cument -esuivie - ericfor planning right down to the bottom of the systems pyramid in order to...
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TITLEINSTITUTION
SPONS AGENCY
BUREAU NOPUB DATEGRANTNOTE
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
ABSTRACT
CUMENT -ESUiviE
08 EA 003 972
A Lystems Approach to the Human Services.Career Options Research and Development (CORD),Chicago, Ill.; YMCA of Metropolitan Chicago, Ill.National Center for Educational Research andDevelopment (DHEW/CE), Washington, D.C.BR-7-0329Sep 710EG-0-8-070329-369499p.
MF-$0.55 HC-$3.29*Career Ladders; Career Planning; Codification; CoreCurriculum; Job Analysis; *Occupational Informal-ion;*Social Services; Systems Analysis; *SystemsApproach; *Systems Concepts; Task Analysis;Vocational EdUcation
This document demonstrates the impact of systemsanalysis on functional job analysis for occupations in humanservices. The first section discusses the goals and components, anddata analysis techniques of the systems approach. In the nextsection, systems analysis is applied to the tasks performed in avariety of human services occupations. These task descriptions arethen regrouped into a career ladders model of social serviceoccupations. The last section provides an evaluation of theusefulness of the systems approach to job analysis. Appendixespresent sample job descriptions and core curricula for human serviceseducation. A. related document is EA 003 979 ow
September 1971
A SY TEMS APPROACH
TO THE HUMAN SERVICES
CORDCareer OptionsResearch and Development
A SYSTEMS APPR
TO THE HUMAN SERVICES
CORDCareer OptionsResearch and Development
,U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCAiION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-
DUCLO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM
THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT, POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-
IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSAMLY
REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-
CATION POSITION OR POLICY.
CAREER OPTIONS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, Project No.7-0329, was supperted by the U.S. Office of Education, National Centerfor Educational :',esearch and Development, Department of Health,Education and Welire. il_nder Section 4(c) of the Vocational EducationAct, 1963, in a grurt to the YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONOF METROPOLITAN CHICAGO, 19 South LaSalle Street, Chicago60603.
This document was prepared by the Career Options Research andDevelopment staff:
Robert K. Soong, Executive Direc orJean Wetzel, Associate DirectorBarry Warren, Program DirectorJeanette B. Hall, Program DirectorGeorge A. Kich, Program Assistant
as a supporting Advisory Document to the Final Report for the three-yearproject, 1968-1971.
Contractors undertaking projects under Government sponsorship areencouraged to express freely th,lir professional judgment in the conduct ofthe project. Points of view or opinion do not, therefore, necessarilyrepresent official Office of Education or YMCA position or policy.
ConIntroduction 1
What Is a System? 1
Preliminary Analysis and Development ofa Systems Approach
The Job Analysis Data System in theSocial and Human Selvices
Analysis of Defmitions and Task Regrouping:Career Ladder and Core Curriculum 10
Assessment and Evaluation of the System 14
Systems Analysic: Other Approaches, Other Uses 19
Implications 22
Appendices 23
A. Task Description Samples 23
B. Coding System Scales 24C. Job Description Sample . . . . 30D. Core Curriculum 32E. Core Curriculum Schedule of Courses . . ... . .. . . . . . 45F. Participant Colleges and Agencies . . .. . .. 46
Footnotes . ..... ..... ..... . ... . . . .. . . 46
Bibliography . . . . . ... . . . . . . ... 47
CORDCareer OptionsResearch and Dev opment
CORDCareer OptionsResearch and Development
IntroductionThe Systems Approach is a method of creating and designing a
system in order to achieve a specific result. Functional job Analysis is asupportive technique of the Systems Approach which provides a methodfor planning right down to the bottom of the systems pyramid in order toallocate work, pinpoint responsibility, inventory activity, specify training,and produce the most stimulating and productive work atmosphere withinthe system. Beth the Systems Approach and Functional Job Analysis willbe described in detail. There will be some repetition of concepts andtechniques throughout, but we feel this will not only aid the reader infollowing a complex subject, but will also help to emphasi2e those areaswhich are considered most important.
The reader will be provided with as much information as possibleabout the use of the methods described and whenever possible, we will tryto acquaint the reader with the potential problems that may arise whenattempts are made to develop core curricula and career laddeis using theSystems Approach and Functional Job Analysis.
Our focus will be in the area of human services, not because thesetechniques apply exclusively to that domain, but because these techniqueswere the basic research and development tools of the Social Service AideProject, which has provided the experience and the occasion for thisdiscussion. In actual fact, these techniques grew out of the industrial laborsituations attendant upon World War II, and subsequently have had theirearliest and most consistent application in industry. The use of thesetechniques in the human services is new and very promising. We maintainthat the process herein described for the human services can be usedequOy well and with considerable profit in any field, and in any academicor work environment that employs people or people anaogues.
The Social Service Aide Project was established in Chicago in 1968with instructions to do research in cooperation with human seiviceagencies and community colleges and to develop and test model careerladders and a core curriculum in the human services. The Project wascharged with discovering and documenting the problems and processesinvolved in the development of the models, as well as actually developingthe models themselves. In addition, the Project was to evaluate the worthof the models and determine the value of the research itself. In all, not less
than sixteen human service agencies and four community colleges andcollege systems participated in the research work. A listing of theparticipant agencies and schools is contained in Appendbc F.
What Is a System?We might begin our quest for the answer to this question in a very
orthodox way, by consulting the nearest dictionary. In a dictionary wewould find a definition such as: A regularly interacting or interdependentgroup of items forming a unified whole. Examples of this would be oursolar system or the human body. While the dictionary definition is anacceptable beginning to answering the question, it provides only clues towhat a system really is. The clues rest in words like regularly, interacting,interdependi, group, unifie4 and whole, all of which certainly do applyto a system, but they do not reveal the nature of a system specificallyenough to distinguish it from other phenomena which may be describedby all or part of the same list of modifiers.
We might try another approach to answering the question by listingall the various things which we have come to know and accept as systems.Such a list mialit contain the following:
1. human body 7.,a body of teaching or pr ctice2. a bird 8. military unit3. an airpluie 9. human society4. government 10. an ant hill5. technique 11. a political party6. solar system 12. a social service agency
Looking at our list, we discover that all manner of institutions and thingsare, apparently, systems; but what a system is remains somewhat illusive.We might be driven to state that the unifying factor in our fist is that allthe items are either structured systematically or function systematically orboth. Yet if we exunined any of those systems, we would be distressed tofmd systematic organization and behavior practically non-existent.
Having fished about for a time, trying to understand what a systemis, we would finally be reduced to the tiresome business of thinking thematter throughunless we were fortunate enough to happen upon apreviously prepared defmition Much seemed to answer our needs and
which we could examine by comparing it to our intuitive understandingand our itemized list of examples. In actu0 fact, there are previouslyprepared definitions equal to our needs and which will save us the botherof thinking overly much and tiring our minds. Yet, a little thought is notreally fatiguing and may actually enhance understanding; so we shall
approach the matter obliquely and see what we shall see.A system has many characteristics. It has channels of feedliick,
mordtoring, and control. It moves in a medium of resources andconstraints against obstacles and with defmite direction. It possesses bothan outer awareness and an inner self-awareness. A system is at leastanalogically organic in that it has cause, order, movement, action, change,growth, and a capacity for death. A potential system is a design in papersupplying purposes, goals, objectives, directions, criteria, resources,constraints, and other environmental descriptions. A system must be
specific and precise or else it is not a system. Considering all this, we canreadily see why most governmental and legal structures cannot be
considered systems. A kinetic system is more than a form or design, it is
the real functioning parts and pieces at work, acting according to form and
design.If we were to be confronted with a system design, we would know it
to be such only by subjecting the design to certain tests. As these testsdetermine the validity of the design they also serve to instruct us in thenature of a viable system. Each system design must contain within itselfclearly indicated and specifically and unequivocally defined ends, classified
as to whether they are ultimate end; intermediate ends, or immediateends. The ultimate ends are the system's purpose , the intermediate endsare its goals, and the immedi21 e ends are its objectives. Mediacy may bedetermined as to time, resources, energy and power, space, desire, or size.As an example, the ultimate end of United Statec, participation in World
War II was primarily the defeat of tpecified enemies. Secondarily theultimate end was to secure peace through the removal of causes of unrest,through the meeting of world needs, and by the creation of a world bodyfor mediation and rgkolution. The intermediate ends, or goals, of U.S.involvement in the war were to win specific pieces of territory in battle,produce enough armaments, train and field enoug,h personnel, create andmaintain supply lines, destroy enemy productivity, destroy enemysupply, and so forth. The objectives were sueh things as drafting X number
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of men in month Y, conducting air raids on German fuel supplies atPolesti, maintaining guerrilla action in the Phillipines, carrying out a bomb
attack on Tokyo, producing R bombers of type H in the month of B atplants X, Y, Z. Obviously any one of the objectives could be turned into
the overriding purpose of a new but smaller system, which wouk1 e cleda subsy stem. But more on this later.
In general, any system's purpose will have several goals whoseaccomplishment as a collectivity would mean the accomplishment of the
purpose. Each goal in turn would have more than one objective, organized
so that by achieving all objectives, the goal would be attained. Naturally
enough, each objective wouid have under it a sub-system, provided thesystem as a whole is of a high enough order and the objective of sufficient
magnitude and complexity.Within the statements of purpose, goals, and objectives, all words
should be precise and specific, and each statement should clearly indicate
three things: () direction (Toward what and dong what path does thepurpose, goal, or objective cause the system to move?); (2) criteria (Howwill the attainment of the purpose, goal, or objective be determined andevaluated?); (3) resources (Upon what resource will the attainment of thepurpose, goal, or obje( dve depend?). Each statement must also list and
describe the constraints attendant upon the workof the system (upon theactivity of attaining the goals, purpose, and objectives), the environment inwhich the system must operate, the points of evOuation, the mechanisms
for feedback and control, and the means by which the system willmairitain itself. Each of these factors will be discussed later, but for now,
let it be understood that these elements constitute the measure of a system
design's viability.A system and subsystems may be created for almost any purpose.
Without any encouragement from man, nature has been creatingphenomenally sophisticated systems for eons, and these natural systemscontinue to evolve to ever greater heights of sophistication andcomplexity. Systems are not new. Indeed, systems as creations of men are
not new, for we have had systems of mathematics and numerous machineanalogues of animal entities for centuries. What is new is the focus and theconsciousness of what we are doing when we create a system. What is new
is the intricate procedure detailing how we may go about creating a system
to remove error, cover all possibilities, and create true systems. What is
new is the understanding we have of what takes place within naturalsystems. Our increased awareness has led to the possibility of creatingbetter systems and true systems, as opposed to some of our oldhodge-podges which partake of both the properties of systems and theproperties of chaos.
It must always be kept in mind that the idea of a system includes theidea of order, and particular order at that. kll those factors which define asystem also define the order present within the system. This order, and thederming properties of the system, had best be in keeping with sound logicand tested experience, or the system may either careen toward disaster anddie, or turn into a huge clanking monster destined to consume and destroyitself and its makers. This cannot be stressed too much, for social, military,and scientific systems gone out of control have been a terrible plague inthis century
If we thug( very carefully and very clearly, we discover that a systemis systematic, but what is systematic may very well not be a system.Ideally, anything systematic either is or pertains to a system. But in actugprictice, all we really mean by systematic is that there has been someattempt to establish a system, but that this attempt has either failedutterly or has only succeeded in enabling its authors to establish anarbitrary ordering of parts which can perform sequential activities orengage in classifyhig and sorting operations. We see these feeble,"systematic" structures Enid functions more often in the creations of menthan of nature. Governmental and legal structures may be naivelyunderstood to be systems, but they are frequently not much more thansystematic (and that, only by our loose rendering of the meaning ofsystematic).
Now, having seen what a system is not, we can begin to considerwhat a system is. A system is a means of ordering, classifying, and relatingactivities, camas, functions, relationships, things, orientations, ideas, plans,structures, and perhaps existences. A system is a means of producingpurposeful, harmonious activity. A system is a means of producing,monitoring, governing, otimulating, and controlling growth mid change. Asystem is a means of solving problems and of getting things done. A systemis a means of establishing priorites, indicating sequences, inventoryingitems, and guaranteeing action. A system has segments which comprise it,which are coordinated in thefr activity, and which are interdependent,
mutually supportive, interacting, mutually aware, and mutuallystimulating. A system has purposes, go0s, and objectives which have intheir turn a hierarchical relationship and a direction towardaccomplishment, criteria of performance, and resources for supply.
Preliminary Analysis and Development of a Systemi ApproachThe systems approach to career advancement produces an effective
method for manpower development. With only minor variation, theapproach can be geared to attain almost any purpose demandhig ananaytical scheme. Derived from systems analysis, the approach is anorganizational framework utilizing the basic rudiments of research,problem-solving, and control.
"A systems approach focuses on the achievement of a specificpurpose or goal simultaneously seeking (a) to organize thetechnology, manpower, and money within a specified time frameand (b) to respond to changes in the environment of the goal,including needs and values that are important in its achievement.In short, the systems approach originates in needs and values,focuses on a goal, responds to its environment, and presumes tomeasure progress towards the goal."'
The followthg variables detennirie the specific character of the systemsapproach to be utilized: the purpose; the external constraints orenvironment; the resources; the components or subsystems; and themaintenance and evaluation of the system. (See Chart A)
Purpose, Goals, and Objactivas
The primary purpose dominates the entire system, from begumingstages to evaluation and completion. It is a statement of fmal attainmentand is the foundation for planning the necessary activity to achieve thepurpose. The system purpose concentrates all activities toward theachievement of specific tasks by deciding about priorities originating fromthe values and needs of the people developing the system and of thosebenefiting from the system's products. *
Goals are determined after the system purpose has stated the endresult or the desired condition. The goals are the sequential anddevelopmental steps toward fulfilling the purpose. They label more
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CHART A: Fl
I. Preliminary Analysis andDevelopment of SystemsApproachA. PurroseB. External Constraints or
EnviromnentC. ResourcesD. Components or SubsystemsE. Maintenance and Evaluation of
System
IIL Analysis
w Chart Summary of Syste s App oach to Functional Task
II The Job Analysis DataSocial and Human ServiDefinition of ObjectivScope of Preliminary AA. Data Collection Syst
definitions and statask descriptions
B. Coding SystemsC. Sorting and Clusteri
edge-punched card
A. Definition of Education0 andEmployment Objectives
I. Career Laddersa. definition of Areas of Workb. task clusteringc. career ladder formationd. job descriptions
IV. Assessment and Evaluation of the Systemadherence to and the attainment of the Purpose; underlies criteria for assessment and evalpossibility of implementing fmdings and models to make further evaluation in the lighteducafidnal and employment objectives
4
4NY-a Mlilmirm=mw
CHART A: Flow Chart Summary of Systems Approach to Functional Task An*sis Data System
ysis andystems II. The Job Analysis Data System in the
Social and Human ServicesDefinition of Objectives within theScope of Preliminary AnalysisA. Data Collection System
definitions and standards oftask descriptions
B. Coding SystemsC. Sorting and Clustering System
edge-punched card/sort Systr in
tion o: Educational andyment Objectives
V. Process of Regrouping Tasks underSeparate but Parallel Headings
1. Career Laddersa. definition of Areas of Workb. task clusteringc. career ladder formationd. job descriptions
2. Core Curriculuma. definitions of processes
required to do the areas ofwork
b. definition of Areas ofKnowledge (what one needs toknow)
c. task clusterMgd. contents outlined
;sment and Evaluation of the Systemnce to and the attainment of the Purpose; underlies criteria for assessment and evaluationility of impkmenting findings and models to make further evaluation in the light of''oral and employment objectives
precisely the areas of attainment necessary within long-range time frames,a recognition of environment, expediency, efficiency, and desire.
