crossroads ch02 11/03/2004 3:32 pm page 13 2td he...

THE FIGHT FORDEMOCRACY ANDTHE ENGLISH CIVILWAR

22THE FIGHT FORDEMOCRACY ANDTHE ENGLISH CIVILWAR

CHAPTER OUTCOMES

In this chapter, you will focus on the growthof democracy in England during theseventeenth century. By the end of thischapter, you will

● explain how a conflict over the rights ofparliament could develop into a civil war

● explain reasons for colonialism

● compare the motives of the Royalists tothose of the Roundheads

● compare forms of government, particularlyrepublics, constitutional monarchies, andabsolute monarchies

● use statistics to understand social structure

● understand the principle of the rule of law

● explain how religion influenced events inEngland from 1600 to 1648

● use visuals as primary sources

Crossroads_CH02 11/03/2004 3:32 PM 3

14

The Amethyst RingThis fictional story recounts a fascinating episode in British history.

Apartment 521 was inthe darkest corner ofan ancient anddarkened hallway. It

was identified by a crested brassplate with the name “Stuart” infancy old-fashioned lettering.Sarah listened for a moment,then knocked softly.

A very elderly man openedthe door and smiled warmly,“Well … Sarah. Come in. It’s

nice to meet you.” Will Stuartwas still a handsome man,though now his thinning hairwas white and he was bent withage. He still had an infectious,musical laugh—and his cobalt-blue eyes still sparkled. Will andSarah talked for a time about thefamily. Finally, they got aroundto the reason for Sarah’s visit.

“Uncle Will, I want to findout more about the history of

our family—I got interested in itaccidentally. I was searching theInternet for a school project ongovernment, and I stumbledacross the Stuarts. I know we arerelated to the royal Stuarts, but Idon’t know how, and nobodyseemed to be able to tell me.Then my grandmother told meto contact you. She said youknew as much about the familyas anybody.”

Lady Arabella on the way to the Tower of London after her capture

Crossroads_CH02 11/03/2004 3:32 PM Page 14

15

“We are related to the royalStuarts, Sarah,” said Will. “It’skind of a hobby of mine to gatherinformation on them.”

Sarah brushed her hair back.“Well, I got some interestingstuff in my searches—includinga little about a woman named

Sarah and Uncle Will talk over tea.

Arabella Stuart who was almostQueen of England. Have you everheard of her? Did she haveanything to do with the EnglishCivil War or Oliver Cromwell, or the Stuart king who wasbeheaded?”

“Lady Arabella was a realperson,” Will explained. “Shewas a granddaughter of KingHenry VII, and had more claimto the throne than King James I.Queen Elizabeth treated her verybadly, and James I was moresuspicious of her than Elizabeth.She was a very beautiful woman,by all accounts, and this madethe king even more suspicious.Men fell in love with Arabella,and James worried that peoplewould conspire to make herqueen.”

The escape of Arabella Stuart


16

“So what happened to her?”“She secretly married

William Seymour, althoughJames had forbidden themarriage. When he found outabout it, James had the pairarrested, but they escaped, withArabella disguised as a man.They rode like the wind to thecoast. Unfortunately, at thecoast, soldiers captured Arabella,although William managed toescape.”

Sarah was caught up inWill’s tale. “What happenedthen? Was Arabella beheaded?”

Will paused. “Would youlike another biscuit, Sarah?Should I put on some more tea?”

“Uncle Will!” Sarah washooked.

Uncle Will laughed. “Yes,the story of Lady Arabella,” hecontinued. “William escaped,and Arabella said she was happythat he had done so. She spentthe rest of her days in prison and

died insane—at least that’s theofficial story.”

Sarah was outraged. “Butthat’s terrible. Why should shebe punished? She didn’t doanything to actually hurt theking.”

“But remember, Sarah, thatStuart kings consideredthemselves above the law—infact, that was a cause of the CivilWar that later occurred. Jameswas king of England, but hewasn’t English, and he was afraidof anyone with a good claim. Itwas as simple as that. Besides,that was the official story.”

Sarah looked surprised. “Youmean that the official storymight be wrong?”

“Well, some say thatArabella escaped from prison,based on some letters they use asproof.” Will handed a packet ofold letters in the ornatehandwriting of long ago to Sarah.After looking at them, Sarah saw

that each was signed “Arabella”in a large, flamboyant hand.

“Well, then, the official storymust be false—right?”

“Not necessarily,” answeredUncle Will.

“But these must be fromher,” said Sarah.

“Hold on a moment,”cautioned Uncle Will. “How doyou know they’re genuine?Letters are primary sources, butyou have to ask yourself a fewquestions before acceptingsources like this at face value.Every bit of evidence has to beput on trial—and a goodhistorian has to act like aprosecutor.”

“But why would anyonewant to write phony letters fromLady Arabella?” Sarah wantedvery much to believe that theletters were genuine. She had areal feeling of sympathy for awoman who might be her distantancestor.

“Excellent, Sarah! That’swhat a good researcher shouldask. Now you tell me,” he asked.“Who might want people tobelieve that Arabella was free?And what would their motivebe?”

Sarah understood. “Well, shedid have a claim to the throne,so James’s enemies might useher—to raise money or armies!”

Uncle Will was delighted.“Precisely! There were manywho might want others to thinkArabella was safely out ofEngland. So what do you thinkwe do with these letters?”

Sarah’s tea was now quitecold. “We have to check themout. Otherwise, I guess, theyaren’t proof of anything. If wecan find other evidence tosupport the letters, then we’dhave something.”Sarah studies the evidence.


17

Activities

1. Arabella Stuart’s life seems romantic because it hasall the elements of plot development—asympathetic main character, true love, escape,capture, and mystery. Can you see how the eventsof her life are like the plot of a story? Outline this“plot” in point form. Then write a proposal in theform of a letter for a TV movie based on Arabella’slife. You should also suggest actors who would actthe parts. How would your TV movie end?

2. Uncle Will does not accept the letters he has asproof that Arabella escaped to Europe. List threerules that should be applied when using primarysource documents to make sure that they arereliable and accurate. Discuss these with a classmember.

3. What is empathy? What signs are there that Sarahempathizes with Arabella?

Uncle Will’s gifts to Sarah

Uncle Will walked across theroom and took a small packagewrapped in silk from the desk.“Sarah,” he said, “I can’t tell youhow much your visit means tome. I’m getting on, you know.It’s wonderful to find a kindredspirit and a new friend. I’ve got apresent for you—somethingthat’s been in the family forhundreds of years.”

He handed the package toSarah, who carefully unwrapped atiny, painted picture of a beautifulwoman with dark, curled hair,dressed in the stiff clothes of theseventeenth century. She gasped.“It’s not Arabella?”

Uncle Will smiled. “It isindeed—but there’s more.” Hehanded Sarah a beautiful ringmade of braided gold set with alarge purple stone. “This wasArabella’s—given to her byWilliam Seymour. Amethystsymbolized peace of mind—and was a protection againstinsanity. It was supposedly takenfrom Arabella when she wasarrested. It came to me when mymother died, and I’m passing iton to you. These are our family’streasures, Sarah. Keep them

safe—promise?”Sarah thanked Uncle Will,

promising to keep safe thetreasures entrusted to her. Shewas almost in tears when theyparted. She knew Uncle Will wasvery old—and that made her

think about the passage of time.They stood together a momentin the light of the doorway,shook hands, and said goodbye.

flamboyant: showy

amethyst: clear, purple gemstone


18 CHAPTER 2

Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.

–LORD ACTON, 1887

TIME LINE

1603 James I becomes ruler

1621 The Mayflower lands at Plymouth Rock

1625 Charles I becomes ruler

1628 Petition of Right

1642 Start of the English Civil War

1649 Death of Charles I

1658 Cromwell dies

1660 The restoration of Charles II

1688 The Glorious Revolution

Lord Acton made this statement partly as a result of the events of the seventeenth century. Whatactions of the kings and Commonwealth was he thinking of?


Canadians tend to take theirdemocracy for granted, andsometimes treat their civilrights as if they have always

existed. But this is not the case. Formost of recorded history, democracyand civil rights did not exist. This isstill true in many places around theworld. Democracy and civil rightshave been won only after muchstruggle.

