Historical Identification: An indication of the “”who, what, where and when” as it relates to this particular historical event/individual/concept. You must also include an indication of why this particular term is historically significant (why is this important, what are the major implications of this historical event/individual/concept?). “The Black Death”:The Black Death aka the bubonic plague was a rodent­borne disease that swept across almost the entirety of Europe from 1347­1350. It greatly affected the social, political, and religious atmosphere of the time. The Black Death killed approximately ⅓ of Europe’s population. As a result of the population decline, there was an increase in the demand for skilled labor. As a result, the number of skilled artisans also declined, and they made a large amount of money as a result. Their newfound wealth translated into increased political, economical, and social power. “Dante’s Divine Comedy” Dante’s Divine Comedy is a great piece of medieval literature written by well­known Dante Alighieri possibly around the years 1308­1321. It is a story written by a Florence native Italian man and talks of his journey through “Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso” meaning Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Dante’s divine comedy has been well­known for over 600 years and people still enjoy reading as much as medieval Italy. It contains interesting imaginative conceptions and ideas that continues to astonish generations of readers. "Raphael's School of Athens": Raphael's School of Athens is a very recognizable piece of art. Of his work, this is probably the most recognizable. Raphael's School of Athens was painted during the Renaissance in the Vatican. In the middle of the painting, you see Aristotle and Plato and around them are other philosophers. This painting shows us what the art of the time looked like and his personal style of technique. In the background, you can see the architecture of the Renaissance era and their current lifestyle like what they wore. "Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man": Mirandola's oration on the dignity of man is one of the most eloquent descriptions of the Renaissance image of human beings. It is written by Italian humanist Pico della Mirandola. Pico wrote his oration in 1486. Mirandola wrote it in Italy. This oration gives us info on the views of man back in older days. What the morales and what a person strived to achieve back in the day is described in this oration. It is a great and clear description so it is easy to turn to to see what people believed in a time of a sort of 'enlightenment' if you will. If you compare this to works of writers in the Middle Age, you can tell there was a transformation of human nature between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. “Michelangeloʼs David”: A masterpiece of renaissance art created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo, an Italian artist. The marble statue represents the biblical figure­David­ standing nude. The statue was placed in the public square of the “Palazzo della Signoria”­the place of government in Florence. The statue came to symbolize the defense of civil liberties in Florence.

“Studia Humanitatis”: A liberal arts program of study, advocated by the Humanists, that embraced grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, and moral philosophy. This study, first started during the Renaissance period, was given the name humanitas or “humanity” by Florentine humanist Leonardo

Bruni. The program lead to original literature in both classical and vernacular languages inspired by the ancients. "The Printing Press": An invention that is very useful in the modern world, the printing press was an invention that was a cheap way to manufacture paper. It also helped increase the books content to other people. As a solution to the problem, Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press in Mainz, Germany as the demand for books increased in 1468. Books ranging from eduction to religion were rapidly being printed everyday as more and more people wanted books. This invention has had a great impact on humankind in the outlook that without it life would be completely different. It would effect education, religion, and many others in the viewpoint of learning the material. Without this invention there would be no books at all, no way to learn the material. This invention was a benefit to society and one of the greatest inventions created in the fifteenth century. “Machiavelli’s The Prince”: Machiavelli’s The Prince, was written in 1513 by Niccolo Machiavelli. The Prince was written because Machiavelli desperately wanted to get back into politics, and to impress a city­state leader so he could land an advisory position. The main target of The Prince was Lorenzo de’ Medici because he was the most powerful city­state leader in all of Italy. The Prince was a guide book for current city­state leaders, which stated serious recommendations of unprincipled despotic rules. This great guide book is incredibly significant to history because it shows many ways in which leaders should lead. The Prince’s principles are still used in many governments today even though it was written over 500 years ago. "Erasmus of Rotterdam": Erasmus was born in Rotterdam on October 27, 1446 and died at the age of 69 on July 12, 1536. He was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, priest, critic, teacher and theologian. Erasmus became a fluent writer in Latin and a leader to Christian humanists. He wrote the New Testament in Latin and Greek so that all languages were able to translate it. He remained a member of the Catholic Church all his life. Erasmus dies after his success and was given a bronze statue later to be replaced by stone. Erasmus was his name from baptism and was named after St. Erasmus of Formiae.

“Francis I of France”: Francis I was born on September 12, 1494 in the city of Cognac, France. He was the ruler of France from 1515 until his death on March 31, 1547. Francis I was a man of fine arts, so he started the French Renaissance by uniting many great European artists together in France to work on the Château de Chambord. Francis initiated many new ideas in France, including Humanism, Protestantism, absolute monarchy, and started the exploration of the New World. He also promoted the standardized use of the French language and was a key factor in the Italian Wars. Francis I is remembered for introducing the French Renaissance and many other ideas critical for France and helped the French develop into a more artistic country. “Court of Star Chamber”: The Star Chamber was based in the Palace of Westminster as a court of law which remained in use from the late 15th century to 1641. Its cases included those of civil and criminal matter and trials were usually held in secret with no indictments or witnesses, only written evidence. The Court of Star Chamber was controversial for being so discreet because it later turned into a political weapon and was abused by the English government. The Court of Star Chambers

later became an example of how human rights were abused with no testimony. It became the basis for many future government constitutions when it came to human rights, for instance the U.S. Constitution and the Fifth Amendment. “The Holy Roman Empire”: The Holy Roman Empire was Europe's greatest state. It was made up of a multi­ethnic complex of territories. The heart of the Holy Roman Empire was Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was formed when the Frankish king was crowned the Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 A.D. When Otto I became emperor, the Roman imperial office was transferred to the Germans. This empire was located in central Europe and developed during the Middle Ages until 1806 when it dissolved after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. In 1512, the empire was officially known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation." Its area included central Europe; the kingdom of France to the west; the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary to the East; the Baltic and North Seas in the north; and the Alps mountains in the south. The empire was unique compared to the other governments at the time. It was a feudal monarchy. The office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, but was frequently controlled by dynasties. The German prince­electors elected one of their peers to be the emperor. The emperor was crowned by the Pope, but this was stopped in the 1500s. The empire never achieved the extent of political unification they wanted formed. Instead, they were more of a decentralized, limited elective monarchy that consisted of many domains such as countries and principalities. In 1500, it had a population of about 15 million people who spoke different languages. The powers of the emperor were limited. Power was mostly in the hands of the many princes who ruled their own areas.

“Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain”: Isabella I (1451­1504) and her husband, Ferdinand II (1452­1516), were rulers of the kingdoms that comprised Spain before it was united by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. They ruled well, reorganized the government, and brought down the crime rate. They also relieved the kingdom of its large debt. The reforms that they introduced helped not only their kingdoms but other territories as well. They were especially known for their involvement in major historical events. This included the Reconquista, the Spanish Inquisition and the discovery voyage of Christopher Columbus to the New World in 1492.

“Prince Henry the Navigator”: Prince Henry “the Navigator”, was the brother of the Portuguese king. Henry took control of Ceuta, a north African city. He was on a quest for valuables such as spices and gold, but he also wanted to convert people to Christianity instead of them being muslims and pagans. He is important because he essentially started the Portuguese exploration of the north African coast.

“Conquistadors”: Conquistadors, also known as conquerors, were mainly searching for gold. But in the mid­16th century, silver became more valuable. So the conquistadors went crazy over searching for silver and began to colonize in south america.

“Las Casas and the Black Legends”: The Black Legends was a type of historical writing that demonized the Spanish Government, its people and its culture. The first book published with this type of historical writing was first published in 1914 but this had been going on since the 14th century. Bartolome de las Casas was one of many who published a book describing Spains cruel behavior toward the people in Hispaniola, which is present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The Black legends had a huge impact on the european continent. England used the legends to turn people against spain and have them convert to Protestantism and follow england. So in short, the northern europeans were using the Black Legends as a reason to challenge spain for their settlement in North America. “Bartolomeu Dias”: Lived from 1451­1500. He was a knight and Portuguese explorer who was documented as being the first European to sail around the tip of Africa in 1488. He named this southern tip “Cape of Storms” but it was later changed to “Cape of Good Hope” This is important because Bartolomeu Dias’ journey opened up new trade routes with people in India and in other parts of Asia. “Christopher Columbus”: Was an explorer, navigator and colonizer. He was known for his explorations to the Americas between 1492 and 1503. Columbus sailed around the north part of South America and around the West Indies. He was important because through Columbus he opened up new places to explore and colonize and eventually led to the development of the Western World. “Vasco da Gama”:Born in 1460 Da Gama was a Portuguese explorer whose mission was to find a maritime route to the East. He set off in July 1497 first sailing south down the coast of Africa, rounding the Cape of Good, then finally a Arab navigator helped them reach the Indian Coast. This voyage resulted in a water route from Europe to Asia. He died on December 24 1524.

“Benefice System”: The Benefice System was brought into effect in Medieval 16th century Europe and it was a position or post granted to an ecclesiastic that guaranteed a fixed amount of property or income. The Benefice system of the famous Medieval Roman Catholic Church originally included gifts of lands and properties to priests as a reward to providing spiritual services for the parish. This was significant because it caused some communities to loudly protest the spiritual and financial abuses of the Medieval Church prior to Martin Luther. “Indulgences”: Indulgences came around during the late Middle Ages. Indulgences were used for those fighting in wars who couldn’t confess their sins. An indulgence got rid of you sins and was said to shorten your time in purgatory or even send you straight to heaven. The church saw that people were paying for these because they wanted to go to heaven. The church took advantage of this and made a lot of money because of it. The church made the people think that you could buy your

salvation and was going against tradition. A man named Martin Luther saw what the Church was doing and started his own campaign to fight the Church and show the people exactly what they were doing. "John Tetzel": John Tetzel was a famous German indulgence preacher who lived from 1465 to 1519. He was very infamous for getting people to buy indulgences. He told people they didn't have to go through purgatory if they bought an indulgence. He said your sins would be forgiven if you bought an indulgence. He was one of the main reasons Martin Luther tried to reform the church. "Charles V": Charles succeeded Maximilian as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He was a nineteen year old Spaniard. He lived from 1500 to 1558. Charles revived the German­based Imperial Supreme Court. He also consulted with a diet of the empire on all major domestic and foreign affairs affecting the empire. These measures also helped the development of the Reformation by preventing unilateral imperial action against the Germans. “Martin Luther”: A german catholic priest most commonly known as the starter of the Protestant Reformation. Luther hated indulgences and is commonly known for his 95 theses which were 95 complaints he had against the church. He taught that salvation is not earned from good deeds but rather faith in Jesus Christ. He was excommunicated from the church which ultimately resulted in the Protestant Reformation.

“John Calvin”: Calvin was born into a rich clerical family where he received church benefices for the best possible education. In 1534 Calvin had a conversion to Protestantism and used his own life experience as a model by which he would measure the citizenry of Geneva. With his vast knowledge of theology, he joined the Reformation in Geneva and started the religion of Calvinism. The Calvinists had a strong belief in predestination and the individual’s responsibility to reorder society according to God’s plan. “Diet Of Worms”: The diet of worms, which started on April 1521, was newly elected by Emperor Charles V in England. This group impacted Luther because he needed to present his views before the men of the Diet of Worms. This group is important because they placed Luther on imperial ban. “Ulrich Zwingli”: Ulrich Zwingli was the leader of the Swiss Reformation in Switzerland. He started his first acts as a reformer in 1522. His reform guideline stated that whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor practiced. He created Zwingli’s scripture which was used in the reform. He was important because he was the center of the Swiss Reform. Anabaptists: Anabaptists were a type of protestants that developed in the sixteenth century when people had more aspiration of a implementation of Apostolic Christianity that began in Switzerland in 1525 by Conrad Grebel. They came from originally being the followers of Lutheran and Zwingli ideas. These people had a belief that infant baptism should not be practiced. They believed that instead of infant baptism should not be practiced, and that being baptized as an adult was the only proper way. The individual needs to be aware of what they are doing, instead of being an infant who is not aware of what is occurring. Anabaptist thought like this because Jesus was also baptized as an adult. This

