principles of

ob0ectivity and vigor in pursuing the goals of wor$ing for

improved international understanding and for peace8 The

march towards heaven would be unstoppable& nothing less thanthe 6salvation of man$ind/ would depend on international

organizations, to use #agendra 'ingh/s phrase +mportantly,

this managerial concept is also 3uite intolerant:

instrumental as it is, it cannot tolerate the thought of

other concepts being e3ually useful !s an emanation of what

ichael Oa$eshott refers to as rationalism, it has to insist

that there cannot be any alternatives Or rather, that such

alternative way of organizing as do e%ist are bound to be

inferior This first, managerial, concept plays out in a

variety of ways within international organizations +t

results, eg, in depoliticization of political issues& itleads to deformalization of decision4ma$ing, and it results

in the use of e%pert bodies and what in .urope is so

characteristically called 6comitology/

Three:

There is, however, and always has been, a second concept of

international organization This is the concept of the

international organization as a classical agora: a public

realm in which international issues can be debated and,

perhaps, decided any have recognized, however implicitly

perhaps, that there is this dimension as well tointernational organizations, and about as many tend to scorn

it +ts discontents say that it leads to the organization

being (no more than) a platform for discussion, where things

cannot 0ust get done, and 0ust cannot get done ! recent TO

1eport sums up the general mood well when it complains that

8;o<n a day4to4day basis, the TO has become too much of a

tal$ing shop8 !ll tal$, and no action& surely this is

anathema to the managerial concept

The agora concept signifies a less progressive, less

optimistic, less modernist vision on international

organizations On this view, international organizations are

not created to solve any particular problems, much less to

save man$ind +nstead, they are created as fora where states

can meet, e%change ideas, and discuss their common future,

not necessarily with a view to solving problems, or indeed

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even reaching an outcome, but merely for the sa$e of debate

itself

-our:

To identify two concepts of international organization is,perhaps, not a terribly novel discovery 'omething along

these lines clearly underlies the classic argument about 7!TT

and TO that they started out as debating clubs, and became

more 0uridical and effective along the way: this argument

presupposes that there is such a thing as linear progress in

political matters The two concepts are also faintly

reminiscent of the balance

Joseph eiler has observed between the political and

0uridical organs of the .uropean ommunity and later, the

TO, or =avid Kennedy/s invocation of the law 4 politics

dichotomy in the establishment of the 2eague of #ations, orthe suggestion by artti Kos$enniemi that political organs

may $eep each other in chec$ These are eminently more

plausible than the idea of a linear progress, but not 3uite

what + have in mind hat + have in mind comes a lot closer

to the distinction made by the *ritish political philosopher

ichael Oa$eshott between societas and universitas Oa$eshott

used these two notions to describe and analyze variations in

the modern state since the >?th century -or Oa$eshott,

societas referred to agents related to each other, usually on

the basis of a pact or agreement, by bonds of loyalty The

loyalty would not be loyalty to a common pro0ect, but ratherto legality: the members of such a societas were 8related to

one another in the continuous ac$nowledgement of the

authority of rules of conduct indifferent to the pursuit or

the achievement of any purpose8 *y contrast, universitas

denotes a purposive association of people, people banding

together in order to achieve a common purpose, to attain an

ac$nowledged end, or to promote a specific interest

Oa$eshott/s contention is not so much that one concept

evolves into another (and at any rate, it is clear where his

sympathies lie), but rather that the tension between the two

concepts 8is central to the understanding of the character of

a modern .uropean state and the office of its government8

Mutatis mutandis, + thin$ the same applies to the law of

international organizations, much of which can be understood

as the result of the interplay or tension between the two

different concepts of international organization Thus, the

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fear of losing control On the other hand, as soon as the

agora concept ta$es over, states ta$e their business

elsewhere: it is 0ust too attractive to get away from

politics, and to thin$ in terms of 6getting things done/ and

6the end 0ustifies the means/ !nd that is, of course,thoroughly understandable: who would not wish to see their

vision on the good life successfully e%ecuted, preferably in

a legitimate manner but, if necessary, also by less than

legitimate meansA

'even:

The two concepts of international organization, then, are

interrelated, and much of the law is shaped in the interplay

between them, but together they do not form an airtight

system of communicating barrels +nformal mechanisms may

appear, unilateralism may appear, and vertical systems(governance by topic rather than by territory) may appear

!nd all of those may appear simultaneously and vie for

prominence& there is no a priori reason why, say, the !+='

medication crisis should be approached through the TO rather

than the 5O, some social welfare scheme set up under "#

auspices, or even as a matter of human rights 2i$ewise,

there is no a priori reason why public regulation should be

given priority over private regulation: why not apply a code

of conduct drawn up by the pharmaceutical industryA Or,

conversely, a code of conduct drawn up by #7OsA Or by a body

of e%perts from various national health ministries togetherwith representatives from industry and othersA !nd who

e%actly should apply those norms to begin withA !s the

e%ample ma$es clear, all of these normative schemes may

compete for the scarce resource of legitimate authority, and

it can no longer be ta$en for granted that the ones

representing public authority will carry the day +ndeed, it

is not even clear which ones will represent public authority,

and which of those that do represent public authority should

be given preference 'till, in this competition,

international organizations have a comparative advantage, and

their comparative advantage is threefold -irst, the agora

concept of international organizations suggests that

organizations can be seen as the ideal playground of

politics: an insulated place where the minds can meet,

opinions be voiced, and temporary coalitions forged !s

someone put it recently in a different conte%t and using a

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stri$ing image, thus conceptualized an organization may act

8as the surface on which the search for 0ustice is

conducted8 'econd, and related, this holds true all the more

so in a world where territorial4based government is losing

in relative importance +t is not, of course, the case thatthe state is dead and buried: the state too is of value both

as the repository of values and culture, and as a neutral

platform for the conduct of politics& but it is to note that

often enough, states alone are incapable of either getting

things done, or of getting things done in a legitimate

manner Organizations then can assist not 0ust in getting

things done, but also in doing them legitimately Third, the

formal international organization would have them advantage

of being purposive hat states do not have, and what private

regimes do not have either (or have too much, perhaps) is the

facility to be used for certain particular goals To thee%tent that the world is malleable, it is malleable through

international organizations Those can be given assignments&

those can be given tas$s and functions *y contrast, such

authority over the private sector is eminently lac$ing +n

the end, then, this once again underlines how societas and

universitas hang together& it once again underlines that it

is a mista$e to thin$ of international organizations as

either one or the other hile it may be strategically or

normatively useful, on occasion, to highlight the managerial

concept or instead to emphasize the agora concept, at the end

of the day them so useful with a view to global governanceand steering the global mar$et, is precisely the interaction

between the two concepts of international organization

Why Do We Need a World Organization?