Objectives are even more specific delineations of activity. They arelogical extensions of each goal and are guided by the overall purpose.Within specific short-range time frames or other constraints, and withinthe specifications of the system purpose, the objectives are the steps forachieving goals.
The statements of purpose, goals, and objectives indicate the variousstages of systems development and achievement. They necessitateadherence to schedules. Subsystems can be identified as a result ofspecifying purpose, goals, and objectives, as well as determining how thewhole system fits within the frame of larger systems. Finally, the systempurpose helps determine criteria for continual readjustments andrefmement, and evaluation of degree of success.
The importance of cleat and concise statements of purpost, goals,and objectives cannot be overestimated. Because these statements are thebases for operation, they should not be obscure, should consist ofcoherent steps, and should be the objects of constant referral and scrutinywithin all system operations.
External Constraints or Environntant
"Systems are accomplished in environments, i.e., in a world of otherongoing, competing systems. . . .1-lurnan service systems must dealwith such realities in the environment as geographic areas, timeperiods, budgets, size of populations, and available manpower. Inffect, when you explore the environment in which you propose to
pursue a purpose, you are determining the boundary conditionstheconstraintsthe limitations in relation to which your system must beimplemented.. . .Positively stated as objectives, the constraintsbecome the criteria against which to measure progress in achievingthe purpesse."2
Within these constrain s arises the confrontation between projected idealand reality, between original purpose and final fulfillment. Systemobjectives are derived from this opposition and are fruitful in that theyspecify +be immediate result to be accomplished by defming "(1) a periodof tim., (2) a budget, (3) manpower supply, (4) place, and (5) clientpopulation."3 Within the scope of the system purpose, onjectives defme
measureable short-range outcomes that have their own criteria forachievement and evauation.Resources
The systems purpose is derived from values and needs and becomesfocused in its scope when placed in the context of a specific environment.Implementing the system necessitates a knowledge of the technical optionsavailable, the means for efficient operation, and the possibility of changesin ii,+ermediate objectives. If the overall purpose must be changed, then itwas not broad enough. Intermediate goals and objectives should indicatethe specific: means of attaining the system purpose and should be flexibleenough to operate within the constraints of environment and resources.
Components or Subsystems
"Most systems are really subsystems. Therefore, in carryig out asystem purpose, we need to consider the purpose of each componentof the system. This is necessary to organize activity in ail LiTectivemanner; that is to make sure that there is effective meshing ofcomponent elements of the system on one hand and th .her irminimization of random activity on the other. In order to achieve apurpose, usually a whole series of events must be ceordinated . .
Many different activities must be concurrent and synchronizedprecisely in order for the objectives of the system to be realied."4
A subsystem is a replication of the form of a system but on a lower,smaller, and more specific scale. The purpose of a subsystem inay actuallybe an objective of the system of which it is a part. Any system may havemany subsystems, and if the level of the primary system is large enough,these subsystems may in turn have subordinate tertiary systems. Nomatter how extended the system becomes, there should continue to be aclose connection between all units of the system, with a continuous flowof communication and feedback.
Human services manpower development contains-many kinds ofactivities dispersed through just as many kinds of agencies, institutes, andoffices. In order to achieve a purpose within the confines of availableresources and opportunities, the subsystems, the various stepinstmments, components, and dependencies, must be analyzed andsynchronized with the whole system.
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Maintenance and Evaluation of the System
Maintenance co. ...erns itself with controlling the progress and growthof the system as functions. Evaluation is a built-in testing device tomeasure the success or failure of the system in attaining its purpose. If theproper maintenance is applied throughuut the functioning of the system,the success of the approach is usually assured. Feedback, redundancy, andsystem conection are only three of the many aspects important inmaintenance.
"Feedback is concerned with designing the system so that at criticalpoints in the system, for example, where the output of onesubsystem is the input of anotherthere are controls which quicklytell you that the system is doing what it is supposed todo. . . . Redundancy provides back-up at critical points so that thesystem can keep going. It is especially important in a highlyinstitutionalized society such as ours that redundancy of manpowerfor direction of human services be a considered, integral part of thesystem and regarded as an essential cost.. . System correction isalso essential to provide periodic review of performance in order thatthe system can be revised an" brought up to date. . By theirnature, all systems, in both hardware and human services, start toobsolesce the moment they are born."5
A system should not be evaluated a failure because it may haveundergone drastic changes due to careful maintenance. If the purpose isachieved within all the attainable resources and subsystems, then the totalsystem can be deemed a success, no matter how many changes of form thesystem might undergo.
The 'lob Analysis Data System in the Social and Human ServicesThe purpose of the job analysis data system in social and human
servk'es is to structure the planning, functioning, and production of careeradvancement programs for successful achievement of their individualpurposes. The process of system development just described, results in thefollowing immediate prIducts for the program: (1) defmition of overallpurpose and goals of thtprogram and ability to measure progress towardthese specific cnds (definition of exactly what kind of human servicesadvancement is desired); (2) realistic assessment of what can be done (theimmediate objectives within tLme, resource, and manpower constraints);
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(3) a technical instrument for the collection analysis, and control of data;(4) criteria for evaluation.
The data system number three above) controls the paralleldevelopment of a core curriculum model and a career ladder model.Although uniquely separate, they work together to become a total careeradvancement program that utilizes both educational and employmentobjectives. For Lnstance, the goals of CORD have been: (1) to use jobanalysis techniques to identify the nature and scope of job task.; andphysical, mental, and intetpersonal job skills; (2) to organize tasks andskills into a career sequence or hierarchy of jobs with increasingresponsibility and compensation; (3) to articulate secondary,post-secondary, and higher education programs (model curricula) whichwill qualify students and workers for paraprofessional jobs and foradvancement commensurate with their ability, education, and experience.
Job analysis was fandamental to CORM career advancementprogram. Looking for new ways to organize and implement botheducational and employment objectives, CORD found that job analysiswent right to the heart of the problem by exposing the inequities of thejobs themselves.
The environment of the job analysis data system encompasses all theconditions, values, and purposes that are outside the system and whichoperate as either constraints or resources for the achievement of purposes.Some of the constraining factors are money, time, manpower, politicalconsiderations, and anything else indicated by the system purpose, goals,and objectives,
The immediate objectives of the system are derived from a realisticassessment of purpose, goals, constraints, and resources, and describe thesequential products which come together as the steps to the finalachievement of system purpose. For example, CORD's immediateobjectives during Phase 1 (1968-1969) were:
1. to secure the cooperation of a select number of social andhuman services agencies in the Chicago area to allow datacollection;
2. to elitit the cooperation of the following Chicago-areacommurdty colleges whose teachers would interview workers,collect data, and act as consultants: Chicago City Colleges,Thornton Community College, Prairie State College, and
Central YMCA College;to collect, code, and sort as many task descriptions as neededof jobs currently being done by workers in the cooperatingsocial and human services agencies;to regroup collected and analyzed job data to parallelemploy dent (career ladder) and educational (core curriculum)objectives;to complete a career ladder model that is a graded sequence oftasks grouped according to areas of work, complexity, and theneeds of clients; .
6. to outline a core curriculum derived from the graded sequenceof tasks grouped according to areas of knowledge, complexity,and kinds of actions and processes needed to do the tasks.
Securing the cooperation of agencies and schools is a necessaryfunction but will not be described further here. As a proc2dural aid,specific subsystems can be recognized within the objectives and become apart of the analyzing mechanism. Subsystems are those fundamentalprocesses that are linked together by the purposes, goals, and objectives,and that comprise the basic moving parts of the whole system. Withinthese many sutlsvstems, maintenance as a constant and daily checkbecomes necessary. Where one or more aspects of a sub-system becomeincompatible, those aspects must be changed.
Data Collection SystemThe basic data for job analysis are the task descriptions collected
through a process of interviewing human and social service workers inexisting jobs and listing specific tasks that are performed. A task is a single,whole unit of activity that is directed toward some specific end which aworker is employed to accomplish. A task description is the process ofthat unit of activity, written so as to describe what is done and towardswhat ends. It differs from a job description in that a group of generallyrelated task descriptions can make up a job description. A single task is notthe whole job.
Collecting the tasks performed by present human and social serviceworkers serves at least two purposes: (1) it allows the researcher to seeexactly what lies behind the job and its title; (2) it opens the once rigid job
to change and restructuring where necessary. Because the task description
is one of the bases for further analysis and conclusions, it must be writtensuccinctly and well, always keeping the later analysis in mind. Thefollowing are necessary standards for writing good task descriptions:
I. A task description must state exactly what action is beingperformed to whom or what, how the action is beingperformed, and to what end, so that anyone reading it cancomprehend the motions.A task description must be both coherent and discrete. It mustbe indicative of the worker's job and be related to the goals ofthe agency. It cannot describe more than cne action beingperformed.The task description must show the distinction between whatgets done and what the worker does. An intake interview of aclient is something that gets accomplished, but the interviewerdoes a variety of tasks to accomplish it.
4. A task description must state in clear, precise language what isbeing done, by what subject (though this may be understood),to what object, for what reason, utilizing what special skills ortools, and under whose instructions. (e.g., Talks to the clientin order to obtain basic information such as name, address,age, and marital statusutilizing agency interview forms underthe directiion of unit supeivisor.) Frequently, the task will bewritten, without stating under whose instruction, if this isundersi:ood or otherwise provided for, and when no specialtools or skills are used, the clause which would refer to suchwill be absent.
5. A task description must be stated so as not to represent eitheran over-analysed or an under-analysed task. If several differentoperations are masked by the task description, then it is
under-analysed. If an operation is described as separate,smaller components which cannot be conveniently separatedor sensibly distributed amongst more than one person, thenthe task inay be over-analysed.
Proper task description. (1) Get the client's phone number from thefile in order to facilitate the placing of an interview, call. (2) Phones theclient in order to make contact and facilitate the basic information
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interview. (3) Talks to the client in order to obtain basic family andemployment information (such as age, marital status, number of children,and nature of last job).
Under-analysed task description.. (1) Interviews client in order toobtain familial and employment information.
Over-analysed task description. (1) Walks to the file where client'sphone number is kept. (2) Searches file in order to find client's phonenumber. (3) Copies phone number iL order to remember it for phone call.(4) Walks from the file in order to reach phone. (5) Lifts receiver. . .(SeeAppendix A for further examples of task descriptions).
The language used within a task description or a total system designis of the utmost importance. Only words with specific, accurate, andprecise meanings should be used and jargon should be avoided unlessnecessary for specificity or precision. If the language is specific, then thatwhich is beidg described will be clearly delimited. If the language is accurate,then it will be free from error and what is said will be what is meant. If thelanguage is precise, then what is being spoken of will be exactly stated,defined, and understood. No confusion should ever occur when specific,accurate, and precise terminology is used. Great care must be exercised,because we frequently use language which actuEdly conveys multiplemeanings, thus leaving everyone free to draw his own interpretation.("Helps the client overcome his difficulties." Helps, overcome, anddifficulties arc all ambiguous words.) The problem of misunderstanding isthat we not only do not share a common interpretation, but we don'tknow that we don't, and we may never discover the problem.
Coding Syms
Continuously dealing with thousands of task descriptions makes jobanalysis an almost impossibly wordy job. Coding systems transfer ontonumerical or letter sades the degree of complexity, the level of training,the areas of knowledge, and the areas of work that the tasks describe. Thismakes the sorting and shuffling of tasks a matter of locating andidentifying numbers instead of whole sentences.
Codes and scales are derived from an analysis of ways, levels, andcharacteristics of knowing and doing. The scales can be used to code anytask in any job because knowing and doing are basic to anyaccomplishment. When tasks are rated according to scales, it is important
8
to remember that it is the task that is rated, not the employee whoperformed the task. This cannot be over-emphasized.,particulAy when therating is done by the same person who performed the basic job analysis.(See Appendix B for CORD's scales and coding systems
The Scales used by CORD are preliminaiy modifications of scalesdeveloped under the direction of Dr. Sidney A. Fine while he was adirector of research with the United States Employment Service. Thosescales were originally developed for industrial use and later modified foruse in personnel management. The scales were modified to render themmore applicable to human service fields. Many problems are encounteredwhen using scales in human service fields. Difficulty with scaleterminology represents one serious problem, since those who use the scalesfrequently react negatively to word specifications on the scale intervals.They either feel that different terms should be used, or by reason ofprejudice, feel that more virtue and personal worth inheres in some scaleintervals than in others. This latter fact promotes confusion between tasksand persons performing tasks. Also scales cannot indicate multiplefunction within any scge category, as when, on the People Scale, aparticular task represents both interviewing and instruction. Additionalintervals were added to Dr. Fine's scales in an effort to deal with thespecific problems which arose from their application to human servicesituations.
Sorting and Clustering Systems
The sorting and clusterLrig systems are the mechanical processes ofcategorizing coded tasks into the same or similar levels of classification,much like sorting and grouping stories according to objective criteria ofweight, color, size, and cost. Sorting is a process of separating one set ofcoded tasks from another. This can be done manually or by mechanicalcard sort. (Chart B shows one card coded to the scales described inAppendix B.) Clustering is the process of bringing together similarly codedtasks in specific areas designated by the desired goal of the subsystem.Regrouping is the process of selecting and redistributing clustered tasksinto areas of work (occupational fieids) and areas of knowledge (whatneets to be known in order to do the tasks).
Tasks sorted according to degree of complexity, level of training,and areas of work tend to cluster as gradations of a slowly emerging career
MastersDegree
CHART B: SkMPLE YSORT CARD
Agency Code
Worker Functions4-3-5 A
18 years ofeducation
General EducationalDevelopment
Reasoning Ability
IMathematicsB-2
I Language
C-3 C-3
Employee C008
Oure
AGENCY CODE Egi LO Y C CC
DATE OF INTERVIE /0 ERVATION. 7-23-69
TASK NO 748 DESCRIPTION: Visits home of non-participatingb.; client to determine why.
DATA CON TROL..411-44....,.0.0 .
110-CIAL SERVICES AID PROJECT, B.WARREN TASK ANALYSIS
A 3 CI 2 11
A 4tp".' "
_entit0..1Interests Scale
1-2-8-17
SNOT 5T5M_- 0000ISUN ADRIVE di CHICAGO,35 R. RAE
I ND auasH1110804
Job Env onmcont
NIPLE KEYSORT CARD
Agency Code
)ns
qw.T. o.-X 4 5 5 7 5
General EducationalDevelopment
Reasoning Ability
Mathematics
B-2 Language
C-3
Employee Code008
AnalysesInitials
Vfire o
ii
co eWORKER FUNCTIONS AGENCY CODE G. E. 0 EMPLO Y EE CODE
-23-69 A-008DATE OF INTEDVIE OBSERVATION:
TASK NO: 748 EsCR,PTION: Visits home of non-participatingclient to determine why.
