SPECIAL ISSUE

Current status and remediation measures for the solid mineecological environment in Beijing, China

Xiong Wu • Yufu Chen • Jun Hu • Jiandong Yang •

Guozhen Zhang

Received: 20 March 2009 / Accepted: 30 October 2010 / Published online: 17 November 2010

� Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract In comparison with the developed countries,

renewal work on ecological environment of mines in China

has fallen behind. Along with an increasing attention to

environment, reinforcing renewal work of ecological

environment around mine is eagerly required. At present,

ecological environment problems of solid mines are very

serious in Beijing and the situation is obviously incom-

patible with the developing orientation and layout of the

city. Based on the summary and analysis of previous

research about ecological environment renewal work, this

article proposes general principles and specific measures

needed for the reclamation of the mine ecological envi-

ronment by combining with relevant laws, the character-

istics of weather, hydrology, rainfall, soil, and the mining

geology environment in Beijing. This study has important

academic and practical significance, it can lessen govern-

ment burden for mineral resources sustainable develop-

ment and lead to protection of the environment,

construction of an economical society, and it can also

enhance societal progress and economic development in

Beijing. At the same time, the mine environment issue is

very serious in other areas of China; therefore, this article

may also provide useful reference for areas outside of

Beijing.

Keywords Beijing � Solid mine ecological environment �Status � Reclamation countermeasures

Introduction

Mining is a mainstay industry for national economic

development and supports important material for the

development of human civilization. However, along with

the continuous development of the economy, mining

gradually destroys the living environment, embodied in the

following five aspects: destruction of cultivated land and

construction land; geological disasters; breaking the water

balance in the mine area and causing problems with the

aquatic environment; discharging exhaust gas, dust, and

waste residue, and creating atmospheric pollution and acid

rain; breaking the natural geomorphologic landscape and

affecting the environmental integrity of the entire region.

Control and repair of the mine ecological environments

first began in Germany and America (Liu 2008). Currently,

more than 90 countries around the world have enacted land

reclamation and ecological rehabilitation regulations or

drastically revised the existing environmental laws (Liang

et al. 2002). Some countries are in the international

advanced level for land reclamation and ecological reha-

bilitation, such as Britain, Germany, the United States,

Poland, and the former Soviet Union.

West Virginia of the United States enacted the first Land

Reclamation Law in 1939 (Wu et al. 2009). Soon, other

states began to follow suit. By 1975, 38 states in the United

States had established their own land reclamation regula-

tions, and some other states have their own land reclama-

tion provisions, but the contents of these provisions differ

between the states. In order to regulate land reclamation

work, the United States Congress passed federal land

X. Wu (&) � Y. Chen (&)

Beijing Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment

Engineering, China University of Geosciences,

Beijing 100083, China

e-mail: wuxiong@cugb.edu.cn

Y. Chen

e-mail: jz_lysher86@126.com

J. Hu � J. Yang � G. Zhang

Beijing Gardens Green Bureau, Beijing 100029, China

123

Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:1555–1562

DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0834-6

reclamation regulations in 1977, namely, the ‘‘Surface

Mining Control and Reclamation Act’’ (Kenney 2007). The

American Land Reclamation Administration for surface

mining was set up according to this law. The law was first

enacted to regulate surface mining, but it is now also

applicable to underground mining as a result of two revi-

sions in 1990 and 1993. On July 29th, 1994, the American

Interior Secretary, Bruce Babbitt, issued an announcement

to commemorate the 17th anniversary of the ‘‘Surface

Mining Control and Reclamation Act’’ and named each

August 3 as ‘‘National Land Reclamation Day in the

Department of Interior’’(Blinker 1999; James 2000).

