dancing the darkness away: a study of healing through artistic expression of rwandan children
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Dancing the Darkness Away
Dancing the Darkness Away: A Study of Healing through Artistic Expression
of Rwandan Children
danice brown
“Musichathcharmstosootheasavagebeast.”—Congreve
in the evenings atUmuryango,asthesunsunkbehindourbuild-ingperchedhalfwayuponeof the thousandhills inRwanda,wewouldgather together in thebackyardandwasheachother’s feetandshoesbeforedinner.Thiscleaningritualwasveryimportanttothegirls,whoseprioritywas tokeeptheirpreciousshoes spotless.Theyscratchedandscrubbedattheir(andmy)plasticflip-flopswiththeutmostintensity.However,itwasusuallyfornaught,becauseassoonaswefinishedcleaning,thesinginganddancingwouldbegin,soilingthevaluedshoesonceagain.Ifitwasanespeciallyenergeticnight,theshoeswouldflyoffandthefeetwouldbedirtiedagainaswell.Dancillewouldstartsinging,andtheotherswouldgatheraroundherandjoinin,singinganddancingintheirownstyle.Lat-erintheevening,wewouldsingtogetheragain,slowersongsquietlyspokentothenightskywhilelyingonthesteps.Throughthismusicwecametoknoweachother.Bridgingthelanguagebarrierwasdif-ficultattimes,butthroughsongwewereabletoconveymorethanIthoughtpossible.Thesongssetthetoneforeachday,encompassedourdailyactions,anddefinedusasagroup,bothtoourselvesandtoothers. Inthiswork,IplantoexploretheuseofmusicineverydaylifebythegirlsatUmuryangoHomeforChildrenforhealingina
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post-traumaticsituation.Ispecificallywillarguethatmusicempow-ersthechildrentodeclaretheirownidentity,toformacommunity,andtodefinetheidentityofthatcommunityaswell.Iwillbeginbydiscussingtraumaforchildreninaninternationalcontext,andapplytheseconceptstoUmuryangospecifically.AfterwardsIwilldescribeoneparticularsong,“OurGodisAnAwesomeGod,”initscontextatthehome,relatingthevariousperformancesofthissongtotheseconceptsofcasualusesofmusicinhealing.Iwillconcludewithamoregenerallookathowcreativeexpressionisusedwithchildreninpost-conflictsituations,andhowtheseconceptscanapplytolargercommunitiesonthelocal,regional,andinternationallevel.
The Definition of Trauma
ThebookMusic, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives,editedbyJulieP.Sutton,offersusefulinformationfromseveralsourceswhohaveworkedwithtrauma.MercedesPavlicevicnotesacasualuseoftheterm‘trauma’inSouthAfrica,“todescribeconfusion,anxietyordistress,and…‘lossesofliving’;whetherthesearemateriallosses,lossoffeelingsofsafetyorpower,lossofcom-munityorofrelationships.”1Shecallstrauma“theemotionalandpsychologicalimpactofactsthatimpingeontheself.”2 Therearemanytypesoftrauma,rangingfromsingleinstancestolong,ongo-ingevents,fromnaturaldisasterstoactsofpersonalviolence.Re-sults can include physical sickness, hyper-arousal, sleeping issues,detachment,andfeelingsoflossandvictimization,3dependingbothupontheindividualandthetypeoftraumaexperienced.MatthewDixonobservesthattraumacanresultinsymbolicanxiety,throughnightmaresanddreams,andphysicalanxietythroughactualillness.Bothof these responsesoccurred among thegirlsofUmuryango.Bothaffectsneedtobedealtwiththroughphysicalassistance,withmedicine,butalsoemotionally.Strakeralsonotesthattheconceptoftraumainasituationofongoingviolenceisoftenamisnomerim-plyingasingleinstanceinsteadofaconstantscenario,andsuggeststheterm“continuoustraumaticstresssyndrome”.4
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Dancing the Darkness Away
Trauma in the Context of the Youth of Rwanda
ThechildrenofRwandahavebeenexperiencingthismorelengthyformoftrauma.Althoughallthegirlswerebornafter1994,theyallhavebeenraisedinasituationofongoingunrestasaresultofthegenocide.Thateventmayhavebeenthefastestmasskillingeverwitnessed,butitwasnotoverwithRwandanPatrioticFront’svic-toryonJuly4th1994.TheeffectsarecertainlystillpresentinRwan-dan society today; an atmosphere ofdistrust, uncertainty and confusionstillremains.Thecountryalsoexperi-encedaswifttransitionofpopulationafter the genocide—with mostTutsisand moderate Hutus murdered, andextremistHutusexpelledbytherebelarmy, an influx of exiled Tutsis re-turnedfromtheneighboringcountriestowhichtheyhadfledasearlyas1957,whenpersecutionofTutsishadbegun.Someyears later, thousandsofHutuextremists returned fromtheCongo,wheretherebelarmyhadpushedthem.Todaythousandsofmenareinjail,whilethousandsofwomenandchildrenhavebeenlefttolivealoneandtoraisetheirownchildren,childrenofneigh-bors,andchildrenconceivedinrapeduringtheconflict.Sometimeschildrenraiseeachotheraswell;UNICEFestimatesthateventodaythereare100,000child-headedhouseholdsinRwanda.5Thecoun-tryexperiencedademographictransformation,turningtheprevioussocietyonitshead.Rwandanswhowerealiveduringthistimetalkof immense fear, especiallywhen returning to schools,wherekill-ingscontinued—studentskillingeachotherorteachers,orteacherskilling students.6 For childrenborn after the genocide, the eventbecomes something they learn about in class, but also somethingtheyexperienceonadailybasis.Frominformaldiscussionandper-sonalobservationswhileinRwanda,Ilearnedthatrevengekillingsstilloccur,familystructureisstillgenerallyveryunconventional,the
For children born after the genocide, the event becomes something they learn about in class, but also something they experience on a daily basis.