The men who forged the harter of the "nited #ations had a

solemn tas$ hile the most destructive war in the world/s

history was still going on, and in the $nowledge that any

future conflict would be infinitely worse, they sought at 'an-rancisco a solution to the age4old problem how to prevent

war

The representatives who met in 'an -rancisco from !pril B? to

June BC, >D?4representatives of the ?E nations then at war

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with 7ermany or Japan or both4were by no means brea$ing new

ground -or centuries philosophers and $ings, diplomats and

ordinary citizens have hunted for the $ey to lasting peace

+n the course of time, every conceivable variety of general

principle and detailed plan has been put forward *ut notuntil >D>D was a full4fledged organization established among

the nations with the purpose of $eeping the peace

The 2eague of #ations failed of that purpose The men who

created it predicted that a recurrence of world conflict

would be certain disaster for humanity *ut in the years that

followed, men became less conscious of the costs of war and

more preoccupied with the price of peace 'tatesmen and

students discussed at length the economic and social measures

necessary to relieve political unrest but little was done to

solve the critical problems #ations, when the pinch came,hesitated to ta$e direct action against aggression

+n anchuria, in .thiopia, at unich, and elsewhere,

however, the world learned that aggression cannot be stopped

by diplomatic protests, halfway economic penalties or

appeasement +t will ta$e at least as much cooperation and

determination to use 0oint force4if necessary4to $eep the

peace as it has ta$en to win the victory

!nother chance and another try

The military developments of this war40et propulsion,roc$ets, atomic bombs4show what could be e%pected in a future

war They ma$e the creation of a wor$able system to maintain

world peace loo$ li$e plain common sense , hatever peace

may cost in the sacrifice of traditional ideas and policies

would seem to be not merely worth while but indispensable !s

'enator Fandenberg said to the 'enate in his report on the

'an -rancisco onference, 8+f orld ar +++ ever unhappily

arrives, it will open laboratories of death too horrible to

contemplate They must be closed all around the earth

(for $eeps) because neither time nor space any longer

promises to shield the victims of treacherous attac$8

!t 'an -rancisco the "nited #ations laid the foundation and

erected the framewor$ of another world peace system +n some

ways it resembles the 2eague of #ations +n other ways it is

different *ut it faces the same basic difficulties and over

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it hovers the same big 3uestion mar$: ill it succeedAharter

of the "nited #ations

Greamble

e the peoples of the "nited #ations determined to save

succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice

in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to man$ind, and to

reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity

and worth of the human person, in the e3ual rights of men and

women and of nations large and small, and to establish

conditions under which 0ustice and respect for the

obligations arising from treaties and other sources of

international law can be maintained, and to promote social

progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and

for these ends to practice tolerance and live together inpeace with one another as good neighbors, and to unite our

strength to maintain international peace and security, and to

ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution

of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the

common interest, and to employ international machinery for

the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all

peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish

these aims

!ccordingly, our respective 7overnments, through

representatives assembled in the city of 'an -rancisco, who

have e%hibited their full powers found to be in good and dueform, have agreed to the present harter of the "nited

#ations and do hereby establish an international organization

to be $nown as the "nited #ations

Futures Perspectives of International

Organizations

Proposed research uestions for a !N"#CO study

4 H 4

*ac$ground paper for a "#.'O H "#+T!1 e%pert meeting on the

role of international organizations in the contemporary world

(7eneva, >?4>D arch, >DIC)

+ntroduction

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The purpose of this paper is to propose 8draft outline8 of

Gart +F of the proposed "nesco 'tudy under the title future

perspectives of international organizations 7iven the

competence and interest of the author, this paper will focus

primarily on the nongovernmental actors and internationalorganizations in general but not on 3uestions specific to

intergovernmental organizations These will presumably be a

prime concern of others contributing to this meeting

The sections of this outline are:

hanging meaning of international organization

1elationships and networ$s

uantitative description of future evolution of international

organization

hanging nature of relationships between organizations

hanging nature of relationships between organizations andnation4states

'cenarios for the future of the international system

-uture significance for the alleviation of world problems

1elevance of international bodies to developing countries

a%imization of organization of organizational potential

-uture policies of mobilizing resources in support of

programme action

-uture possibilities for facilitating achievement of full

organizational potential

Trends in organizational operations

1estrictions on organizational operations! hanging meaning of international organization

+t is important to consider how 8organization8 in general and

8international organization8 (or variations on this term) in

particular are becoming riches in meaning and diversity of

structures denoted and the possibilities for new structures

to which this given rise The following dimensions may be

considered:

> Organizations and their functional substitutes

hat range of meanings is usefully attached to 8organization8

which is of significance to the operation of the

international systemA

hat range of meanings are natural to or emerging from and

developing country cultures A

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To what e%tent do other $inds of organization function

increasingly as substitutes for a conventional international

body, these obviating the necessity for its creation A -or

e%ample: a regular conference series without a continuing

committee, a multilateral treaty without a secretariat, aninvisible college, an information system, a 0ournal

readership, etc

hat new $inds of organization might emerge in the light of

demands for greater fle%ibility, speed of response, and

intersectoral coordination A

B +nternational, etc as opposed to national

hat range of meanings may increasingly be given to

8international8 arc its relation to 8national8 A

To what e%tent is the importance of some $inds of

8international8 body increasing and how is this associatedwith such terms as 8multinational8, and 8transnational8 A

ill the denotation of bodies acting world4wide by a term

containing 8 national8 continue to be so meaningful A

9 #ongovernmental as opposed to governmental

hat range of meanings can be distinguished for bodies on the

governmentalHnongovernmental dimension A

To what e%tent are new $inds of governmentHnongovernmental

mi%es emerging, particularly in non4western societies A

#onprofit as opposed to profit4ma$inghat range of meanings can be distinguished for bodies on the

profitHnonprofit dimension A

To what e%tent are new $inds of profitHnonprofit mi%es

emerging, particularly in non4western societies A

? -unctional range

hat range of activities for international bodies can be

distinguishedA -or e%ample: technical, regulation,

standardization, legislation, mobilization of public opinion,

e%change of information

To what e%tent, for a given problem areas are these performed

within the framewor$ of one organization or by different

bodies

5ow is the bias changing, and how are the results $nitted

togetherA

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5ow will the geographical spread of membership in universal

bodies, and creation of regional bodies, changeA

To what e%tent will the degree of interrelationship between

organizations increaseA

5ow will the e%istence of non4formal and non formalorganizational

= hanging nature of relationships between organizations

onsideration can usefully be given to the changing nature of

relationships between:

"#H+7O and "#H+7O: namely the problems of communication and

coordination between "# 'pecialized !gencies

+7O and +7O: namely the problems of commincation between

8regional8 and 8universal8 bodies

#7O and #7O: namely the problems of communication and liaison

between #7Os of different typesultinational and multinational: namely the problems arising

from communication and coordination between multinationals

+7O and multinational: the e%pected evolution of the .O'O

initiative

+7O and #7O : the e%pected evolution of the consultative

relationship

#7O and multinational: the possible relations between

multinationals and trade unions, professional societies,

trade associations, etc

. hanging nature of relationships between organizations and

nation4states

onsideration should be given to the evolution of

relationships of the following type:

ith country of 'ecretariatH1egional Office: namely problems

of legal status of the organization, its personnel,

importHe%port of goods associated with the operations of the

organization, of foreign visitors to the 'ecretariat

ith country of international meeting

ith country where there is (field4level) programme activity

ith country where there are members: including the problems

of the members in relating to a distant organization

- 'cenarios for the development of the system of

international organizations

The following table lists a series of >C scenarios some of

which might be considered singly or in groups

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8L8 +ndicates much more of the particular $ind of

organization, where as

848 +ndicates much less

-or each of the >C cases, it may be useful to distinguish thesubcase of low entropy and high entropy systems, ma$ing 9B

possibilities in all

2ow variety 1elatively centralized

5igh variety 1elatively centralized

+7O

ultinational corporation

#7O

+nformal

7 -uture significance for the alleviation of world problems

+t is important to consider whether the number and variety of

organizations and the manner in which they function together

(whether coordinated on by some process of mutual

information), be will lead to improved containment of the

e3uivalent networ$ of world problems

To what e%tent will then be en increasing number of problem

which no organization has an operational programme, or at

least a mandate to recognize the problem A

To what e%tent will the dynamics of the networ$ of problems

such that, despite the e%stence of appropriate organizationalnetwor$s, the problems will be uncontainable A