Many of the democratic traditionsthat Canadians enjoy today comefrom England. Throughout Britishhistory, a number of events occurredthat led the way eventually todemocracy. This process was veryslow and evolutionary, taking manycenturies. Magna Carta, signed in1215, was one of the most importantlandmarks on the way to democracy.It recognized individual freedoms andrequired the king to consult anelected parliament, and to rulelawfully. Parliament had been inexistence since Anglo-Saxon times toadvise the king on policy. During theTudor era, to a large extent, themonarchs—especially Elizabeth I—accepted the democratic traditionsthat had been gained by the Englishpeople in the past, and were careful to

keep parliament on their side.England came under Stuart rule in

the seventeenth century. The Stuartsdid not follow the same policies asthe Tudors. As a result, seriousconflict between the monarchs andparliament occurred. This conflict led to a number of critical events thatadvanced the cause of democracy inEngland. During the seventeenthcentury, the English fought a civilwar to protect their rights; theybeheaded a king and became, for abrief time, a republic. They thendeposed a king, in a process known asthe “Glorious Revolution.” By theend of the century, English monarchshad been required to accept a Bill ofRights, making England aconstitutional monarchy.

These events were important forthe English, but they were also to beimportant for Canada and the UnitedStates. In their early years, bothcountries were populated largely bypeople emigrating from the BritishIsles, who brought with themdemocratic traditions and ideals.European countries, like France, alsolooked to the English for ideas abouthow countries should be governed.

THE FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY AND THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR 19

INTRODUCTION

THE REGIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN

Today, the United Kingdom ofGreat Britain and NorthernIreland consists of part of theBritish Isles. England,

Scotland, and Wales occupy one largeisland. Northern Ireland consists ofthe northern portion of a second largeisland. The rest of the island isoccupied by the Republic of Ireland.Great Britain covers approximately

244 000 square kilometres. Itmeasures 965 kilometres from northto south and 508 kilometres fromwest to east at its widest.

The English Channel separatesGreat Britain from the continent ofEurope. Great Britain has 8000kilometres of coastline, with manygood harbours. In addition, its riversprovide transportation routes within

democracy: a governmentthat is controlled by thepeople who live under it

civil rights: the rights of acitizen

Magna Carta: the GreatCharter whichguaranteed the Englishpeople certain civil rights

monarch: a king or queen

civil war: a war betweencitizens of the samecountry

republic: a country withouta monarch

constitutional monarchy:a monarchy in which themonarch rules accordingto the constitution andlaws of the nation


the country. As an island nation, theBritish have always been sea-farers.

Britain can be divided into twomajor regions—Lowland Britain andHighland Britain. Lowland Britain isfound in the south and east. Itconsists of low-lying and fertile land,ideally suited to agriculture. Theclimate is warmer here thanelsewhere in Britain because of theGulf Stream, which carries warmwater and winds from the Gulf ofMexico. Highland Britain, in the

north and west, consists primarily ofhilly or mountainous countryside,with thin soils, although there arepockets of fertile lowland within theHighland region as well.

As a result, the south and the eastof Britain are much more heavilypopulated and more importantpolitically. This has been sothroughout British history, and wasan important factor during thepolitical disturbances of theseventeenth century.

20 CHAPTER 2

England was rapidlybecoming a powerful andwealthy nation by the timeElizabeth I died in 1603.

With the defeat of the SpanishArmada in 1588, English ships wereable to travel anywhere on the highseas they wanted to go. As a result,England became a colonizingnation. English people began tobuild colonies in North America.Before long, England began toestablish colonies in India, SouthAfrica, and other parts of the worldas well. Trade with these coloniesand with the rest of the wordenriched England enormously.

The English population grewrapidly in the seventeenth century,as did its business and agriculture.English entrepreneurs—merchants,manufacturers and landholders—found unprecedented opportunitiesto become wealthy. To theprosperous upper class, the worldlooked promising indeed. Thecountry was poised to become aworld power.

ENGLISH SOCIETY IN THE

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

Gulf Stream: warm oceancurrent flowing from theGulf of Mexico northalong the coast of theUnited States and theneast to Europe

Spanish Armada: a greatfleet of ships sent bySpain in 1588 to invadeEngland

to colonize: to settle inand control the lands ofothers

entrepreneur: a personwho runs a business,taking the risk in order tomake the profit

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Figure 2–1 The British settlements in NorthAmerica in Stuart times


At the same time, English societywas becoming more stratified, dividedby deep differences between thevarious classes. There were basicallythree classes. The upper classconsisted of the king, the king’sadvisors, the nobles, and high churchofficials, such as bishops. The middleclass consisted of merchants,manufactures, landowners,professionals, and military officers.Members of the middle class couldaspire to join the upper classeventually. The lower class was madeup of thousands of ordinary workers.England was still basically anagricultural nation, and mostpeople lived in the country,although towns and cities weregrowing rapidly.

The upper class and themore prosperous members ofthe middle class lived in finetown and country houses filledwith valuable possessions,including china from Asia andfine furniture made from the woodsof Africa. English traders roamed theworld, bringing back the products ofmany lands to England.

Skilled workers—carpenters,blacksmiths, stone masons, dressmakers—could earn a reasonableamount of money from their skillsand could afford to live quitecomfortably. Many belonged to co-operative organizations, rather likeguilds. These organizations madesure that their members wereprotected, and looked after theirwelfare.

Agricultural and ordinaryworkers, however, did not fare nearlyas well. They worked long hours forvery little pay—perhaps ten pennies aday for men, and a few pennies forwomen. Their living quarters were

small and cramped, with wholefamilies living in one or two rooms.

Many other people lived in direpoverty, with little or no opportunityto improve their lives. Widows, inparticular, suffered badly with theloss of their husband’s wage. Citiesand the countryside teemed withthousands of unemployed people andchildren whose only means oflivelihood was crime.


Population density

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Figure 2–2 The important cities and towns ofEngland, circa 1640. Where were the largestcities and towns? Where were the majorindustries located?

Wealthy women woreelaborate make-up in theseventeenth century. Someof them shaved theireyebrows off, replacingthem with ones made ofmouse skin.

did you know?

guild: a medievalassociation of craftsmenor tradesmen whichupheld standards andprotected its members


22 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2–3 What is suggested about the social structure of England by the size and location of thecastle in comparison with the size and location of the homes of the king’s subjects? This painting isunsigned and undated. What clues help you to decide when it may have been painted?

Figure 2–4A typical countrygentleman’shome. As a partyof gentlemenprepare to rideout, workers carryout a variety oftasks. What taskscan you identify?

Boys and girls wore thesame clothes—dresses—until the boys were aboutsix, when they began towear breeches.

did you know?

Some city dwellers oftentook their meat to the localbaker to cook, because theirhouses had no ovens.

did you know?


The poor lived mainly on bread and beer, andcould occasionally afford some meat or cheese.The wealthy ate enormous quantities of meat,which was usually strongly flavoured to disguisethe fact that it wasn’t very fresh. There were fewways to preserve food in the seventeenth century.Fruits and vegetables were not popular, and wereusually eaten cooked. Several courses were eatenoff the same plate, with spoons and knives. Forkswere just beginning to come into fashion.

The English diet and social customs werebeing greatly changed by foods and other productsarriving from around the world. The new foodsincluded pineapples, maize, potatoes, coffee, tea,and chocolate. Soon a new social institutionsprang up—the coffee-house—where mengathered to drink coffee, smoke the newlyavailable tobacco from North America, andindulge in gossip or political discussions.Beaver skins from North America led to awhole new style in hat fashions.


Figure 2–5 A scene at an inn. One person is canvassingfor votes in a forthcoming parliamentary election. Whatare the other people doing? What product from NorthAmerica is in evidence?

In 1666 a huge fire, whichstarted in a baker’s shop inPudding Lane, destroyed two-thirds of London. The fire ragedunchecked for days, until theking ordered that houses in itspath be blown up. The plaguenever retuned to London,leading people to speculate thatall the plague-carrying rats wereburned in the fire.

did you know?

Figure 2–6 These strange-looking figures were acommon sight duringplagues. There were threeplagues during theseventeenth century, but theone in 1665 was the worst.Doctors wore costumes likethis to visit the sufferers. The“beak” was filled with herbs,in the hopes of warding offinfection. How usefulwould the plague suithave been in protectingthe doctors?


24 CHAPTER 2

It is sometimes difficult tounderstand how past societies

actually functioned and how thepeople in those societies lived theirdaily lives. You can obtain a lot ofinformation by reading things theywrote, or by looking at picturesthey produced. Sometimes you canuse statistics to find out about howsocieties worked and how peopleactually lived their lives.

Statistics are more apt to beobjective than other sources ofinformation, but it can be difficultto tell how accurate or reliable theyare. They can be distorted by thepeople who collect the data, or bythe purpose for which the datawere being collected. Nevertheless,they provide yet another windowon the past.

Using Statistics to Understand SocialStructure

For example, you can use thedata in Table 2–1 to discover howwealth was distributed among thevarious social classes of England.Tables 2–2 and 2–3 give you someidea of how much money wasavailable to people to meet theirneeds. Table 2–4 explains a littleabout English money and will helpyou to interpret the data.