Other countries have also enacted legislation. Mineral

resources in Canada belong to the federal and provincial

governments, which manage their own mineral resources

separately. The Canadian Environmental Protection Act

(CEPA) and Canadian Environmental Assessment Act

(CEAA) were passed in 1999, which systematically and

comprehensively stipulate the evaluation and protection of

Canadian mineral environments in the form of law (Cana-

dian Council of Ministers of the Environment 2005). In

addition, each province in Canada has its own legislation, for

example, the Land Reclamation Directory of surface mining

in Nova Scotia. Each provincial government takes charge of

exploitation activities and land reclamation work in its own

area. Different provincial mining laws contain similar pro-

visions. For example, to exploit mineral resources, appli-

cants must apply for mining rights; before applying for the

mining rights, applicants must deliver a report on the mine

environment and land reclamation project; provincial gov-

ernments and managing departments organize experts, hold

a public hearing and carry out public participation, and only

after these steps can applicants get the mining rights; the

person who has mining rights must pay a reclamation

deposit, which pays the cost of land reclamation when the

mine is closed and protects the mine environment (Costanza

and Perrings 1990; Donna 1995; Miller et al. 2005).

Alternatively, legislation in Australia is divided into

federal and state laws. The federal government only has a

limited range of responsibilities for environmental protec-

tion. Environmental protection work is mostly carried out

by the state government, and many environmental protec-

tion laws are promulgated by the state. As a result, different

states have their own mining laws, but the federal gov-

ernment’s emphasis on the coordination between the fed-

eral government and the state government has resulted in

national environmental protection laws. In 1996, Australia

passed the ‘‘Australian Mine Environmental Management

Standard,’’ and in 1999, it passed the ‘‘Federal Environ-

ment and Species Diversity Protecting Law.’’ These laws

established a framework for environmental evaluation for

new projects and constructed project requirements for land

reclamation after the mines are closed (Perrings 1989).

Germany is one of the most developed and densely

populated countries in the world. The basic environmental

protection problems are the greening of coal gangue dumps

and ecological rebuilding of construction material facto-

ries. The laws of the German government and Westfalen

government require that a project must have an environ-

mental impact assessment and land reclamation program-

ming when applying for approval. In the mining process,

the project must green the equivalent area in other places

and keep enough funds to maintain reclamation work at the

same time. After mining, the project must reclaim the mine

area as a man-made lake or land. If reclaiming the area as a

lake, the mining company must manage the lake for

100 years and take charge of underground water in a 100-

km radius around the mine area. If reclaiming the mine as

land, the land must meet the requirements for planting

crops and must be managed by the mining company for

7 years (Wittiny and Godde 1985).

The British government has also attached great impor-

tance to reclamation of land which damaged by mining.

Britain passed its ‘‘Mining Methods’’ and pointed out that

prospectors must rebuild the ecological environment of a

mine by following national agriculture and forestry stan-

dards. Because of support in the form of policy and fund-

ing, ecological rebuilding has achieved notable successes.

By 1993, surface mines had already been rebuilt into more

than 54 km2 for agricultural and forestry use (Good et al.

1985).

Land reclamation work in China began in the late 1950s

and early 1960s and was a result of self-activities by mine

enterprises. Until the 1980s, China made environmental

protection a basic state policy. Subsequently, land recla-

mation became an important part of land exploitation and

use. The State Council passed the Land Reclamation Act,

which established the principle of ‘‘he who damages land

must also repair it’’, as well as sources of funding and the

management department of land reclamation. Some revi-

sions and more recent laws also have provisions for land

reclamation, such as the ‘‘Environmental Protection Law’’

(1989), ‘‘Mineral Resources Law’’ (1996), ‘‘Soil and Water

Conservation Law’’ (1991), and the ‘‘Coal Act’’ (1996).