movement was significant because it changed the Catholic and Christian idea of being baptized. That only an adult, who understood the scriptures, could have faith and achieve eternal life. Augsburg Confession: The Augsburg confession is the confession of faith in the Lutheran church. This document was written in both German and Latin and was presented on June 25, 1530 in free cities by many German rulers. Charles the V, holy roman emperor, announced to the princes and free territory in Germany to express their religious thoughts to restore the broken religious and political unity. In doing so they would rally up support to defeat the Turks in the Turkish Invasion. This document is the fourth one in the Lutheran book of concord. Henry VIII of England: Henry the VIII was king of England, Ireland, and claimed part of France from April 21, 1509 to January 28, 1547. Henry had six marriages and he separated the England church from the Roman Catholic Church. His problems with the Church of England led to England's church separating from papal authority, dissolution of the monasteries, and made himself head of the England church. He still remained loyal to the Catholic Church teachings even after he was excommunicated from the church. He changed the English constitution drastically and expanded power. He became obese with suffering health and died in 1547.

Counter­Reformation: The Counter­Reformation was an attempt to revive Catholic teachings in a religiously divided Europe which started in 1545, shortly after the formation of the Council of Trent. The Counter­Reformation was a response to the Protestant Reformation and was based off of four major themes: 1. Ecclesiastical or structural reconfiguration. 2. Religious orders. 3. Spiritual movements. 4. Political dimensions. Within the Counter­Reformation, many new religious groups arose trying to instill Catholic teachings, among these were the Jesuits and the Theatines, who criticized Protestants for disobedience and religious innovation. The Counter­Reformation is significant because it brought back many Catholic teachings and inspired other spiritual movements. Ignatius of Loyola: Ignatius of Loyola was the founder of the jesuits. He was a soldier and a courtier but he got wounded in battle. After that, he started his spiritual pilgrimage. He wrote a book called Spiritual Exercises, Which discussed and taught how to control one's feelings. Council of Trent: Pope Paul III was forced to call a council to reassert church doctrine. The council had 3 sessions that spread over 18 years due to war and plague. The council discussed and reformed internal church discipline. Baroque Art: Baroque art was a style that was marked by exaggerated and dramatic ornamentation and curved lines rather than straight lines and flourished between 1550 and 1750 in Europe. It was widely associated with the Counter­Reformation. This new style of art

was significant because it represented the Catholics in opposition to the Protestants and the two styles differed significantly. In a depiction of a Catholic church using baroque, the painting is full of colors, decoration, and catches the eye with its detail and beauty whereas the Protestant depiction of a church is very plain, some done without color and featured almost no decorations or ornaments. Huguenots ­ They are the French Protestants of the 16th and 17th centuries who broke away from the Catholic Church of France. They formed the Protestant Reformed Church and criticized the Catholic Church's rituals, doctrines, and leadership. They were saying that it did not help someone's redemption. They believed that Christian life should be a life of simple faith in God. Many of their members were nobles but most were peasants who had access to Bibles that were written in the vernacular language. Because of their criticism of the Catholic Church, they were prosecuted by Roman Catholics in France. At the end of the 17th century, about 500,000 of them fled France to avoid prosecution. They settled in Protestant countries such as England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre ­ On August 24, 1572, Catherine de Medici persuaded her son, King Charles IX, to order Catholic authorities to assassinate Huguenot Protestant leaders in Paris. She convinced her son that they were about to rebel against the monarchy. At that time, many Huguenot s were in Paris celebrating their leader, Henry of Navarre's, marriage to Margaret who was the king's sister. One of the first Huguenot to be killed was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Soon after, mobs of Catholics roamed Paris and started killing Huguenots. That day, about 3,000 were killed in Paris. Despite a royal order by the king to stop the killing, the massacres continued in other provinces of France. When it was over a few days later, about 30,000 Huguenots had been killed. This event led to another religious civil war in France.

Edict of Nantes: Was a set of laws introduced on April 13,1598 in France. This edict allowed Huguenots to gain some rights in France. The edict was created by Henry the IV and contained four basic documents comprised of 92 articles. Also containing 56 articles dealing just with Protestant rights and obligations. This edict succeeded in creating peace and unity to France but this was not permanent.

Philip II: Was the king of Spain ruling from 1556­1598. The Spanish empire gained its greatest power, influence and extent through his rule. However he failed when he attempted to take control within the Netherlands, England and France. He attempted to put Spanish ways and cultures into these areas. Philip was also ruler for the netherlands at one point but he left the area for spain saying that he would never return to the Netherlands. Philip II had a great impact on Spain due to his wise decisions and correctly chosen allies. However toward the end of his rule tensions with England increased and England defeated the Spanish in the English channel.

Mary I: Mary I was the queen of England and Spain from july 1553 until her death in 1558. She is remembered for her restoration of the Roman Catholicism after the short lived protestant reign of her half brother Edward VI. She was born and raised in London, England. She was the only child of king Henry the VIII, whose mother did not miss cary. During her rule she did many things to help strengthen England and fix what her half­brother had done to the empire. She did not allow priest to marry, and if the did they would be burnt at the stake. She also established a “gender­free” authority of the crown which allowed anyone one male of female to reign over England. Mary then strengthen the administrative structure of the church. This allowed the church to have for freedom to expand.

Treaty of Westphalia: This treaty was a series of peace treaties that were issued and signed between may and October of 1648. There were many empires and rulers involved with this treaty. Some where the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, Spain, France, Sweden, and the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The treaty resulted from a big diplomatic congress trying to initiate a new a new system of political order in central europe. These treaties were used to end the Thirty Year War in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Year War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. This brought peace throughout most of Europe, as Spain and France remained in war for the next eleven years, but they eventually end the battle. This lead to rulers putting up boundaries to signify what part of land was theirs.

Elizabeth I: She was born at Greenwhich on September 7, 1533, she was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife after Anne Boleyn was executed. She reigned for 45 years which was looked upon as one of the most glorious in English History. During her reign she oversaw many voyages to the Americas and had established the East India Company in 1600. During her long reign the nation suffered from high prices and critical economic depression, especially in the countryside. Elizabeth never married for she saw it as a burden and causing problems for England. She died at Richmond Palace on March 24, 1603.