GUIDEBOOKGUIDEBOOK

Table 2–1 English society in the seventeenth century

Number of Occupation Average yearly income families per family in £s

160 Nobles 3200

26 High church officials 1300

4 400 Baronets, knights, and esquires 660

12 000 Gentlemen 280

10 000 Government officials 180

2 000 Merchants and traders by sea 400

8 000 Lesser merchants and traders by sea 198

25 000 Persons in the law, liberal arts, and sciences 107

110 000 Shopkeepers, tradesmen, and artisans 42

9 000 Naval and military officers 70

85 000 Common sailors and soldiers 17

364 000 Labouring people and out-servants 15

400 000 Cottagers and paupers .5



Your Turn

continued

1. a) Using Table 2–1, construct two pie graphs. Thefirst pie graph should show the number offamilies in each of the three social classes. Thesecond pie graph should show the averageamount of income per family in each of thethree classes.

b) To make a pie graph, you need to convert thefigures into percentages:◆ Add up the total number of families in each

social class. For example, the upper classcontained 26 586 families, the middle classcontained 154 000 families, and the lowerclass contained 849 000 families.

◆ Add these three figures together to find outthe total number of families in all socialclasses. The total number of families was1 029 586.

◆ Calculate what percentage of the total eachsocial class represents. Use a calculator: Thefirst calculation has been done for you.

26 586 1 029 586 100 2.6%

◆ Now construct your first pie graph.

=×÷

c) Repeat these steps to construct the second piegraph.

2. What conclusions about English society can youreach on the basis of the pie graphs?

3. a) Tables 2–2 and 2–3 present very fragmenteddata. For example, they do not tell you whathousing costs were. Nevertheless, create animaginary family of four—the parents areagricultural labourers with two small children:◆ Figure out their weekly income (on the basis

of a six-day week)◆ Calculate how much food they would be

able to buy during a week, assuming theyspend 30 percent of their income on food.

b) Repeat the steps above, this time for theimaginary family of a skilled craftsperson withtwo children, whose wife works only in thehome.

4. What conclusions can you draw about the families’standards of living on the basis of these calculations?

5. How can the collection of statistics be biased?

GUIDEBOOKGUIDEBOOK

Table 2–3 Prices for some common goods and servicesin England, circa 1660

Harpsichord lessons £1 a month

Haircut 6d

A bleeding 1s

Meat approx. 7d per kilogram

Bacon approx. 10d per kilogram

Good cheese approx. 5d per kilogram

Bottled ale 6d per dozen

One live hog £1 6s

Six oranges and 3 lemons 6d

Renting a sedan chair for 2 1/2sthe day

Table 2–2 Wages in England, circa 1660

Agricultural labourer 10d per day(male)

Agricultural labourer 4d per day(female)

Skilled crafts 1s per day(mason, carpenter)

Silversmith 3s for engravinga cup

Scullery maid 10s per yearCook in a great house £2 per year

Table 2–4 English money

d = penny s = shilling £ = poundThere were 12 pennies in a shilling, and20 shillings in a pound.


The Role ofReligionPeople were devout during theseventeenth century, and religion wasstill important to them. Everyone wentregularly to church. Most of Englandwas Protestant, although a number ofRoman Catholics remained in thecountry. Within the Protestants, therewere many different congregationswith different ways of worshippingand different interpretations of theBible. The official church was theChurch of England (or AnglicanChurch), with the king as its head.The Church of England decided howchurch services were to be conducted

everywhere in the country, and it wassupported by taxes from the people. Itsservices and ceremonies were oftenvery elaborate, and its buildings wererichly decorated.

The Puritans were a very largeand powerful group among thedissenting Protestants. They weretotally opposed to the ceremonies anddecoration of Anglican churches. ThePuritans were Calvinists and believedthat churches and church servicesshould be simple and plain. Theyviewed religious art and decoration asaspects of religion associated with theRoman Catholic Church. Puritanswore dark clothes, and led very soberlives. They especially disapproved ofdrinking, gambling, and the theatre,believing that life should be devotedto God. The Puritans were suspiciousof human nature and believed thatstern laws were needed to keep peoplefrom straying into sin.

Puritanism spread rapidly throughEngland in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. It wasparticularly appealing to people inbusiness and to the smallerlandowners.

At various times, there was acertain amount of toleration for thedissenting Protestants. At thesetimes, Puritans could hold their ownservices as long as they occasionallyattended the Church of England. Atother times, however, it was illegalfor Puritans to hold their own churchservices, and many Puritans werefined and imprisoned for their beliefs.Some Puritans left the country insearch of religious freedom. Theywent first to Holland. Later, onegroup of Puritans chartered a ship,The Mayflower, to take them toAmerica, where they founded aPuritan colony at Plymouth Rock in1621. These were the first of manyPuritans who settled in what wouldlater become New England. OtherPuritans entered parliament, seeingpolitical power as another way to

26 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2–7 Compare the clothing worn by the seventeenth-century people inthis engraving. How does it differ? What does this difference represent? Thiswood engraving was done in the nineteenth century. Is it a primary source?

Protestant: any Christiannot belonging to theRoman Catholic orOrthodox Eastern Church

congregation: an assemblyof people who gather forreligious worship

Church of England: theestablished church inEngland, headed by themonarch

elaborate: decorated,ceremonial

to dissent: to differ inopinion, disagree; refuseto conform to theestablished church

Calvinist: a follower of theteachings of John Calvin,a leader of the ProtestantReformation

to tolerate: to allowpeople to live, think, orworship according totheir own beliefs


promote their beliefs. The Stuartkings ended up fighting parliament onboth religious and political grounds.

With the exodus of Puritans to theUnited States, England’s religiousconflict was transported to thecolonies. Religious values have playedan important role in the history andculture of both Canada and the UnitedStates. Through the centuries, thePuritans were followed to NorthAmerica by other religious minoritiesfrom many parts of Europe. Canadawas an important destination for manyof these people, including EnglishMethodists, Scottish Presbyterians,German Lutherans, Scandinavian andDutch Calvinists, and Mennonites.

WitchesArmed with a Puritan sensitivity to“evil,” seventeenth-century peopleconstantly sought out “witches,” the

personification of the devil. Suspicionfell on anyone who did not seem to fitinto society. Puritans were especiallysuspicious of women. According totheir beliefs, women were responsiblefor original sin, and were less able toresist temptation than men. Duringthe seventeenth century, a witch-hunt hysteria took place in England,and hundreds of people werepersecuted and executed forwitchcraft. Witch-hunts also tookplace in Scotland and in the Puritancolonies in the United States.

Most of the people persecuted forwitchcraft were innocent of any crime.They were social “misfits,” such aswomen who did not marry or “wisewomen,” who were knowledgeableabout medicinal plants and treatmentsfor illness. They practised thetraditional medicine of thecountryside—as people had done forhundreds, perhaps thousands, of years.Some people told fortunes or made“love potions.” Others were simply


Figure 2–8 The public hanging of witches in Scotland, 1678. Why is one man ringing a bell? Whatdoes he probably hold in his other hand?

original sin: in traditionalChristian belief, the stateof sin in which allhumans live becauseAdam and Eve disobeyedGod

hysteria: a state ofuncontrolled excitement

The Crucible is a powerfulfilm about witches and theabuse of power.

did you know?


James VI of Scotland succeededElizabeth I when she died in 1603.He then became James I ofEngland. James was a descendant

of Mary, Queen of Scots, a Stuart,who had been executed by Queen

Elizabeth. As James VI, the ruler ofScotland, James had important ties toFrance and other Roman Catholiccountries in Europe. The Stuartsdisliked the democratic traditions ofEngland. They preferred to rule as

old women who lived alone, perhapswith a pet animal. For whateverreason, they came under suspicion.

Witch-hunting quickly became aprofitable business. Some peopleclaimed a special ability to findwitches, and to know how to provethat a person was a witch. Pins, forexample, were used to find the placeson the body where a witch wassupposed not to feel pain. It wasconsidered quite legitimate to torturepeople suspected of witchcraft.

The most famous witch-hunterwas Matthew Hopkins, who calledhimself the “Witch-Finder General.”Hopkins sentenced many people todeath. Condemned witches wereducked in water, with their thumbstied to their toes, until they drowned

(which proved their innocence). Otherswere hanged, burned, or pressed todeath (crushed between two doorsloaded with weights). The Witch-Finder General was eventually exposedas a fraud and was himself executed.

Witchcraft trials were the resultof people’s hysterical fears. Chiefjustices, who usually doubted thataccused witches were guilty, lackedthe courage to override thefrightening mobs calling forexecution. They did not believe inwitchcraft and were disturbed bytrials that were used not to determineguilt or innocence, but only to findguilt. The witch-hunts show us howeasily human emotion and fear candestroy the institutions society hasestablished to protect everyone.