Twenty-five provincial governments have also legislated

measures for the implementation of the ‘‘Land Reclamation

Act’’. However, China does not have a completed land

reclamation law as in America and other developed coun-

tries. The ‘‘Land Reclamation Act’’ is only an adminis-

trative regulation enacted by the State Council. The act did

not make responsibilities and obligations of him who

damage the land clear, did not create standards and pro-

cesses for land reclamation, and did not make sources of

land reclamation funding clear. Therefore, the ‘‘Land

Reclamation Act’’ is difficult to operate in practice. At

present, China does not have assorted laws and regulations

1556 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:1555–1562

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concerning mineral environmental management. Most old

mine enterprises in China did not pay attention to envi-

ronmental protection requirements, nor did they keep land

reclamation funds, which led to indiscriminate mining,

wasted resources and caused damage to the environment.

As a result, many damaged mineral environments have not

been managed. In recent years, with the support of the

Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Land and Resources,

China has carried out some environmental management

projects, accomplished some reclamation goals and estab-

lished some demonstration projects. For example, the land

reclamation rate of the Malan iron mine in Hebei reached

85%; the land reclamation rate of the Pingguo aluminum

mine in Guangxi reached 73%; the land reclamation rate of

the Yongping copper mine in Jiangxi reached 55%; and the

land reclamation rate of the AnKang gold mine in Shanxi

reached 69%. Because there are too many problems left,

the overall effects of these projects are not obvious. Land

reclamation in China is just in the beginning stages (Zhang

2006).

Generally speaking, the current international land rec-

lamation rate has already reached 50–70%, far higher than

the 12% land reclamation rate in China. The land recla-

mation rate of waste land caused by mining has been above

85% since 1977 in USA (Zhang 2002). Therefore, it is

necessary to reinforce the environmental management of

Chinese mines (Wu et al. 2005, 2008a). This article puts

forward some concrete recovery measures based on the

status analysis of solid mine ecological environments in

Beijing.

Overview of solid mineral resource exploitations

in Beijing

The exploitation and utilization of mineral resources have

contributed to the social and economic developments in the

areas surrounding Beijing. Mining has become the main-

stay in some of the towns and villages. In recent years,

serious issues have been raised regarding the impact of the

mining industry on the ecological environment, on the

health and safety of the population and on future economic

development. Among the ecological and environmental

problems attributed to mining activities are earth fissure,

surface subsidence, collapse, landslide, groundwater

drainage and pollution and soil degradation (Wei and Dong

2001; Du et al. 2003). These problems have necessitated

mine closures in the past several years, with only 507

mines in operation out of 1661 mines in 2004 before the

start of massive closures. From now on, mine closures have

continued, although at a more gradual and measured pace.

The consolidation of the mining industry is expected to be

complete by 2010 through further closing and merging of

existing mining operations to establish an ecologically

friendly green environment for Beijing. A majority of the

closed mines have been abandoned by their operators. The

Beijing municipal government initiated environmental

remediation and reclamation efforts for those mines in

2007 and plans to complete the project by 2015.

There are 66 categories of solid mineral reserves found

and explored in 349 ore deposits, as compiled in the pub-

lication ‘‘Table of Mineral Reserves in Beijing’’ (Wu et al.

2008b). The deposits can be grouped by their size, with 31

large, 107 medium, 96 small, and 115 miscellaneous

deposits.

Until the end of 2003, 35 mineral categories and 737

mines had been mined in Beijing. The total ore output in

2003 was more than 30 million tons, with 2.15 billion

Yuan (Chinese currency) in revenue, 0.15 billion in profit,

and 670 thousand people employed in the mining industry.

The major mineral products are coal, iron, gold and non-

metal building materials. The 2003 status of exploitation

and utilization is shown in Table 1. In general, the con-

tribution of exploitation and utilization of the mineral

resources to Beijing urban construction and economic

development is not high, and the resulting side effects are

obviously incompatible with the developing goals of

Beijing.

Current ecological environment problems of solid

mines in Beijing

Impact on the eco-environment happens in a variety of

ways and in all stages of mining, including excavation, mill

run, and waste pile (Jiang 2004; Wu 2003; Wu and Xue

2003). The solid mines in Beijing are mainly middle or

small sized, with 97% being privately owned and operated.

The mines are frequently plagued with resource waste,

inadequate funding, inefficiency, and poor management,

and they cause serious environmental damage.