DATA CONTROL
SOCIAL SERVICES AID PROJECT, B.WARRE TASK ANALYSIS E-2 SeiNT 5 T_ -PARKISON AQENCY35 E. %V Aeit P Dirlistr A CHiEAGn. ILLINQ(4 44471
Interests ScI-2-8-17
HO i 3030V. S. e.4
0
I..
11.10 J 3030 0 V E 4 e 4 g
4,009
Job Environment Scalecont.)
24
ladder sequence. The task and its characteristics can then bL Joupled withlevels of work and their requirements. Tasks sorted according to degree ofcomplexity, level of training, and areas of knowledge cluster so as toindicate the kinds of training and courses needed to perform those tasksRegrouping clusters of tasks results in both job descriptions and a careerladder with one set of objectives, and in a core curriculum and trainingsequences with another.
Analysis of Del itions and Task Re ouping- Career Ladder andCore CurriculumDefinitions of Employment and Educational Objectives
CORD'S goals, as listed in the preceding section, have taken intoaccount educational and employment objectives. The attainment of theseobjectives is not primarily in the control of CORD within the design of itsown systems approach. Because of the many components involved, theseobjectives can only be met by a coming together of all the responsibleagencies, institutions, organizations, and indi iduals to specify thenecessary steps toward their achievement.
Employment Objectives
a) greater opportunities to acquire, retain, and grow in jobs;b) salaries commensurate with skills and the kinds of work done;c) carefully designed job descriptions that honestly relate on a
one-to-one basis with the work actually performed;d) implemented career ladders for all workers, with mobility in
all growth directions;employer recognition of the potentials of paraprofessionalsand indigenous social and human services workers to performhi -level tasks required of them;employee growth in realization of potential and satisfaction inthe work situation;greater correlation between work performed and the needs ofthe client population;advancement based on workers' competency to perform taskswithin standards of performance, and worker review related tojoint worker-employer objectives.
2510
Educational Objectives
a) social and human services courses that prepare the worker forreal work situations;
b) academic credit given for life and work experience, eitherextra to, or commensurate with, regular course work;
c) academic recognition of AA level education and training byinstitutions of hig,her learning;
d) greater cooperation between college and high schooladministrators and curriculum developers with agencyadministrators and funding sources for in-service training,released time, cooperative work-study situations, andpracticum courses;
e) a basic core curriculum for all human and social servicesworkers with credits transferable to other colleges.
Task Regrouping
Career Ladder A career ladder is a graded sequence of job positionsstarting at the trainee level and progressing through technician andtechnologist levels to professional job positions. Its hallmark is theworker's ease of mobility from one level to the next, as well as from onejob area to another on the same level. The following steps we re taken byCORD in developing its career ladder:
a) Task inventory sheets with their coded classifications wereprepared. These ultimately listed all task descriptions on,above, and below the AA degree level. These were latertransferred to the edge-punched card-storage system for quickclustering.
b) The tasks were loosely sorted on the basis of knowledge areasinto the following groups:1. Supportive administration2. Mental healthTherapeutic counseling3. Child care4. Group work5. Community organization6. Informal counseling (includes nterv ewing)7. Teaching arts and crafts8. Resolution of intergroup conflicts9. Community relations
10. Tutoring11. Physical therapy12. Orientation
Definitions were supplied for the above areas of work. (Forexample: Informal counselinginitial and supportive role toenable Mdividual to solve educational, vocational, physical ormental health, economic, or legal problems.)The areas of work were reduced to eight occupational fields,each distinct, but not separate from the others. These !ightareas represent a realistic adaptation of the system goals toconstraints on the system. The following list includes theknowledge areas in the grouping above, and also describescoherent job areas as presently found.1. Social service administration2. Mental health3. Health service4. Child careS. Community organization6. Social case work7. Group work8. Teaching
The development scheme calls for six steps in the careerladder, from trainee to professional, because upper and lowerlimits were implied in the de% elopment of a ladder by the loweducational trainee level and the existing four-year BA or BSdegree level. Paralleling two of these steps, a core curriculumwas developed for aiding those who desire to advance on theladder to the next level by acquiring the necessary knowledgeand skill. Parelleling the upper areas is the four-year BA or BSdegree curriculum in human and social services and thesubsequent graduate degree programs. The characteristics ofCORD's career ladder model include the following:1. Entry into the human services career ladder is based on a
combination of competency, training, and education,not only at the trainee level. Career entry is available onall levels.
2. Trainees coming into the career ladder having less than ahigh school education or equivalency examination canbegin a job and continue in his education and trainingfor both upward and lateral mobility.Accieditation of life and work experience by bnthagencies and educational institutions, along with variousequivalency examinations, allows for mobility by avariety of means.For every completed year of either formal education orin-service training and life or work experiencedetermined by equivalency examination, the humanservices worker can be recognized for his increasedabilities and move up or out of the career ladder.
The job tasks were distributed throughout the six sections ofthe career ladder based on (1) the eight occupational fields, (2)the sorting within the coded classifications, and (3) the levelsof skill and knowledge required to perform the work, rangingfrom zero at trainee to high-level specialization at the iburthyear of college ane beyond.Job descriptions were written for five levels within the eightoccupational fields. The task cluster and their sequence in thecareer ladder became the basis of the descriptions. (See ChartC for the Phase I Career Ladder Model.)
Core Curriculum: As a sequence of related courses, the corecurriculum is the basic working knowledge and skills by which a worker'sdesired advancement is possible. The social and human services corecurriculum developed by CORD is comprehensive as a basis for almost anyfuture career. Although accented for the human and social services, thecore curriculum includes material that is essential to all fields ofpeople-oriented work. Being a derivative of task analysis, the corecurriculum is unique in that it is directly related to and is a consequence ofwork presently being done. It prepares the human services worker moreadequately than in-service training can, for any further work in the socialand human services, from trainee-level jobs to specialist areas.
A core curriculum is necessary because it represents the best meansof providing the academic component of a human service worker'seducation, while at the same time providing him with a background that
11
CHART C: PHASE I MO.
Doctor
Nurse
Psychiatrist LegislatorBiologist Professor
HistorianPsychologist
I PROFESSIONAL
[TECHNOLOGIST II
I TECHNOLOGIST
TECHNICIAN II
ITEHNICIAN I
Paramedical
Mental Health Aide
Education Hi
Child Care
1229
HUMAN SE
OF HUMAN SERVICES
[ogist
Researcher
Social rvice Worker
LawyerSocial Service Director
Supervisor
Services Admuustration
Case Work
Group Work
Community Organization
:ES TRAPTEE
guarantees horizontal as well as vertical mobility. A core curriculum is corebecause it is flexible and prepares the worker for many different humanservices fields at the same time with only few additional courses beirequired. Since each core course covers a particular area of knowledge andskiils not covered by any other, each course is e3sentia1 to the wholecunicAum. Related skills and subject topics are grouped into a sincourse, avoiding unnecessary redundancy. However, the core as developedin Phase I, was primarily a model whose outlines needed to be expanded inPhase II into fully documented syllabi. Changes are inevitable within thepressures and contlies of resources and constraints. Thus, the followingsteps were taken by CORD in Phase I to structure a core curricuculumoutline:
a) Each task was listed and from the task statement it waspossible to draw general and specific performance standards.The general performance standards represented qualities whichmust be possessed in order to guarantee adequate performanceof the task. The specific performance standards representquantified and real standards which are necessary to the task'sperformance. (e.g., General performance standards: politeness,neatness, patience, empathetic nature, imaginativeness.Specific performance standards: must type 70 words/minute,must have driver's license, must know how to use Xerox, mustbe able to use agency interview forms.)From the task statements and performance standards, it waspossible to identify the general and specific knowledge andtraining components which had to be provided in order toassure that the task would be performed up to the establishedotjective standard. From the general knowledge componentsof the tasks, it was possible to draw the material which wouldbest be tatig,ht by a school, whfle from the specificcomponents, it was possible to specify in-service trainfrig.Rating each task on the various scales helped to indicate atwhat level the educational and in-service components shouldbe taught and where the stresses should be placed.
CORD then assembled this disorganized body of information intoparticular courses for a core curriculum outline in the following manner:
al
The tasks, distribt into the twelve areas of work listedabove, were examined to identify the process performed, orwhat was needed to be done to complete the task (e.g.,Inform,=1 enmisPling: intemiewing tn (1) identify the problem;(2) help resolve the problem; and (3) determine necessaryamount of follow-up).Areas of knowledge were identified from the task processes.For exunple, the knowledge areas necessary for InformalCounseling were:
1. How to make the client comfortable2. How to listen for moods and attitudes3. How to ask questions4. How to establish empathy5. Significance of non-verbal cAmmnunication6. How to recognize emergencies or potential crises7. How, when, where to make referrals8. Necessity of confidentiality9. How to terminate the session.
Areas of Inowledge were sorted and compared to removeduplications so that common areas would be obtainable fromone course.
d) With removal of duplications, the areas were groupedaccording to their relatedness and complexity.With the necessary accommodations for the time required todeliver the course, and some considerations of coursesequences, the grouped areas were regarded as representingcourses in the core curriculum.
0 Course contents were outlined.g) Courses and scheduling were adjusted to account for necessary
sequences of courses, the requirements of the career ladders,and credit requirements of schools for transferability. The firstyear of the core curriculum would supply the necessaryknowledge and skillE, to enable a trainee to progress upward onthe career ladder to the level of a human services technician.The second year of the core curriculum would supply thenecessary knowledge and skills to enable the worker to move
13
into the next higher technician and technologist levels. (SeeAppendix E for the Core Curriculum Schec..,le of Courses.)
Assessment and Evaluation of the SystemAny final assessment and evaluation of the systems approach
depends largely upon these questions: Was the sytems purpose achieved?Why or why not? The systems approach, being a structure primarilydesigned to achieve a stated end, must be evaluated on the basis of thatachievement. CORD completed Phase I, having attained its objectives, andadvanced toward fulfillment of its goals and purpose. Some scheduleddeadlines for subsystem completion were broken, necessitating revisions ofschedule, changes of objectives, and re-analysis of basic coding systems.The problems encountered were generally ones of huma-i relations,training of interviewers, and revising aspects of the coding systems.
Human relations problems stemmed from the bringing together ofmany people whose attidtudes, educational backgrounds, emotionalstability, and occupational fields sometimes conflicted. Cooperationtowards a mutual goal was to be the major bargaining point, to which themajority adhered. The problem of working together towards a mutuallysatisfactory goal must be incorporated into the initial systems approachplanning stpe. After CORD's first year, human relations problem solvinghas become an integral part of any further system planning.
Athough CORD did involve the interviewers in some data collectionand coding training, the analytical nature of the process of interviewing,of the coding systems, and of the "'recess of writing task descriptions tendedto be an obstacle. The coding systems proved to be a stumbling block forsome, because the codes began to be used for judging or rating theindividual doing the task rather than the task itself. A code rates the taskas described within a specific range of complexity of kinds of actions; itdoes not judge the person who does the task, nor does it rate that personas being in any way inferior or superior to any other person. Along thesame lines, a task description is as objective a statement of an activity ascan be written, if the standards are followed. However, some taskdescriptions did not adhe7e to tilt qualities of good writing listed earlier,and had to be re-written before coding could be accomplished. In futureplanning, the training of interviewers and data collectors must becomprehensive enough for a thorough acquaintance with all the objective
14
analytical definitions and standards. As a problem of maintenance, taskdescription re-writing was a necessary step in achieving the scheduledobjectives of coding.
Coding systems revision was an on-going process which involvedcontinuous feedback by the program staff on their progress. Where codeswere irrelevant to the tasks being done, they were changed or dropped toaccomodate the widest possible variety within the social and humanservices. Where the code inadequately represented the diversity of levels asrepresented by the tasks, the scales were extended or new sub-divisionswere made.
As a very flexible instrument on the track of an overall purpose, thesystems approach achieves its ends, measures its progress toward thoseends, and allows alteration where constraints are not synchronized withresources. Any further evaluation of the system products (career ladderand core curriculum models) can best be made through demonstration ofthe models' viability within real job and school situations. The fact thatthe models can be implemented within academic institutions and socialand human service agencies is the best indication that the employment /ndeducational objectives have been achieved. Thus, CORD's second and thirdphases, involved the extended evaluative and maintenance aspects ofputting the career lathier and core curriculum to work. (See Chart D forthe revised Career Ladder, applicable to almost every human service area.Chart D also relates career levels with the degree of on-the-job involvementwith people, data, and things.)
34
Certificate
gressive ex-perien.ce w
ithE
quivalencyE
x.a,mination
Technician I.1
Associate in
Arts degree
3 yrs of pro-gressive ex.-.perience w
ith,E
quivalencyE
xamination.
Technician I.
ist yr. College
Certificate-
Trainee
High Sch.00l
.
or less,
2 yrs of pro-gressive ex-perience w
ithE
quivalency.E
xamination
1. yr of train-ing before tak-ing Q
ualifying,E
xamination.
for Teclm
ician.I position.
33
3.
4.4
45
5
44
45
565678
5
tp9'O
ccupationalStatus andE
ducation
03)L
ifei Work
Experience
(C)
Career
Options
(Di)
Range of Significant
FunctionsPeople
Data
-
, ,
Things
ProfessionalD
octor's degreeM
aster's degree6 yrs of pro-gressive ex-perience w
ithE
quivalencyE
xamination
02
02
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Bachelor's degree
,
,
5 yrs ofpro-
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xamination
.r...
6. =,L
. 2
VI E
114 01.4
C.)
0
123
CU
tt
12 H
elpi
ng: A
ttend
ing
to th
e w
ork
assi
gnm
ent,
inst
ruct
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or
orde
rs o
fsu
perv
isor
. Hel
ping
app
lies
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lper
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o im
med
iate
resp
onse
req
uire
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Ser
ving
:A
ttend
ing
to th
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eds
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f pe
ople
. Als
o, to
the
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esse
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impl
icit
wis
hes
of p
eopl
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Imm
edia
te r
espo
nse.
.10
Per
suad
ing:
Inf
luen
cing
oth
ers
in f
avor
of a
n ob
ject
, ser
vice
, or
poin
t of
view
.9
Div
ertin
g: A
mus
ing
othe
rs.
8 C
heck
ing:
Follo
win
g-up
ope
ratio
ns,
freq
uent
ly r
outin
e, f
or p
urpo
ses
ofas
cert
aini
ng, i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t, th
ede
liver
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goo
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rvic
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the,
func
tioni
ng o
f pe
ople
, or
the
perf
orm
.an.
ce o
f op
erat
ion.
7 O
bser
ving
,-L
iste
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g:Si
tting
or
bein
gw
ith a
noth
er p
erso
n to
wat
Ch
even
ts f
orpu
rpos
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f ad
min
istr
atio
n of
ass
ista
nce,
,ac
quis
ition
of
data
, or
to p
rovi
de,
com
pany
and
und
erst
andi
ng.
6 A
rran
ging
: Bri
ngin
.g to
geth
er th
ene
cess
ary
ingr
edie
nts
in te
rms
of p
eopl
e,si
tuat
ions
, and
thin
gs to
faci
litat
e
Tec
hnol
ogis
t I.