28 CHAPTER 2

1. What factors were responsible for the growingwealth and prosperity of England in theseventeenth century?

2. The Puritans had a long-lasting effect on Englishsociety and, to some extent, our own. With apartner, brainstorm aspects of society today thatseem “Puritan” in origin.

3. We use the term “witch-hunt” now to describesituations in which many people react to a fear inspite of evidence and good sense. Sometimes thiscreates a “mob mentality” that destroys innocent

people, much like the witch craze did in theseventeenth century. Find out about a modern“witch-hunt” and write a summary of whathappened. Explain how television and other mediacan contribute to peoples’ hysteria.

4. What aspects of life in seventeenth-centuryEngland would you find the most different fromlife today. Select three or four concrete examplesof life in the seventeenth century that seemunusual to you, and explain why you find themunusual.

THE EARLY STUARTS

to duck: to plungesuddenly under waterand out again

A c t i v i t i e s

People believed that onlythe innocent could drown.Satan would protect hisfollowers, real witches, bynot allowing them todrown.

did you know?



The Divine Right of Kings

James I believed in the DivineRight of Kings. The word

“divine” means, in this case,“coming from God.” Jamesbelieved that his powers asruler came directly from God,and that he was God’srepresentative on earth. Sincehis powers came from God, hisdecisions could not bequestioned by ordinary people.James fully intended to keephis God-given rights. In aspeech to parliament, he madehis views absolutely clear.

The Divine Right of Kings

“Kings are justly called Gods, for they exercise … apower similar to God’s power upon earth. For if you willconsider the attributes of God, you will see how theyagree in the person of a king. God has power to create ordestroy, to make and unmake, at His pleasure; to give life or senddeath, to judge all, and not to be judged or accountable to any one;to raise low things high, and to make high things low at Hispleasure. Kings have the same power. They make and unmake theirsubjects; they have the power of raising and casting down, of lifeand death; judge over all their subjects, yet accountable to none butGod. They have the power to exalt low things and debase highthings, and make of their subjects like men of chess … therefore,kings have absolute power.”

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absolute monarchs, much like therulers of France and Spain. As aresult, the first Stuart, James I,introduced the idea of the DivineRight of Kings into England, whichproved to be very unpopular there.

England had had a parliamentsince Anglo-Saxon times. The kingused parliament as a way to consultwith the powerful people of the land.By 1215, Magna Carta had forced KingJohn to grant concessions toparliament. The Charter stated thatthe king must rule lawfully. The kingcould not introduce new taxeswithout the consent of parliament.Furthermore, any person accused of acrime was guaranteed the right to atrial by a jury of his peers. By 1295,parliament had taken on its presentform, with a House of Lords and aHouse of Commons. Lords inheritedtheir places in the House of Lords.The House of Lords also includedbishops and other high officials of theAnglican Church. The House ofCommons, on the other hand, wasmade up of wealthy landowners andtownspeople, who were elected torepresent people of property. This was

not democracy as we know it, but astage in the development ofparliamentary government. Mostpeople did not have the right to voteor sit in parliament. These rightswould take years to win. However,the seventeenth-century parliamentjealously guarded its rights and wasnot prepared to surrender its powersto the monarch.

James IJames was an intelligent man, but healso had a talent for doing the wrongthing. He was also impressed with hisown wit. Some people called James“the wisest fool in Christendom.”James had been king of Scotland fortwenty years before he became kingof England, and he spoke with a heavyScottish accent. His habits wereslovenly, and his tongue, so it wassaid, was too large for his mouth. Hedid not make a good impression onhis new subjects, especially when hetried to introduce the Divine Right ofKings.

absolute monarch: a king,queen, emperor, orempress with unlimitedpower

slovenly: untidy, dirty,careless in dress,appearance, and habits

to exalt: to place high inrank, honour, or power

to debase: to make low inrank, honour, or power


The stage was set for aconfrontation between James andparliament. James did some usefulthings during his reign—his KingJames version of the bible isconsidered a great work of Englishliterature—but he acted too much likea tyrant to earn the love of hissubjects. He selected incompetentpeople as advisors and gave themtitles, such as the Duke ofBuckingham. In doing so, he insultedmany of the other nobles in the land.Always short of money, James tried tofind new sources of money withoutconsulting parliament, the proper

course of action. When he calledparliament, it resisted him, promisinghim more tax money only in exchangefor more powers for parliament.

James was allied with the Churchof England, and disliked the Puritans.He delighted in angering them.Knowing that Puritans wereextremely devout and opposed toentertainment on Sunday, hepublished a Book of Sports, whichencouraged people to play games andhave fun on Sunday—after going tochurch, of course!

When James died of stomachproblems in 1625, he left behind adivided nation with many powerfuland dissatisfied people. His son,Charles I, was to reap the harvest thatJames had planted.

Charles ILike his father, Charles believed inthe Divine Right of Kings and wasunwilling to compromise withparliament. Although he was verydignified and charming, Charles wasalso aloof. He kept apart from peopleand was very narrow-minded. Peoplecomplained about his extravagance.Charles loved art and enjoyed owningfine possessions. Like his father, hewas always looking for more money.He continued to rely on his father’sfavourite, the Duke of Buckingham,for advice. Buckingham was greatlydespised and led the king into onedisaster after another, including warswith France and Spain. Within a fewshort years of his accession to thethrone, Charles had alienated manypeople who might otherwise havesupported him.

30 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2–9 All attention is focused on James Iin this portrait. Note the differences in lightingand the amount of detail in the foreground (theobjects at the front) and the background (theobjects at the rear) of the painting.

James I was one of the firstanti-smoking advocates.Hepublished a pamphlet to tryto convince his subjects notto smoke.

did you know?

tyrant: a cruel and unjustruler or person

incompetent: lackingability

to ally: to combine with fora special purpose

to compromise: to settle adispute, with both sidesgiving up a part of whatthey demand


Charles’s real difficultiescame about because heconstantly needed money tosupport his extravagant

lifestyle—and he had to go toparliament to get it. Parliament,however, would agree to Charles’srequest for more taxes only if heagreed to respect its wishes. Charlesusually refused to accept parliament’s

conditions. Sometimes he agreed tothem, fully intending to back out ofthe deal.

The king searched for ways to rulewithout parliament, and found somevery unpopular means of raisingmoney. For example, he brought backan ancient fee called ship money,which people had once had to pay tothe king to provide warships for the


Figure 2–10 Charles I and Henrietta Maria. The drawn curtains appear to look out at the entireworld, rather than a specific place, suggesting the special status of the royal couple. Henrietta ishanding Charles a laurel wreath. What does this symbolize? What other objects are included in thepainting to demonstrate their royal status?

1. With a partner, do some research on James I.Write a character sketch of James. What directionswould you give to an actor asked to portrayJames I in a film?

2. Prepare a defence for the proposition that theDivine Right of Kings is necessary to goodgovernment.

3. Re-write James’s speech on page 29 in modernEnglish. What analogy, or comparison, did he useto express his point of view? Does the king provehis point? Explain the reasons for your opinion.

THE FIGHT WITH PARLIAMENT

extravagance: carelessand lavish spending,wastefulness

favourite: a person orthing liked better thanothers, a person treatedspecially

to despise: to hate, toscorn, to deny respect

to alienate: to causesomeone to becomeindifferent or hostile

ship money: in earliertimes, coastal towns hadto supply the king withships, or their value inmoney. Charles I madeall towns andlandowners pay shipmoney.

A c t i v i t i e s


navy. Charles raised the ship money,but used most of it for himself. He alsoforced people to make loans to theCrown, mortgaged royal properties,and collected customs fees known astunnage and poundage. He billetted hissoldiers with homeowners, increasedfees for government services, and soldnoble titles to anyone who wouldsupport him or lend him money. Healso used the secret Court of StarChamber to convict, imprison, andfine his enemies. People tried by thiscourt had no rights under the law.

Charles’s attempts to ruleEngland without parliament werepartly successful, but he soon foundhe needed even more money than

could be raised through ship moneyand other means. In 1628, Charlesrecalled parliament, hoping that thistime it would be more agreeable. Hishopes were immediately dashed.Parliament told the king it wouldgrant no money until the king ceasedhis illegal activities and until hesigned a new charter called the“Petition of Right.” The kingdissolved parliament again, andresolved to rule without it.

When the Duke of Buckingham,the king’s favourite, was assassinated,Charles mourned, but the publicrejoiced. Charles asked others to helphim achieve his goals. In particular,he asked Lord Strafford and

32 CHAPTER 2

Freedom of Speech

Today, we take freedom ofspeech for granted. We would

be shocked if people were thrownin jail for criticizing our leaders. Butfreedom of speech is a right inCanada today only because othersfought for it. In many places in theworld this basic freedom still doesnot exist. Charles I and his advisorsdid not believe in freedom ofspeech. When Puritans wrotesatires and pamphlets attackingthe government, the writers andprinters were arrested andpunished.