Land collapses and ground fissures

Land collapse and ground fissures were induced by coal

and gold mining and primarily occurred in the Xishan coal

mining region, within an area of 1,370 km2, involving

more than 20 villages and towns where coal is mined.

Since 1949, the mines have caused seven deaths and three

injuries. According to preliminary statistics, by the end of

1993, there were 1,232 land collapses, 577 ground fissures,

84 mountain slides, and 47 uneven subsidences in the

Xishan coal mining region, leading to an economic loss of

about 200 million RMB. Men Cheng town, with a 5 km2

old mining area, a population of 50 thousand people, and a

high concentration of businesses, suffered very severely.

Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:1555–1562 1557

123

Within the last 10 years, the town has seen 45 subsidence

hazards, 17 land collapses, and 32 sinking houses (Fig. 1).

Rockfall, landslide, debris flow

Steep slopes are often seen in open pit mines for limestone

and iron. These mines are mainly distributed in the Xishan

coal mining region of Beijing and, to a lesser degree, in the

Beishan Mountain. Most of these slopes have a dip angle of

about 60�–85� and a height of 20–70 m. Many such slopes

have the potential to cause rockfall and landslide hazards

(Fig. 2).

Solid waste slopes (mullock, coal gangue, and gangue)

are frequently generated by limestone quarries and mines

for gold, iron, and coal. The mullocks and coal gangues in

the mines are often discharged and piled in the valleys near

the mines and are prone to debris flows. Gangues induced

by the washing and selecting of the gold and iron mines are

piled in the open in the ore tailing dam. The locations and

the quality of the construction of most tailing dams do not

meet stability criteria, and landslides and debris flows

occur (Fig. 3).

Land degradation

Statistics show that mining operations in Beijing have now

occupied or destroyed more than 516 km2, roughly 3.12%

of Beijing’s land. In addition, mining has destroyed the

landscape, resulting in the loss of water resources and thus

leading to desertification (Figs. 4, 5).

Mining has exacerbated soil and water loss, especially in

Beijing’s northwestern area, which has a high concentra-

tion of mines. For example, the Fengjiayu iron mine in

Table 1 Exploitation and utilization status of major solid mineral resources in Beijing (2003 year)

Mine categories Number

of mines

Output

(thousand

tons)

Number of

employees

Industrial

output

(million Yuan)

Exploitation mode Geographical distribution

Coal 107 10,345 41,900 140 Mountainous area

underground mining

Fangshan and Mentougou

Iron 19 2,857 4,100 28 Mountainous area open

mining

Miyun, Huairou, Yanqing,

Changping

Gold 9 129 900 3.8 Mostly underground

mining, some open

mining in mountainous

areas

Huairou, Pinggu, Miyun,

Changping

Limestone 241 11,889 7,000 22.795 Mountainous area open

mining

Fangshan, Huairou, Shunyi,

Fengtai, Miyun, Mentougou,

Changping

Building materials sand

and clay

355 5,150 13,000 21.248 Plain open mining Broadly distributed

Total 731 30,370 66,900 215.843

Fig. 1 Ground collapse and crack

Fig. 2 Strip mine limestone landslide in Fengshan

1558 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:1555–1562

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Miyun resulted in an increase of 7.8 times in soil erosion

modulus 4 years into its operation.

In the vicinity of limestone mines, land basification is a

problem due to Ca(OH)2 carried by water and wind

erosion.

Pollution due to toxic elements and heavy metals is also

a problem near gold and iron mines. Tailings from washing

and selecting processes contain cyanide and heavy metals

that pollute the surrounding land. For example, pollution in

the Yanzhuang gold mines in Pinggu has contaminated

20,001 m2 land (Fig. 6).