Tec
hnol
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t H
Prof
essi
onal
a.
5,In
terv
iew
ing:
Tal
king
or
othe
rwis
eco
mm
unic
atin
g w
ith o
ther
sfo
r th
epu
rpos
e of
ext
ract
ing
info
rmat
ion
orev
alua
tMg
a pa
rtic
ular
or
gene
raliz
ed.
circ
umst
ance
.4
Supe
rvis
ing:
Det
erm
inin
g an
dte
rpre
ting
wor
k pr
oced
ures
for
.a.
grou
p of
wor
kers
, ass
igne
ds,
peci
fic,
dutie
s to
them
, mai
ntai
ning
rel
atio
ns,
amon
g, th
em, a
nd p
ro..ot
ing
effi
cien
cy.
3 In
stru
ctin
g: T
each
ing
subj
ect m
atte
r to
othe
rs th
roug
h ex
plan
atio
n,de
mon
stra
tion,
and
sup
ervi
sed
prac
tice.
2 N
egot
iatin
g: E
xcha
ngin
g id
eas,
.
info
rmat
ion,
and
opi
nion
s w
ith o
ther
sto
for
mul
ate
conc
erte
d po
licie
s,pr
ogra
ms,
or
mod
els
of a
ctio
n.,
Men
tori
n.g:
Dea
ling
with
indi
vidu
als
inte
rms
of .t
heir
tota
l per
sona
lity
in p
rder
to a
dvis
e, c
ouns
el, m
dlor
gui
de th
emw
ith r
egar
d to
pro
blem
s th
at m
ay b
ere
solv
ed b
y le
gal,
scie
ntif
ic, c
linic
alsp
ir it
u al
,an
dlor
oth
er p
rofe
ssio
nal
prin
cipl
es.
0 T
hera
py: A
dmin
istr
atio
n of
var
ious
,fo
rms
of p
hysi
cal o
r m
enta
l ass
ista
nce:
thro
ugh
wel
l dev
elop
ed p
rinc
iple
s,.
proc
edur
es, a
nd te
chni
ques
.
sts:
iT
rain
ee
Tee
hnic
i.an
1.
Tec
hnic
ian
II
Tec
hnol
ogis
10 C
ompo
sing
: Jud
ging
the
read
ilyob
serv
able
fun
ctio
nal,
stru
ctur
al, o
rco
mpo
sitio
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s (w
heth
ersi
mila
r to
or
dive
rgen
t fro
m o
bvio
us:
stan
dard
s) o
f D
ata,
Peo
ple,
or
Thi
n.gs
.9
Cf:
Tyi
ng:
Tra
nscr
ibin
g, e
nter
ing,
orpo
stin
g da
ta.
8 C
ompu
ting:
Per
form
ing
arith
met
ic:
oper
atio
ns a
nd r
epor
t' g
o..,
and/
orca
rryi
ng o
ut a
pre
scri
bed
actio
nin
.
rela
tion
to th
em. D
oes
not M
aude
coun
ting.
7 C
ompi
ling:
Gat
heri
ng, c
olla
ting,
or
clas
sify
ing
info
rmat
ion
abou
t Dat
aPe
ople
, or
Thi
ngs.
,6
Tra
nsla
ting:
Pla
cing
:inf
orm
atio
n in
to a
diff
eren
t lan
guag
e or
a M
OM
des
irab
lefo
rm to
fac
ilita
te im
prov
edco
mm
unic
atio
n..
5 C
odin
g: T
rans
ferr
ing
data
and
oth
erin
ferm
atio
n in
to s
ome
num
eric
alor
pict
opap
hic
sym
bolis
m in
ord
er to
faci
litat
e sw
ift c
ompu
tatio
n an
d.an
alys
is..
4 O
rgan
izin
g:B
ring
in.g
toge
ther
var
ious
data
, thi
ngs
and/
or s
truc
ture
s in
ord
er to
prod
uce
som
e ac
tivity
or
conc
erte
d'lf
ltIet
tili.*
n;in
nonn
a A
eafT
e, ;I
F a
ram
lifo
Tec
hnO
logi
st
Prof
essi
onal
anal
y s
is
4 O
rgan
izin
g:B
ring
ing
toge
ther
var
ious
data
, thi
ngs
and/
or s
truc
ture
s in
ord
er to
prod
uce
som
e ac
tivity
or
conc
erte
da.
ctio
n an
d at
tain
som
e de
fini
te r
emits
..3
Ana
lyzi
ng: E
xam
inin
g an
d ev
alua
tin.g
data
. Pre
sent
ing
alte
rnat
ive
actio
n in
rela
tion
to a
naly
sis
may
be
invo
lved
.2
Coo
rdin
atin
g: D
eter
min
ing
time,
pla
cean
d se
quen
ce o
f op
erat
ion
or a
ctio
n to
be ta
ken
on th
e ba
sis
of a
naly
sis
of d
ata;
exec
utin
g de
term
inat
ion
and/
orre
port
ing
an e
vent
.Pl
anni
n.g:
LoO
king
into
the
futu
re;
fore
seei
ng n
eeds
,se
rvic
es, s
ituat
ions
befo
re th
ey a
rriv
e an
d m
akin
g th
ene
cess
ary
arra
ngem
ents
to p
rovi
de th
est
ruct
ures
, act
iviti
es,a
nd th
ings
to m
eet
the
need
s. P
rovi
ding
.the
dir
ectio
n in
.W
hich
act
iviti
es, f
unct
ions
, str
uctu
res
are
mov
ing.
0 Sy
nthe
sizi
ng: i
nteg
ratin
g an
alys
is o
fda
ta to
dis
cove
r fa
cts
andl
or d
.eve
lop
know
ledg
e.
Tra
inee
Tec
hnic
ian
I
Tec
hnic
ian
II
Han
dlin
g:U
sing
bod
y, m
embe
rs,
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Systems Analysis: Other Approaches, Other UsesThe broad field (. general systems theory does not have one
"absolute" approach to the organization and use of knowledge andbehavior. The general concept of systems theory defines an enlarged viewof the world and the universe where systems are continually in interactioneverywhere. The entire range of complex structures and processes amongmen and machines, society, nature, economics, needs, and desires canbe described as the interplay of systems within systems. The goal ofsystems malysis development is to make the best use of all thiscomplexity, so that society and individuals are not victimized in themultiplicity of problems and confusions.
"The systems approach can be reagrded as a disciplined way of usingspecialists [or anyone trained to do this] in a variety of fields toanalyze as precisely as possible sets of activities whoseinterrelationships are very complicated, and of formulatingcomprehensive and flexible plans on the basis of the analysis [in] abasic effort to reconcile objectives and resources, to achieve clearlyspecified compromises between what we want and what we canexpect to get.. .to help people make decisions...the systemsapproach comes in to provide guidelines and evalmtions..Theessential power of the approach is that it offers a solid objectivefoundation for decisions."6
Systems theory can be applied in many ways to help make decisionsabout present and anticipated problems in such areas as pollution,population, traffic conestion, urban blight juvenile delinquency, organizedcrime, disenfranchised citizenry, inadequate city planning, food and drugmisuse, and many others. Each of these areas can be seen as operatingwithin a system, with individual directions and attitudcl, withintereonnectirig dependencies within themselves and with other systems,and with specific characteristics that are either shared or not shared.Without this understanding of operattng, interrelated systems, no real andfunctional problem-solving can take place.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy in his defmitive General System Theorydescribes ten approaches that have only recently become reorganized forthefr ability to control, classify, re-order, and make sense out ofinformation and "systems".7 Each is based on the concept of system as a
43
"complex of elements standing in interaction "81. Classical system theory: utilizes classical mathematics, i.e.,
cOculus, to state principles of operation that apply to systemsin general, and then to provide techniques for theirinvestigation, description, and possible change (for example,the sutdy of diffusion and diffusion equations in chemistryand physics in relation to the spread of rumors).Computerization and stimulation: systems for exceedingconventional math as well as conventional limitations ofhuman abilities to keep track of multiple variables (forexample, the computerization of an imaginary city, a"computer city, represented by a deck of punchcards anddesginated to help investigate the long-range effects of neweducational programs on an urban community. Themodel. . .can simulate sixteen years of social change in aboutfour mLnutes of computing time).9Compartment theory: makes analysis possible in cases ofthree- or multi-compartment systems where there is necessityof defmg subunits with certain boundary conditions betweenwhich some transfer takes place (for example, organizationalchains of corporations and linear bacterial structures).Set, graph, and net theory: although widely separate in formand function, these three are primarily concerned with systemsproblems involving structural or topologic properties ofsystems, rather than quantitative relations (for example, thenervous system, megalopolis structures, and interrelationshipsof magnetic fields).Cybernetics: a theory of control systems based oncommunication or the transfer of information between systemand environment and within the system, and control(feedback) of the system's function in regard to environment(for example, models of regulatory systems, such as hydraulic,electric, physiokiiical, and human engineering systems).
6. Information theory: the use of infbrmation or basicknowledge and its organation as a measure of anorganization's structure (for example, analysis of non-randomamino acids in a protein chain by defining the vocabulary and
19
grammar of transmission7. Automation theory: the notion that anything that is possible
logically is able to be automated and done by machine (forexample, the production of "test-tube babies").Game theory: concerned with the behavior of supposedlyrational players to obtain maximal gains and minimal losses byappropriate strategies against another player or against nature(for example, hypothetical war games, political-economictransactional garnes, and computerized chess
9. Decision theory: mathematical theory about rational choicesamong alternativL..; (for example, product packaging design,solving psychological interpersonal conflict problems, andsome inputto game theory).
10. Queuing theory: concerns optimization of arrangements undercrowded conditions (for example, college course registrationprocedures, dissemination of information to large populations,and crowd or riot control).
The point to be made in such an enumeration is that problemspreviously thought to be impossible to solve are brought closer to solutionthrough viewing them as a system containing many other systems,interconnecting aud influencing e,.ch other. Within classifications ofconcepts in hierarchic order, and the dynamics withlii that order (wherethe universe can be seen as a progression from subatomic particles, to themany structures of molecules, cells organisms, and beyond tosupra-individual organizations), a systems approach is rooted in reality andthrough the inter-connection of systems is able to direct organization anddecision-making on as many factors as possible.
In an attempt to duplicate the rudimentary structures and processesof organic systems, many man-made systems use input-output of data ,internal change to external stimuli, flexibility, and growth or sub-dividingto help solve problems and formulate alternatives to other outmoded waysof doing things. Thus, the format of any systems approach to any kind ofproblem-solving is based on the configuration of the total universe and allits parts as a system or some form of subsystem. If natural systemsfunction through specific procedures of operation within structures thatgive to and take from the envlionment of the other systems, then a
20
systemic approach to comrolling, problem-solving, understanding, andusing these natural syst2ms, must adopt systems mechanics andfunctionings. The following flow-chart clarifies the step-by-step continuityof artificial systems, incorporating these basic system methods: (1) seekingobjective of hierarchic priority, with behavioral or operational criteria forachievement; (2) seeking alternative activity for each objective within therange of constraints and resources, both known and unknown; (3) definingspecific step-by-step activity for objective-fulfillment; (4) developing adesign for continual evaluation of system progress, for feedback andchanges in activity as a repetitive process, for maintaining currenteffectiveness. The accompaning flow chart10 as a model of a systemsapproach, once it is static, begins to obsolesce and demands continualre-charting. "An enormous amount of experience and trial and error hasgene into the development of such procedures. The critical art in thebeginning, Blumstein 11 emphasizes, is knowing where to cut short, whereto avoid side issues and bring your thinking to bear on the really importantand interesting controllable variables. These variables are our levers on thereal world; we can first manipulate them in our model world and see whathappens. Then we are better prepared to organize the real work' and makethings there. We are creating structures."12
Thus, it can be seen that systems approaches need not be restrictedto their first uses by the Defense Department and war industry to raisestandards of production and efficiency, nor to the study and analysis ofsingle system problems. Current systems research in education utilizesvarious approaches throughout the entire range of educationalrestructuring, from developing single courses to planning optimum use andgrowth of entire learning-teaching-research communkies. Differentialtraining and utilization of educational administration and the evOuation ofteaching techniques are studied. Speagle 13 states some other examples, aswell as tentatively lists the components of education which are intimatelyinvolved through systems analysis. The simple example of optimizing achild's learning can branch into studies of nutritionparental harmony,foetal position in the womb, degree of discipline, temperature in theclassroom, and so On, each of which becomes a significant variable in thelearning process. When planning a complete "school system," so manyseemingly extraneous inputs must be considered that traditionalboundaries and definitions are forced to crumble. Under a "systems
46
FLOW CHART OF SYSTEMS ACTIVI'
Define the problem1. define objective2. criteria of achie3. constraints, unc
variables4. controllable var:
D,:fme subfunctions(subsystem-
Defme alternativesfor each subfunction
F4nthesizesubsystems
Evaluate
Selct
47
CTIVITIES AND PROCESSES
)blembjectives)f achievementnts, uncontrollable
able variables
valuate
;elect
Develop model
LCollect data
21
approach," the analysis surveys the entire terrain without preconceivedlimitations, and examines all major premises. The following is a list ofsome of the major structural components to be surveyed when systemsanalysis is applied to problems in the field of education:
1. educational goals and ob'ectives2. learning theory3. teaching technology4. educational testing5. educational economics6. teacher training7 student population8. school administration9. education industry
10. educational resea7ch11. national manpower needs12. student home environment13. educational politic14. educational strategy15. cutlture and society16. peer group inf uences17. family constellation18. social attitudes towards education
With so many variables and components, a computer isindispensable. Previously, a problem containing many variables was eithertotally unsolved, or a physical mode of the problem and its surroundingswas built. For example, the Indus River in India was slowly seeping intothe ground for miles around its banks, creating massive floodings and lossof good farm land to swamps w;th much attendant suffei_ng and hardshipto the inhabitants. At one time, the Army engineers would have built alarge (perhaps 200 acres) scale model of the river, with its tributaries andswamps, and through trial and error, might have been able to control a fewvariables and come up with a solution. With the use of computers, allvariables are coded and the computer can, in a matter of seconds, revealthrough simulation the effects of various changes. The computer operatesthe same way in education, where "the systems approach is being used in avariety of dffferent ways and, roughtly speaking, at three different levels:
1. in studies which involve the St iool systems of entire cities orstates, or the entire nation;in studies desgined to understand the workings of individualinstitutions; andin studies concentrating primarily on individual courses andteaching methods."14
Although, as was stated earlier, systems analysis is firmly rooted inreality and as such suggests concrete activities to solving problems, too
4922
often the suggestions are not carried out by those people, societies, andinstitutions that could benefit most. "In the last analysis all the scientificingenuity in the world, all the contributions of modern teeinology, arenullified in a systems study if that study fails in its essential ohjective tohelp achieve positive results in the real world. . . The programs offerbenefits to some people, but frequently step on the toes of others, orthreaten to, and are accordingly cut down to size.... Can analyticaltechniques be applied specifically to the intense political problems ofgetting things done?"15 The total cost of implementing a public project,for instance, must include the cost of reducing oppositon to its'mplementation. If you are the government, then you really have noworries, for, as in urban renewal, land is easily wrested from ownerscheaply. On the other hand, a less well-endowed program might notbecome functional due to opposition that cannot be appeased due to lackof funds.