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economy is unsteady at best, and emotionally, the atmosphere ofdistrustispervasive.ArecentAfricanRightsdiscussionpaperstatesthattheRwandans“abilitytotrusteventhoseclosesttothemhas,inmanycases,beenpermanentlydestroyed.Tutsiswerealsobetrayedbypeopleinpositionsofauthorityandresponsibilitytowhomtheyhad looked for protection…amongst others, teachers. It will un-doubtedlytaketheRwandesenationseveralgenerationstorecoverfrom the social and psychological consequences of this betrayal.”7Thecombinationofthesefactorsclearlycreatesanunsettlingsitua-tionofongoingtraumaforeverymemberofsuchafluctuatingsoci-ety,butforthesegirlsindividually,thescenariowasespeciallydire.
Trauma at Umuryango Home for Girls in Gitarama, Rwanda
UmuryangoHomeforGirlswasveryrecentlyfounded(April2006),andwhileIwaslivingthere(June-July2006)wewerestilllearningaboutthehistoriesofthegirlsforwhomwewerecaring.WehiredachildpsychologistinJuly,andDr.Claudeslowlybegantoascertaintheircurrentfamilysituations.Welearnedthatonegirlhasabrotherandanuncleinjail,anotherbrotherinthecapitalcity,andstillanotherinUganda.Anotherhasamotherinthecapital,butherfatherisdeadandshewaslivingwithanauntwhoabusedher.Onestrongyounggirlwassexuallyabusedbyheruncle,ashortman.Duetothattrauma,shewassoafraidofmen,especiallyshorterones,thatshebecamephysicallyillwhenshewasaroundthem.An-other,Dancille8,hadaparticularlyuniquesituation.Shebelievedthatshewasraisedbyhermother,butthiswomanwasactuallyheraunt,andtheyounggirlwhomshebelievedwasheryoungersister,Justine,wasactuallyhercousin.TheauntdiedandmadeDancillepromisetotakecareofJustine,thentwoyearsold.Soonafterheraunt’sdeath,thetwogirlswereseparated.WeatUmuryangodidnotknowof thisother sisteruntil the entire storyunraveledas aresult ofDancille’spoorperformance in school. Some confusionfollowedbecauseofthemistakenidentityoftheJustineashersisterinsteadofhercousin,butrecentlytheyhavebeenreunited.
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Dancing the Darkness Away
As exhibited by the personal stories above, the girls ofUmuryangowereclearlyexposedtolongperiodsofindividualtrau-maofthecontinuoustypedescribedbyStraker,andexhibitmanyofthesymptomsthatresultfromsuchexperiences—manywouldcryatnightorbeunabletosleep,somedidpoorlyinschool,afewwereafraidtoparticipateingroupactivities,somewereevenphysicallyill,andothersseemedtodemonstratefeelingsofcontinualvulner-abilitythroughperpetualneedforattention.