To what e%tent will there be a de4emphasis on alleviating

action trough international bodies in favour of decentralized

activity through national or even subnational bodies A

5 1elevance of international bodies to developing countries

7iven that

(>) the ma0ority of international bodies have their

head3uarters in developed countries

(B) even when developing countries create their own regional

bodies, the rate of creation of such bodies is less the rate

of creation of e3uivalent bodies in developed countries

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To what e%tent will the ma0ority of international bodies be

decreasing relevant to developing countries and their

problemsA

To what e%tent will the need to create all varieties of

regional bodies in developing countries (and the national andsubnational organizational base from which to do so), come to

be recognized as an integral problem of economic end social

developmentA

To what e%tent will a distinct group of #7Os emerge for the

developing countries, 0ust as a distinct group emerged for

the socialist countries in both cases with an important

indirect relationship with the governmentA

To what e%tent are there fundamental, cultural and semantic

problems in developing countries of defining and

distinguishing organizations similar to those which have

emerged from the developed world, and particularly thewestern countries A hat other $inds of body may be e%pected

to emerge from within the cultures in 3uestion and to what

new $inds of organization might they give rise

internationallyA

+ a%imization of organization potential

There already is a vast networ$ of organizations and groups

in society e%tending from the community level to the

international level Only little is $nown about this networ$

as a networ$, or of the number of bodies in it (possibly of

the order of >E4>EE million) +t is not $nown what might be

accomplished if the potential of this networ$ those touchedby it were brought to bear on world problems #othing is

$nown about its synergistic potential

To the e%tent that ma%imization the ability of

individuals, and e%isting organizational units (of whatever

$ind) to:

(>) 2in$ together into larger organizational units (B)

channel resources to focal points from which they may be

directed to the alleviation of problems (9) restructure

e%isting organizational comple%es in response problem

configurations and priorities

is closely related to the ability of society to survive the

emerging comple% of problems:

To what degree will the organizational potential of society

be utilize and what would be the overflow effect, from such

of 45




national and subnational achievement, onto the

international levelA

5ow could the organizational potential of a society or

culture be measured and what are the restrictions on ma%imum

3uantity and on ma%imum contract coordinationAJ -uture policies of mobilizing resources in support of

programme action

7iven the organizational potentialand the increasing

criticality of world problems

To what e%tent may e%isting policies of mobilizing public

opinion and organizational support be e%pected to succeed in

the futureA

To what e%tent are individuals and organizations increasingly

switching their focus to national and subnational problems,

despite the increased criticality of some problems in othercountries and the lac$ of resource thereA

5ow could networ$s of organizations be mobilized from central

points which deny the e%istence of the networ$ as a networ$A

K -uture possibilities for facilitating achievement of full

organizational potential

7iven the recognized wea$ness of e%isting approaches to

mobilizing individuals and organizations in support of action

to alleviate world problems(cf "# 'ecretary 7eneral/s >DI9

report on the matter)

To what e%tent will it be possible to facilitateorganizational creation, development, action and

restructuring as a means of providing a non4directive, , non4

e%hortative stimulus to increased achievement of full

organizational potential (whether at the international level

or through overflow effects from national and subnational

activityA)

hat possibilities e%ist for facilitating such increased

action and what may be the restrictions on their use A -or

e%ample: subsidized telephone and postal communications, ta%

relief (to organizations, staff, and funds suppliers),

subsidized travel costs, subsidized office space, office

management and administrative assistance alleviation of staff

and operational legal restraints, assisted use of computers

(for mailing and administration), etc

2 Trends in organizational operations

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1eview of emerging trends in the way organizations operate

with the emerge of mere sophisticated supportive technology,

greater mobility, and a desire for more rapid change

1estrictions on organizational operations

1eview of ma0or pressures which may very significantlydiminish the ability of the ma0ority of organizational

systems to function to effectively

$ilpin% & 'ealist Perspective on

International $overnance

7ilpin, 1, BEEB

! 1ealist Gerspective on +nternational 7overnance 7overning

7lobalization: Gower, !uthority and 7lobal 7overnance, B9I4B

1ealist believe that the territorial state continues to be

the primary actor in both domestic and international affairs

hile there are other players, the state ma$es the most

important decisions 1ealist re0ect the popular belief that

economic and technological forces have eclipsed the nation

state and are creating a global economy and society in which

political boundaries and national loyalties are no longer

relevant .ven in a highly integrated global economy, states

continue to use their power and to implement policies tochannel economic forces in ways favorable to their own

national interests and the interests of their citizenry

There is no evidence that a transformation in human affairs

has yet occurred or is even occurring +t is unli$ely that,

if the state does disappear, that it will be replaced by a

global governance structure 7ilpin argues that, even though

econ and tech advances lead to more world order, they do not

overcome the fundamental anarchic nature of the intMl system

Three views of global governance: -ocus on new medievalism

*ased on the assumption that the state and the state system

have been undermined by economic, technological and other

developments& the state and state system are being eclipse by

non4governmental actors and by the emergence of an intMl

civil society

They conclude that such changes erode hierarchical

organizations and undermine centralized power structures The

of 45




once dominant hierarchic order of nation states is being

supplanted by horizontal networ$s composed of states, non

governmental organizations and international institutions

ounter with the fact that the nation state has been around

for over three centuries and that #7O activity only beginheavily two decades ago #o one can $now the future nature of

#7Os ould be that there are bad #7Os that develop The

*asel accord achieved much, but it does not prove that

governance can replace government The "' used the *asel

!ccords and drove them to their personal ends 7overnance

without teeth is not effective

International organization(ritannica Concise "ncyclopedia% international

organization

'ponsored 2in$s +nternational ompanies

+ncorporation services in all ma0or Ta% -ree Offshore

0urisdictions

wwwcmsh$com

5ome N 2ibrary N iscellaneous N *ritannica oncise

.ncyclopedia

+nstitution drawing membership from at least three states,

having activities in several states, and whose members areheld together by a formal agreement Only a few e%isted

before >?E& several thousand were active in the early B>st

century 'ome are intergovernmental (eg, the "nited

#ations), and some are nongovernmental (eg, !mnesty

+nternational) 'ome have multiple worldwide or regional

purposes (eg, the .uropean "nion), and some have single

purposes (eg, the orld +ntellectual Groperty

Organization) One effect of their proliferation is a

stronger sense of interdependence among states, which in turn

has stimulated recognition of the need for cooperation to

address international and global problems

!# Foreign Policy "ncyclopedia% International

Organization

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century +nstead international institutions, in particular

the 7eneral !ssembly of the "nited #ations, were fre3uently

e%ploited as a mere tal$ing shop and a forum for ventilating

hostile rhetoric

-rom the mid4>DIEs, however, a cautious revival of

multilateralism, in the form of the 5elsin$i process

inaugurated in >DI?, may even have contributed to hastening

the end of the old ar in >DD>DD> The dangers of an

everincreasing nuclear arms race, as well as economic and

financial globalization and, parado%ically, the simultaneous

development of a politically and culturally ever more

fragmented world, once again gave +Os a crucial role as a

forum for consultation, mediation, and arbitration +n the

late twentieth and early twenty4first centuries not only

globalization and fragmentation but also the influence ofmore sophisticated means of transportation and communication

and the increasingly transnational character of military,

political, and environmental conflicts posed entirely new

challenges =espite recurrent bouts of political

isolationism, the "nited 'tatesPli$e most other countriesP

recognized the impossibility of addressing contemporary

problems merely on a nation4state basis !fter the end of the

.ast4est conflict and the gradual realignment of eastern and

western .urope, this led to the formation of a host of new

international organizations and institutions Qet in the

postold ar era the policies of the "nited 'tates towardinternational organizations remained ambiguous& a widespread