Thirty Years’ War: The Thirty Years’ War lasted from 1618 to 1648 consisting of a series of wars fought throughout Central Europe. The war started as a result of religion between Protestant and Catholic states fighting over power. Over time the war evolved into less religious and more political as warfare between France and Hasburg erupted. Famine and disease had devastated Germany and the Italian city states. A large part of the armies consisted of mercenaries which cause bankruptcy. It ended with the treaty of Osnabruck and Munster which was part of the wider treaty of Peace of Westphalia.

William of Orange: William was born at the Hague on November 4th, 1650. He was an intelligent and strong man from the country of the Netherlands. He was head of state of the

Dutch republic. He was a historically significant figure in history because he eventually played a major role in the Netherland’s fight for their independence.

Dutch India East Company: The Dutch India East Company was considered to be the first true multinational corporation which was founded in 1602. It had established headquarters in many different countries. The company’s main purpose was trade, exploration, and colonization throughout most of the 17th and 18th centuries. This company was even given authority to keep armies and make treaties. The main trade resource were spices with the Portuguese while the Dutch were at war with Spain.

Parliamentary Monarchy: A state headed by a monarch who does not influence policy formation or implementation. The monarch shares power with the parliament whose job it is to form laws.

Divine Rights of Kings: The divine rights of kings is the idea that only God can judge kings. The idea was created by Bishop Jacques­Bénigne Bossuet. This idea allowed kings such as Louis XIV and James I to control with absolute power. It also gave the people reason to revolt and cause wars and reformations inside countries.

Oliver Cromwell: Oliver Cromwell had a huge impact on Parliament and led them to their victory in the seventeenth century. To achieve this he created an alliance with Scotland and became the ruler of Parliament army. The people were tired of Charles harsh rule and had much hatred for him. This was Cromwell’s reason to emerge for Parliament during the Civil War.

Charles I: Charles I was born in Scotland on November 19, 1600 and died in London on January 30, 1649. Charles was the king of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1625 to his death. He was born to James IV of Scotland and became heir after the death of his eldest brother. He became unpopular due to an attempt to marry a spanish queen. The parliaments of Ireland and Scotland revolted against Charles and destroyed his army. He runs to parliament to support in the war funds. Later he invades parliament and is destroyed by Oliver Cromwell's army. He was then executed by parliament and passed the throne to his son.

James I: James I, previously the king of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth I as the King of England in 1603. He was a strong believer in the divine rights of kings, so he was expected to rule with the minimum amount of consultants. This is why he rarely met with parliament. James I also made clear his intentions to rebuff the Puritans and enhance the Anglican episcopacy. This pushed the Puritans over the edge, forcing them to found Plymouth Colony on Cape Cod Bay in North America. James court became a center of scandal and corruption. James I was important because if it wasn’t for him, Plymouth Colony would have never been founded.

Puritans: A religious group of English Protestants who sought to “purify” the Church of England of any vestiges of Catholicism. Their goal was to eliminate elaborate religious ceremonies and replace the hierarchical episcopal system of church governance with a more representative Presbyterian form. Because Of the religious problem in England, Puritan groups left to America where they could worship freely and organize a truly reformed church.

Test Act: An act passed by Parliament that requires all civil and military officials of the crown to swear an oath against the doctrine of transubstantiation. This was aimed at King Charles II’s brother, James, who was a devout Catholic and heir to the throne. The Test Act did not matter however because Charles II did not recall Parliament and ruled freely from 1681­1685.James assumed the throne as James II and repealed the Test Act.

Triple Alliance: The Triple Alliance was the military union of Germany, Austria­Hungary, and Italy that was formed in 1882 and lasted until 1914, the first World War. This new pact was declared a defensive alliance and if any one of the three countries were to be attacked, the other two were to support the one. This is significant because it built up to the first World War.

Jansenism: A Roman Catholic religious movement that started in the 1630s that taught Original Sin corrupted human beings so badly that there was no free will and only divine grace could lead them to salvation, not good works. The teachings were opposed to the Jesuits but grew on prominent families and became known for its opposition towards royal authority. Eventually Louis XIV banned Jansenism which led to opposition to royal authority and eventually the Parlement of Paris and other French judicial bodies (sided with Jansenism) took power.

War of Spanish Succession:This war took place from 1701 to 1714. It happened after Charles II of Spain died and he didn't have an heir to his throne. Before his death, England, the Dutch Republic, and France agreed to have Prince Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria inherit his throne. Unfortunately, Prince Joseph Ferdinand died. So, then they signed a second treaty giving the Spanish throne to Archduke Charles, the son of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. Leopold I disagreed because the agreement left off some Spanish territories. Leopold I wanted all Spanish possessions given to his son.

Charles II had a will that granted Spanish possessions to Phillip, the grandson of Louis XIV of France. Louis XIV proclaimed Phillip as Phillip V, King of Spain. He also invaded the Spanish Netherlands. England, the Dutch Republic and Emperor Leopold I formed an alliance against Louis XIV. After some important victories against Louis XIV, the alliance collapsed. Peace treaties were signed that ignored Charles II's will. Because of this, there was a rise of a powerful Britain and the decline of France and Spain.

Glorious Revolution: The glorious revolution was parliament secretly trying to overthrow James and put mary, his daughter and william of orange in command. this angered james and he fled to france putting mary and william in the monarchy.

Louis XIV: Louis was a monarch that was the one single ruler. He was successful in this because he wisely chose councils to control foreign affairs, the army, domestic administration, and economic regulations.