Music as a Means of Healing
I mentioned earlier Dixon’s definitions of two results oftrauma,andthecorrespondingtwotypesofhealingwhichcanoc-cur—physicalsymptomsthatcallforphysicalcaresuchasmedica-tion,andsymbolicsymptomsthatrequiremoresymbolictreatment,suchastherapy.Artisticexpressionoffersoneveryproductivewayof finding healing through symbolic language. Marie Smyth de-scribes creativity as an active “refusal of victimhood andhelpless-ness.”9 Thebook fromwhichmostofmy sources in this sectionaredrawndescribessituationsinvariousinternationalpost-conflictsituationsthatutilizeclinicalmusictherapyasawayforchildrentoregaintheirpersonalindependenceasactivecreatorsoftheirfuture.Through visits to a trained therapist, children utilize music as anoutlet—awayforthemtoshedthefeelingsofhelplessnessintheirlifebyassertingcontroloverinstancesofartisticexpression.Eachinstancemaylastforonlyafewmoments,butithaslastingreper-cussionsinhelpingthechildseetheoptionsthatheorshepossessestoaltersituationsthroughhisorherownactions.10Iamapplyingthesetheoriestomorecasualsituationstodemonstratehowthechil-drenofUmuryangousecreativeenergytoovercometheirpersonalsituationsoftraumathroughtheirmusicalperformancesinvarioussettings—forexample,atthechurchandatthehome. Dixonsays thatmusiccanbeusedto inviteothers topar-ticipateinacommunalactivity,ortoassertone’sindividuality.11AtUmuryango,thegirlsbothformtheirownidentitiesandcommu-
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nicatewitheachothercommunally.Furthermore,theydefinetheirgroupasawholethroughtheirperformances.IwillnowaddresseachtypeofuseofmusicinthecasualsettingofplayatUmuryango.
Music as a Means to Form Identity
First,manygirlsusedmusictoasserttheirpersonalidentityandregaincontroloveralifeofvictimization.Thesetendedtobethelouder,moreactivegirlsatthehome.Forexample,Dancillesoonidentified herself as one who had a vast knowledge of traditionalandhymnalmusic.Sheknewthelocalsongs,theonessungonthestreets,andwasalwaysreadytodance,clapandopenhermouth,
smilingandbeltingthelyricsatthetopofher lungs. Whenshesangasong,theadultRwandanswouldoftenmar-velandsay theydidnotknowwhereshelearnedthesong.Shewasnotcon-cernedwithwhetheranyoneelseknewthewordsorwouldjoinwithher,buttheytendedtodososimplybecauseof
hernaturalabilityasaleaderandtheattentionshedrewtoherbois-teroussinginganddancing.Inoticedthisaswellandwouldoftencallonhertoteachsongsanddances,utilizinghernaturaltalentsasaleader.Shesetherselfapartasonewhospecializedinreligiousandlocalmusic,butsheoftenrefusedtolearnsongsinEnglish,whichweremuchmoredifficultforher.Duringtheseportionsofourmu-sicalrehearsalsshewouldeithersitorstandquietly,oroftenwouldsimplyleave. Claudine by contrast defined herself as one who learnedEnglishquickly.ShewasreadytolearnothersongsfromDancille,andsometimestookaleadershiproleintheRwandansongsaswell,but shewasmostprominentlyknownas a fast learnerofEnglishpieces.SheoftenhelpedmeteachtheothergirlstheEnglishwords,handmotions,andbellparts. JulliennewasquiteshywhenshefirstarrivedatUmuryango
Many girls used music to assert their personal identity and regain control over a life of victimization.
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(thesamedayasIdid),butsoonopenedup.Shehadasarcastictoneandavibrantsenseofhumor.Shewasnicknamed“Elephant”be-causeherunclehadcaredfortherogueelephantattheAkagaeraNa-tionalParkbeforethegenocide.Sheemulatedthismasculinetribalroleforthegroup.Whentheothersweresinginganindigenoussong,shewouldsometimesstaysilentlyonthesideforawhile,andthensuddenlyrunthroughthegroup,mimickingamalehunter’sposeintraditionaldance.Inthisactionsheclearlyassertedherindividualityinrelationtotherestofthegroup.Shealsowouldannouncethisindependencewhilewewouldsingreligioussongsbyimitatingthepastorandshoutingsuchphrasesas“Bonasifewe!”(PrasietheLord!)and“Allelluia!”Throughsuchactions,Julliennecommunicatedheridentitytohercompanionsinoursmallcommunity.
Music as a Means to Form Community
ThegirlsatUmuryangoalsousedmusictocreatethisatmo-sphereofcommunity.Umuryangowasauniquesituationinwhichtengirlshadbeenbrought togetherandcaredforbythreeyoungwomenwiththehelpofoneyoungman,undertheguidanceandsupportofonemotherlyAmericanwoman.NoneofthesepeoplekneweachotherbeforearrivingatUmuryango.Allhadexperiencedabandonmentintheirpast,andwereworking,somemorehesitantlythanothers,tobuildanatmosphereofmutualtrustandunderstand-ing.Creativeactivitiessuchasmusicoftenplayedalargeroleintheformationofthiscommunity. Iwilldescribeoneparticularexampleofsuchaformation.The day our tenth girl, Jacqueline, arrived at the orphanage, shewasshyandwithdrawn.Wesooncoercedherintoplayingagameofkeep-awaysoccerwithus,andIwas surprisedat theeffort shetooktothrowherveryskinnyarmsandlegsaroundeverytimetheball came toher.Later in the evening,we tried to involveher insinginganddancing,butshewasmuchmorehesitanttojoinintothisactivity.Participatinginmusicaleventsrequiredmoreintimatecommunicationofherselfthansimplyphysicalactivity.Forabouta
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weekshedidnotjoininanymusicalactivity;however,whenshewasmorecomfortablearoundus,shebegantojoininthisrecreationaswell.Sheneverturnedouttobeaveryvocalsinger,butsoonshewasoneofourmoreenthusiasticdancers.Theefforttheothergirlsmadetoincludeher intheactivityandhereventualparticipationdemonstratebothherentranceintothecommunityofUmuryangothroughthesymboliclanguageofmusicandtheimportanceofsuchparticipationasanexpressionofthiscommunity.