The punishment for seditiouslibel was severe. A lawyer namedWalter Prynne, who wrote satiricalplays about the government, wasfound guilty of this charge. He wasforbidden to practise law, deprivedof his university degree, and forcedto pay a fine of five-thousandpounds (the equivalent, perhaps,to a million dollars today). Hisbooks were burned in front of hisface by the hangman. He then hadto stand in the pillory in twodifferent places in London, andone ear was cut off at each place.

He was branded on both sides ofhis face with the letters “S” and“L,” and then imprisoned.

Even these punishments couldnot prevent people fromexpressing their views. Thousandsof people attended suchpunishments and hissed and booedthe executioners as they cut offpeoples’ ears. Prynne had his earscut off twice, and each time hadthem sewn back on, Each time hecried out: “Cut me, tear me, I fearthee not. I fear the fire of Hell, butnot thee.”

In an attempt to stop protestfrom spreading, Charles made it acrime to bring foreign books intothe country, or to print anythingwithout government permission.No books of religion, medicine,poetry, or literature could beprinted, sold, or read unless theywere licensed by the Church ofEngland. Charles allowed onlytwenty printers to work in thecountry, and these could only havetwo apprentices each. The Court ofStar Chamber was used againstanyone who broke these new laws.

Freedom of Speech

Figure 2–11 An offender in pillory

tunnage and poundage:a customs duty or taxcollected on the tonnesand pounds of goodscoming into or leavingthe country

to billet: to requirehomeowners to providefood and lodging forsoldiers

title: a name showing aperson’s rank andposition in life. Charles Iforced anyone withproperty worth fortypounds or more to payhim a large fee tobecome a knight.

Court of Star Chamber: aroyal court in whichpeople had no legalrights


Archbishop Laud to bring the countryunder royal control. Charles stillneeded money desperately. Straffordfound so many ingenious ways ofobtaining money for the king, that hismethods became known as “Strafford’sFork”—a reference to the king whowas “feeding off the country.”

Laud was also very unpopular. Ata time when Puritans were protesting

against all decoration and ritual in thechurch as “Papist,” Laud insisted onmore of these things. As a result,Puritans violently attacked churches,destroying priceless carvings, books,and paintings. Even the carved railsaround the altar were broken up andburned. Enormous stained glasswindows, hundreds of years old, weresmashed to bits.


The Petition of Right, 1628

This selection is adapted fromthe Petition of Right. It spells

out one of parliament’s majorcomplaints against KingCharles. To what documentdoes it refer? What exactly isthe complaint?

The Petition of Right, 1628

And whereas by the statute called the “Great Charter ofthe Liberties of England” [Magna Carta] it is declared thatno freeman may be imprisoned, or [relieved] of his land orliberties, or be outlawed and exiled, except by lawfuljudgement of his peers, or by the law of the land, yet many of yoursubjects have been imprisoned without any cause shown. They weredetained by your Majesty’s special command in defiance of writs ofhabeus corpus, and were returned to prison, without being chargedwith anything to which they might answer according to law.”

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Figure 2–12 What parts of this church are being destroyed?

satire: a literary work inwhich corruption,stupidity, foolishness, orabuses are held up toridicule and contempt

seditious libel: false andmalicious statementsagainst the monarch,which are treasonous

pillory: a device consistingof a wooden board withholes for the head andarms, in which offenderswere exposed to publicscorn

writ of habeus corpus: anorder requiring that aprisoner be taken tocourt to decide if he orshe is being imprisonedlawfully


The LongParliamentBy 1637, Charles was in real trouble.He had alienated the English peopleon religious as well as politicalgrounds. Now, as king of Scotland, heset about alienating the Scottishpeople. In 1637 he attempted to forcethe Scots to worship in the style ofthe Church of England. The Scotstotally humiliated him. Thousands ofScots, who were Presbyterians, signeda covenant to resist this demand, androse in revolt. Charles desperatelyneeded money to pay for soldiers toquell the revolt, and he had to callparliament to get it. Called in 1640,the “Short Parliament” sympathizedwith the Scots, and Charles angrilyshut it down within three weeks. ButCharles still had not solved his moneyproblems. He called a new parliament,blindly hoping that it would give himwhat he wanted. However, the newLong Parliament (so called because itsat for thirteen years) was even moreunfriendly to Charles. The leaders ofparliament demanded that bothStrafford and Laud be removed frompower and punished.

Eventually, Charles gave in totheir demands and turned Laud andStrafford over to parliament, whichpromptly executed both. When theking wrote Strafford that he had hadto sign his death warrant for politicalreasons, Strafford sounded a now-famous warning when he said “Putnot your trust in princes, nor in thesons of men, for in them there is nosalvation.” The execution of histrusted advisors distressed the king,but parliament went further. It wasdetermined that the king should neveragain have absolute power. It plannedto pass the Grand Remonstrance,which proposed to change the role ofthe king in government, and toremove many of his powers.

Parliament had a dilemma,however. Just how much power didthe monarch have by right? How farcould parliament go in taking awayrights from the king? Magna Cartahad left a number of issues about theking’s rights up in the air. The king,for example, had the right to conductforeign policy. He also had a rightknown as the “royal prerogative,”which allowed him to act outside thelaw or even against the law in cases ofemergency. No one knew exactlywhat the limitations of the royalprerogative were. Interestingly, in theseventeenth century, probably morepeople supported the king’s rightsthan parliament’s rights.

This became evident whenparliament was debating the GrandRemonstrance. Charles learned thatthe Commons was badly divided.Radical members wanted to takeaway most of his powers, but manyothers just wanted guarantees thatthe king would rule the country inaccordance with law and tradition.

34 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2–13 Charles I declares war onparliament at Nottingham, in 1642. Note theupward flow of movement in this engraving.How is this created? What is the artistsuggesting by this upward flow? What evidencesuggests that this is a military occasion?

Presbyterian: a Protestantchurch governed bypresbyters (elders)

covenant: agreement

dilemma: a difficult choice


Because of this split in opinion, theGrand Remonstrance had barelypassed parliament. Charles believedthat if he could arrest the radicalparliamentary leaders, and punishthem as traitors, he could regaincontrol.

Leading 500 soldiers in person,Charles invaded the House ofCommons—which was against thelaw—and tried to arrest the leaders.

Forewarned, the radicals escaped, andparliament called for an army. Thiswas open rebellion. Charles leftWestminster and went north toNottingham, where he knew he hadsupport. The queen, Henrietta Maria,took the Crown Jewels to Europe topawn them for money to pay for anarmy. It was clear to everyone thatthe king was preparing to make waron parliament.


1. Make a list of the measures that Charles I used toavoid calling parliament. Beside each entry, explainwhich classes of society would be the angriestabout these measures and why.

2. Write the kind of pamphlet against thegovernment of Charles I that you imagine WalterPrynne might have written.

3. Prepare a script in which you explain why youshould not be prosecuted in the Court of StarChamber.

4. If you lived in the seventeenth century, would youhave supported the king’s rights or parliament’srights? Explain the reasons for your answer.

5. Read the selection from the Petition of Right. Witha partner, read the sections from the CanadianCharter of Rights and Freedoms on page 78. Whatsection relates directly to the selection from thePetition of Right? In your opinion, what are thethree most important clauses in the Charter?Why?

THE CIVIL WAR

Civil war is a terrible kind ofwar because people within acountry fight each other,and even family members

may take different sides. WhenCharles raised his standard on awindy moor near Nottingham in1642, he began a conflict that, forseven years, would tear his countryapart. He probably hoped for a quickvictory. There was no English army assuch, and both sides had to create afighting force. Many of Charles’ssupporters, called “Royalists” or“Cavaliers,” came from noblefamilies and were used to fighting andriding. Parliament’s troops were localmilitia—farmers and townspeople

with almost no military experience.Charles also had experiencedcommanders, such as his dashingnephew Prince Rupert, who couldinspire the troops. However,parliament controlled the navy, andthe richest part of the country—thesouth and London. Unless Charleswon the war in the early stages, hewas doomed.

Charles was successful at first andwon a number of small battles, but hecould never gain a decisive victory.Parliament made an alliance with theScots, who attacked from the north,and began to build a more modernarmy. The leader of this “New ModelArmy,” was Oliver Cromwell, a

Crown Jewels: jewels usedbut not owned by theroyal family

militia: citizens who arenot regular soldiers, butwho are trained to act assoldiers in times ofemergency

A c t i v i t i e s


Puritan who believed absolutely inparliament’s cause. The new soldiers,called “Roundheads” (because theycut their hair short—many Cavalierswore long curls), were highlydisciplined, usually very religious,and well-equipped. With their steelbody-armour and lobster-tail helmets,they were a formidable force. TheNew Model Army defeated theRoyalists at two important battles,Marston Moor and Naseby. Charleswas forced to flee to Scotland, wherehe was made prisoner and handedover to parliament.