Groundwater drainage and pollution

Underground mines (for example, coal and gold) and mining

with washing and selecting processes (e.g., iron and gold)

generate mineral wastewater. Statistical data show that, in

Beijing, about 3.295 million tons of wastewater is generated

each year by washing-selecting mines, and 58.826 million

tons of wastewater is generated by underground exploita-

tion, for a total of 62.121 million tons per year. The dis-

charge of wastewater both uses precious water resources and

pollutes the environment. The discharge has also caused a

drop in the local groundwater table and destroyed the bal-

ance of the groundwater circulation. Monitoring data show

that the main pollutants from the mineral wastewater are

plankton, while the pollutants in the wastewater from

washing and selecting iron mines are soluble salts, which

have not yet polluted the surface water and groundwater but

wastewater from washing and selecting gold mines have

polluted the local environment to some extent.

Measures for solid mine ecological environment

restoration in Beijing

General principles

1. We must implement the policy document entitled The

overall planning of mine resources in Beijing (Beijing

Municipal Bureau of Land Resources 2007). Cur-

rently, the city has basically stopped the mining of

limestone, gold, sand, clay, and other building

Fig. 3 Gold mullock in Wanzhuang of Pinggu

Fig. 4 Land and vegetation destruction near a limestone mine in

Miyun

Fig. 5 Damaged river bed where sand and stone is mined in

Chaobaihe River

Fig. 6 Gold tailing piles in Yanzhuang of Pinggu

Environ Earth Sci (2011) 64:1555–1562 1559

123

materials. By 2010, all the mining operations will be

closed except for a few high quality coal ore and iron

ore mines that will be eventually closed when the

resources are exhausted. New mines will no longer be

approved.

2. The ecological restoration for the already closed mines

will be carried out in stages. Mines still in operation

will be required to set aside funding for the restoration

that will be carried out alongside the mining operations

(Zhang and Ma 2003; Zhang et al. 2007).

3. Mine ecological remediation should be carried out in

conjunction with the prevention of geological hazards,

including ground collapse, ground fissure, collapse of

rock, landslide, debris flow, the loss of water and soil

and land desertification, the pollution of soil and

groundwater, and other hazards related to mine

exploitation (Zhao and Zhu 2003; Li and Ren 2005;

Zhang et al. 2006).

4. Mine ecological remediation should mainly consist of

planting vegetation. Due to the serious shortage of

water resources in Beijing, pumping of groundwater

should be reduced.

5. Mine ecological restoration should be compatible with

the soil use and landscape. Secondary pollution and

destruction to the ecological environment should be

strictly prohibited.

6. Mine ecological monitoring networks and databases

for managing the entire remediation process should be

constructed.

7. Ecological environment remediation standards for

quality control of solid mine restoration in Beijing

should be established.

Specific measures

Land collapse and fissure

Only exploitation techniques proven to alleviate land col-

lapse should be used. Mullrock and gangue should be kept

in the mines, with the land reclamation rate over 30% in

each phase, and eventually over 85%. The degraded soil

around closed mines should be reclaimed in stages, with

the goal of a soil reclamation rate over 45%, with the

reclamation pattern as described in Table 2. The duration

of reclamation depends on the settle time of ground

collapse.

Rockfall, landslide, debris flow

For abandoned strip mines with steep side slopes, if the slope

gradient is more than 75�, steps must be taken to first ensure

the slopes’ stability before treating the slopes. If the slope

gradient is between 35� and 75�, sidesteps may be intro-

duced after stabilizing the slopes, and a vegetation restora-

tion ratio of 90% and cover rate over 30% must be achieved.

For open pit mining, a horizontal layered approach should be

used as much as possible to meet the abovementioned eco-

logical environment restoration requirements.