Defining and Proclaiming Community
Umuryango,asmentionedbefore,wasquiteauniqueen-semble of individuals asserting their own identities in relation toothers inanewsituation. Thiscommunicationwasfacilitatedbythe specific style of the music performed at the orphanage. Thesongsweregenerallyverysimpleandrepetitive,whichallowedthegirlstolearnthemeasilyandgavethemalotofspacetoaddtheirownflair.Atthesametimeasthegirlswerecreatingtheirpersonalidentities and communicating each other’s personality within thegroup, they were also working as a group to synthesize the iden-tityofthiscommunity.Umuryangomeans“family,”andthegirlswereactivelydefining themselves as anunconventionalversionofthefamily.Theyachievedthisbyvariousmirroringoffamilyactivi-tiesandroles,throughdrama,play,andmusic.InRwanda,musicispresent inalmosteveryaspectofdaily life, fromthemakingofacanoe,tofarming,toentranceintobattletothepraiseofcattle.Thusmusicseemstoberequiredtocreateafamilyatmosphere.TheyoungwomenworkingatUmuryango,asnanniesorcooks,offeredthebestopportunityforthegirlstolearntraditionalandlocalmu-sic.Theywouldteachthegirls songsaboutbeinggoodwivesandaboutthevalueofcows,anddancesthatreflectthetraditionalstyle.Itookontheroleofauntoroldersister,becauseIalsotaughtthemsongs.Twooldergirlsassumedresponsibilityaswell,throughtheirleadershipoftheothergirls insong.Itwasobviousthatthegirlslookedtothesetwoguidesinmusicalperformancebutalsoinmany
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everydayactivities.Itwasveryimportantforthesegirlstolearnfromtheolderleadersoftheirsmallcommunity. The girls would sometimessing and dance to mirror the situa-tionsinwhichtheyencounteredthesearts atGoshenHolyChurch,our lo-calparish. Oftenathomewewouldsing religious songs probably appro-priated from services at Goshen (butpossiblyalsoheardontheradio).Thegirlswouldsinganddancetothesongas if they were in the church, with afewgirls(oftenJullienneandDancille)playingthepastor.Inoneinstance,thegirlsactedoutatraditionalwedding, taking on the roles of bride, groom, pastor, attendants,andchoir.Thisperformancewasanintricateenactmentofasignifi-cantreligiousevent,includingcostuming,traditionalsongs,recita-tionofimprovisedreligioustexts,andevenprocessionstodifferentlocationsforportionsoftheevent.Thisplayallowedthemtoasserttheirtraditionalpastandtobringtheatmosphereofachurchandaholy,traditionaleventtotheirhome. Through these uses of music, the girls have defined theircommunityasareligiousfamily.Theyhaverole-playedintheirper-formancesinordertodeclaretheirownindividualityinthesitua-tionofthegroup,butalsotodemonstratethetoneofthegroupasawhole.Julliennedoesnotactuallywanttotakeontheroleofapastor,butheractingasoneinthecontextofareligioussongallowshertoassertherownindependentcreativeenergyandalsotoaddtothegeneralreligiousidentityoftheircommunity.Throughtheperformanceofafewsongs,thesegirlstransformthemselvesfromadisconnectedcollectionofhelplessindividualstoagroupofactive,assertiveindividuals,unifiedanddefinedasareligiousfamily.
In Rwanda, music is present in almost every aspect of daily life, from the making of a canoe to farming to entrance into battle to the praise of cattle.