Charles VI: Beginning in 1378 Charles became King of France. He became king at the age of 11. He had entrusted the kingdom to his Four uncles since he was a little too young to fully rule a kingdom. His uncles began to waste the financial resources of the kingdom, and so Charles took his uncle out of power and restored France to the way it was when his father ruled it. Later he became insane and believed that he was made of glass and denied his own wife and children. He was eventually dethroned by the Princes of Blood. Charles VI was a great ruler of France. Even if his uncles did messed up everything he found a way to bring france back from that devastating fall. He also claimed much land for France but had to be given to the spanish due to a treaty they had with them. Despite this he still tried to improve the Kingdom as much as possible before his death in 1422

Frederick William I: Frederick was the King of Prussia starting in 1713. He did a lot to centralize and improve Prussia. He replaced military service with a tax payment among the middle class, established primary schools, resettled east Prussia after being hit by a huge plague. He died in 1740 and left Prussia in a very high point. He made Prussia a great city before his passing. He had developed a good Government, built a very powerful army and left sufficient funds for his successors to put to good use. He was a very peacefully ruler despite the great army he had put together and his successors kept it that way.

Boyars: the old nobility, that largely controlled the bureaucracy in Russia during most of the 1600’s until Peter the Great took over disturbing the power they had.

Peter the Great: the monarch of Tsardom, Russia from 1682­1725. He was able to expand the Tsardom to become of the great European power during that time. He also led cultural revolutions that changed the medieval systems into a modern system that was Europe­oriented based on events during the age of enlightenment. This shaped Russia to resemble the Russia of today due to the revolution that Peter the Great supported and created.

Streltsy: They were Russian guardsmen also known as Marksman Troops armed with weapons. Lasted from the 16th to the 18th centuries. These soldiers reinforced the nobility militia. They were mobilized during wartime to assist. These soldiers were a big part of the russian forces and their wars however, they were eventually disbanded and executed by Peter the Great.

Mercantilism: Mercantilism was mostly the belief in profitable trading and commercialism in which many European nations based their economy on. This economic system was used during the 16th to 18th century and is significant because it was used by many countries to increase wealth by imposing government regulation concerning all of the country's commercial interests.

Atlantic Passage: The Atlantic Passage was the route taken to take slaves from Africa to the New World. The passage was used around 1400­1860. The ships would cross the Atlantic Ocean to get to the New World. A great amount of the slaves would die during the voyage because of disease or simply malnutrition. This passage was a key route for the development of slave trade although still many slaves were dying.

War of the Austrian Succession: The War of the Austrian Succession was started by Frederick II, king of Prussia, in 1740. Frederick decided to attack Silesia. This disrupted the Pragmatic Sanction and ruined the balance of power in Prussia. Frederick didn’t think much of the Habsburg Empire, thus invading their territory. This war lead to France helping Prussia gain Silesia but also showed that Maria Theresa, the empress to the Habsburg Empire, was able to sustain her political power with the loss of Silesia.

The Seven Years' War: The seven years' war was a war that started in August 1756 between Prussia and France, Austria, Sweden, Russia, and many of the German states. Russia eventually made peace with Prussia. The war ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Hubertusburg. The war helped Prussia gain more dominance in Europe.

British East India Company: The East India Company, chartered during 1599 in England, was an English joint stock company formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but what ended up trading with the indian subcontinent. The East India company’s stocks were owned by wealthy merchants and aristocrats.The British East India Company was important because it was granted a monopoly by Queen Elizabeth I, meaning that it controlled half of the entire world’s trade.

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British East India Company:

Stamp Act: The stamp act of 1765 was an act by the British parliament that imposed a direct tax on the colonists of the English and required that all printed materials made in the colonies had an embossed revenue. Some of these printed materials included documents, newspapers, magazines, cards, and other paper works. This had to be paid in British currency instead of colonial currency. The purpose for this act was to rebuild the North American army after the seven years' war. This act was opposed by the colonists and would lead to the American Revolution.

Scientific Revolution: The sweeping change in the scientific view of the universe that occurred in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The new scientific concepts and the method of their construction became the standard for assessing the validity of knowledge in the West. Natural philosophers were often reexamining and rethinking theories and data from the ancient world and the Late Middle Ages. This revolution saw the the establishment of new social institutions to support the emerging scientific enterprise.

Boston Massacre: In the 1700's the British wanted to pass a series of acts that dealt with colonial imports. The colonies resisted and the ministry send over new customs they wanted for their state. British responded by sending troops that killed five citizens. This tragedy became known as the Boston Massacre. This had an impact in society because it demonstrated that Britain would not be satisfied unless they got what they desired.

Intolerable Acts: In 1732­1792 the British wanted to increase their power. They wanted to show their Parliamentary dominance over the colonies. To do this the British passes the Intolerable Acts. This punished the colony of Massachusetts and strengthened British authority over the colonies. These laws were of great importance because they provoked colonial opposition. This eventually led to the American Revolution.

Continental Congress: The continental congress was a group of delicates from the 13 colonies that formed the government of America during the American Revolution. They enabled Benjamin Franklin to establish a representative body. The government declared independence from Britain and declared George Washington leader. They made war with Britian and allies with France. They also funded for their own war efforts.

Scientific Revolution: This was the process that established the new view of the universe. Sixteenth and seventeenth century philosophers often reexamined theories and data from the anchient world. This brought up new discoveries.

Francis Bacon: Francis Bacon was an englishman of almost univerrsal accomplishment. He was a lawyer, royal official, and author. His real accomplishment was setting and intellectual tone and helping create a climate conductive to scientific work.

Rene Decartes: Rene Decartes was born on March 31, 1596, in France and lived his life as a philosopher, mathematician, and writer. His contributions to each of these three fields was significant, he was deemed the father of modern philosophy and analytical geometry for his works like Meditations on First Philosophy and the Cartesian coordinate system, both of which are still used today. He was also a key figure in the scientific revolution and was called a genius for his humanistic traits of being an all­around genius.

Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was born on April 5, 1588, in England and became a well­known political philosopher. His 1651 book Leviathan established social contract theory, the foundation of most later Western political philosophy. He is most well­known for his contributions in the philosophy department to the modern world.