The solid waste disposal (waste rock, coal gangue,

tailing) slope should be treated in a comprehensive manner,

with a coal gangue utilization rate over 90% and a tailing

utilization rate of more than 15%. After stabilizing the

slope, the ecological restoration is carried out in stages,

with the planting of green vegetation being the main

approach. For dangerous side slopes, engineering measures

Table 2 Ecological

environment restoration pattern

and land reclamation standard

Remediation target usage Restoration standard

Forest The gradient is no more than 35�, and the gradient that have fathered

should not deviate from the original condition by more than ±5�,

with a forestation rate over 80% and crown density over 0.2

Farm The gradient is no more than 5�, the thickness of backfill soil is not

less than the original surface soil thickness or thicker than 50 cm,

and the fertile soil thickness should be thicker than 20 cm, the crop

output should be similar to the local levels in the surrounding area

Lawn The gradient is no more than 5�; the thickness of backfill soil is not

less than the original surface soil or thicker than 20 cm. And the

fertile soil thickness should be larger than 5 cm, with vegetation

cover rate over 60%

Fishery The depth of the pool water and the quality of the water source should

meet the requirement for raising one or more marine products. The

water quality should meet the criterion set in ‘‘Environmentally safe

fresh water quality aquaculture product’’ (NY5051)

Building Building foundation parameters such as the ground’s load bearing

capacity, rate of deformation, and stability are reasonable. The

subsidence rate should be below 1 cm in 3 years

Landscape and entertainment According to the standard for III, IV, V water in the water quality

standard of GB3838

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123

in accordance with the ‘‘Engineering Design Standard for

Debris Flow Prevention’’ (DZ/T0239) and ‘‘Engineering

and Construction Standard for Landslide Prevention’’ (DZ/

T0240) should be followed, this two regulations are local

standards. Projects for the tailing side slope should be

designed according to ‘‘Technical Procedures for Con-

struction Safety in Tailing Projects’’ (AQ2006-2005).

Land deterioration

Mine construction should strive to use as little farmland as

possible. The land temporarily used for mine construction

should be restored soon after use. Advanced planning and

considerations should be given to efficient storage, reuse,

and recycle of topsoil.

The existing solid wastes (mullock and coal gangue) and

tailing storage facilities (or dam) that do not meet the

environmental standards have to be rebuilt, and the ones

that are polluting soil must be treated and brought into

compliance with the established standards.

Sandstone pits should be leveled, and landscapes and

vegetations near river banks need to be restored to 90% of

vegetation restoration ratio. Waterway reclamation should

focus on restoring water quality, monitoring fishery and

ichthyic living environment, and flood controlling.

The standard for soil loss control should require that

disturbed soil restoration rates be over 90%, that erosion

control rates should be 80%, that the ratio of soil loss

control should be less than 2.0, and that soil loss tolerance

should be less than 400 t/km2 � a.

The treatment of channels within minor watersheds

should follow the guidelines in ‘‘Standards for compre-

hensive treatment and Conservation of soil and water’’

(GB/T15773).

Groundwater drainage and pollution

Sewage-treatment plants should be set up for mill water and

sanitary wastewater, according to the ‘‘Standards for Dis-

charge Waste and Polluted Water in Beijing’’ (DB11-307).

The re-utilization rate of mill water in iron ore explo-

ration should be larger than 90%, while the ratio of recy-

cling water in large and medium coal mines should be

larger than 65%. Underground sewage-treatment plants

must be set up for mine water. The discharging of waste-

water must meet the ‘‘Standard of groundwater quality’’

(GB/T14848-93).

Conclusions

1. The mineral resource exploitation industry is not a

significant component of Beijing’s economy. Its

negative impact on Beijing’s ecological environment is

not compatible with the city’s current and future

development trends.

2. Solid mines in Beijing have had serious impacts on the

city’s ecological environment, with hazards including

earth collapse, earth fissure, collapse of rock, landslide,

debris flow, soil deterioration, groundwater drainage

and pollution.

3. Solid mines in Beijing are in middle or small-scale,

and will cause many geological hazards, such as

ground subsidence, rock collapse, and landslide and so

on. Solid mine mining also will cause land deteriora-

tion and groundwater drainage and pollution. There-

fore, reclamation work has a great importance, this

article proposes that how to do the reclamation work

and the measurements.

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