revival of both isolationism and unilateralism could be

observed 5owever, the unprecedented terrorist attac$ on the

orld Trade enter and the Gentagon on >> 'eptember BEE> had

a fundamental impact on !merican political strategy +n the

immediate wa$e of the attac$ no one could say whether it

would result in the abandonment of unilateralism, but many

policy analysts believed that it might well lead to a much

greater !merican reengagement with international

organizations to fight global terrorism

+ntellectually the development of +Os was rooted in +mmanuel

Kant/s eighteenth4century insight that only the 8pacific

federation8 of liberal democratic, interdependent, and lawful

republics could overcome the inherent anarchy of the

international system, as described by Thomas 5obbes, and

of 45




therefore the permanent danger of the outbrea$ of war hile

5obbes believed that a strong authoritarian state and the

balance of power among the world/s greatest powers could

rectify this situation and provide lasting international

security, Kant was not convinced 5e was in favor of theestablishment of peace4creating confederations and thus, in

effect, of bringing about the interdependence of nation4

states Over time these insights developed into the

contemporary conviction that interdependent democratic states

will hardly ever embar$ on military action against one

another =emocracy and cooperative multilateralism within

(but also outside) international organizations were thus seen

as the best vehicles for the creation of a more stable and

peaceful world

What &re International Organizations?

+n general international organizations are based on

multilateral treaties between at least two sovereign nation4

states The formation of an initially fairly loose bond among

the participants is generally fortified by the development of

more or less stringent institutional structures and organs to

pursue certain more or less clearly defined common aims in

the international arena +Os can either have a global or a

regional character, with the latter in general displaying a

more centralized structure due to the limited number of

regional state actors available hile many +Os aresingleissue organizations, others focus their attention on a

multitude of issues +Os can either be open to new members or

consist of a closed system On occasion +Os are established

for a certain duration as specified in their respective

charters, but more often than not no time restriction is

applied

+n some of the older literature +Os tend to be subdivided

into political and apolitical organizations, the former

referring to military and political alliances to further the

power of their member states and the latter referring toorganizations dealing with mere administrative and technical

issues 5owever, in the last few decades of the twentieth

century many of the allegedly technical and 8apolitical8

suborganizations of the "nited #ations (for e%ample, the

!tomic .nergy ommission and the orld 5ealth Organization),

of 45




as well as such wideranging entities as the +nternational

Olympic ommittee, the +nternational onetary -und, and even

many large multinational corporations, developed into highly

politicized organizations with a multitude of political aims

The differentiation between political and technical +Os istherefore unhelpful +t ma$es much more sense to

differentiate between international governmental

organizations (+7Os) li$e the "nited #ations, #!TO, the +-,

and the orld *an$, to name some of the best4$nown ones, and

international nongovernmental organizations (+#7Os) li$e

!mnesty +nternational and the +nternational 1ed ross

!lthough estimates differ profoundly, at the turn of the

twenty4first century at least five hundred +7Os and eleven

thousand +#7Os were in e%istence They were organized in the

"nion of +nternational Organizations (founded >DEI), which is

based in *russels and publishes the annual Qearboo$ of+nternational Organizations

hile +#7Os help to clarify international rules and

regulations that enable at least two societal actors

(parties, issue groups, unions, associations, international

businesses, and corporations) to cooperate in the

coordination of certain specified transnational and cross4

border issues, +7Os, with which this essay is mostly

concerned, are based on the cooperation of nation4states !n

+7O is usually based on a multilateral treaty of two or more

sovereign nation4states for the pursuit of certain commonaims in the international arena +t is helpful to

differentiate between supranational or semi4supranational

+7Os, li$e the .uropean "nion, or looser confederations of

states and no supranational +7Os, li$e the "nited #ations and

#!TO hile the former limit the sovereignty of the

participating nations to a lesser or greater degree, the

latter normally do not infringe on the sovereignty of their

member states& they therefore tend to have only a limited

degree of influence over their members =espite the e3uality

of recognized nation4states in international law, in fact a

hierarchy of power and influence e%ists even within

nonsupranational +7Os The "# 'ecurity ouncil, dominated by

its five permanent members, as well as the +-, the orld

*an$, and many other +Os, are all dominated by the

established great powers, not least on account of their

political and military influence and capabilities as well as

of 45




spheres did not e%clude concern with either the perennial or

the newly developing problems of the 8higher8 sphere of

international relations: war and peace, politics and

security, law and order +ndeed it was clear that changes in

the former spheres contributed to difficulties in the latter,and it was hoped that organized collaboration in the first

might contribute to improvement in the second !wareness of

the increasing comple%ity of international politics, an%iety

about the problems of preventing and limiting war, concern

about the orderly balancing of stability and change, and hope

for the strengthening of international law combined to

inspire the ideal of applying international organization to

the politico4legal realm

The effort to do this at the end of the #apoleonic wars had

yielded meager results, but the idea of giving firminstitutional shape to the oncert of .urope persisted and

was supplemented during the nineteenth century by the ideal

of developing 0udicial means for the resolution of

international disputes +t remained for the 5ague onferences

of >DD and >DEI to stimulate the hope, and for orld ar +

to demonstrate the necessity, of e%tending the concept of

international organization into the 8higher8 sphere of

international relations The 2eague of #ations embodied that

e%tension, represented an effort to provide a central focus

for the varied organizational activities that had emerged in

the preceding century, and accelerated the growth of theorganizing process among states The collapse of the 2eague

and the outbrea$ of orld ar ++ gave rise to the

establishment of the "nited #ations and a networ$ of

affiliated organizations +t also gave impetus to the

institution4building disposition of statesmen, not least on

the .uropean continent that has produced scores of agencies

of almost every conceivable size and concern +f the

nineteenth century was the period of the beginning of the

movement toward international organization, the twentieth

century has been the era of its multiplication +n the post

old ar world the landscape is dotted with international

agencies: global and regional, single4purpose and

multipurpose, technical and political, regulatory and

promotional, consultative and operational, modest and

ambitious !nd the habit of creating new ones and maintaining

old ones remains well established among statesmen *y any

of 45




test of 3uantity and variety, international organization has

become a ma0or phenomenon in international politics

The beginning of the trend toward international organization

in the nineteenth century and the proliferation of that trendin the ne%t substantially involved the "nited 'tates The

well4$nown isolationist tradition of the "nited 'tates and

the fact that it re0ected membership in the 2eague of #ations

but 0oined the "nited #ations at its creation should not be

ta$en as evidence that !merica is a latecomer to

international organization On the contrary, !merican

participation in the nineteenth4century organizing process

was at least as active as might reasonably have been e%pected

given the country/s geographic remoteness from the .uropean

center of the movement and its modest standing among the

powers !merican initiative contributed to the formation ofsuch multilateral agencies as the "niversal Gostal "nion