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Case Study: “Our God is an Awesome God”
Inthissection,Iwillexplorethetherapeuticaspectsofartisticex-pressionbyfocusingontheperformanceofonesong,“OurGodisanAwesomeGod.”ThissongpervadedmysummerexperienceatUmuryango,andemergedinmyexperienceseveraltimesinseveralways.InordertounderstandhowboththegirlsandIexperiencedthissong,IwillfirstdescribeitscontextinNorthAmerica,andthenthatinRwanda.Iwillthennarrowthefocustoourvariousinterac-tionswiththesongatUmuryango,andapplyitsusestothemeth-odsofhealingthroughidentitydefinitionandcommunitybuildingpreviouslydiscussed. I first heard the song “Our God is an Awesome God” atmyparishineighthgrade.Forthenextfiveyears,thissongwasafavoriteatmanyyouthgroupevents.WrittenbyRichMullins,andmostfamouslyperformedbyMichaelW.Smith,thissongappearsonmanyChristianworshipcompilations.Itsdramaticviolinback-groundcoupledwithrapid lyricsreminiscentofrap ispleasingtomanyyoungAmericanears.Personally,Ihadlearnedhandmotionsas well as harmonies to the very popular song. These hand mo-tionsimpliedaplayonwordsintheEnglishlanguage—forexample,whentheline“Hereigns”issung,thehandmotionsimpliesadiffer-ent“rain,”pronouncedthesameintheEnglishlanguage.Obviouslysuchaplayonwordsdoesnottranslatewellintoanotherlanguage.Consideringtherapidrateatwhichmusiccanspreadaroundtheworld,itisnotastoundingthatasonglike“OurGodisanAwesomeGod”wouldbewidelyknownandreadilyaccessibleinRwanda,aplacewhereProtestantreligionsareswiftlygainingpopularity,Eng-lishmusicisfrequentlyplayedonradiostations,andillegallyburnedCD’s are the only type ofmedia available for purchase. When IarrivedinRwanda,IwasnotexpectingthelargeamountofmusictransmissionthatIwouldimmediatelyencounter.Tomysurprise,myfirstdinneratUmuryangowasaccompaniedbythemostcurrentsongsontheAmericanchartsbySeanPaulandShakira.AfewdayslaterIheardthemelodyof“OurGodisanAwesomeGod”being
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proclaimedonthebackporch.IdiscoveredthatitwasalsosungatGoshenHolyChurchservices. GoshenHolyChurchisanewinter-faithinstitutioninGi-tarama, recently founded by local Pentecostal pastor ConstantinNiyomwungere. While itsmotto is“WeworshipJesus,” it is fre-quentedbypeopleofallreligions,fromCatholicstoSeventh-DayAdventists to Muslims. A service held under the strips of metalheldupbytreebranches,withworshipperssqueezedontowoodenbenchessetonthedirtfloor,can lastuptosixhours,andbymyestimateitisregularlyattendedby800people.Goshenisauniquelocationthatseemstoprovidemanytypesofhealingforitscongre-gation.Itoffersspiritualknowledgethroughreadings,sermonsandprayer,alongwithentertainmentthroughthenumerouschoirsandopportunities for interactive prayer and dance. The church itselfprovidesacommunityandafamilysettingforthechildrentofindasenseofbelongingthroughprayer,songanddance.Italsoprovidesachance for themtoperformtheirgroup identityasUmuryangoHomeforGirlsasweentered,sat,sang,danced,prayed,andevenperformedasachoirtogether.GoshenHolyChurchhasmanymu-sicalgroupsthatperformeveryweek,andUmuryango’semergenceasoneofthesechoirsallowedusagaintoproclaimouridentityasareligiousfamily. At Goshen, I first encountered the song “Our God is anAwesomeGod”inaprayerbyPastorConstantin.Therewereusu-allyclosetotenchoirsthatperformedeverySunday,buttheseweregenerallyviewedbythecongregationwithminimalparticipation.Itwaswhenthepastorledsimple,repetitivesongsthatpeoplewouldget very involved. Hewouldbeginby singing themelody a fewtimes,andthenthecongregationwouldjoinin.Aftersometime,hewouldchangethemelodic linebutmaintainthewording,andthecongregationwouldfollowalong.Thenhewouldreturntotheoriginal melody. One such song was “Our God is an AwesomeGod,”whichwasknownonlybythechorusintheKinyarwandanlanguage.Duringaperiodofprayer,inwhichthecongregationhadbeenprayingaloudwhilehe shoutedhisprayers for thegroupor
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calleddownthehandoftheLord,hewoulddirecttheseaofvoicestouniteinthesingingofasimplemelody.Hewouldsingthechorus
throughslowly,andthecongregationand instrumentalists (usually electricguitaranddrums)wouldfollowhim.Afterrepetitionofthechorusmultipletimes, he would begin to repeat thelast line, once again the words “OurGod is an Awesome God,” continu-ously.Thecongregationwouldonceagainfollowhim,aswellastheinstru-mentalists.Soontheinstrumentalistswouldpickupthepace,andthecon-gregationwouldquicklyreact, jump-
ingupanddownasthetemporapidlydoubled.Thepastorwouldinitiateanalterationinmelodiccontentaswellrepeatingthefinallineofthechorusonanoctavehigher,centeredonthesametonalcenterbutwithanewmelody.Insteadofdescendingbystep,thisnew section ascendsby step to the tonal center anoctavehigher.ThissectionisthemostuniquelyRwandanadditiontothepiece;itisunlikeanyportionoftheWesternversioninmelodyandtempo.Itwouldbemuchmoreagitatedandfast-paced,andthecongrega-tionwouldactivelyparticipatebothinbodyandinvoice,jumpingupandenergeticallydancingwhilesingingalongloudly.Aftersometimeofthis,thepastorwouldfinallyreturntotheslowerfullandoriginalmelodytofinish. NeartheendofmytimeatGoshen,thepastorinvitedagos-pelvocalgroup,InternationalGospelPerformers,fromthecapitaltoaservice.Aftertheyperformedtheirsongsduringtheserviceandatanafternoonconcert,IGPcametoUmuryango.Together,theysangthesong,addingharmonieswiththegirlsofUmuryango.Har-monic textures in traditional Rwandan music are generally muchmorepolyphonic12 thanIGP’smorehomophonicharmonies,per-hapsderivingfromthehymnaltraditionsbroughtbymissionariesonehundredyearsearlier.
