Here are the lecture outlines for the final

Also expect to see things from our world cultures debate on the exam

Like I have said in class the final is mostly a forth exam for the class but do expect some cumulative elements on the final

The exam will be the same format as the previous exams

Mohamad and Islam (make sure to know the historical context from which Islam arose)The Arabs

• The Arabs were a nomadic, Semitic-speaking people who lived in the Arabian Peninsula, a harsh desert with little water. The hostile surroundings made the Arabs move continually to water and feed their animals.

• Arabs organized into loosely connected, independent tribes to help each other with their difficult lives. A sheikh, chosen from a leading family by a council of elders, led each tribe. Early Arabs herded sheep and farmed on the oases of the Arabian Peninsula. After the camel was domesticated in the first millennium B.C., Arabs expanded the caravan trade and became major carriers between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea.

• Most early Arabs were polytheistic, but Allah (Arabic for “God”) was the supreme God. They traced their ancestry to Abraham and his son Ishmael, who were believed to have built a shrine called the Kaaba at Makkah (Mecca). The cornerstone of the Kaaba, the Black Stone, was revered for its association with Abraham.

• By the sixth century A.D. the trade route through Makkah to modern Yemen and across the Indian Ocean became popular. Communities along this route flourished. Tensions arose between the wealthy merchant class and the poorer clans people and slaves.

Geographic Setting• The Arabian Peninsula is mostly desert. Many Arabs lived in villages near oases.• Early Arabs formed tribes that were headed by a sheikh.• Merchants who transported goods across the deserts formed caravans to protect themselves from Bedouin

attacks.• Nomadic herders, called Bedouins, used camels to cross the desert in search of pasture.• Trade grew; merchants founded towns along trade routes.• Mecca was a busy market town on the crossroads of two main caravan routes.• Arabs came to pray at the Kaaba, an ancient shrine, believed was built by Abraham.

Muhammad• Muhammad was born into a merchant family in Makkah. He was orphaned early. He became a caravan manager

and married his boss, a rich widow named Khadija.• Muhammad was deeply troubled by the gap in his area between the rich merchants, who he thought were

greedy, and most Makkans, who he thought were simple and honest. He went to the hills to meditate on the matter.

• While meditating, Muslims believe, Muhammad received revelations from God. Islam teaches that the messages were given by the angel Gabriel, who told Muhammad to recite what he heard.

• Muhammad came to believe that Allah had revealed himself partially through Moses (Judaism) and Jesus (Christianity), and that Allah’s final revelations were to him. The Quran, the holy scriptures of Islam, came out of these revelations. (The word Islam means “submission to the will of Allah.”) The Quran contains the ethical guidelines for Muslims, those who practice Islam. Islam has only one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet

• Muhammad set out to convince the people of Makkah that his revelations were true. His wife was his first convert, but after preaching for three years he had only 30 followers.

• They were persecuted. In 622 he and some of his followers moved north to Yathrib, later renamed Madinah (Medina: “city of the prophet”). This journey is known as the Hijrah, and 622 is the first year of the Muslim calendar.

• Muhammad won support from residents of Madinah and Bedouins, Arabs in the desert. These formed the first community of practicing Muslims.

• Muhammad did not separate political and religious authority. Submission to the will of Allah meant submitting to his prophet, and Muhammad became a religious, political, and military leader. He assembled a military force to defend his community. His military victories soon attracted many followers.

• In 630 Muhammad returned to Makkah with ten thousand soldiers. The city surrendered and many residents converted to Islam. Muhammad declared the Kaaba a sacred shrine. Two years later, Muhammad died, as Islam was first spreading throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

• In 630, Muhammad returned to Mecca in triumph and destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. He worked to united Arabs under Islam.

• Muhammad died in 632.• Through the Quran, the Five Pillars, and the Sharia, or interpretations of the Quran, Islam was both a religion

and a way of life.• Mosques are houses of worship. Jihad, or effort in God’s service

The Teachings of Muhammad • Islam is monotheistic. Allah is the all-powerful Creator of everything. Islam offers salvation and the hope of an

afterlife for those who subject themselves to Allah’s will.• Muhammad is not considered divine, as Jesus is. He is a prophet who conveys Allah’s five pillars

• Believe in Allah and Muhammad as his prophet; • pray to Allah five times a day with public prayer on Fridays; • give alms to the poor and unfortunate; • observe the holy month of Ramadan, especially by fasting; • make a pilgrimage to Makkah once, if possible. This pilgrimage is called the hajj.