John Locke (1632 ­ 1704) ­ was an English philosopher and political thinker in the 17th century. He was regarded as the most influential of his time. His Second Treatise of Government, published in 1690, presented his idea that government was in the consent of the people or the governed. He believed that government is responsible for and should be responsive to the concerns of the governed. Because of that, government should have limited authority. He also argued that there is a relationship of trust between rulers and those whom they ruled. If the rulers violated that trust, the people whom they ruled could replace them. He also wrote about psychology. His Essay Concerning Human Understanding that was published in 1690 was a major influence on European psychology in the 18th century. He believed that when people are born, they are like a blank page or tabula rasa. Their character is shaped by experience and their nature and personality are molded by the social and physical environment where they live.

Blaise Pascal (1623 ­ 1662) ­ was a French mathematician and scientist who gave up his wealth in favor of a simple life. He is known for his work to build machines that could perform mathematical calculations and his efforts to disassociate science from religion. His ideas about religion are found in Pensees (Thoughts). He was a strong critic of the Jesuit philosophy, siding with the Jansenites who followed St. Augustine's teachings. They believed that man was totally sinful, that their eternal predestination was heaven or hell, and that it is their complete dependence on faith and grace that gave them knowledge of God and salvation. He was convinced that reason and science had nothing to do with religion and that Christianity had two important truths. These were that God existed and he was a loving being, and man is not worthy of God.

Old Regime: was a political and social system that took place in France before 1789. The old regime contained 3 classes or estates, the first were the members of the clergy. The second consisted of the nobility. The third consisted of peasants, workers and the middle class. The third estate was the largest and strongest of the three. The old regime was a biased system in a way since the noble and clergy estates gained most of the benefits from France. This is why the third estate rebelled and caused the revolution. This caused the system to be changed after the end of the French Revolution.

Industrial Revolution: started in 1760 in Great Britain and it soon spread throughout Western Europe and into the United States. The industrial revolution was a time when new manufacturing processes took place such as the new reliance on machines instead of hand production. It also included the changed efficiency of water power, steam power and the development of machine tools. The industrial revolutionized the world into a slightly more

sophisticated and modern world. The ending of the Industrial revolution is estimated around 1830

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Bernini was born december 7 1598 in present day Italy. He was a sculptor and painter during the 1500’s and 1600’s in Italy. He was considered to be a worthy successor of michelangelo. He received many commissions from the papacy. at the age of 23 he was knighted by Pope Gregory XV. His art along with many others fell from favor for a period of time. It was not until i the 19th century that a art historical scholarship recognized Bernini’s achievements and restored his artistic reputation. He died on november 28 1680 at the age of 81

Michelangelo Caravaggio: Caravaggio was was born september 29 1571 in Milan. He was a painter and was active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily. His paintings combined a realistic observations like physical features and emotions. After training as a painter in Milan he moved to Rome where he began to paint in churches. After becoming huge in the Roman art scene he was jailed for vandalizing his own apartment and had a death warrant issued for him by the Pope. He killed a young man in 1606 and then fled Rome. He was involved in many fights including one in Malta and one in Naples. He died on July 18 1610 under suspicious circumstances believed to be on his way back to Rome to ask for a Pardon.

Baroque:a style of European architecture, music, and art of the 17nth and 18nth century , that was characterized by ornate detail.

Industrial Revolution:a period of increased agricultural production in England due to an increases in labour and land productivity between 1750 and 1850. This was a result in complex interaction of social, economic, and farming technology changes. The agricultural revolution brought about new advances in the field of agriculture such as crop rotation , selective breeding, land drains, and transportation infrastructure.

Voltaire: (1694­1778) Francois­Marie Arouet, mostly known as Voltaire, was born in Paris, France and was the most widely known Enlightenment writer even today. Voltaire influenced many important thinkers of both the French Revolution and American Revolution. His writings and beliefs on certain subjects challenged the common thinking of society during his time. Voltaire dedicated himself to the subjects of History, Philosophy, and Writing.

Deism:

David Hume:

Edward Gibbon:

Denis Diderot: Denis Diderot was a French philosopher an writer born on October 5, 1784 in Langres France. Diderot did many philosophical works throughout his life time such as studying the concept of free will. The most Important thing he was is known for is being part of the Enlighment and serving a role in being the main editor to the Encyclopedie in France. Which today what they called Enclyclopedie is known today as a basic knowledge of the encyclopedia. What he took a part in creating is today now one of the most used resources in our time. Diderot was one of the great minds during the 1700's until his death on July 31, 1784.

Adam Smith: Adam smith was born on June 16, 1723 in Kirkcaldy, Scotland. He was a Scottish moral philosopher and pioneer of political economy. Smith, a key figure in the Scottish enlightenment, published two works that acknowledged him as the father of economics. Smith laid the foundations for the free market economic theory. He criticizes in his works how rational self interests and competition could lead to economic prosperity.

Jean Jacques Rousseau: An awkward philosophe who transcended the political thought and values of his own time, the mid­eighteenth century. Rousseau believed that the process of civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature and therefore he hated the world. Society itself was the source of human human evil and an example was the unequal distribution of property. Rousseau suggested that society was more important than its individuals because they were what they were only by virtue of their relationship to the larger community. His arguments led him to the conclusion that some people must be free thus constituting a justification for a direct democracy.

Laissez­Faire: Founded by Adam Smith between 1760­1790 in England, the laissez­faire was an economic thought and policy, that favored a limited role for the government in economic life. This means the Laissez­Faire was a doctrine of minimal government interference in the working of the economy. Smith argued that a government should provide schools, armies, navies, and roads, but should not become active in any other parts of the economy. Laissez­Faire is significant because at the time, it meant that businesses could control things themselves and not be run by government. Businesses were no longer restricted by the government. This meant that businesses would flourish, which was good for the economy.

Rococo: Rococo is a form of art, also known as “Late Baroque,” which originated in France and continued to develop in the eighteenth century. This style of art became a reaction against the traditional baroque art. The style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold. Unlike the political Baroque which implemented emotional, dramatic elements, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. Rococo became a major development of European art and influenced the artwork of modern paintings, sculptures, drawings, etc.

Mary Wollstonecraft: Mary wrote a book called A vindication of the Rights of Women. in this book, mary brought Rousseau before the judgement of the rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge. she was trying to say that without allowing women to contribute to

reasoning and thinking in the Enlightenment, then they were preventing knowledge from progressing. She said women were slaves of men. She demanded for women the kind of liberty that male writers of the Enlightenment had been championing for men for more than a century.