It should be stressed, especially in all considerations of systemsanalysis for educational development, that the one danger of systemstheories that is so much feared and so highly criticized, does not evenexist. Von Bertalanffy16 quotes Ruesch, a noted psychotherapist who saidthat the new cybernetic world is not concerned with people. but with"systems"; man becomes replaceable and expendable, the "humanelement" is precisely the unreliable component of the cyberneticist'screations. Man, in the Big Systems, is to beand to a large extent hasbecomea moron buttonpusher, or a learned idiot highly trained in somenarrow specialization, but otherwise a mere part of the machine.
At the base of this view lies the question: are the cyberneticiststurnmg man into a moron, or is man, by not using his own systemic,systematic, and intuitive thinking capabilities pushing himself into anautomated breadline? A.D. Hall17 in A Methodology for SystemsEngineering states: "Since creative thought is the most important thingthat makes people different from monkeys, it should be treated as acommodity enore precious than gold and preserved with great care."
ImplicationsThe systems approach as an operational procedure continued to be
further evaluated, refined, and expanded by CORD in Phase III researchand implem en tation. Powever, the stems approach has wider
possibilities than the ones described. As a tool for analyzing and buildingcurriculum, careers, and opportunities, the systems approach can beutilized in many unique ways and situations. Possibilities aimed at theeducational and employment objectives listed earlier could beimplemented in other occupational fields for more coherent and usefuladvancements. In education, all courses could be the partial product of afunctional task analysis system where course content would be moreclosely allied to personal student behavior, future goals, and the nceds ofthe school, rather than curriculum levelopment based only on thetheorizing of a small group of teachers. Task analysis, in,its many variations,could bring class work much closer to real life by presenting learning in anatmosphere of daily practice by doing. Analyzing student and teacherbehavior and cnordinatill it with learning in all thP disciplines could resultin a school system keyed into the real process of learning that each personaccomplishes on his own from the moment of birth. Educational andtraining institutions utilizing this approach have a clear advantage over theless rational and less systematic approaciies to curriculum development.
In employment, the problem of determining the right jobs for theright people could be solved by a task analysis synchronization of jobswith those desiring to fill them. Rather than politics, race, or gender, rawstatistical qualifications and requirements in the form of analyzed codesdescribing interests, temperaments, work functions, general educationaldevelopment, and so on, would be a primary basis for hiring. The externalappearance of credentials, physical characteristics, or political connectionscould be eliminated by a systems approach to equitable hiring practices,reasonable job descriptions, systematic career growth sequences, andimproved personnel changes. The systems approach, as shown by CORD inits Phase I and Il analysis and implementation, can lead to a process forrestructured jobs that allows greater potential for worker advancement.The systems approach can derive a coherent core curriculum related to thestudents' present and future lives, to their ,vork experience, and to theexpansion of future possibilities in the world of work and leisure.
However, the reOization of all that is possible is much more difficultthan establishing a small-range experimental success. The technology ofdata analysis and the whole systems approach requires much worerefinement, much more accuracy and objectivity than currently exists. Inorder to be able to implement any of the above implications on any scale,
51
the basic methodology must have been carefully and scientifically derived,without at all depriving human beings of any of their non-measurableaspecv, their emotions, or their capabiliti, _o out-perform themselves.Refinement of the system involves perfecting the coding and measurementof those primarily cerebral operations that distinguish a problem-solvingand planning tasks from the physical operations that are involved in amechanical and repetitive task.
Since the basic technology of systems analysis began as a mealis ofstepping up assembly-line production during the Second World War, thekinds of refinement necessary for Ainguishing the high-level intangiblefunctions in the human services has only lately beii begun. CORD isinitiating this new field of inquiry by using task analysis within actualwork situations in the human services that involve much moi than simplemanual labor. The human services field is a large and burgeoningvocational and craining area that very much needs clarification andsystemization. liowever, it is unrealistic to assume that a prcject of thislimited scope could arrive at all the answers or even at the only rationalapproach to a solution.
Since many employers and institutions of learning have not givenserious attention to tht: systems approach, CORD expresses its research inlieu of anything better, and in the hopes that others will join in the searchfor Lnowledge and scientific discovery. In a world that prides itself in itsexpanding technology, its global communications, arid its potential forgreater achievement, the search for truth in all fields must not becompromised. The challenge of innovative and exemplary vocational-tech-nical education requires an adequate response in the form of actualchanges made on a scale that really makes a difference.
"Persistent unemployment and underemployment of thedisadvantaged is incongruous in the face of our urgent need fortrained personnel to provide more and better education, health,welfare, and other services, and to cope with our increasinglysophisticated technolo "18
APPENDIX A: Task Description SamplesBB-001 Checks with the community clinics on the procedures, referral
methods, statistics and follow-ups of patients to insure
23
uniformity of dards.BB-002 Prov.des counseling sapport to patien s in group therapy to
help them make better adjustment.BB-012 Supervises group therapy sessions to help workers to learn the
use of this type of therapy.BB-003 Makes diagnostic evaluation of applications for hospitalization
to determine their ueeds and how to meet them.AA-006 Makes out physical therapy schedules for the patients.E-002 Supervises members in game room to provide leadership and
sho,v sportsmanship.E-902 Teaches rules and techniques of wrestling to develop physical
coordination.E-002 Recruits members from community tf. join physical heilth and
education programs in order to establish re:ationships andprovide service.
E002 Opens physical activity rooms for staff and members in orderto provide access to facilities.
E-003 Enforces agency rules among gang rri ,nbers to preventdisruption.
A-001 Writes case history information and daily attendance reportson patients records for use in subsequent evaluations.
A-001 Schedules workers for intake duty in order to get the workdone.
A-001 Labels complete case history forms with the program that theclients are to attend in order to guarantee client participation.
A-001 Terminates files on all cases that are closed or transferred, inorder to provide for proper handling of records (may includecomulting with supervisor, if problems occur).
A-002 Makes home visits to observe and evaluate the progress of theclients within the framework of agreed-upon goals.
A-008 Makes home visits to pei sonally communicate with residentswho have not responded to letters concerning services availablein the mental health center, by tryirig to educate them in theconcepts of mental health, and extending an invitation tocome tc the center.
24.
APPENDIX B: Coding System Scales
The following scales are adapted from the pubhc; 'ion, "JobRestructuring," prepared by the Wiszonsin Occupational Analysis FieldCenter (December, 1968). The publication was developed by Mr. HarryNussberger, Job Analysis Supervisor, and Mr. Frank Potts, ResearchAnalyst, under the general direction of Mr. William F Miller.
In many instances, the coding scales developed by CORD are theresult of radical changes in tl 2 form of the WOAFC scales, which wereused as a general guide and F-int of departure. These scales have beenfreely modified to suit CORD's purposes.
Asterisks (') indicate where CORD has made its own additions orradical alterattuu. All unmarked items are those extracted substantiallyunchanged from the WOAFC report. Items marked with a cross (+)indicate modified verions of those in the WOAFC report. The codes arestill undergoing modification and further refinement due to new :esearch,new problems, and new uses.19
General Education Development (GED)
1. Reasoning Ability2. Mathematics, Arithmetic, Numbers3. L.nguageGED consists of the above listed items. In the design of the GED
levels we have taken our most marked departure from the WOAFC Report.We have given more space to the mathematics scales because of basicdisagreement with WOAFC mathematical achievement levels. Ourlanguage scale is modified to show as nearly as possible logicai transitionfrom level to level. We have found the reasoning scale of the GED as listedin the WOAFC to be inadequate for our purposes by not leading to alogical scaling of reasoning ability.
What is proposed, briefly, is to place the reasoning scale of the GEDon a more coherent basis. Reasoning in man takes place in terms of varioussymbols, unless it is the form of reasoning callecl "intuitive" in which allthe interr. 3diates (symbols) are eliminated. The symbols are the carriers ofinformation (data) about reality to the mind, as well as the means by..vhich mental processes are expressed and information extracted from themind and communicated to others. Furtlrmore, symbols are the means
whereby reality is manipulated more conveniently in order to provide newinformation or new relationships for study. The manipulations aregoverned by various rules or organized into systems. Those functionsrequiring the greatest knowledge and use of such manipulative systems andgreatest facility with symbology (and consequently the data so represented)comprise the highest categories of non-intuitive reasoning ability. Thereare a set of middle operations conducted upon the symbols or data. Theseoperations are of a setting-up and predigesting variety. Those functionsrequiring knowledge and facility with these operations comprise themiddle ranges of reasoning ability. After data has been treated,understood, and expressed as now information, action proceeds from thedata. In addition, prior to the treatment process, certain supportivemaintenance functions are required which do not entail treatment of datacontent in any significant manner. Those functions requiring actionoceeding from already treated data or action involving maintenance ofdata, comprise the towel levJs of reasoning ability.
Thus we arrive at three primary levels ot reasoning ability: A--theassimilative, interpretive, and judgmenlal levels; B--the predigesting levels;C--the levels of instructed functions. We call A, B, and C categories and wefurther subdivide them, each into three subcategories (or levels) ofreasoning ability: Ai A2 A3 B I B2 B3 Ci C2 C3. Each highersubcategory assumes the skals of all those placed lower than it with. ilecategory. Each higher category assumes the skills of the categories placedlower than it.
Descriptions of Levels of Reasoning Ability Scale
C-1 Simple one or two step operations are performed upon instructionswhere circumstahces of work are non-variable. (Delivers articles,messages; receives, dispenses, loads, unloads, moves people andthings; runs machines.)Follows complex instructions with variable circumstances of work.(Stocks supplies, checks stores; guards; cleans; works as aide; relays,sorts records; accompanies, brings food; installs simple equipment;runs mad- es.)
C-3 Supervises or instructs lower C levels as well as coordinates theirfunction with one another and with high -r levels of operation.
Sup-rvises for above men ioned functions by directing goods,equipment, and people. Controls and organizes work teams. (Runsplay groups, social activities, life-guaids; policies; carries out tacticalinstructions; repaiis simple equipment; runs machjnes.
B-I Collects, copies, arranges data or materials entering into thestructure or exiting from it. (Clerks, survey clerks; runs machines;arranges outings, social functions; receptionist, interviewer, cashier.)
B-2 Codes, installs sophisticated equipment; compiles, classifies incomingand outgoing information, material, and people. CompuLationbegun. Does computer coding; makes graphs, charts; processesinformation, tests. Gives therapy; repairs sophisticated equipment;mechanic , c!lectrician, carpenter, nurse, technician, musician,secretary.)
B-3 Supervises all lower B levels and C-3 supervisors. On this levelinformation or data is zrified, conclusions ,:irawn, decisions made,and directions issued. Here also, any computations are completed.Supervises all above. (Runs work teams; guides work and studygroups; figures costs, taxes, accounting; programs computers; runssocial workshop; director, groupworker, investigator.)Data is translated flom language to language, or system to system.Reports or extracts are vrepared and issued. Mode of presentationdecided upon and designed. Representations of data prepared andissued. Hans from higher levels carried nut. (Interpreter, writer,composer, commercial artist, reader, psychiatric social worker, socialworker, teacher.)
A-2 Data is subjected to some analysis, calculations, and computations;manipulations of a sophisticated variety are carried cut upon it.Information is extracted from data, and new relationships drawn.Exploratory operations are carried out on problems and data. Plansare cc ri pleted. (Engineers, chemists, mathematicians, statisticians,doctors, ?sychologists, physicists.)
A-3 Final manipu:ations are performed. Data analyzed, synthesized, andinterpreted in a finalized manner. New ideas and symbols arefo.mulated and created. Dermitions are fixed, and all lower levels aresupervised. Plans are formulated (Psychiatrist, theoretical scientist,architect, research scientist.)
25
Descriptions of Levels of the Mathematics/Arithmetic Scale
C-1 Counting: Able to count four significant figures.C-2 AdditioniSubtraction: Conversant with processes of
addition/subtraction of whole numbers of all varities.C-3 Multiplication/Division/Fractions: Know how to multiply/divide
whole numbers. Work processes of addition and subtraction oncommon fractions and decimals.
B-1 Fractioc.s/Multiplicgtion/Division: Know how to multiply and dividecommon franctions and decimals.
B-2 Percentages/Interests/Compounding tax tables/Charts/Graphs/Alge-bra: Exponents, logarithms, linear equations, quadractics. Perrnuta-tions, Combinations,
B-3 Algebra: Fractoring Equations with two/three unknowns.Determinants, matrix algebra, circular functions. PlaneGeometry/trigonometry/Probability: Product of probabilities,independent probability.
A-1 Plane Geometry/Analytic Geometry/Trigonometry/Statistics.A-2 Statistics/Calculus/Differential Equations/Modern Algebra/Vector
Analysis.A-3 Open, Mathematical skills beyond those listed above
Descriptions of Levels of Language Development Scale
C-1 Writing: Prints si..1ple sentences, names, addresses, and numbers.Reading: Reads simple sentences. Vocabulary approximately 2,500words. Reads comicbooks. Compares work similarities.Speaking: Speaks simple sentences with reasonable wordarrangement and delineation of past and present tenses.
C-2 Writing: Writes simple and compound sentences with interior andexterior punctuation.Reading: Reads compound sentences with understanding. Readsinstructions for carrying out designated operations Knows now touse a dictionary.Speaking: Speaks clearly with approp iate pauses and emphasis.
C-3 Writing: Writes complex as well as compound sentences, punctuateswell, and utilizes perfect and future tenses.Reading: Reads compl,K sentence structure with understanding.
26
Vocabulary of 5,000 to 6,000 words. Uses the dictionary to look upwords.Speaking: Able to speak as above, but incorporating goodconventional usages with all tenses.
B-1 Writing: Writes reports. Prepares schedules. Fills out questionnaires,applications, and other forms.Reading: Reads magazines, novels, atlases, encyclopedias.Speaking: Able to give verbal descriptions of a complete nature. Usesgood English, with well modulated voice before small audiences.
B-2 Writing: Writes business letters and prepaNs summaries. Makes useof all parts of speech and punctuation, uses the proper format forpreparing work.Reading: Able to read road manuals, periodicals, etc. Uses athesaurus and an encyclopedia.Speaking: Able to give detailed descriptions, inst tions andexplanations. Can speak fairly well extemporaneously.
B-3 Writing: Writes descriptive essays and expositions.Reading: Novels, poems, journals, are read with generalunderstanding.Speaking: Able to speak on a variety of subjects extemporaneouslyand to engage in dramatics,
A-1 Writing: Writes translation and technical ieports. W ites songs and/orpoetry.Reading: Can read material in foreign texts. Reads abstracts, reports.Speaking: Speaks one or more foreign languages and/or specializedlanguages for handicapped people or animals.
A-2 Writing: Writes argumentative essays, critiques, manuals journalarticles, and speeches.Reading: Reads scientific journals, financial reports, and legaldocuments.Speaking: Able to discuss or debate. Delivers lectures or highlydeveloped explanations.
A-3 Writing: Writes novels, non-fictional and technical material,symphonic music. Composes journal articles and theoretical works.Reading: Reads theoretical works (political, social, scientific),non-fiction.
j
Speaking: Able to speA well before large widiences on a variety of
subjects.