The instrumentalists would pick up the pace, and the congregation would quickly react, jumping up and down as the tempo rapidly doubled.
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WhenIGPcametoUmuryangoandsangwiththegirls,theyprovidedaninterestingopportunityforapublicgroupofperform-erstointeractandcombinewithagroupofamateurchildren,bothsingingforenjoymentandworship.Theirperformancewasmuchcalmerinaction,perhapsbecausetheywerealsobeingrecordedwithprofessional recordingequipmentat the time.However, in its tri-partitestructure,itmirroredthatwhichhadbeenperformedbothat Goshen Holy Church and at Umuryango in the past—a slowbeginning,withamiddlesectionbuildingonamelodic,rhythmicandtextualostinatoatahigherpitch,fastertempo,loudervolume,andheightenedenergylevel,eventuallyreturningtooneortwoit-erationsoftheentirechorusattheslower,calmerpace. AtUmuryango,wewouldperformthesongalternatingbe-tween theEnglishand theKinyarwandachorus,perhaps inordertoincludetheentirefamily,includingtheowneroftheorphanageandmyself.TheinclusionoftheEnglishchorusalsoreflectedtheirworkthatsummertolearnthelanguage.Wewouldsingtheentirechorusseveraltimesineachlanguage,eitherwithhandmotionsorsimple stepsandarmswings.Thegirls’performanceof themusicinthehomemirroredthatatGoshenChurch,withoneormoreofthegirlsactingasthepastorandleadingthetransitions.However,theUmuryango versionwasmore complicated, because each sec-tion was performed in each language. This generally led to twoenergetic“coda”sections,oneinEnglishandoneinKinyarwanda,an alteration the children fully embraced. The girls would oftenbecomemoreinvolvedandgenerallymoreexcitedaboutthesongduring this section.Forexample, inearly June, soonaftermyar-rival toUmuryango, the girlswere singing the songon the frontporchofourhomebeforeleavingforchurch.OnegirlwasexcitedtoperformtheEnglish lyricsandhandmotionsIhad just taughtthem,butmanyoftheothergirlswereclearlynotasenthusedaboutthesongatfirst.Julliennewasbouncingaballtotherhythm,andDancillewassimplysittingdownonthestairs.However,whenthegirlsarrivedatthe“coda,”withthehigh-pitchedandmoreenergeticmusic,DancillestoodupandJulliennestoppedbouncingtheball.
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Theybothjoinedinwithloudvoicesandexuberantdance. One may attempt to analyze this musical sample in lightof traditional Rwandan music. The music of sub-Saharan Africawas integrated intoeveryday life,performedandenjoyedby largenumbersofpeoplewithin the society.13Specifically in the areaof
Rwanda-Burundi, research demon-stratesthatHutusandTutsishadmanyvarietiesofmusicforeventsasdiverseasbirth,successfulelephanthunts,ca-noe-making,boasting,andwar.Theyhavespecificsongsforyoungmarriedwomen and for children. Ibiririmbosongsarecallandresponsestylesongsperformedbytwomen,eitherincom-petitiveboastaboutthemeritsoftheir
cowsor inunionpraisingonecow. Inyamboare anothervarietyof cattle praise songs.14 The specificdeviations from theoriginalpiece,suchastheadditionofahigherpitchedcoda,alterationsintheharmony,andtheemphasisonrepetitioncouldbereflectiveofthistraditionalmusic.However,thesignificantinfluenceofWest-ernhymnalmusicmustalsobeaddressed.TheWesternchoralstyleinRwandawasknownsincethefirsthymnalwaspublishedinthenativelanguage,Kinyarwanda,inthe1930s,15andsincethattime,ChristiancongregationsofRwandahave struggled toemulate theWestern style. For example, IGP’s style was highly reflective ofWesternR&Bandgospel.Theirveryname,InternationalGospelPerformers, reflects theirdesire toexpandbeyondtraditional sub-Saharan music practices. Worship music in Rwanda is probablyreflectiveoftraditionaltribalmusicinitsusemoresothanitsac-tualstructure.ThepeopleofRwandasangveryfrequentlyindailysituations.Forexample,thechildrenandnanniessanginharmonywhiledoingchoressuchascleaningorcooking.TheseconceptsofbothtraditionalandWesternmusiccombineinall the innovativeperformancesofthispiecethatIhaveencountered. The song “Our God is an Awesome God” permeated my
Hutus and Tutsis have many varieties of music for events as diverse as birth, successful elephant hunts, canoe-making, boasting, and war.