(>I) and, within the estern 5emisphere, the Gan !merican

"nion (>DE) !lthough the determination of the dates of

establishment of international organizations and of adherence

by particular states is by no means an e%act science, one can

ta$e it as appro%imately correct that by >DEE the "nited

'tates was a member of ten international bodies, and that by

the outbrea$ of orld ar + it participated in twenty4seven,

as against twenty4eight for 7reat *ritain and thirty4si% for

-rance

This record would seem to substantiate 5enry 1eiff/s

assertion that 8The "nited 'tates R is a veteran, if not an

inveterate, 0oiner of unions or leagues of nations,8 despite

its failure to affiliate with the 2eague of #ations and the

Germanent ourt of +nternational Justice !merica/s record of

interest and involvement in international organization made

it less surprising that Gresident oodrow ilson too$ the

lead in creating the 2eague of #ations than that the "nited

'tates refrained from 0oining it The !merican re0ection of

the league, historically considered, was an aberration rather

than a continuation of settled policy regarding international

organization oreover, it did not presage a drastically

altered policy !lthough the "nited 'tates never accepted

membership, it gradually developed cooperative relationships

with the league in many areas of activity and ultimately

assumed a formal role in several of its component parts +n

of 45




the final analysis the "nited 'tates became a more active and

more useful participant in the operation of the league than

many of the states that were officially listed as members +n

addition, between the world wars the "nited 'tates continued

to 0oin organizations outside the league family to such ane%tent that by >DE it held a greater number of

organizational memberships than did *ritain and -rance, the

leading powers in the league -ollowing orld ar ++ the

"nited 'tates became the world/s unchallenged leader in

promoting and supporting the development of international

organizations of every sort

&*erican &*-iguity toward IOs

The attitude of the "nited 'tates toward international

organization, however, has been very ambivalent Gresumablythe "nited 'tates has gone along with, and has sometimes

displayed enthusiasm for, the organizing process for

essentially the same reasons that have moved other states: it

has recognized the practical necessity, in its own interest,

of developing and participating in systematic arrangements

for dealing with the comple% problems of the modern world +t

has also shared the ideal of creating a global mechanism

better adapted to promoting and maintaining peace and human

welfare .ven when it has been s$eptical of the utility or

importance of particular multilateral institutions, the

"nited 'tates, li$e most other states, has generally inclinedto the view that it can ill afford to be unrepresented in

their functioning or to give the appearance of being

indifferent to the ideals they purport to serve

!merica/s limited and informal engagement in the operation of

the 2eague of #ations illustrated the first of these points

The "nited 'tates could bring itself neither to 0oin nor to

abstain entirely from the 2eague +ts enthusiastic adherence

to the "nited #ations in >D? can be interpreted as in part a

symbolic act of repentance and reversal, a conscious

repudiation of the !merican abandonment of the 2eagueoreover, already during orld ar ++, !merican statesman had

been very active in planning for the postwar world .ven

though idealistic and 3uite unrealistic plans predominatedP

such as -ran$lin 1oosevelt/s strong advocacy of a 8one world8

system including something approaching a world government,

of 45




the abolition of the balance4of4power concept and of

geographical spheres of influence, and 'ecretary of 'tate

ordell 5ull/s enthusiasm for uninhibited global free tradeP

this still compared favorably to the passivity of *ritain,

the nation that had hitherto dominated the internationalsystem hile the *ritish hesitated to embar$ on any postwar

planning e%ercises for fear of undermining the war effort,

ashington began planning for the postwar world before the

country had even become a belligerent power !fter Gearl

5arbor, and once 5itler had declared war on the "nited

'tates, it was unli$ely that a return to the political

isolationism of the interwar years would occur despite the

continuation of a strong isolationist strand in !merican

thin$ing

Thus, !merica/s 0oining the "nited #ations with #ew Qor$ asthe new organization/s head3uarters and 'an -rancisco as the

venue for the ceremonial signing of the "# harter was much

more than a mere symbolic denial of indifference to the high

ideals enunciated in the charter +t was, more positively, a

declaration of resolve to accept a position of leadership in

world affairs, an affirmation of the intention to play a role

that this country had never before assumed in international

relations +n this sense !merican ratification of the "#

harter was a uni3ue act, a dramatization of an event of

peculiar significance: the decision of the "nited 'tates to

transform its approach to world affairs The country/ssubse3uent role in the distribution of arshall Glan aid to

western .urope and, above all, its adherence to the #orth

!tlantic Treaty Organization in !pril >DD, reaffirmed the

same point and even strengthened it !fter all, #!TO

membership carried more concrete obligations and more

definite alliance commitments than did membership in the

"nited #ations !rticle ? of the #!TO treaty pledged all

member states to regard an attac$ on a member state as an

attac$ on itself !lthough during the ratification process

the "' 'enate insisted that the last decision of how the

"nited 'tates would react to any such emergency had to be

left to ongress, article ? imposed a firm obligation of some

form of assistance on #!TO member states

+n most cases decisions by the "nited 'tates to ta$e part in

international agencies can be assumed to be motivated in much

of 45




the same way and can be assigned essentially the same meaning

as such decisions by other states #either in the case of the

"nited 'tates nor in other instances does it ma$e sense to

regard acceptance or support of international organizations

as in itself a demonstration of virtue comparable with thevirtue sometimes attributed to the individual because he goes

to church and pays his tithe +nternational agencies are not

embodiments of a sacred cause but, rather, instruments of the

purposes of their members, susceptible of use to promote both

noble and ignoble causes 'tates 0oin them for mi%ed reasons,

and the mere act of affiliation typically provides no solid

information about the constructiveness, willingness to

cooperate, or the peacefulness of the intentions of the state

concerned

!merica/s inhibitions and reservations concerninginternational organization are a blend of the typical and the

peculiar =espite the vogue of creating new international

organizations since the >DDEs and the strong trend toward

economic and financial globalization, it is clear that all

states maintain some measure of reluctance to become too

encompassed, circumscribed, and absorbed by international

bodies +t is perhaps unfair to accuse them of harboring the

illogical desire to have their ca$e and eat it too, for in

the relations between organization and sovereignty, 0ust as

in the relations between national society and individualism,

the real 3uestion is not which to choose but how much of eachto include in the pac$age +n either the domestic or the

international case, however, the perennial tension between

control and autonomy remains, and it becomes especially acute

when circumstances re3uire reconsideration of the necessary

and proper balance between them The fact that states need

and want international organizations does not eliminate their

desire to retain as much as possible of the autonomy that the

traditionally decentralized international system affords

them The tension between the desire for effective and useful

international organization and the urge to continue to en0oy

and e%ploit the freewheeling possibilities of a simpler era

profoundly affects the behavior of states in creating,

0oining, and operating multilateral agencies +n the estern

world both #!TO and in particular the .uropean "nion are

prime e%amples of this

of 45




IOs in the Cold War and the Post0cold War

World

=uring the old ar the role of the "nited 'tates increating, supporting, and operating the "nited #ations

reflected the official abandonment of pre4occupation with

legal system4building and of aversion to engagement in the

political and military aspects of international affairs

#evertheless the old ar record contains numerous

indications of the survival of these sentiments The mood

engendered by the Fietnam ar was characterized by the

revival of the tendency to conceive national virtue in terms

of innocence rather than of responsibility -ighting for

peace, the central motif of the twentieth4century ideal of

collective security, tended to be regarded not as parado%ical

but as inconsistent at best and hypocritical at worst 'elf4

critical !mericans are inclined to interpret the performance

of the "nited 'tates in the early years of the "nited #ations

as a record of shameful manipulation and abuse of the

organization, not of constructive leadership and loyal

support

The image of the responsible defender of international order

was overshadowed by the image of the irresponsible adventurer

and imperialist +n the eyes of self4pitying !mericans, the

national image was that of an overloaded and insufficiently

appreciated bearer of international burdens Those who put

the matter as the abdication of a discredited tyrant and

those who put it as the retirement of a weary servant were

advocating the same thing: the diminution of the !merican

role in world affairs The appeal of this prescription was

strengthened by the rise to dominance in the "nited #ations

of political forces and factions that the "nited 'tates could

neither lead nor control& !merica/s opportunity to e%ercise

leadership declined as much as its inclination to do so

Traditional !merican misgivings about involvement in

international political organization was thus confirmed=iscounting the e%cesses of guilt and self4pity, it must