Neoclassicism is an art style and movement which flourished in 18th century Europe, particularly in France. It was inspired by the Renaissance and the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. It revived the spirit of antiquity and was strongly reflected in architecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts. The movement coincided with the 18th century Age of Enlightenment. It had themes, topics, and styles which reflected ancient republican values that were critical of the old French monarchy and social system. This style replaced the Rococo style in existence at the time and was embraced by Napoleon and the French Revolution.

Jacques Louis ­ David (1748 ­1825) was an influential French painter during the 18th century. He was the foremost painter of the neoclassical style. Born in a family of architects, he was interested in drawing and painting. He supported the French Revolution and was known as its artistic champion. His works reflected republican themes that depicted the corruption of the French monarchical government. Some of his works were The Oath of the Horatii, The Death of Marat, The Death of Socrates, The Coronation of Napoleon, and a drawing of Marie Antoinette on her way to the guillotine.

Frederick the Great: Was the ruler of the kingdom of Prussia (1740­1786). He was best known for his many military victories, and his final success against the odds of the Seven Years’ War. Frederick modernized The Prussian Bureaucracy and civil services and pursued religious policies. He also reformed the judicial that gave men who were not nobles to be part of the court of law.

Enlightened Absolutism: This form of rule was inspired but the Enlightenment of the 18th century. Absolute monarchs would apply more rationality to their decisions in their territories in Europe.Philosophic ideas began to be applied to the monarchs territories. Catherine II of Russia for example used philosophic ideas to revise and change the Russian laws. This was a time when change and reason came into practice in Europe. The monarch began to be affected by this crises and made a choice whither to accept its ways or reject it.

Joseph II of Austria: March 13, 1741­ February 20, 1790 was Holy Roman Emperor for twenty five years and ruled the Habsburgs lands for ten. He was the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine. He had been one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs. Joseph supported enlightened absolutism, promoting his own policies which later were called Josephinism. His only successor was his younger brother Leopold due to the fact that he had no sons.

Catherine the Great: May 2, 1729­ November 17, 1796 most renowned and longest ruling female of Russia. Ruled for thirty four years till her death at age 67. Born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia, came to power after the assassination of husband, known as Russia’s golden age under her reign. Russia became unified under her rule as well as grow to one of the great powers of Europe. She had expanded Russia by rapid conquest and diplomacy, while modernizing Russia along Western European lines. However her system of economy of serfdom led to a numerous amounts of rebellion.

Louis XVI: Louis XVI was the last king of France (1774–92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789.On May 10, 1774, Louis Auguste became Louis XVI, with the death of his grandfather Louis XV. He was not believed to be a good king because the French Revolution occurred during his reign and he had an inability to successfully resolve and face problems personally. Louis lacked sufficient strength of character and decisiveness. King Louis XVI played a huge factor as a major cause for the necessity of revolution in France. Louis XVI was executed by guillotine in the year 1793, it was one of the most important days of the French Revolution.

Tennis Court Oath: The Tennis Court Oath occurred on June twentieth. As Louis XVI called the National Assembly and planned to lock them out of their meeting room. The Assembly then migrated to an open tennis court where they all took an oath to stand their ground until they got what they wanted. This act changed the monarchy's power by having Louis share his power with the National Assembly. The Tennis Court Oath changed the government of France so that the people wouldn't have to be controlled by one man with all the power.

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was first issued on August 27, 1789. This declaration referred solely to men only because women were seen as to live the domestic life. This document gave rights to men that were not allowed during the reign of the French monarchy. They had rights and freedoms like freedom of religion and their rights on taxation, etc. The declarations main ideas focused on civic equality and popular sovereignty. This declaration was the start to a new France, with equality among men and the peoples' say in what would be put into action in the country.

The Committee of Public Safety: The Committee of Public Safety was established by the Convention in 1793 in France. The purpose of the Committee was to carry out the executive duties of the government. This committee was also given a lot of power that it could be seen as a dictatorship. The importance if the committee was that they were seen as a group that could save the revolution from enemies. Like their use if creating alliances with other places.

Maximilien Robespierre: Was a French lawyer, politician and one of the essential figures of the French Revolution. He was a member of the Estates General, Constituet Assembly and the

Jacobin Club who opposed the death penalty and recommended the abolishment of slavery. He favored equality of rights, universal male suffrage and a French Republic. He was a key figure in the reign of terror because he executed many enemy faction members and protected the French republic. Robespierre died in the results of the Thermidorian reaction.

Girondists: A loose grouping of French republican politicians, some of them originally from the département of the Gironde, who played a leading role in the Legislative Assembly from October 1791 to September 1792 during the French Revolution. The Girondists were important because they campaigned to end monarchy, resisted the revolution, and fought to gain radical republican support. Reign of Terror: Reign of Terror lasted from September 1793 until the fall of Robespierre in 1794. Its purpose was to purge France of enemies of the Revolution and protect the country from foreign invaders. From January 1793­July 1794, France was governed by the Committee of Public Safety, in which Danton and Robespierre were influential members. In the course of nine months, 16, 000 people were guillotined, but executions of those labeled "internal enemies" of France took place throughout the country.The Terror was important because it was designed to fight the enemies of the revolution, to prevent counter­revolution from gaining ground. Cult of Supreme Being: A legislation passed by the Convention in 1794 that established the worship of the Supreme Being as a state cult. The point of the legislation was to provide a religious basis for the new secular French state. Article 6 was used to outline the political and civic values that the legislation was supposed to nurture. The values all reminded man of the concept of the Divinity and of the dignity of his being. Third Coalition: The Third Coalition was a formation of allied countries against France. The construction of the Third Coalition began in 1804 when Britain declared war on France and in 1805, Russia and Austria joined Britain in opposition against France. The wars between the Third Coalition and France resulted in a reformation of European territories and an increase of power for the French empire. Napoleonic Code: The Napoleonic Code is the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified as well as enforcing the limits on women’s rights. The universality of the Napoleonic Code helped end France’s nonuniformity when it came to French law.