Scales Relating to Worker Functions
The worker functions are described as they relate to data, people,and things. The scales have been modified (chiefly by addition) from thoseindicated in the WOAFC report. The pattern, definitions, and use remainthe same as those used in the report. The People and Data scales have beenlengthened, whereas the Things scale has been shortened. Asterisks
indicate CORD's additions. All crossed entries (+) indicate modificationsof WOAFC material. All unmarked entries are the same as those appearing
in the WOAFC report.Use of scales: Three-digit expression.
(1) Compare each task or element with each hierarchy (Data,People, Things), and record the highest relationship for each
using the entry number.Each studied task would have a 3-digit number, one from each
hierarchy..Entries are listed with higher functions having lower numbers.Higher numbers assume lower entries.
(4) Three digits describe work requirements to be filled.DATA: Information, knowledge, and conception as related to People,Data, or Things. Obtained by observation, investigation, interpretation,visuslization, interrelation, and mental creation. It may be written, oralnumerical, verbal, conceptual, ideational, visual.0. Snthesizing: Integating analysis of data to discover facts and
develop knowledge.Planning: Looking into the future; forseeing needs, services,
situ atuions before they arrive and making the necessaryarrangements to provide the structures, activities, and things to meetthe needs. Providing the direction in which activities functions,structures are to move.Coordinating: Determining time, place, and sequence of operation oraction to be taken on the basis of analysis of data; executingdetermination and/or reporting an event.Analyzing: Examiang and evaluating data. Presenting alternativeaction m relation to analysis may be involved.
Organumg: Bringing together various data, things, and/or structuresin order to produce some activity or concerted action and attainsome definite result.Co ding: Trmsferring data and other information into somenumerical or pictographic symbolism in order to facilitate swiftcomputation and analysis.
*6. Translating: Placing information into a different language or a moredesirable form to facilitate improved communication.
7. Compiling: Gathering, collating, or classifying information aboutData, People, or Things.
8. Computing: Performing arithmetic operations and reporting onand/or carrying out a prescribed action in relation to them. Does notinclude counting.
9. Copying: Transcribing, entering, or posting data.10. Composing: Judging the readily observable functional, structural, or
compositonal characteristics (whether similar to or divergent fromobvious standards) of Data, People, or Things.
*11. Other: List separately.PEOPLE: Human beings (also animals) dealt with on an individual basis.*0 Therapy: Administration of various forms of physical or mental
assistance through well-developed principles, procedures, andtechniques.Mentoring: Dealing with individuals in terms of their totalpersonality in order to advise, counsel, and/or guide them withregard to problems that may be resolved by legal, scientific, clinical,spiritual, and/or other professional principles.
2. Negotiating: Exchanging ideas, information, and opinions withothers to formulate concerted policies, programs, or models ofaction.
3. Instructing: Teaching subject matter to others (also anfinals) throughexplanation, demonstration, and supervised practice.
4. Supervising: Determining and interpreting work procedures for agroup of workers, assigning specific duties to them, maintainingrelations among them, and promoting efficiency.
*5. Interviewing: Talking or otherwise communicating with others forthe purpose of extracting information or evaluating a particular orgeneralized circumstance.
27
*6. Arranging: Bringing together the necessary ingredients in terms ofpeople, situations, and things to facilitate activities, developments,and interaction.Observing-Listening: ,Ating or being with another person to watchevents for purposes of administration of assistance, acquisition ofdata, or to provide company and understanding.
*8. Checking: Following up oper.tion, frequently routine, for purposesof ascertaining information about the delivery of goods or services,the functioning of people, or the performance of operations.
9. Diverting: Amusing others.10. Persuading: Influencing others in favor of an object, service, or point
of view.11. Serving: Attending to the needs or requests of people or animals;
also, to the expressed or implicit wishes of people. Immediateresponse.
12_ Helping: Attending to the work assignment, instruction, or orders ofsupervisor. Applies to "non-learning" helpers. No immediateresponse.
*13. Other: List separately.THINGS: Inanimate objects having shape, form, and other physicalcharacteristics:*O. Servicing: Keeping various forms of equipment in working order.
Repairing when broken down. Replacing when worn (3,A.Preparing: Getting equipment ready for use; making connectionadjustments, cleaning, acquiring necessary equipment.Opera Ling-Co nt rolling-Working: Controlling, starting/stopping,supervising the operations of various equipment.Operating-Driving: Guiding or steering various machines or pieces ofequipment.
4. Tending: Making minor adjustments and checking the operation,condition, and functioning of equipment and situations.
5. Handling: Using body members or handtools to work , move, andcarry objects or materials.
*6. Other: List separately.
Aptitude Scale
The apti ude scale and definition are the same as those appearing in
28
the WOAFC report. CORD has made one slight modification. In thereport a number code from 1 to 5 indica d the degree oi level of aptituderequfred for a given task. We have modified this tating scheme as isindicated btlow.
0Not significant.ILow (Specific aptitude requirement below average)2 Medium (Specific aptitude requirement average)3High (Specific aptitude requirement higher than
found or expected in general population)Numerical ratings are intended for observational use and quick assessmentby the interviewer. Specific capacities and abilities required of anindividual in order to learn or perform adequately a task or job duty are:G Intelligence: General learning ability. 'file ability to "catch on" or
understand instructions and underlying pri aciples. Ability to reasonand make judgments. Closely related to dot 'g well in school.Verbal: Ability to understand meangs of words and ideasassociated with them and to use them effectively. To comprehendlanguage, to understand relationships betwen words, and tounderstand meanings of whole sentences and paragraphs. To presentinformation or ideas clearly..
N Numerical: Ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly andaccurately.
S Spatial: Ability to comprehend forms in space and understandrelationships of plane and solid objects. May he used in such tasks asblueprint reading and in solving geometry problems. Frequentlydescribed as the ability to "visualize" objects of two or threedimensions or to visualize geometric forms.
P Form Perception: Ability to perceive pertinent detail in objects or inpictorial or graphic material. To make visual comparisons anddiscriminations and see slight differences in shapes and shapings offigures and widths and lengths of lines.
Q Clerical Perception: Ability to perceive pertinent detail in verbal ortabular materials. To observe differences in copy, to proofreadwords and numbers, and to avoid perceptual errors in arithmeticcomputation.
K Motor Coordination: Ability to coordinate eyes and hands or fingersrapidly and accurately in making precise movements with speed.
6 2
Ability to make a movement response accurately and quickly.F Finger Dexterity: Ability to move the fingers and manipulate small
objects rapidly or ilccur a tely.M Manual Dexterity: Ability to move the hands easily and skillfully; to
work with hands in placing and turning motions.E Eye-Hand-Foot Coordination: Ability to move the hand and foot
coordinately with each other in accordance with visual stimuli.C Color Discrimination: Ability to perceive or recognize similarities or
differences in colors, or in shades or other values of the same color,to identify a particular color, or to recognize harmonious orcontrasting color combinations, or to match colors accurately.
Job Environment Scale
The job environment scale describes specific situations relative to ajob within which a worker would have to adjust himself and exist. Thisscale represents a major modification of the WOAFC "Temperaments"scale. CORD has expanded the scale to about the WOAFC size. The scale isintended to be as exhaustive as possible, with each entry fepresenting aspecific environment factor. All asterisked entries are those of CORD'sown introduction. All crosses indicate modificitions of WOAFC scales.Unmarked entries were taken directly from the WOAFC report. Scale use:The letter J (job) was listed with dashed numbers for each entry whichapplied to the task under study.+1 Situations entailing a variety of du ; many tasks to perform.*2 Situations of little change; task fixed, little or no change.+3 Situations of frequent change; tasks not fixed, great variance.+4 Situations of repetitive nature.+5 Situations of short operations in predetermined patterns.+6 Situations under specific instructions; little room for independent
action or judgement.7 Situations with few guidelines; great lattitude for individual
judgement.8 Situations that involve directing, controlling, or planning the
activities of others.+9 Situations involving working alone_*10 Situations involving working with groups.*11 Situations involving extracting information from people or other
3
sources.12 Situations involving influencing "people in opinions, attitudes, OT
judgments about ideas or things.+13 Situations requiring adequate performance under stress and high
risk.14 Situations involving evaluation (arriving at generalization,
ju dgmen t , or decisions ) of information against sensory orjudgmental criteria.
15 Si t u tio ns involving the evaluation of information againstmeasurable or verifiable criteria.
16 Situations involving the interpretation of feelings, ideas, or fac s interms of personal viewpoints.
*17 Situations involving work indoors.*18 Situations involving work outdoors.
19 Situations involving assisting others with external difficulties.*20 Situations involving assisting others with internal and adjustment
problems.*21 Situations involving transmitting information to others.*22 Situations involving giving:instructions to others.*23 Situations involving providing supporting functions and services for
others.*24 Other (List sepa ely).
Interests Scale
This scale has been much modified over that appearing in thcsWOAFC report, the latter involved ten listed items arranged in -iats whichwere supposed to be opposites. In our view, the necessity of such anarrangement was unproved, and we were not at all convinced of theopposing nature of the items listed in most pairs. The CORD scale involvestwenty-three items. Our attempt has been to make each entry count forone specific interest in an approximately exhaustive list, leaning somewhatin the direction of the social service fields. All entries bearing asterisks areour own additions. All entries bearing crosses are modifications of WOAFCentries. Interests or preferences for certain types of work activities,situations, or experiences pertain to this scale. Scale use: The letter L isrecorded with a dashed listing of the particular interest factors, asL-4-21-22 would be interest scale entries 4,21, and 22.
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Interest in activities with things and objects. (Machinist, carpenter,tabulator, stock boy, etc.)
*2 Interest in responsibility. (Supervisor, doctor, officer [ ilitary] ,
policemtn, driver, etc.)Interest in limited responsibility. (File clerk, loader, packager,inductee, etc.)interest in business contact. (Executive, manager, financial clerk,
etc.)Interest in technical activities. (Accountant alyzer, sf..9tistician,
actuary, electrician, photographer, etc.)
*6 Interest in manipulation of people. (Policeman, group worker,
marriag .. counselor, psychiatric social worker, p3ychiatrist,commissioned officer [military] , advertising creator, etc.)
Interest in working with information and/or data. (Statistician,actuary, accountant, scientist, engineer, clerk, census taker, social
investigator, social surveyor, dietician, etc.)Interest in low-level involvement with people. (Receptionist, guide,
guard, usher, cashier, games instructor, coordinator,sales clerk, ticket
agent, etc.)Interest in medium-level involvement with people. (Interviewer,observer, accompanying, testing, occupational therapist, controlling,
parole officer, etc.)*10 Interest in high-level iinvolvement with people. (Teacher, counselor,
caseworker, nurse, comminssioned officer [military] , clergyman,
etc.)*I I 11.11, zest in intensive involvement with people. (Actor, actress, clown,
acrobat, stuntman, clirector, musician, singer, cLnematographer,photographer, magician, games instructor, game therapist, writer,
composer, etc.)'12 Interest in work with animas. (Animal caretacer, farmer, trapper,
veterinarian, zookeeper, naturalist, forest ranger, zoologist, etc.
3 Interest in abstract or creative activities. (Theoretical scientist,artist, composer, author, photographer, cinematographer,philosopher, architect, psychiatrist, psychologist, etc.)
*14 Interest in mechanical or practical activities. (Applied scientist,engineer, pilot, mechanic, electrician, carpenter, occupationaltherapist, pharmacist, doctor, lawyer, nurse, etc.)
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*15 Interest in activities of high risk. (Dernolitions, acrobat, paratrooper,frogman, astronaut, policeman, youth worker [gangs] , prison guard,surgeon, pilot, psychiatrist, spy, soldier, steelmill worker, etc.)
+16 Interest in communications and dissemination of information.(Radio announcer, newsman, reporter, entertainer, social worker,commercial artist, writer, propagandiit, politician, therapist, teacher,
etc.)*17 Interest in problem solving. (Architect, scientist [applied] , engineer,
city planner, organizer, counselor, doctor, consultant, social worker,
diplomat, etc.)*18 1 aterest in research or discovery. (Scientist-researcher or
theoretician, explorer, prospector, social scientist, spy, criminologist,counselor, doctor, etc.
*19 interest if.1 controlling activities. Executive, manager, supervisor,military officer, policeman, politician, propagandist, advertising,
psychiatrist, social worker, etc.)*20 Interest with a preference for interpreting information. Interpreter
[language] , research analyst, :cientist, critic, artist, composer,author, cinematographer, advertising consultant, psychologist, etc.)
*21 Interest in plarming. (City planning, architect, group worker,counselor, family planning counselor, organizer, etc.)
*22 Other (List separately).
APPENDIX C: Job Description SampleSocial Service Trainee
The position of Social Service Trainee is the basic entry level forthose persons that have not yet obtained specific skills or extensiveexperience in the human services field. There are no specific academicrequirements or special life experiences required to attain this positionbeyond the Trainee's manifest interest in human services. This position is atemporary one, and it is expected that the Trainee will progress at least to
the status of Social Service Aide.The primary training emphasis of this position will be to orient the
Trainee to various aspects of the agency and to give him assignmentsamenable to the utilization of his individual skills and interest& The specificduties of the Social Service Trainee may include the following:
1. Provides companionship, comfort, and support for aged or disabledclients.
2. Drives an automobile or truck to deliver bulk literature fordistribution or pick-up, and delivers supplies and equipment.Drives a car or bus to take clients to and from the hospital to shop,or to go on outings.Helps load and unload supplies, takes inventory, and dist ibutesthem as instructed.
5. Disseminates verbal or written information among communityresidents.
6. Inventories and stocks a supplyroom.7. Stores and distributes recreational equipment and supplies.8. Assists in canvassing an area or neighborhood to inform the residents
about agency services.9_ Babysits with children in order to permit clients to go for necessary
services in agencies, hospitals, courts, or schools.10. Assists on outings or at play, in watching groups of children who
need no particular specialized care.11. Makes specific verbal or written repo_ s where requested by the
supervisor.12. Attends staff meetings as an active paiticpant.13. Accompanies a client on trips to the hospital and to other
community service agencies in order to provide assistance to theclient where and when needed.
14. Writes letters for invalids or hospitalized clients or for clients whoare unable to write.
15. Serves as translator or interpreter for agency or client, if the traineespeaks another language.
16. Reads stories or plays games with small children.17. Assists in performing filing duties by alphabetizing materials to
speel the filing process.Assists the receptionist by opergting the switchboard or answeringphone calls.
Social Service Aide (1 year level in AA program)
The position of Social Service Aide is created for those persons who
have completed the first year's social service course work and wish to seekemployment at this time in lieu of completing the second year courserequirements. The Aide's primary contribution is to provide supportiveservices and information to clients or community residents who otherwisedo not need intensive or specialized services from thc agency. In addition,the Aide wOl frequently work in close association with senior staffmembers in a specialized service area of his choice. The specific duties ofthe Social Service Aide may include the following:1. Introduces self to new clients so as to put them at ease and
determines why they have come to the agency. Helps clients tocomplete forms, and refers or escorts clients to appropriatedepartme..ts within the agency.