nevertheless be concluded that participation in the "nited

#ations entailed the disappointment of national hopes, the

frustration of national efforts, and the dirtying of national

hands +t re3uired that the lu%ury of pure adherence to

of 45




membership in the "nited #ations and its many

suborganizations was drastically reduced ashington/s

reluctance to pay its full dues to the "nited #ations was

indicative of the "nited 'tates/s ambiguous position toward

its involvement and responsibilities in internationalaffairs hile the !merican superpower was unwilling to pay

its dues to the "nited #ations, the "# itself was in debt to

some poor countries such as *angladesh, owing it S>? million

*etween >DD and >DDD the "nited 'tates built up a bill of

SB9 billion, arguing that it was as$ed to pay too much to

the "nited #ations *y late BEE> ashington still owed a

substantial amount to the world organization& it was

committed to pay the outstanding amount of S?B million in

BEE> and the remainder of SB million in BEEB +n >DDD and

BEEE, after passage of the 5elms4*iden act, the "nited 'tates

paid some of the S> billion it had promised to contributebelatedly to the "# coffers +n return the "nited 'tates had

as$ed for and obtained various "# reforms and the elimination

of the rest of the !merican debt and a reduction of its

future annual dues (+nstead of B? percent, the "nited 'tates

would now finance only BB percent of the "#/s regular budget&

it would also reduce its contributions for "# peace$eeping

missions from 9> to BI percent of the overall costs) hile

the 'enate accepted this, the repayment of the remaining debt

was controversial among 1epublican leaders in the 5ouse of

1epresentatives who wished to impose further conditions and

as$ed for greater "# reforms The attitude of the 5ouse of1epresentatives was partially also a reaction to the fact

that the "nited 'tates was voted off the "# 5uman 1ights

ommission in ay BEE> by some "# members (including some of

!merica/s .uropean allies) who were running out of patience

with ashington/s less than constructive role in the human

rights body and the administration/s general lac$ of support

for the "nited #ations

ashington/s manifold policy of suspicion toward the "nited

#ations, -ran$lin 1oosevelt/s harbinger of hope, must serve

as 0ust one e%ample for the claim that an increasing

concentration on domestic affairs and a neglect of !merican

involvement in +Os was indeed the dominant feature of

!merican policy in the >DDEs The few years of renewed

international activism at the end of the old arPGresident

7eorge 5 *ush/s somewhat rash announcement of a 8new

of 45




world order8 in >DDE and the occasional brief burst of

peacema$ing activities that characterized the foreign policy

of the linton administration after >DD9Pmust be regarded as

e%ceptions rather than the rule 'enate ma0ority leader and

>DDC 1epublican presidential candidate 1obert =ole/sassessment in the mid4>DDEs reflected the deep and widespread

!merican unease about +Os =ole believed that fre3uently +Os

either 8reflect a consensus that opposes !merican interests

or do not reflect !merican principles and ideas8

Qet as 7 John +$enberry wrote in >DDC, while the bipolar

order of the old ar years came to an end in >DD>DD>, the

dense economic and political 8web of multilateralist

institutions8 and thus the 8world order created in the >DEs

is still with us8 =espite a tendency to focus on the

domestic en0oyment of the prosperity and rising share valuesof the multiplying 8dot com8 companies of the linton years,

the "nited 'tates was unable and indeed unwilling to abdicate

its global leadership +n fact globalization demanded the

opposite, and the administration made sure that the "nited

'tates would continue to dominate the orld *an$ and the

increasingly important +nternational onetary -und The

efforts the linton administration made for the full

implementation and e%pansion of the #orth !merican -ree Trade

!greement (#!-T!) and for enabling hina to become a member

of the orld Trade Organization, allowing it to en0oy most4

favorednation status, are further e%amples that indicate thatthe linton administration had no intention to revert to

economic isolationism

The same applied to the political sphere The linton

administration was careful to denounce any tal$ of a new

isolationism in the postold ar world, including alleged

!merican disinterest in .urope in favor of a Gacific4first

policy +n fact, despite the administration/s ambiguous if

not outright negative attitude to the "nited #ations and the

many petty trade wars with the .uropean "nion, the postold

ar world at times saw a vigorous and often constructive

reengagement of the "nited 'tates in many parts of the world

5owever, this became fre3uently mi%ed with a strong dose of

!merican unilateralism linton called this 8assertive

multilateralism8 -or e%ample, despite much international

pressure, for largely domestic reasons the linton

of 45




administration insisted on preventing a "# treaty controlling

the trade in small arms The administration/s ambiguity

toward the "nited #ations had disastrous conse3uences in the

.ast Timor crisis of >DDDBEEE, when the lac$ of "' support

induced a withdrawal of "# troops, which in turn led to thewholesale slaughter of many .ast Timorese people in the

+ndonesian civil war linton/s unsuccessful and unilateral

bombing raids on buildings in 'udan and elsewhere in response

to terrorist attac$s on !merican diplomatic and military

targets abroad also turned out to be ill4advised& they may

well have contributed to inflaming even more hatred of the

"nited 'tates in the +slamic world

'till, !merican peacema$ing efforts in cooperation with +Os

during the linton era often added a constructive element to

the fre3uently chaotic and very violent developments in suchembattled regions as the iddle .ast and the *al$ans +t is

unli$ely that the successful #!TO pursuit of the >DDD Kosovo

war and the ousting and subse3uent handover of 'erbian

president 'lobodan ilosevic to the +nternational ar rimes

Tribunal in The 5ague in BEE> would have been achieved

without strong !merican involvement The linton

administration/s attempts to act as a neutral arbiter in the

8Troubles8 in #orthern +reland and in the reconciliation

between 'outh and #orth Korea were also relatively

successful This e%plained the regret voiced in many parts of

the world of linton/s departure in January BEE>Garado%ically, despite linton/s contempt for the "nited

#ations and his many other unilateral activities, the

president/s reputation as an international peacema$er far

surpassed his embattled and scandal4ridden standing within

the "nited 'tates Qet his years in office may well be

primarily remembered for his administration/s ability to

maintain and increase !merica/s prosperity and the

achievement of a substantial budget surplus rather than for a

farsighted foreign policy

!fter the drama of the presidential election of BEEE, which

was only narrowly decided by the 'upreme ourt in =ecember,

it was not Fice Gresident !l 7ore but Te%as governor 7eorge

*ush who moved into the hite 5ouse The new president

immediately surrounded himself with many right4wing and

unilateralist if not isolationist advisers any of these

of 45




people were very e%perienced policyma$ers who had already

served under *ush/s father in the early >DDEs and even under

Gresidents -ord and 1eagan in the >DIEs and >DEs Qet his

administration did not appear to consist of a vigorous

modernizing team prepared to tac$le the internationalproblems of globalization and fragmentation +n a >DDD

article in -oreign !ffairs, ondoleezza 1ice, who became

*ush/s national security adviser in January BEE>, tellingly

tal$ed at length about the importance of the pursuit of

!merica/s 8national interest8 but rather less about !merican

international involvement and engagement in +Os 'he wrote

that a 1epublican administration would 8proceed from the firm

ground of the national interest, not from the interest of an

illusory international community8 +ndeed, the *ush

administration treated the "nited #ations with even greater

disdain and suspicion than linton had done =uring its firsteight months in office the new administration wal$ed out of

five international treaties (and withdrew from the conference

on racism in protest at anti4+srael passages in the draft

communi3u@ in 'outh !frica in early 'eptember BEE>) !mong

the treaties the "nited 'tates opposed were the Kyoto

Grotocol on climate change supported by much of the rest of

the world and a treaty for the enforcement of the important

*iological and To%in eapons onvention of >DIB The

administration also withheld support from the establishment

of the orld ourt to be based in The 5ague !lthough

ashington agreed with the principle of establishing such acourt, it did not wish any of its nationals ever to appear