The RumpParliamentIn 1642, when the Civil War began,many of the members of parliamentwho had voted against the GrandRemonstrance left parliament to fight

Figure 2–14 Civil War armour.Can you find the lobster-tailhelmet?

lobster-tail helmet: asoldier’s helmet withjointed plates on theback to protect the neck

for the king. This left parliament in thehands of Presbyterians and Puritans,who also disagreed on many importantmatters. The Puritans, for example,wanted churches to be completelyindependent of one another, while thePresbyterians wanted churches to beorganized so that people worshippedthe same way everywhere.

The Presbyterians had noobjection to the return of Charles, if heagreed to limited powers. ThePuritans, on the other hand, wererepublican. They wanted to end themonarchy. Charles himself tried toplay one side against the other, andwas very dishonest in his dealingswith everybody. When rebellionsbroke out in support of the king, theparliamentary army sent Colonel Prideto drive the 143 Presbyterian membersout of parliament. The “RumpParliament” left by “Pride’s Purge”charged the king with treason andwith making war on his own people,and put him on trial for his life.

36 CHAPTER 2



Figure 2–15 The Battle of Marston Moor, 1644

The Trial of theKingThe charge of treason against the king wasrevolutionary. In 1649, treason was, by definition,the act of trying to overthrow the king—soCharles was on trial for trying to overthrowhimself. Charles was well aware of this absurdity.

At one point in the arguments, Charlesrapped the floor with his walking stick, and thegold head fell off. Both he and the spectatorsbelieved they had seen an evil omen. After atumultuous trial, he was found guilty andsentenced to death.

On the January day of his execution, Charleswoke early and asked for his finest clothes. Hewas determined to die with dignity. He put ontwo shirts and ate some food. He was afraid thatif he shivered or looked faint his enemies mightthink he was afraid. At one o’clock, he was ledonto a scaffold, and, after a short speech, wasexecuted.

Figure 2–16 Charles I during his trial in Westminster, in 1649.Where is Charles sitting? What evidence in the picture suggeststhat the outcome might go against Charles?

Women were active during theCivil War. They demandedequal rights in the church andin government. Organizedgroups of women, with electedleaders, petitioned parliamentin 1642 for better workingconditions, but were turneddown. In 1649, women againpetitioned parliament, but weretold to go home to theirhusbands. After 1688, anumber of women—includingMary Astell, Hannah Wooley,Lady Chudleigh, and AphraBehn—published pamphletsthat argued for equal rights forwomen. These early feministswere easily suppressed, andthere was no significantimprovement in women’s rightsduring the seventeenth century.

did you know?


38 CHAPTER 2

Charles’s ArgumentWhen asked to plead guilty or not guilty, Charles Irefused to do either. He said that he did not accept thelegality of the court, and demanded to know:“By whatauthority am I here? I mean lawful authority, for thereare many unlawful authorities in the world—thievesand robbers by the highways. Remember, I am yourlawful king: let me know by whatlawful authority I am seated here …and you shall hear more from me.”Furthermore, Charles maintained thatit was impossible for him to be triedby his equals (guaranteed by law)because he had no equals. He couldnot commit treason because he couldnot be a traitor to himself.

Parliament’s Verdict“That the court being satisfied that he, Charles Stuart,was guilty of the crimes of which he had beenaccused, did judge him tyrant, traitor, murderer, andpublic enemy to the good people of the nation, to beput to death by the severing of his head from hisbody.”

Charles I versus Parliament

VIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICTVIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICTVIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICT

Your Turn

1. Charles I set out his defence against parliament’scharges very clearly, and parliament’s verdict isprinted above. Review the material in the chapteron Charles’s actions and on the traditions ofEngland, and then write an outline of parliament’scase against Charles in response to his arguments.Be sure to refer to “The Elements of a GoodArgument” on this page.

2. Which side do you think had the best legalargument? Give reasons for your opinion.

3. Explain the difference between a king ruling withabsolute power and one ruling withinparliamentary restraints.

Figure 2–17 The execution of Charles I.This is a coloured woodcut from acontemporary ballad. Whose side was theballad representing—the king’s orparliament’s? How can you tell?

The Elements of a Good ArgumentProperly constructed arguments must avoidmistakes in logic. Here are three faults to look forin an argument:

1. Hypothesis contrary to fact—the argumentstarts with a premise (assumption) that may notbe true. For example, “God has given power torulers.”

2. Faulty dilemma—giving people a choice, butignoring other possibilities. For example, “If wedon’t have a strong, absolute ruler, society willfall apart.”

3. False analogy—comparing things that reallycan’t be compared. For example, “Jane is agood athlete, so she will be a good studentleader.”



Canada’s parliamentary heritage comes fromEngland. Some of the most important traditions

come from the period of the English Civil War.

Canada’s Parliament–A Civil War HeritageCROSS CURRENTSCROSS CURRENTSCROSS CURRENTS

What do you think?

1. Are the symbols of democracy important? Shouldthe government make more effort to maintain andexplain these symbols?

2. How important is tradition? Does your school haveany traditions? Make up a list of things in yourcommunity or school that could become traditions,and explain why they should be valued.

3. The Speaker’s chair in the House of Commons islarge and imposing, much like a throne. Whymight this be the case? Why is it important thatthe Speaker be impartial?

Figure 2–19 Themace represents theauthority of thepeople.

The Reluctant SpeakerThe House of Commons cannot do anybusiness without the Speaker. When the kinginvaded the House of Commons in 1640, heordered the Speaker to leave the House.Members literally held the Speaker in his chair.Today, when the Speaker is elected, membersof parliament pretend to drag the Speaker tothe chair, a reminder of the importance of theSpeaker.

The Doors Are BarredAt the opening of parliament, the members ofthe House of Commons are summoned to theSenate Chamber to hear the Speech from theThrone. The messenger from the Senate, BlackRod, always finds the doors to the Commonsbarred. Black Rod must knock three times forentry. This tradition began around 1640, whenCharles arrived at parliament with 500 soldiersand the doors were closed against him.

The MaceThe mace is the symbol of the authority ofparliament. King Charles demanded that themace be surrendered in 1640, but theCommons refused. Today, the mace isdisplayed in the House of Commons while it isin session.

Figure 2–18 The Speaker’s chair. How can you tell theSpeaker is an important person?


40 CHAPTER 2

Using as a Primary SourcePolitical ArtPolitical ArtUsing as a Primary Source

Many people think that art is mostly for decoration, but many artistsuse their art to make a point. In the seventeenth century, people

paid artists to illustrate a point of view, or to glamorize people andevents. This is called “propaganda,” and the practice continues today.

The BroadsideBroadsides were likenewspapers. They wereprinted quickly and carriedcurrent news. They werealso heavily biased, sincethey were designed toinfluence public opinion.Broadsides were printed onone side of the page andpassed out to people onthe street, or tacked toposts and bulletin boards.Those printed during theEnglish Civil War almostalways supported eitherthe king or parliament.

Figure 2–20 It has always beenimportant for armies to show theiropponents in the worst possiblelight. This broadside shows Royalistsoldiers committing atrocities. Whywould the Roundheads print suchbroadsides? What were they sayingabout themselves?

Figure 2–21 This broadside shows the king in prison on the Isle of Wight. Why is the Isleof Wight called the Isle of Wait? Whose opinion might this cartoon influence?

CATALOGUE CARD

What is it? Art designed to

make a point

Who made it? Commercial

artists

When? In all times, but

particularly times of

political and social turmoil



Using as a Primary SourcePolitical ArtPolitical ArtUsing as a Primary Source

Official Portraits

Your Turn1. Create a broadside in support of either the

Royalist or Roundhead side in the English CivilWar. It should be clear which side yourbroadside supports. Use the front page of amodern newspaper as a template, or example.To add interest, and to attract attention, addother news items and features. Remember thatbroadsides were printed on one side only.

Figure 2–22 Oliver Cromwell. This miniature, bythe artist Samuel Cooper, shows Oliver Cromwellas he requested, “warts and all.” This reflectedCromwell’s Puritan views about the sin of vanity.Do you think this is an effective portrait? Was itpainted to influence the way people thoughtabout Cromwell and his programs?

Figure 2–23 Like all monarchs, King Charles I had one of theworld’s best painters do his portraits. This painting by Van Dykeshows Charles as he wished to be seen. What qualities does thepainting suggest that Charles possessed? Is this a better portraitthan the one of Cromwell? Explain why or why not.

History and Fantasy

Figure 2–24 This illustration shows Charles I beingtaken to heaven by angels. After Charles II came to thethrone, Royalists began to portray Charles I as a saint,cruelly murdered. At his execution, many people hadsoaked handkerchiefs in his blood and treated them asholy relics. Why would many people continue to believethat the monarch had special powers?