2. Makes home visits to :xe senior citizens and or bed-riddenindividuals, Accompanies senior citizens on medical appointments toas.-ist them with transportation difficulties or the obtaining ofmedical supplies.Works with a group work aide to plan and implement social eventsfor elderly persons.Works with community organization staff to distribute information,to encourage residents to participate in spT.cial meetings, workshops,or programs, and to obtain information on community concerns.
5. Assists staff to implement recreational or arts and crafts programs.Tasks may include arranging materials or equipment for clients' use,helping individuals learn recreational or craft skills, or keepingrecords on supplies and attendance.
6. Secures parental permission for children to participate in specialprograms or trips.Attends staff meetings to discuss program changes and reviewsclients' progress or difficulties. May be asked to present verbalreports on progress m ide by clients or to discuss recent communitycrises.Makes home visits to establish communication with a new familyand determine if they need assistance with housing, food, orclothing.
9. Accompanies residents to locate housing, which may includephorung rental offices or reviewing newspaper ads.
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APPENDIX D: Core CurriculumCore Curriculum Outline for Communir.ations in Human Services I
I Semester 3 Hours CrediI. Programmed Listening (Xerox Corporation)
A. Effective listeningI. Editing mentally as the speaker progresses2. Organizing by main points and supporting reasons
Remembering the use of key words4.5. Breaking through distractions6. Note taking
B. Advanced effective listening1. Review2. Expanding listening skills3. Listening to groups4. Note taking and group discussions
II. Folms and ProceduresA. InterviewB. EmploymentC. TaxD. Welfare
I, Medicare2. Social Security3. Public Aid4. Other
E. MedicalF. CreditG. EducationalH. Referral
III. Report WritingA. PurposeB. Descr;ptive reports
I. Case histories2. Progress reportsHow to condense materialI. Summaries
Summarizkig and paraphrasing effectively
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2. MemosD. Evaluations
IV. MediaA. Purposes13, Stencil inakingC. Machines (copy)
1. Mimeo2. Photocopy
D. Machines (educational and entertainment)I. Tape recorder2. Film projector
a. Slideb. Movie
3. Phonographs
Narrative writingI. Letters2. Flyers3. News releases4. Argumentative material
V. Simple MathematicsA. PurposesB. Dechnal fractionsC. PercentageD. Simple recordsE. Interest and bank state entsF. Verbal problemsG. Simple statistics
Core Curriculum Outline for Comrnunic2twns in Human Services II
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Communications Theory
A. Major purposesI. Convey information2. Convey feelings3. Establishment of iapportBackgroundI. Self-awareness
2. ConsciousnessC. Process
I. Verbala. Oral (tone, accent, pauses, mood, words)b. WrittenUnstructured nonverbala. Facial expressionb. Poe' rec. Attituded. Appearancee. Touchf. Pictcgaphicg. TimingStructured nonverbal communicationa. Audio-visual (film, music, color)b. Formal (form, shape, container, package)
Problems1 Ego defense mechanisms2. Conflict resolution3. Other
ApplicationsA. Purpose and areas of use
1. Use of relationships2. Extraction of information3 Identification and resolution of problems
a. Individualb. Groupc. Community
Methods1. Discussion
a. Interviewfiigb. Formal discussion
1) Instructing2) Meetings
c. Informal discussion2. Demonstration
Contact
a. Physicalb. OtherTermination of co munication
Core Curriculum Outline for Orientation to Human Service
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Development of Human Service in Modern Society
A. Historical background1. Ancient
a. Religiousb. Secular
2. Europeana. Poor lawsb. National insurance
B. Human service in America1. Poor relief2. Social Security3. OtherContemporary programs1. United States2. International
D. PhilosophyHuman Services as a ProfessionA. Goals and principlesB. Schools and trainingC. Language and structureD. Working conditionsE. CompensationF. Status role
III. Methoes of Human ServicesA. Case workB. Group workC. Community organationD. Other
IV. The Human Service Worker: Role and CommitmentA. Obligations to clientsB. Obligations to agency
C. Obliga ion to effect social changeV. The Helping Process
A. DefinitionB. Techinques
Core Curriculum Outline for Community Resources
1 Semester 2 Hours CreditI. Introduction to Social Service Structure
A. PurposeB. MethodC. Design
II. Social Service Commu tyA. Public agencies
1. Types of agencies2. Clientele3. How served
B. Private agencies1. Types of agencies2. Clientele3. How served
III. Structure of Local CommunityA. Local government (city)
I. Fire Department2. Police3. Courts4. Administrative offices
B. Local Government (county)I. County administrative offices2. County police3. Institutions & services
C. Local government (state1. Governor2. Police3. Courts4. Administrative offices5. Institutions & services
D. School districts
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IV. Legal Aspects of Social ServiceA. ComplaintsB. Rights of welfare rf'pientsC. Administrative Proc,dure LawD. Basic Civil Rights Law
V. Consumer ServiceA. Rights of consumerB. ComplaintsC. Consumer bureaus, agencies, and publicationsD. Product and service investigationE. How to buy and budget
Core Currkulum Outline for Human Wotogy I1 Semester 3 Hours Credit1. Anatomy
A. Skeletal system1. Names and functions of major bone structures2. Growth and development of bones and related systems3. Conditions affecting its functioningMuscular system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of the muscular system3. Conditions affecting its functioning
C. Circulatory system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of circulatory and related
systems3. Conditions affecting its functioning
D. Respiratory system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of respiratory system3. Conditions affecting its functioningDigestive and assimilative systems1. Names and functions of parts and segments
Growth and development of assimilatiy: and digestivesystemsConditions affecting its functioning
Eliminative system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of eliminative system3. Conditions affecting its functioningGlandular system1. Names and functions of parts and segnents2. Growth and development of glandular system3. Conditions affecting its functioning
H. Nervous system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of nervous and rela ed systems3. Conditions affecting its functioningsensory system1. Names and functions of parts and segments2. Growth and development of sensory and releated
systems3. Conditions affecting its functi -ning
Human PhysiologyA. Mode of development
1. How the systems interlock and operate together tofacilitate growth, good health and action
2. How the systems may fail in functioningHuman body as a biophysical organismMajor processes occuring in the body
. Conception2. Regeneration3. Digestion4. Elimulation5. Assimilation6. Sensation and thought7. Circulation and energy transmission8. Respiration9. Coordination
D. Disease and health: Multiple systems view1. Health defmed and explained2. Disease defmed and explained3. Death defmed
4. Stress and its effect on healthIII. Diseases Ln Man: Systemic and symptomatic view
A. Degenerative diseases: Symptoms and affected systems1. Males
a. Infancyb. Childhoodc. Adolescenced. Adulthoode. Middle Agef. Old age
2. Females (where different)a. Infancyb. Childhoodc. Adolescenced. Adulthoode. Middle agef. Old age
B. Infectious diseases: Symptoms and affected systemsMale (at various stages of growth and development)
2. Female (at various stages of gowth and development)Congenital diseases1. Male cause, course, outlook2. Female cause, course, outlookPoisoning1. Types2. Symptoms3. Emergency measures
E. Accidents1. Types2. Symptoms3. Emergency measures
IV. Treatment of DiseaseA. Drugs ahd surgery
1. Aims of drug therapy and when used2. Aims of surgery and when used
Problems encountered with drugs and surgery4. KLnds of drugs
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5. Necessity of patient self-knowledge for pro ection anddefense
B. Other types of therapy: Aims and when used1. Hormone therapy2. Rest therapy3. Fast4. Exercise5. Food
V. Good Nutrition and Good FoodA. DefinedB. Usefulness
1. Maintenance of health2. Treatment of disease
C. Quantities of necessary nutrients1. Minerals
a. What minerals effectb. What foods contain themc. What destroys the mineral content of foodd. Where to fmd the foode. References
2. Vitaminsa. What are vitamins and their effectsb. What foods contain themc. What destroys vitaminsd. Where to find the food and vitamins for lesse. ReferencesFats, protein, carbohydrates, roughagea. What is the proper balameb. How to obtain the proper balancec. Where can these things be foundd. What does each doe. Which foods are wheref. Which foods to avoid and whyg. References
4. Food preservatives and artificial sweetenersa. Why they are used
1) To prevent spoilage to increase profit
36
n and 2) To alter flavor to increase profitb. What are they -2nd their effects on the body
VI. ExerciseA. DefinedB. TypesC. PurposesD. Usefulness
Core Curriculum Outline for Human Biology II
I Semester 3 Hours Credit1. What is Health Care?
A. PurposeB. Necessity
II. Care of InfantsA. Diaper changingB. BathingC. Feeding
I. Making formulas2. Sterilizing utensils3. Types of feeding
a. Bottleb. Breastc. Spoon
4. BurpingD. HoldMgE. Recognizing infant difficultiesF. Dangers and diagnostic checks
III. Care of ChildrenA. Feeding and dietB. CleaningC. Affection, warmth, comfort, and playD. Taking temperatureE. Taking pulseF. Observing tonguesG. Urine and stoolH. Sleep and exerciseI. Listening to heart and lungs3. Administration of medicine
IV. Care of AdultsA. DietB. CleaningC. Warmth and comfortD. ExercisingE. Diagnostic checks pulse, tempe ature etc.)F. Administration of medicineEmergency CareA. Broken bonesB. Fainting or collapseC. HemorrhagingD. BurnsE. Cuts and scrapesF. Bullet woundsG. Abdominal crampsH. ShockI. Loss of limbJ. Loss of bloodK. Heart attacks and strokesL. Epileptic reizuresM. HysteriaN. Poisoning0. Fever and chillsP. Frost biteQ. Allergic reactionsR. Eye and head injuriesS. Diarrhea
Core Curriculum Outline for Teclinique of Organization and Decision Making
I Semester 2 Hours CreditI. Organization in Modern Society
A. Historical organization patternsB. Today's complexitiesC. Task specializationD. Organization as a social entity
IL Concept of Over-laysA. Over-lay on formal structu e
1. The job task pyramid2. The sociometric over-lay3. The functional over-lay4. Decision over-lay5. Power over-lay6. Communication over-lay
B. Organizational desig,n1. Outline assumptions2. Definitions3. Universality of organization
Man, Groups, InstitutionsA. Conflict areas
1. iduala. Personality characteristicsb. Individual maturationc. Concept of roleSocial groups
Concept of social groupsCharacteristics of social groups
c. Classification of groupsd. Group processesOrganization as social institutea. Concept of social instituteb. From structure to institution
B. SummaryIV. Formal Organization TheoryV. Authority Policy and Administration
A. Concept of authority1. Distinction betwen power and authority2. Top down versus bottom up authority3. Administrative politics
B. Policy in administrative conceptsVI. Organizational Techniques Specialized and Work Division
A. Group of activities as a basic structuring process1. Work division in grouping2. Basic concept of grouping
a. Program
a.
37
b. Purposec. Functiond. Processinge. Geogaphical or spatial
VII. Organizational PatternA. Nature of organization patternB. Charac teristics
VIII. CommunicationA. Communication as structureB. Information channel and hierarchyC. Information and decision making
!X. LeadershipA. Function of leadershipB. Dimension of leadership roleC. Situational factors in leadershipD. Leadership styles and organization
X. Dec sion Making ProcessA. Decision modelB. Innovative decision making
Core Curriculum Outline for Introduction to Group Process
1 Semester 3 hours CreditI. The Purpose of the Course
A. To gain insight into transactions and interactions of peopleunder various emotional circumstances.To sharpen the skills necessary to deal with the realities of.action - oriented feelings and attitudes, both with groups andwith the self
C. To demonstrate and generate new learning in the two-wayproposition of the helping profession, i.e., the giving and thereceiving of help
II. DefmitionsA. What is a group? What makes up a group?B. What kind of subject matter or problem-oriented tasks are
carried out Ln goups?C. What are the interactions and the dynamics of those people
brought together in groups?
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111. Approaches to the Study of Group ProcessA. Orientation to help the group of students to present
themselves for behavioral experimentation and analysisB. Analysis of group process
1. Use of first-hand experiences of a basic group process ina micro-lab setting, describing and using such methods asverbal and non-verbal exchange of first impressions andfeedback, T-group, role-playing, etc., so that studentswill become proficient in their use
2. Discussion and analysis within the framework of thegroup experimentation to deal with such themes as:a. Participationb. Cooperationc. Aggressiond. Conflict resolutione. Competitionf. Cohesion
g. Likes and dislikesh. Power and influencei. Pleasures and discomfortsEncouragement of descriptive feedback both as a basicskill in the helping proms and within the groupexperimentation
4. Encouragement of laboratory training to heighten thecreative risk-taking and learning within the context ofthe group
C. Research and field work1. Students should be encouraged to do library research, to
conduct their own group experimentation, and togenerate theories for both intra-group and inter-groupbehaviour.
2. Use of practical opportunities in work-study setting orfield practicum
IV. Areas of Application: In each respective capacity, the worker playsthe role of a facilitator, enabler, negotiator, mediator, catalyst, etc.Hence, the general description, he works with groups; attends groupmeetings; participates in and/or observes goup activities; develops
process or task-oriented groups; counsels zn(l guides, plans and evaluates,induces, initiates and educates goups.
Core Curriculum Outline for Social Problems
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Introduction
A. Purposes1. To I, n insight and knowledge into the problems and
conflicts arising from deviant behavior, socialdisorganization, interactions between the individual andhis society, and goups with conflicting interests.