before it The *ush administration also threatened to abandon

several other contractual pillars of the postwar world,

notably the >DIB !nti4*allistic issile (!*) Treaty

concluded between #i%on and 2eonid *rezhnev to contain the

nuclear arms race

!bove all, *ush/s insistence on implementing a national

missile defense (#=) to protect the "nited 'tates (and

perhaps its #!TO allies) from nuclear attac$s from rogue

states li$e #orth Korea and +ra3 caused great unease in the

estern world #ot even *ritain, traditionally !merica/s

closest ally, was able to show much enthusiasm for a missile

plan that had not been tested successfully and would cost

billions of dollars and resembled 1eagan/s ill4fated

'trategic =efense +nitiative (8'tar ars8), a plan that had

of 45




not been tested successfully and would cost billions of

dollars !merica/s allies reasoned that not least for

financial reasons the implementation of *ush/s missile shield

scheme would in all li$elihood prevent the "nited 'tates from

giving e3ual attention to the development of other defensiveand military schemes that deserved greater priority

oreover, the *ush administration showed scant regard for

international institutions li$e #!TO by ma$ing clear that the

missile shield decision had already been made hile

!merica/s allies would be consulted and informed and would

hopefully participate in the pro0ect, any allied advice to

abandon the pro0ect would not be heeded "nilateralism was

triumphing ultilateralism and constructive open4minded

engagement with +Os had been abandoned for good

Or so it seemed Then, in 'eptember BEE>, the terroristattac$s on the orld Trade enter and the Gentagon occurred

This was not only a severe shoc$ to the !merican people, who

for so long had felt secure on a continent that was

geographically very distant from most of the world/s

battlegrounds, it also shoo$ the *ush administration to its

core !le%is de Toc3ueville/s statement in his famous

=emocracy in !merica (>9?) that the "nited 'tates was a

nation without neighbors, securely enveloped in a huge

continent and thus separate from the problems of the rest of

the world, became out of date within a matter of hours

=espite its superpower status, and probably even because ofit, it was recognized that !merica was no longer

invulnerable The .conomist wrote presciently that the "nited

'tates and the entire world realized that !merica was 8not

merely vulnerable to terrorism, but more vulnerable than

others +t is the most open and technologically dependent

country in the world, and its power attracts the hatred of

enemies of freedom everywhere The attac$s have shattered the

illusions of post4cold war peace and replaced them with an

uncertain world of /asymmetric threats/8

The value of !merican reengagement with +Os was recognized in

many 3uarters almost immediately 'uddenly the "nited 'tates

was not merely the provider of benefits to the international

community but could also greatly benefit itself from a close

cooperative engagement with +Os ithin a matter of days the

'ecurity ouncil of the "nited #ations had unanimously

of 45




condemned the attac$ in the strongest terms and pledged its

support to the !merican intention to embar$ on a prolonged

war against international terrorism The .uropean "nion and

many other +Os followed suit #!TO went even further -or the

first time in its history the #orth !tlantic !lliance invo$edarticle ? of its charter, which obliged each member to ta$e

8such action as it deems necessary, including the use of

armed force8 if a member state was attac$ed from abroad The

terrorist attac$s in #ew Qor$ and ashington were interpreted

as a military attac$ on a #!TO member state, which obliged

all #!TO members to come to the common defense of #!TO

territory This was unprecedented& above all, it demonstrated

the value of +Os to the hitherto unilateral *ush

administration

hile it was unli$ely that the *ush administration would notresort to unilateralist activities in the fight against

international terrorism, it was e3ually improbable that even

a state as powerful as the "nited 'tates could win this fight

by itself .ngagement with international organizations li$e

#!TO and the "nited #ations and cooperative multilateralism

appeared to be decisive Thus the occasional bouts of

!merican neo4isolationism that could fre3uently be observed

in the >DDEs were thought by many to be largely a thing of

the past This, however, would also depend on whether or not

the unity of #!TO and its member states could be upheld for a

prolonged period of time uite understandably, both the!merican people and the *ush administration were sufficiently

enraged by the appalling attac$s that cost the lives of more

than si% thousand people and caused damage in e%cess of S9E

billion to 8go it alone8 if estern and indeed international

unity could not be preserved hile the danger e%isted that

the attac$s might have the opposite effect and induce !merica

to withdraw from international engagement altogether, this is

unli$ely& after all even an entirely isolationist !merica

would continue to be e%posed to the threats posed by

international terrorism ultilateralist engagement with

international organizations and acting in concert with its

allies appeared to be the best chance of reestablishing a

degree of national and international security 5owever, it

was thought abroad, at least, that this could well ta$e the

form of the controversial !merican 8assertive

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multilateralism8 that the world had to put up with during the

linton years

'till, after >> 'eptember it appeared that unilateralism and

isolationism were no longer regarded as viable politicalconcepts +n view of the *ush administration/s active

engagement with the international community to fight the 8war

against international terrorism,8 the -inancial Times

concluded that multilateralism was 8no longer a dirty word8

'imilarly, *ritish Grime inister Tony *lair e%pressed the

belief that the answer to the unprecedented challenge

confronting the world was 8not isolationism but the world

coming together with !merica as a community8 +t was

generally recognized that the world had to loo$ beyond

bombing !fghanistan, the country that hosted the terrorist

networ$ responsible for planning the attac$s, and othermilitary options !n !merican correspondent put it succinctly

in a letter to the +nternational 5erald Tribune in early

October BEE>: 8The *ush administration/s unilateralism has

been revealed as hollow 1ather than infringe our

sovereignty, international institutions enhance our ability

to perform the functions of national government, including

the ability to fight international crime8

(i-liography

!bi4'aab, 7eorges, ed The oncept of +nternationalOrganization Garis, >D>

!rmstrong, =avid The 1ise of +nternational Organization: !

'hort 5istory 2ondon, >DB

!rcher, live +nternational Organizations Bd ed 2ondon and

#ew Qor$, >DDB

*aratta, Joseph G, comp The "nited #ations 'ystem O%ford

and #ew *runswic$, #J, >DD?

*ennett, ! 2eroy 5istorical =ictionary of the "nited

#ations 2anham, d, >DD?

PP +nternational Organizations: Grinciples and +ssues Cth

ed .nglewood liffs, #J, >DD?*utros47hali, *outros "nvan3uished: ! "'"# 'aga 2ondon

and #ew Qor$, >DDD

lar$, +an 7lobalization and -ragmentation: +nternational

1elations in the Twentieth entury #ew Qor$, >DDI

of 45




Garsons, !nthony -rom old ar to 5ot Geace: "#

+nterventions, >DC>DD 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DD?