Thermidorian Reaction: The thermidorian reaction was a revolt in the french Revolution over the Committee of Public Safety. It started when Robespierre was voted to be executed. It is also the period where the National Convention was superseded by the Directory. It was the final little bit of the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was shot in the face and it ended the Thermidorian Reaction. Napoleon Bonaparte ­ was born on August 15, 1769. He was a military leader during part of the French revolution and became a powerful political leader too. He was the Emperor of the French Empire in 1804. During his reign, Napoleon championed new ideas and philosophies like equality before the law, property rights, and religious toleration. He also abolished feudalism, codified laws, encouraged the advancement of arts and sciences, and introduced an efficient system of government. His ideas were implemented throughout his empire and across Europe. His reign ended in 1815 and he died on May 5, 1821.

Admiral Horatio Nelson ­ was a flag officer in the British Royal navy. He was born on September 29, 1758. He was a great naval strategist that fought many sea battles against the French and Spanish navies during the Napoleonic Wars. He is known for his bravery and leadership. Admiral Nelson was wounded many times during combat, losing an arm, and an eye in the Battles of Santa Cruz Tenerife and Corsica. In his biggest and final victory, the Battle of Trafalgar in October 21, 1805, Admiral Nelson was shot by a French sharpshooter. He left behind a legacy as a highly effective leader . His command was based on love instead of authority, inspiring many with his great courage and commitment. He is regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes.

Magyars: The Magyars were also known as Hungarian tribes and lived in a variety of regions in Europe. They are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. The Magyars sought political control over non­magyar peoples living within the historical boundaries of Hungary. There was a magyar revolt because some Magyar liberals wanted their aristocratic liberties guaranteed against the central government of Vienna. Klemens von Metternich: He was an Austrian foreign minister who sought and desired to have a balance of power in an international equilibrium of political and military forces that succeeded in discouraging any sort of violent thought or aggression. Klemens was the leader of The Congress of Vienna and said that he was guided by “the principle of legitimacy.” The Convention of 1839: The Convention of 1839 was a treaty signed on April 19, 1839. It was signed by all off the European powers, United Kingdom, and the Kingdom of Belgium. This treaty made Belgium its own country due to, gave independence of the German speaking part of Luxemborg, but most importantly it made Belgium a neutral country. Also, in favor of Belgium, all who signed the treaty would protect that country if it was under attack.

Simon Bolivar: A firm advocate of independence and republic and one of Latin America’s greatest liberators. He was exiled into Colombia and later Jamaica when civil war in Venezuela broke out. When he regained power in 1821, he became president. By deliberately letting the political situation in Peru fall into confusion, he sent in his troops and ended Spain’s final efforts of gaining control in South America. Decembrist Revolt: The first rebellion in modern Russian history whose instigators had had specific political goals.These goals were a constitutional government and the abolition of serfdom. The junior officers who plotted to take the oath of allegiance to Nicholas were all executed. The political martyrdom of this event came to symbolize the yearnings of the never numerous Russian liberals. Nicholas I: Nicholas the 1st was the emperor of Russia from 1825 to 1855. He was best known as a political conservative for geographical expansion, repression of dissent, economic stagnation, poor administrative policies, corrupt bureaucracy, and many wars. He made many expensive foreign policies and acted like a Russian soldier. His actions marked the beginning of the Russian Nation. Charles X: Charles X was the last bourbon monarch of France and known for the starter of the July revolution. He was in exile most of his life due to his loss of family in the French Revolution. Charles promised to give back the land that was loss during the French Revolution which angered the population. He wanted to restore the pre revolutionary regime that took away many privileges from citizens. His political ideas sparked the July Revolution. July Monarchy: The Kingdom of France , commonly known as the July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. This was important because Louis Philippe Proclaimed himself the “King of the French” instead of “King of France” , resulting in the underscoring of the supremacy of popular sovereignty, Louis­Philippe established a moderate, constitutional monarchy. Capital Industries are industries that help other businesses grow. Examples of these are the labor force and the railways during the 1800s. The spread of the railways led to the transformation of the economy of Western Europe at that time. By providing a cheaper, efficient, and rapid way of transporting people and goods, railways helped increase and spread industrialization. It contributed to the expansion of the Industrial Revolution. A rail network of 9,797 kilometers made Great Britain's economy the largest at that time. Railways helped increase the demand for products that it transported like iron and steel. Other industries that used iron and steel, like shipbuilding and machinery manufacturing, also grew.

Proletarianization according to Marxist theory, is the social process where people who used to be employers or were self­employed work for another employer as a wage laborer. According to Marxism, it is a form of downward social mobility. This change began in Europe during the early 19th century when the factory system began. Artisans and workers who worked in factories formed a wage­labor workforce. This was where they were paid a wage for the work they did. Artisans who used to work for themselves, lost ownership of their tools and equipment, and the control over how they conducted their trades or business. Their employer, provided the money to build the factory, buy the machinery and materials used, and pay their wages. It was also their employer who had control over the quality of the product and its price.

Chartism: Chartism is the political movement started by the working class in Britain during the 19th century, beginning in 1835 until 1858. Chartism relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims, which was to fight against corruption and for democracy in an industrial society. It’s basis was the People’s Charter, which called for six political reforms to make the political system more democratic. This is important because it started a movement toward democracy in Great Britain.

English Factory Act: The English Factory Act was passed by Parliament in 1833 in an attempt to improve conditions for children working in factories. Some of the new rights included in the Act include no child workers under nine years of age and children are not to work at night. This was important because it paved the way for future factory condition reforms. Utilitarianism: The theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that the principle of utility, defined as the greatest good for the greatest number of people, should be applied to government, the economy, and the judicial system. Although utilitarianism did not originate with Bentham, he tried to create codes of scientific law that were based on the principle of utility. Corn Laws: Corn Laws are British tariffs on imported grain that protected the price of grain grown within the British Isles. In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed by the Anti­ Corn Law League. The league wanted to abolish the laws to lower food prices and lower wages at no real cost to the workers. Also by doing this, the prices on British manufactured goods could also be lowered to strengthen their competitive position in the world market.