Arepublic is a countrywithout a monarch, but theexecution of Charles I didnot make England a

republic. By ancient right, Charles’sson would still automatically becomeCharles II. The English republic,called the “Commonwealth,”actually came into being when theRump Parliament voted to abolish themonarchy and the House of Lords.

Many people disagreed with thedecision of the Rump Parliament andquestioned its right to make anydecisions at all. With only sixtymembers, it could hardly claim torepresent the people of England. Halfthe members of the Long Parliamenthad joined the Royalist cause, andPride’s Purge had expelled 143Presbyterians. However, in politics,often “might makes right.” TheRump was supported by thevictorious Roundhead army. Thearmy attacked anyone who refused tosupport the Commonwealth. Irelandand Scotland were particular

problems. Both countries were strongsupporters of Charles II and theRoyalist cause. Parliament dispatchedan army under Oliver Cromwell toend the Royalist threat in these twocountries.

Cromwell was a master soldier,but he had little sympathy for eitherthe Presbyterians or the Catholics heconquered. He defeated the Scots intwo major battles, and ended theirresistance. In Ireland, Cromwellpursued a brutal campaign against theIrish, who had rebelled against theEnglish in 1641. When the city ofDrogheda resisted, for example,Cromwell’s soldiers massacred itsentire garrison. All Catholiclandowners in the north of Irelandwere forcibly removed from theirlands. The Catholic landlords wereresettled in the southern and westernparts of the island. Northern Irelandwas resettled with English andScottish Protestants, making it thestronghold of the Protestants inIreland.

42 CHAPTER 2

1. Charles’s support came from the north and westof England, while parliament’s came from thesouth and east. Refer to the map on page 21.What influence did economic conditions have onthe outcome of the Civil War?

2. To help answer the question “Did Charles forcecivil war on parliament?” make a for-and-againstorganizer with the question as the title. List thepoints that support a Yes answer, with examples,in one column. List the points for a No answer,with examples, in another column. Write yourconclusions at the bottom of the chart.

3. Do you think the Civil War was a religious war, apolitical war, or both? Write two short notes tothe king. In the first, explain why, as a Puritan, youthink civil war is probable for religious reasons. Inthe second, explain why civil war is likely forpolitical reasons. Share the notes with othermembers of the class. Were either the religiousreasons or the political reasons more important?Were both reasons important? Explain the reasonsfor the conclusion you reach.

THE TRIUMPH OF PARLIAMENT

A c t i v i t i e s



Northern Ireland is still dealingwith the situation created by

Cromwell. For many years,Northern Ireland has been dividedinto two separate communities—Catholics and Protestants. Violentconflict between the two groupshas been a common occurrence,although recent peace initiativesmake the situation look a littlemore promising.

The English had attempted toconquer Ireland for centuries, sothat conflict between the Irish andEnglish was nothing new whenCromwell conquered the Irish in1649. What was decisive about hisvictory, however, was that Englandgained control over Ireland for thefirst time. Subsequent Englishgovernments maintained andextended this control.

After 1649, Ireland was dividedinto two hostile groups—the IrishCatholics, who wanted theircountry back, and a small group ofEnglish Protestants, whodominated the country. Catholicschools and priests were outlawed,and Catholics were forbidden tofollow trades or professions. It wasnot until 1828 that either Catholicsin Britain or Ireland could holdpolitical office.

There were numerousuprisings by the Irish over theyears, all of them unsuccessful.However, the rebellion of 1919ended with a truce. Following this,Ireland was divided, in 1922, intotwo different areas: the Irish FreeState and Northern Ireland, whichwas still the English stronghold

centuries after Cromwell’s victory.In 1949, the Republic of Irelandbecame an independent state.Northern Ireland remained part ofGreat Britain. The conflict inNorthern Ireland today is betweenIrish Catholics, who wantindependence from Britain, andthe British Protestants, who wantto maintain the tie with Britain.

There have been many

What Do You Think?

attempts to bring peace to thewarring sides. In April 1998, a newproposal was put forth. It wouldgive the Irish Republic a governingrole in Northern Ireland. It wouldalso disarm the warring factions,and establish a parliament forNorthern Ireland. The agreementhas been hailed as “historic.” In a1998 referendum, the agreementwas approved by a large majority.

1. Find out more about the conflict in NorthernIreland today. Write one account of the situationfrom an Irish Catholic point of view, and anotherfrom an English Protestant point of view.

2. How long should events that happened in the pastbe allowed to control events today? Explain thereasons for your answer.

CROSS CURRENTSCROSS CURRENTSCROSS CURRENTS

Figure 2–25 During a ceasefire in Belfast in July 1997, a young boy looks throughthe scope on a soldier’s weapon.

Northern Ireland


The LordProtectorEventually, Cromwell lost patiencewith the Rump Parliament, whichseemed unable to govern effectively.The army wanted more influence andalso wanted to be paid. When theRump members refused to hold anelection unless they could beguaranteed their seats, Cromwellmarched in with a troop of soldiersand drove the members out. He thenlocked the doors of parliament andput the key in his pocket. Soon after,senior army officers named OliverCromwell the Lord Protector—ormilitary dictator—of England.

Cromwell divided the country upinto districts and ruled through major-generals, each responsible for law,order, and collecting taxes in theirdistrict. Calvinist Blue Laws outlawed“pagan” ceremonies, such asChristmas, and forbade dancing,gambling, sports, and the theatre.Cromwell’s military dictatorship wasvery unpopular, but he was too strongto be resisted. However, Cromwellregarded himself as a failure. He hadopposed the dictator-like powers of theking and had ended up becoming a

dictator himself. When he died in 1658,his son Richard (nicknamed “Tumble-down Dick”) proved incapable of rulingthe nation, and resigned as Protector.The republican experiment was over.

The RestorationAfter Cromwell’s death, GeneralMonk, the commander of the army inthe north, returned to Westminsterand recalled the Long Parliament.Monk knew that parliamentarygovernment had to be restored or civilwar would break out once again. Heordered the old parliament to dissolveitself and to call an election for a newone. The new parliament decided torestore the monarchy and the Houseof Lords, and in 1660, it invitedCharles II to become king ofEngland—a very popular decision.

The people of England wanted nomore to do with militarydictatorships. They were concernedabout the lack of a parliament, whichprotected their rights. In addition,only Puritans were pleased with theBlue Laws—the rest of the peopleresented the grim and joyless lifestylethey imposed. As a result, there wasgreat rejoicing when the monarchy

44 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2–26 We have BlueLaws in our society today.The sale of alcohol andtobacco are controlled, forexample. What other BlueLaws can you think of?

Blue Laws: strict laws


was restored and Charles II returnedto England as king.

However, parliament insisted thatthe king rule as a constitutionalmonarch, with his powers set out byparliament. Charles outwardlyaccepted the limitations on his power,although he secretly planned to regainthe power his father had lost. Heintrigued with various Europeannations to bring this about, althoughnothing ever came of his schemes.

Charles tried to make sure that hewould have a majority of supporters inparliament by influencing who waselected. He did this throughpersuasion, bribery, and blackmail.

The royal supporters came to beknown as “Tories,” and were thebeginning of England’s first realpolitical party. The opponents of acatholic monarchy came to be knownas “Whigs.”

Charles was a fun-loving personwhose lifestyle was often scandalous.As a result, the Blue Laws of thePuritans were quickly overturned.England again was able to enjoy thetheatre and other entertainments, ledby the example of the king. In manyways life returned to the way it hadbeen before the Commonwealth.

The regicides were punishedseverely. Thirteen members of the


Figure 2–27 Charles II entersLondon. What evidence inthe picture suggests that thiswas a joyful occasion?

regicide: a person whokills, or participates inthe killing of, a king


Rump Parliament were hanged,drawn, and quartered, a horriblepunishment. They were hanged, buttaken down before death occurred, sothat they were still alive while theirentrails were removed. Followingdeath, their bodies were cut into foursections and displayed around thecountry as a warning to others. Thebodies of Cromwell and otherRoundheads were dug up and hangedoutside Westminster Abbey.

When Charles tried to protect thereligious freedom of Catholics, thenew Parliament passed the Test Act.This act made the Church of Englandsupreme. Catholics were not allowedto hold political office, or to join theprofessions. Charles’s own brother,

James, who was a Catholic, had togive up his job as High Admiralbecause of the Test Act. Parliamenthad made it clear to Charles that it,not he, made the laws. Charles II diedin 1685 and was succeeded by hisCatholic brother, James II.