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summerexperiencewiththegirlsofUmuryango,fromoureveningrehearsals toourSundaychoirperformances. Theirutilizationofthesongevenearly inthesummerdemonstratestheiruseof it toactivelydefinethemselvesasareligiousfamily.TheactofsingingthatsongbroughttheatmosphereofGoshentothehome,andtheirappropriationofthesongthroughalterationsmakesthesongtrulytheirown.Theirchangesallowthechildrentoaddtotheconnota-tionsof the song,maintaining its religiouscontentbutmaking ittheirsong,onewhichcallsforanexhortationofthe“power,wisdomandlove”oftheirAwesomeGodwhileutilizingthosesamequalitiesinmusicalexpression.
Art in Therapy in a Larger Setting
Manyaroundtheworldhaveutilizedthepowerofcreativeexpressionintherapyandconflictresolution.Severalorganizations,suchasWarChildInternationalandArtforRefugeesinTransition,orART,combineartandtherapy.Through the Eyes of ChildrenisaprojectfoundedbyDavidJiranekthatgavecamerastoRwandanor-phansandallowedthemtotaketheirownphotos,whichwerethenshownascollectionsintheUnitedStatesandsoldtoraisemoneyfor theorphanage inGisenyi.16AmolloMauriceAmollohasusedcommunitytheatretofacilitateconflictresolutionandsocialchangeinKenya.17NestorMungarurire,presidentofGitarama’sGenocideOrphansAssociation, is initiatinga community theatre aswell todiscussissuesandteachlessonsinthevillage.AliceCyusaisaRwan-danrefugeewhoteachesRwandandanceclassesinSouthBend.Themotive forher group,Berwa (Kinyarwanda for “BeProud”) is topassontraditionaldancestepstoRwandanchildrengrowingupinAmerica.ShewasforcedtofleeRwandabecausesheisTutsi,andshenotesthepowerofmusictobringpeopletogether.ThechildrensheteachesarebothHutuandTutsi,andtheyuniteinthisplayofsonganddance. Performing together requires twoconversations—onebetweenperformers,andonebetweenperformersandanaudience.Asuccessfulperformancerequiresthesepartiestounderstandeach
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other,andthisisperhapsthefirststepinconflictresolution.Cyusahopesthatthisunderstanding,createdbycreativeperformance,willtraveltoRwandaitself.Itmaybeginherewithhergroup,butshewishesthatallofRwandamayalsocometothisunderstandingofeachother.18Thiswouldbeapowerfulsteptowards“reconciliationandunity,”thecurrentgoalsofthegacacacourtsinRwanda,contro-versiallocalcommunityjusticesessionsthatarecurrentlydecidingthefateofallgenocideoffenders.