Taylor, Gaul +nternational Organization in the odern orld:

The 1egional and 7lobal Grocess 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DD9

Taylor, Gaul, and ! J 1 7room, eds +nternational+nstitutions at or$ 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >D

"nion of +nternational !ssociations Qearboo$ of

+nternational Organizations *russels !nnual

eiss, Thomas 7, and 2eon 7orden$er, eds #7Os, the "#, and

7lobal 7overnance 2ondon and *oulder, olo, >DDC ! brief

but useful compilation of essays on the role of #7Os

ells, 1obert #, ed Geace by Gieces: "nited #ations

!gencies and Their 1oles etuchen, #J, >DD>

illiams, =ouglas The 'pecialized !gencies and the "nited

#ations: The 'ystem in risis #ew Qor$, >DI

+nternational Organization

.ncyclopedia !rticle

+ntroduction& Types of +nternational Organizations&

5istorical =evelopment of +nternational Organizations&

+nternational Organizations Today

Introduction

+nternational Organization, membership group that operates

across national borders for specific purposes 'cholars of

international relations consider international organizations

to have growing importance in world politics 'ome ma0or

international organizations are the "nited #ations ("#), the

orld *an$ (see +nternational *an$ for 1econstruction and

=evelopment), the +nternational ommittee of the 1ed ross,

and 7reenpeace

ost international organizations operate as part of one or

more international regimes !n international regime is a set

of rules, standards, and procedures that govern national

behavior in a particular area .%amples of international

of 45




regimes include arms control, foreign trade, and !ntarctic

e%ploration +nternational organizations are often central to

the functioning of an international regime, giving structure

and procedures to the rules of the gameU by which nations

must play -or e%ample, the orld Trade Organization (TO),the #orth !merican -ree Trade !greement (#!-T!), and the

.uropean "nion (.") are $ey organizations that define the

international trade regime (see -oreign Trade)

Types of International Organizations

+nternational organizations fall into two main categories:

intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental

organizations +ntergovernmental organizations (+7Os) have

national governments as members 5undreds of +7Os operate in

all parts of the world ember nations have created each ofthese organizations to serve a purpose that those nations

find useful embership can range from as few as two member

nations to virtually all nations The "# and its various

agencies are +7Os 'o are most of the worldMs economic

coordinating institutions, such as the orld *an$, the

+nternational onetary -und (+-), and the 7roup of .ight (74

) The Organization of Getroleum .%porting ountries (OG.)

see$s to coordinate the production and pricing policies of

its member states The +nternational !tomic .nergy !gency

(+!.!) see$s to regulate the flow of nuclear technology to

developing nations The TO helps negotiate and monitoragreements among member nations to lower trade barriers

ilitary alliances, such as the #orth !tlantic Treaty

Organization (#!TO), and political groupings, such as the

!rab 2eague and the !frican "nion, are also +7Os +n general,

regional +7Os have e%perienced more success than global ones,

and those with specific purposes have wor$ed better than

those with broad aims

#ongovernmental organizations (#7Os) are private

organizations whose memberships and activities are

international in scope #7Os do not possess the legal status

of national governments 5owever, the "# and other

international forums recognize many #7Os as important

political institutions .%amples of #7Os include the 1oman

atholic hurch, 7reenpeace, the +nternational Olympic

ommittee (see Olympic 7ames), and =octors ithout *orders

of 45




(see @decins 'ans -rontiVres) !lthough multinational

corporations (#s) share many characteristics of #7Os, they

are not international organizations because they do not

coordinate the actions of members for mutual gain

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)istorical Develop*ent of International Organizations

5istorically, international organizations and regimes have

reflected the interests of the worldMs most powerful nations,

or great powers any international organizations and regimes

were established during times of global hegemonyPthat is,

when one nation has predominated in international power

These periods have often followed a ma0or war among the great

powers TodayMs international organizationsPsuch as the "#,

the Organization of !merican 'tates (O!'), and the orld *an$

Pwere created after orld ar ++ ended in >D?, when the

"nited 'tates was powerful enough to create rules andinstitutions that other countries would follow

!lthough rooted in power, international organizations and

regimes generally serve the interests of most participating

nations and usually endure even when hegemony wanes ost

countries share mutual interests, yet find it hard to

coordinate their actions for mutual benefit because of the

lac$ of a central authority #ations also face the temptation

to bend the rules in their own favor -or e%ample, it is in

everyoneMs interest to halt production of chemicals that

damage .arthMs ozone layer 5owever, a country can save money

by continuing to use those chemicals

The coordination of efforts to write new rules and monitor

them re3uires an international organization -or e%ample, the

"nited #ations .nvironment Grogram ("#.G) helped countries

of 45




negotiate a treaty to stop producing ozone4destroying

chemicals Thus, nations find it useful to give international

organizations some power to enforce rules

+nternational organizations are also able to ma$e countriesaware of the need to act on emerging issues -or e%ample, the

orld 5ealth Organization (5O) and the "# were instrumental

in focusing attention on ac3uired immunodeficiency syndrome

(!+=') as a global crisis

+n the >th century, 7erman philosopher +mmanuel Kant and

-rench philosopher Jean4Jac3ues 1ousseau broadly outlined the

concept of a global federation of countries resembling

todayMs "nited #ations ountries 0oined the first +7Os in

the >Dth century These were practical organizations through

which nations managed specific issues, such as internationalmail service and control of traffic on .uropean rivers 'uch

organizations proliferated in the BEth century to cover a

wide variety of specific issues !t the same time, the scope

of international organizations e%panded, culminating with the

creation of the 2eague of #ations in >DBE

The development of .uropean regional organizations after

orld ar ++ ended mirrored the growth of +7Os historically,

in that narrowly focused organizations preceded broader and

more encompassing international institutions The .uropean

oal and 'teel ommunity, predecessor of the .uropean "nion,coordinated coal and steel production Today, the .uropean

ommission, e%ecutive agency of the .uropean "nion, enforces

regulations concerning labor, the environment, agriculture,

and a host of other issues that affect the daily lives of

virtually every citizen in .urope

#7Os similarly developed from the need to coordinate

specific, narrowly defined activities across national

borders *eginning in the >Dth century, churches and

professional and scientific occupational groups formed the

first #7Os The 1ed ross was organized in >C9 to establish

and monitor the laws of warfare +t was one of the first #7Os

to actively wor$ to change the behavior of states 'ome

political partiesPnotably communist parties in the early BEth

centuryPorganized internationally and began to function as

of 45




#7Os +n the BEth century, specialized #7Os also sprang up in

such areas as sports, business, tourism, and communication

*etween >D? and >DD?, the number of international

organizations increased fivefold, reaching about ?EE +7Os and?,EEE #7Os *y BEE9, the number of international

organizations increased fivefold again, to nearly B?,EEEP

mostly due to the proliferation of #7Os made possible by new

technologies such as the +nternet On average, a new #7O is

created somewhere in the world every few days This trend

reflects the growing importance of international coordination

for both governmental and private institutions in an

interdependent world

International Organizations Today

One sign of the important role of international organizationsis how they have endured as international power relations

shift +n >DD>, the 'oviet "nion dissolved and the old ar

between the 'oviet "nion and the "nited 'tates ended 1ussia

and other formerly ommunist countries in .astern .urope

ceased to pose a threat to the capitalist democracies of

estern .urope One might have e%pected #!TO, which defended

estern .uropean nations, to go out of business, but it did

not 'imilarly, the creation of the orld Trade Organization

did not cause smaller free trade associations such as #!-T!

to end +nstead, the mosaic of international organizations

continues to e%pand, particularly as new communications andinformation4processing technologies ma$e international groups

more practical and effective

+nternational organizations have emerged as important actors

in international relations The +nternational ampaign to *an

2andmines won the #obel Geace Grize in >DDI for its wor$

coordinating the efforts of +7Os, #7Os, and states to write,

sign, and ratify the international treaty banning the use of

land mines +nternational organizations are now able to

pressure states into adopting certain courses of action hen

a state will not act, international organizations can

mobilize individuals to ta$e action +n some matters, such as

disaster assistance or aid for refugees, states have come to

rely on international organizations to provide essential

services that states are unwilling or unable to offer

of 45




The interdependence of nations in the modern world means that

no single nation can dictate the outcome of international

conflicts #or can private groups and individuals rely on

national governments to solve ma0or world problems

Therefore, both governments and individuals will continue toturn to international organizations as an important way to

address these problems and to protect their own interests

definition of ios

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