2. To gLin practical bases for problem-solvingDefinition What is society?
C. Perspectives
1. History and background2. Comparative viewpoints and philosophies3. Social work in relation to social problems
II. Social ProblemsA. Individual
1. Bases of problemsa. Normal and deviant behavior problems and their
manifestationsb. Physical and emotional needs
1) Saiety/security2) Acceptance and love companionship3) 6catt_t: and power4) Aesthetic
) Health6) Idiosyncratic
2, Problem breakdowna. Self-conflictb. Conflicts with others: groups, government,
individual, institutionsHolistic1. Bases of problems
a. Social disorganizationb. Societal value: ami institutions, as reflected in
recurring social problemsc. Groups with conflicting in erestsProblem breakdowna. Conflic ts of groups: wealthy/poor; black whiiib. Conflicts between government a 1 groupsc. Conflicts between institntions and groups
Methods of SolutionA. Problem-solving institutions
1. Specific institutions2. Problems they do not solve
B. Problem-solving technique1. Knowledge of problem: ability to identify and define
the problem2. Counseling and amf joration3. Reference to ',flier agencies, i.e., lawyer, hospital,
government aide agencies, etc.C. Structures and material utilized
IV. Specific Difficulties in Problem-SolvingA. Concept of "negztive spin-off," where a new problem is
created from the solution of In old oneB. Lack of education
1. Fear of accepting the problems as problems2. Incapability of solving problems without time, money,
effort, aid, etc.C. Possibilities of psychological dependency, necessitating me in
dispensing help
Core Curriculum Outline for American Ethnic Groups
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Introduction to Comparative Cultures
A. DefinedB. PurposeC. Method
II. Black AmericansA. HistoryB. Present status
39
C. Specific cultural e e en sHI. Appalachian Whites
A. HistoryB. Present statusC. Specific cultural elements
IV. Spanish AmericansA. HistoryB. Present statusC. Specific cultural elements
V. American IndiansA. HistoryB. Present statusC. Specific cultural elements
VI. Northern, Eastern, and Southern EuropeanA. Northern
I. History2. Present status3. Specific cultural elements
. SouthernI. History2. Present status3. Specific cultural e e en s
C. EasternI. History2. Present Status3. Specific cultural elements
VII. Oriental (varies with area of country)A. HistoryB. Present StatusC. Specific cutitural elements
Core Curriculum Outline for Human Growth and Development
2 Semesters 6 Hours CreditI. Introduction and General Overview of Course
A. Purpose goalsB. Basic concepts
1. Bvsic human needs
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2. PhysicalIntellectual
4. Emotional5. Social
C. Concept of growth/development differentiation as a functionof biological and environmental interaction a Lure-nurturecontroversy); teachable moment
D. Individual differencesE. Developmental tasksF. Major stagesoverview
1. Prenatal2. Infancy3. Preschool4. Middle (school) yearsS. Adolescence6. Early adulthood (20-40)7. Middle age (40-65)8. Late adulthood and old age (65)
II. Prenatal PeriodA. Conception
1. Process of conception2. Biologically determined characteristics of the individual
a. Genetics of sex determination, dominant andrecessive genes
b. Mutations types of inherited disordersPrenatal development1. Stages2. Problems of prenatal development, vulnerabili
disease of mother, nutritional defectsC. Birth
1. Process2. Complications and effects
III. IntincyA. Neonatal period
1. Characteristics2. Need
B. First 6 months
1. Sequences of behavioral developmenta. Mcb. P ,ceptualc. k erbal
2. Condii ons necessary for optimal develop entC. Six months to one year
1. Sequences of behavioral development2. Conditions necessary for optimal development
D. Toddler one to two years1. Continuation of behavior sequences2. Conditions necessary for optfrnal development
environmental (social and physical) child care methods(training)
E. Summary of development during first two years and conditionsfor optimal development1. Foundations of basic trust2. Cultural influences Ln child rearing3. Basic attitudes for child rearing
IV. Preschool Years two to five)A. General norms and stages of:
1. Physical growth2. Motor development3. Cognitive development4. Social development5. Emotional development
B. Developmental tasks of preschool years1. Review of tasks accomplished in infancy2. Acquisition of physicEd control3. Communication4. Understanding
C. Special theoretical approaches to development in preschoolyears: Freud, Piaget, Montessori, Watkins, Erikson
V. Middle Years (school age)A. Development
1. General characteristics2. Physical changes
B. Developmental tasks of middle years
C. Typical problems of development in the middle years earningproblems
VI. AdolescenceA. Developmental tasks of adolescenceB. Characteristics of adolescentsC. Physical changesD. Changing roleE. Adolescent and the family; changes ki family communica ion;
clash in values; separationVII Early Adulthood
A. Developmental tasks overviewB. Vocational choice; work and its meaning; varietiesC. Establishment of funily; search for and choice of mate; role in
marriage; parenthood; cultural variationsD. Community participation/social rolesE. Special conditions and/or situations
1. Minority group 1ilembership2. Military service3. Unmarried parenthood4. Physical disability
F. Summary of stresses of this period1. Methods of coping (defenses)2. Consequences of failure to cope
VIII. Middle AgeA. Characteristics of this periodB. Changing roles
1. Vocational2. Parental3. Filial
C. Special situations1. Marital
a. Bachelorhoodb. DivorceC. WidowhoodVocationala. Unemploymentb. Disability
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c. ObsolescencePersonala. Physical illnessb. Mental illness
D. Summary of stresses associated with middle ageIX. Old Age (65 and over)
A. Characteristics of the period1. Physical changes2. Mental changes3. Social/emotional changesDevelopmental tasks of old age1. Adapting to increasing restriction of action
a. Physicalb. Vocational retirementc. Loss of relationshipsd. Malee. Friends
C. Death eactions to concept of death
Core Curriculum Outline for Abnormal Psychology
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Mental Health
A. Dermition1. Philosophical2. Functional3. Social
B. Purpose and goalL Purpose2. GoalComponents of mental health1. Individual
a. Physicalb. Sexualc. Mentald. EmotionalSociala. Physical interaction (group, large tall)
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Emotional interaction (group, large/small)c. Mental interaction group, large/small)
D. Psychological testingMental Diseases and DefectsA. Neuroses
1. Generic defmition2. Neurotic reactions
a. Hysteriab. Obsessionc. Compulsiond. Sado-masorhisme. Sexual (hetero & ho of. Phobiasg. Amnesiah. Aimiety
Suicidej. Hypochondriak. War neurosisL Inferiority superioritym. Monomaniacn. Traumatic
Functional psychoses1. Generic defmition2. Functional psychotic reactions
a. Autismb. Paranoiac. Schizoplueniad. Manic depressione. Involutional melancholia
C. Organic psychoses and epilepsy1. Generic definition2. Organic psychotic and epilepsy types
a. Epilepsyb. Syphilitic psychosisc. Psychoses due to other infectious diseasesd. Senile psychosise. Toxic psychosis
Psychoses due to metabolic diseasePsychoses due to new growth (tumor)Hereditary psychosisTraumatic psychosis
j. Cerebral arteriosclerotic psychosisD. Mental deficiency, birth defects, and psychopathic personality
1. Generic definitions (defects and deficiency)2. Types
a. Mental deficiencyb. Cretinismc. Hydrocephaliad. Mongolian idiocye. Other
3. Ps7r-hopathic statesHI. Physiologic Modes of Treatment
A. Electro therapy1. Defined2. Wheri used3. How used
B. Chemotherapy1. Defined2. When used3. How usedSurgeiy1. Defined2. When used3. How used
D. Hydrotherapy1. Defmed2. When used3. How used
E. Deprivation and restraint1. Defined2. When used3. How use.
IV. Psychological Modes of TreatmentA. Theoreticians and theorie
1. Freud2. Adler3. Jung4. Reich5. Sullivan6. Homey7. Rogers8. Klein9. Berne
10. Existen ial11. Rank12. Contemporary
a. Black theoestsb. Far Eastern (Zen ) theorists
B. Therapeutic systems1. Individual
a. Psychoanalysisb. Client-centered therapyc. Gestalt therapyd. Psychobiologic therapye. Character analysis1. Psychosomatic therapyg. Hydrotherapyh. Experimental therapyI. Conditioned reflex therapy and reciprocal
inhibitionj. Directive psychotherapyk. General semantics
2. Groupa. Analytic group therapyb. Group-centered therapyc. Psychodramad. Sensitivitye. Family therapyf. Didactic therapy
Core Curriculum Outline for Creative Activites I
Semester 3 Hours Credit
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I. Arts and CraftsA. Color
1. Experiments with color2. Color wheel3. Color mixing guides4. Color in pigment5. Color schemes
B. Painting1. Tempera2. Crayon
Pastels4. Introduction to oils5. Introduction to water colors
C Bulletin Boards1. Design2. Printing
D. Drawing1. Persp ctive2. Animals3. People4. Things
E. Cra1. Elementary projects
a. Papier-miche"b. Printsc. Ceramicsd. Claye. Scrap artf. Sculpting
2. Secondary projectsa. Paperb. Sculptingc. Clayd. Ceramicse. Scrap art
Wood carvm
Core Curriculum Outline for Creative Activities II
1 Semester 3 Hours CreditI. Dramatic Narrative
A. Introduction to children's storiesB. Art of storytellingC. Dramatization of narrative storiesD. Choral workE. Group productions
1. Plays2. Mime
II. MusicA. General introduction to types of musicB. SingingC. Rhythmic activitiesD. Using the media
1. Phonographs2. Tapes, audiovisual
E. DanceF . Instruments
Core Curriculum Outline for Physicai Education I
1 Semester 1 Hour CreditI. Nonviolence Philosophy
A. PurposeB. RationgeC. Method
II. Self Defense (nonviolent)A. NecessityB. ModesC. .MethodsWchniques of Self DefenseA. JudoB. Ju JitsuC. Karate
Core Curriculum Outline for Physical Education II
1 Semester 1 Hour Credit
1. Low-Level GamesA. FurposeB. UseC. Te, :Iniques
II. High-Level GamesA. PurposeB. UseC. Techniques
1. Baseball2. Basketball3. Football4. Volleyball
Soccer
APPENDIX E: Core Curriculum Schedule of CoursesThe following tables comprise two curriculum schedules which were
arrived at as a result of CORD's research. Table 1 A represents what theresearch project would consider the ideal program in terms of thearrangement of courses and time freed for practicum and specialtytraining. It makes no accommodation to existing systems throughinclusion of courses in English and Sociology which are: subjects alreadyadequately covered in the courses delineated, although not with customarytitles or traditional arrangement of subject matter.
Table 1B represents what the research project would consider anaccommodated program adjusted to existing conditions in colleges with a30 hour liberal arts requirement. The curriculum represents a total of 33hours due to the necessity of a six hour practicum rather than a three hourpracticum. Nevertheless, no program need exceed 30 hours due to theopportunity for specialized course deletion or substitution.
In all cases actual scheduling and titling of courses must depend onthe unique situations which exist at individual colleges. Therefore, theseplans are to be considered as models rather than as absolute standards.
Table 1A: Two-Year Course Outline for the AA Degree
First SemesterOrientation to Human Service-3 hoursAmerican Ethnic Groups-3 hours
Techniques of Organization and Decision Making-2 hoursPsychology 101 (Human Growth and Development)-3 hoursPhysical Education I-1 hourSecond SemesterHuman Biology I (Principles of Health)-3 hoursCommunication in Social Services 11-3 hoursSocial Problems-3 hoursCommunity Resources-2 hoursPsychology 102 (Human Growth and Developmen hoursPhysical Education II (Recreation Games )-1 hour
Third SemesterHuman Biology II (Health Care)-3 hoursAbnormal Psycholo 3 hoursGroup Process-3 hoursCreative Activities 1-3 hoursPracticum 1-3 hours
Fourth SemesterElective in Specialty-3 hoursElective in Specialty-3 hoursElective in Specialty-3 hoursCreative Activities 11-3 hoursPracticum 11-3 hours
Table la: Two-Year Course Outline for the AA Degree
First SemesterOrientation to Social Services-3 hoursCommunication in Social Services 1-3 hoursSociology 101-3 hoursTechniques of Organization and Decision Making-2 hoursEnglish 101-3 hoursPhysical Education I-1 hour
Second Semester'Human Biology (Prbiciples of Health)-3 hoursCommunication in Social Services 11-3 hoursSociology 102-3 hoursCommunity Resources-2 hours
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English 102-3 hoursPhysical Education II (Recreational Games) -1 hour
Third SemesterHuman Biology (Health Care)-3 hoursPsychology 101 (Human Growth and Development 0-3 hoursCreative Activities 1-3 hoursAbnormal Psychology-3 hoursAmerican Ethnic Groups-3 hours
Fourth SemesterPsychology 102 (Human Growth and Development hoursSocial Problems-3 hoursCreative Activities 11-3 hoursGroup Process-3 hoursPracticum-6 hours
APPENDIX F: Participant Colleges and Agenciescies
I. Englewood Mental Health2. Chicago Youth Centers3. Chicago Commons Association4. Chicago Committee on Urban Opportunity5. YMCA of Metropolitan Chicago6. Youth Action7. South Suburban Mental Health and Family Service8. Prairie State Child Development Lab School9. Jones Memorial Community Center
10. Wood lawn Child Care Center11. Children's Memorial Hospital12. Martin L. King Family Service Center13. Oak Forest Hospital14. Tinley Park Mental Health Center15. Senior Citizens Mobile Service16. Youth Services Division of the Chicago Department of
Human Resources
caileges1. City Colleges of Chicago (Human Services Institu e)2. Prairie State College
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3. Central YMCA Community College4. Thornton Community College
Footnotes1. Fine, Sidney A. "A Systems Approach to Manpower Development in
the Human Services." Methods for Manpower Analysis, No p. 27.
2. 11. 1., pp. 31-32.3. Fine, Sidney A. A Systems Approach to Task Analysls and Job
Design, P- 9.4. Fine. Methods for Manpo er Analy s,p.5. Ibid., p. 33-34..6. Hills, R. Jean. Concept5 of Syste pp.2-3.7. Von Bertalanffy, , Ludwig. General System Theoiy, pp. 18-23.8. Von Bertalanffy has another defmition (pp. 36-3 "Systems theory
is concerned with 'wholeness,' i.e., problems of organizationphenomena not resolvable into local events, dynamic interactionsmanifest in the difference of behavior of parts when isolated or in ahigher configuration, etc., in short, concerned with 'system' ofvarious orders, not understandable by investigation of theirrespective parts in isolation."Hills, op. cit., p. 2, defines systems as interdependencies or orderamong pheriomena."
9. Pfeiffer New Look at Education, p- 2, PP. 92-95-10. Ibid. p. 32.11. Ibid., p. 38.12. ibid., p. 31. Alfred Blumstein of the Institute for Defense Analysis,
Arlington, Virginia, through conversation with Pfeiffer.13. Speagle, Richard E. Systems Analysis in Education pp. 1-2 4-6.14. Pfeiffer op. cit., p. 83.15. Pfeiffer op. cit., pp. 145-146.16. Von Bertalardiy, op. cit., p. 10.17. Hall, A. D. A Methodology for Systems Engineering, Princeton,
1962.18. Memorandum written by David S. Bushnell, then Director of
Division of Comprehensive and Vocational Education Research,BR/USDE/DHEW.
19. Scales by Barry Warren, as described in the Social Service AideProject Final Report, September, 1969.
BibliographyBuckley, Walter, ed., Modem Systems Research for -the Behavioral
Scienti st , Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, 1968.Cleland, D. I. and W. R. King, Systems Analysis arid Project Manag
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1968.Fine, Sidney A., "A Systems Approach to Manpower Development in the
Human Services," Methods for Manpower Analysis. No. 3, W. E.Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Michigan, 1969.
A. D., A Methodology for Systems Engineering, Van Nostrand,Princeton, 1962.
Hills, R. Jean, Concept of System, The Center tbr the Advanced Study ofEducational Administrations, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon,
1967.Hunter, Walter E., A Systems Approach to the Instructional Process,
Meramac Community College, St. Louis, Missouri, as reproduced by
ERIC.Pfeiffer, John, New Look at Education: Systems Analysis in our.
md Colleges, Odvsey Press, New York, 1960.Seiler, John A. Systems Analysis in Organizafional Behavior, Irwin4)orsey
Press, Homewood, Illinois, 1967.Smith, Brandon B. and Jerome Moss, Jr., eds., Report of a Semi
Process and Techniques of Vocational Curriculum Development.
Minnesota Research Coordinating Unit for Vocational Educati n,University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, as reproduced by ERIC.
Social Service Aide Project Final Report, Phase I, September 30, 1969.Review of Data Gathering Instruments; Coding Scales; Career LadderModels and Job Descriptions; Core Curriculum Models.
Social Service Aide Project Phase II Proposal, August 29, 1969. SocialService Aide Project Progress Reports, Phase II--I. January, 1970; II.March, 1970; III. June, 1970; IV. September, 1970.
Speagle, Richard E., Systems Analysis in Ectication, Academy forEducational Development, Inc., Washington, D.C., as reproduced by
ERIC.Von Bertalanffy, Ludwig, General Systems Theory, George Braziler, Inc.,
New York, 1968.