Nuanced Symbols: The Meaning of Music
Partofthepowerofmusicliesinitsinherentnon-neutrality.PreviouslyIhaveonlydiscussedmusicasamediumofcommunica-tionandasanewcreationbythechildrenofUmuryango.Butitmustbenotedaswellthatanytypeofmusicistingedwithvariousconnotationsfromoutsideofitscurrentperformance.Performingorevenlisteningtoacertaintypeofmusiccancommunicatemanyassociations—political,religious,societal,andemotional.Thecon-flictinRwandawasespeciallyconnectedtomusic—theradio,spe-cificallythestationfromtheMillesCollines(thehotelfeaturedinHotel Rwanda)was themechanismbywhich the Interahamwedi-rectedandorganizedthegenocide.Infact,SimonBikindi,afamousRwandansinger,wasrecentlyputontrialattheU.N.InternationalCriminalTribunalforRwandaforincitingracialhatredthroughhismusicinthe1990s.19Itisarguedthathismusicwaswrittenandperformedwiththespecificintentofencouragingpeopletokill.20Inaplacewheremusichasbeenutilizedinthisway,theactofper-formingandlisteningtakesonanewimportance.Itspreviousas-sociationsareinmanycasesdarkandprofoundlyconnectedtothetraumathattheRwandansexperiencedtwelveyearsago.However,perhapsthemostuniqueaspectofmusicisitsinnovativeness.Everytimeasongisperformeditgainsdifferentassociationsaswell.Thesenewassociationsdonoterasetheoldaspectsofthepiece,theysim-plyaddanotherlayer.Forexample,whenthegirlsofUmuryangoperformed“OurGodisanAwesomeGod,”theAmericanoriginsof
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thepiece,coupledwiththememoriesofsingingitatGoshenHolyChurch,playeda largerole inthetoneandmeaningofthesong;however,itwasalsosignificantlynewanddifferenttobeperformingitatUmuryango.Thenexttimeitisperformedthesongwilltakeonthatmeaningaswellforthegirls,andserveasareminderoftheiridentityasareligiousfamilyofgirls.Themeaningwillbedifferentformeaswell,andwilltakeonassociationsofthecommunityandthe spirit of these children.Thesepowersofmusic—to create, toheal,toforgeconnectionsasacommunity,tocommunicateideas,todeclareanindividualorgroupidentity—wereusedatUmuryangoatthelocallevel,andarebeingusedamongorganizationsandindi-vidualsonabroadercommunitylevelaswell. Musiccanbeusedtoworship,topasstime,toentertain,tocommunicate,todeclareidentity,toheal,andinmanyotherways.Inthiswork,Ihavediscussedsomeof theseusesofmusicbythegirlsofUmuryangoasacasualtherapyonboththeindividualandthe community level. The girls’ music communicates both theirownpersonalidentitiesandtheidentityoftheirsmallcommunity.I have also postulated that these same uses could apply to largercommunities—entirevillages,evenprovincesornations.Indeed,wehaveseenmusicusedquiterecentlytodestroyandtocommunicateverynegativeactionsin1994.Thosewhoexperiencedthegenocideoften speak of the nighttime as their most fearful hours, becausethatwaswhenthe interahamwewasmostactive. Nowthenightsarecalmer,fullofthevoicesofchildrensingingorradioproclaim-ingmorepeacefullytonedmusicandnews.Hopefully,inthejoyfulcommunicationthatismusic,thechildrenofRwandacandancetherestofthedarknessaway.
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Endnotes
1V. Stavrou, ‘A case of severe word abuse?’ Recovery April, 3-6. Quoted in Mercedes Pavlicevic, “South Africa: Fragile Rhythms and Uncertain Listenings: Perspectives from Music Therapy with South African Children,” in Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives, ed. Julie P. Sutton (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1988), 110.2Mercedes Pavlicevic, “South Africa: Fragile Rhythms and Uncertain Listenings: Perspectives from Music Therapy with South African Children,” in Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives, ed. Julie P. Sutton (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1988), 110.3Ibid, 112.4G. Straker, and the Sancutaries Team (1987) 48-79. Quoted in Marie Smyth, “Culture and Society: The Role of Creativity in Healing and Recovering One’s Power after Victimization,” in Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives, ed. Julie P. Sutton (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1988), 72. Emphasis added.5UNICEF, interview in Kigali, Rwanda, July 17 2006.6Kevin Uyisenga, Genocide Orphan, interview. July 2006.7“A Wounded Generation: The Children Who Survived Rwanda’s Genocide,” African Rights Discussion Paper no. 14, (Kigali, Rwanda, April 2005) 26.8All names of children are pseudonyms.9Marie Smyth, “Culture and Society: The Role of Creativity in Healing and Recovering One’s Power after Victimization,” in Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives, ed. Julie P. Sutton, (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1988), 76.10Matthew Dixon, “Music and Human Rights,” in Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives, ed. Julie P. Sutton (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1988), 128.11Ibid, 125.12Alan P Merriam, “Yovu Songs from Rwanda,” African Music in Perspective, (New York: Garland Publishing, 1982), 251.13Alan P. Merriam, African Music in Perspective, (New York: Garland Publishing, 1982), 75.14Ibid,68-9.15Gerard Van ‘t Spijker, “Credal Hymns as Summa Theologiae: New credal hymns in Rwanda after the 1994 war and genocide.” Exchange, 30, no. 3(2001): 259.16See http://www.rwandaproject.org/index.html for more information.17Amollo M. Amollo, From Learning to Playing to Change: Theatre in Conflict Transformation and Peace Building, (Nairobi: Amani People’s Theatre Publishing, 2002).18Alice Cyusa, at Refugee Meeting on November 30, 2006, sponsored by
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Amnesty International. Center for Social Concerns.19”Simon Bikindi,” http://www.trial-ch.org/en/trial-watch/profile/db/facts/simon_bikindi_221.html.20Sukhdev Chhatbar, “Musician goes on trial for inciting Tutsi massacre in Rwanda,” News.scotsman.com, Sept. 19 2006, http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1106&id=1382552006.