The GloriousRevolutionThe death of Charles II in 1685created a problem for parliament. Hissuccessor, James II, was openlyCatholic. Anti-Catholic feeling inEngland was very high. Only a fewyears earlier, in 1678, a man named

46 CHAPTER 2

Aphra Behn: Poet, Playwright, and Spy

Aphra Behn, one of the mostinteresting women in

literature, was a spy for Charles II.Married at eighteen to a Dutchmerchant, she claimed to havebeen born in the South Americancolony of Surinam. By nineteen,her intellect and accomplishmentshad already earned her the nick-name “the incomparable.” As awidow during the Dutch War, shetravelled to Europe and spied forEngland. Charles II was alwaysinterested in what was happeningon the continent of Europe,because part of his desire was toreturn England to the continental

mode of absolute government. Onher return to England, she wassent briefly to debtor’s prison. Withan almost photographic memory,Aphra soon found that she couldmake a living writing about heradventures. She was probablythe first woman to make aliving as an author. Shewrote poems, novels, andfifteen plays. The excerptbelow, a song called“Love Armed,” is fromher play Abdelazer. It ison the subject of love.Summarize the passagein your own words.

Aphra Behn: Poet, Playwright, and Spy

Figure 2–28 Aphra Behn

Love in fantastic triumph sat,Whilst bleeding hearts around him flowed,For whom fresh pains he did create,And strange tyrannick power he showed.From thy bright eyes he took his fire,Which round about, in sport he hurled,But ’twas from mine he took desire.

“All my life is nothingbut extremes.”

–Aphra Behn

Test Act: an act forbiddinganyone except membersof the Church of Englandfrom holding politicaloffice or entering theprofessions


Titus Oates had caused a country-wide panic in England when heconcocted a story about a Catholicplot to take over the nation. From thevery beginning of his reign, Jamesinfuriated parliament by giving highoffices to Catholics, in spite of theTest Act. He clearly intended toreturn England to the Catholic fold.

James also made it very clear thathe believed in the Divine Right ofKings, and meant to take power awayfrom parliament. Look at his portraitat the beginning of the chapter (page18). What impression of James’swillingness to compromise do you get?

Rebellions soon broke out, andsupport for James quickly evaporated.Following a rebellion in support ofCharles’s illegitimate son, the Duke ofMonmouth, James instituted a reignof terror. Judge Jeffries conductedcourts that ordered the execution of somany people suspected of being rebels

that they became known as the“Bloody Assizes.”

Parliamentary leaders wereextremely distressed by the king’sactions and intentions. In 1688,parliament invited James’s Protestantdaughter, Mary, and her husbandWilliam of Orange, to become queenand king of England. They agreed todo so. James’s supporters began to fleethe country, and eventually Jameshimself left England, abdicating histhrone. This particular event hasbecome known as the “GloriousRevolution.” For the first time, themonarch was chosen by parliament,not hereditary right. Divine Right wasdead. Mary and William agreed to theterms of a new Bill of Rights. Thisdocument made it clear thatparliament was the real governmentof the country. These rights are thebasis for the rights we enjoy today asCanadians.


Until 1688, James II had nomale heirs, so many of thosewho opposed his pro-Catholic and pro-Divine-Right stance were contentto wait for him to die. Whenhis wife finally had a son,their opposition becamefierce. Rumours began tocirculate that the baby wasnot really his son, but hadbeen smuggled into thepalace in a warming pan.

did you know?

William of Orange’s mottowas, “I will maintain.” Whenhe landed in England, headded these words to hismotto for the occasion—”the Liberties of Englandand the ProtestantReligion.”

did you know?

Bill of Rights, 1689

It is often difficult tounderstand the English

used in legal documents,particularly if they werewritten in the seventeenthcentury. As you read theBill of Rights, 1689,concentrate on theimportant nouns andverbs as you try tounderstand what it issaying. The first part says“the Lords and Commons,free, declare.” Section 1states that “suspendinglaw or making lawwithout the consent ofparliament is illegal.”What do the othersections state?

Bill of Rights, 1689

Selections from The Bill of Rights 1689“… the Lords, Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons … nowassembled in full and free representation of this nation …vindicating and asserting their ancient rights, declare:

1. That the pretended power of suspending of laws, or the execution oflaws by regal authority without the consent of Parliament is illegal.

5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the King, and allcommitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal.

8. That the election of Members of Parliament ought to be free.

9. That freedom of speech, and debates or proceedings of Parliament,ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out ofParliament.

10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive finesimposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

13. And that … parliaments ought to be held frequently.

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To abdicate: to give up orrenounce


48 CHAPTER 2

John Locke

2. People should surrender theirnatural rights to governmentonly in order to protect thoserights from the ill-will of others.

3. If a government failed toprotect the natural rights of itscitizens, then the people werejustified in revolting andoverthrowing the government.

The American Declaration ofIndependence, quoted above,clearly reflects Locke’s philosophy.

inalienable: unable to be taken or givenaway

John Locke

1. Why did the republican experiment fail inEngland? Give reasons for your answer.

2. “The Stuarts learned nothing from the Civil War.”Prepare a brief position paper in which you agree ordisagree with this statement. Explain your reasons.

3. Why do you think this episode in English history iscalled the “Glorious Revolution”? Explain youranswer in a letter to a friend who lives in a countryruled by an absolute king.

4. “Without the English Civil War, democracy wouldnever have developed.” Make a case for or againstthis statement. Give evidence to support your case.

5. Make an organizer to compare government undera republic (the commonwealth), an absolutemonarchy, and a constitutional monarchy. Use thefollowing headings: the ruler, the role of law, andthe rights of the people.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that allmen are created equal, that they are endowed bytheir Creator with certain inalienable rights, thatamong these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit ofHappiness. That to secure these rights, Governments areinstituted among Men, deriving their just powers from theconsent of the governed, That whenever any Form ofGovernment becomes destructive of these ends,it is the Right of the people to alter orabolish it, and to institute newGovernment.”

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A c t i v i t i e s

John Locke was the son of aPuritan country lawyer who

fought briefly for the Roundheadsduring the Civil War. Lockebecame involved in politics duringthe Restoration, and fled toHolland in 1683, afraid that his lifewas at risk for his anti-Royalistbeliefs. During the 1680s, he wrotea number of books outlining hispolitical philosophy. After theGlorious Revolution, he hurriedhome to England and published hisbooks. He became extremelypopular and influential. His politicalphilosophy reflected the anti-Divine-Right theory of the GloriousRevolution and had a great impacton the thought that led to theAmerican Revolution and theFrench Revolution. AlthoughLocke’s political philosophy is quitecomplex, its essence can besummarized in a few basicconcepts:

1. Locke argued that all humanspossess “natural” human rightsto life, liberty, and property. Figure 2–29 John Locke


49

C o n c l u s i o n

The long fight for democratic rights, whichcame to a crisis with the Civil War, did notend with the Bill of Rights in 1689. TheCivil War had, however, ended the concept

of the Divine Right of Kings and the practice ofabsolute monarchy in England forever. It wouldtake time before this happened in England’s NorthAmerican colonies or in other European countries.

But in England, never again would the rulerhave more power than the elected representativesof the people. Canada’s courts and government stillreflect these principles, formulated centuries ago inEngland. Our constitution restates the principles ofthe 1689 Bill of Rights—almost word for word insome cases.

The English Revolution was a large step towardpolitical reform, but social reform was still tocome. Political reform happens when governmentis made better; social reform happens when societyis made better. The lower classes were not muchbetter off by the end of the Glorious Revolution of1688 than they had been at the beginning of theCivil War in 1642. Women had failed to gain equalrights. Although the ruler had become aconstitutional monarch, and parliament hadasserted its power, the structure of society, with itsdeeply imbedded social classes, had not reallychanged as a whole. Making a more equitablesociety would be the task of future generations.

S u m m a r y A c t i v i t i e s

1. Write a play about the trial of a Royalist supporter ofCharles I. Your dialogue should highlight the issuesthat both sides considered important.

2. Prepare a pamphlet that clearly shows Royalist orRoundhead bias. Your pamphlet should focus on issuesof the Divine Right of Kings. It may includeadvertisements and stories that will help youdemonstrate your knowledge of the life and events ofthe period.

3. Draw up a petition on behalf of the women of Englandto be presented to the Long Parliament. Explain whythe women were seeking more rights.

4. Create a diorama, model, or picture of a scene fromthe Restoration. Your project should show concreteexamples of your knowledge of the “look” of theRestoration.

5. What does “the rule of law” mean?

O n Y o u r O w n

1. Research the incidents of the English Civil War andprepare a realistic comic book of the events. Yourcomic book should explain why the Royalists lost thewar.

2. Research the beginnings of colonialism. Why didEuropean nations believe that they had the right tocolonize different areas of the world?

3. In a letter to the king of England, explain why youobject to the settlement of Europeans in your land.

4. If one European nation attempted to establishsettlements in lands of another European nation, whatwould the probable result have been?


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