• Islam is more a way of life than a set of beliefs. After the prophet’s death, Muslim scholars drew up a law code called the shari’ah. It provides guidelines for daily living, and much of it comes from the Quran. Muslims must follow sound principles, such as honesty and justice. Muslims may not gamble, eat pork, drink alcoholic beverages, or be dishonest.

Islam• Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula and became one of the world’s major religions.• Islam is monotheistic, based on the belief in one God.• Muslims believe that the Quran, or “recitation ,”contains the sacred word of God and is the final authority on all

matters.• All Muslims accept five duties, known as the Five Pillars of Islam:• faith• daily prayer• charity• fasting during Ramadan• hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca

The Qur’an• (According to Muslims) is a revelation from God in the Arabic language• Translations into other languages are superficial "interpretations" of the meanings and are not authentic

versions• was an oral teaching memorized by followers and written down only after Muhammad’s death• Sura Al-Fatiha ("The Opening") is the first chapter of the Qur'an and its seven verses are a prayer for God's

guidance stressing the lordship and mercy of God,& is recited at the start of each prayer.Creation of an Arab Empire

• Muhammad’s death left his followers with a problem of succession. He had no son, and his daughters could not lead in such a male-dominated society. Some of Muhammad’s closest followers chose Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law. He was named caliph, or successor to Muhammad.

• Islam grew under Abu Bakr. Muslims expanded over Arabia and beyond. Muhammad had used the Arabic custom of raiding one’s enemies. To spread the movement, Abu Bakr did as well. The Quran calls this activity “struggle in the way of God,” or jihad.

• Abu Bakr warred on neighboring peoples. By 650, Egypt, the Byzantine province of Syria, and the Persian Empire were part of the Arab Empire.

• The Arabs were fierce fighters led by brilliant generals. Military courage was enhanced by the belief that a warrior killed in battle was assured a place in Paradise.

• The first two caliphs to rule after Abu Bakr’s death were killed. In 656, Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali, became caliph, but he was also assassinated after ruling for five years.

• Arab administrators were tolerant in their conquered territories. Some places retained local governments, and no one was forced to convert to Islam. Those who did not convert were required to be loyal to Muslim rule and pay taxes.

• The Byzantine and Persian empires were weak from years of fighting each other.• People in the Fertile Crescent welcomed Arab conquerors as liberators.• The Arabs used bold, efficient fighting methods, which overwhelmed traditional armies.• The common faith of Islam united a patchwork of tribes into a determined, unified state.• As Arabs brought many people under their rule• imposing a special tax on non-Muslims, but allowing• Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians to practice their own faiths and follow their own laws.• Many nomadic peoples in North Africa and Central Asia accepted chose Islam because its message was simple• direct.• Its triumph was a sign of God’s favor. It had no religious hierarchy or class of priests but an equality of believers,

regardless of race, sect, class, or wealth.Spread of IslamImmediate Effects

• Islam spreads from the Atlantic coast to the Indus Valley • Centers of learning flourish in Cairo, Córdoba, and elsewhere

Long-Term Effects• Muslim civilization emerges• Linking of Europe, Asia, and Africa through Muslim trade network• Arabic becomes shared language of Muslims• Split between Sunni and Shiites

The Umayyads• In 661 the general Mu’awiyah became caliph. He was a rival of Ali, and was known for one major virtue: he used

force only if necessary. He made the office of caliph (caliphate) hereditary and began the Umayyad dynasty.

• At the beginning of the eighth century, Arabs conquered and converted the Berbers, a pastoral people who lived on the coast of North Africa.

• Around 710, combined Arab and Berber forces occupied southern Spain. By 725 most of Spain was a Muslim state. In 732, Arab forces were defeated at the Battle of Tours in present-day France, bringing an end to Arab expansion in Europe.

• Internal struggles threatened the Umayyad Empire’s stability. Local administrators favored Arabs, • Islam split into two groups, the Shiite and the Sunni. The former say the descendants of Ali are the rulers of

Islam, and the latter claim that the descendants of the Umayyads are the true caliphs. This split continues today. Most Muslims are Sunnis, but much of Iraq and Iran consider themselves Shiites.

The Abbasid Dynasty • Because of both favoritism toward Arabs and Umayyad corruption, resentment against Umayyad rule grew. In

750, Abu al-Abbas overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and founded the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258.

• In 762 the Abbasids built a new capital at Baghdad, on the Tigris River. This location took advantage of river and caravan traffic. This move eastward increased Persian influence and created a new outlook. Not warriors, but judges, merchants, and government officials were the heroes. Also, all Muslims, Arab or not, could now hold both civil and military offices

The Abbasid Dynasty• The ninth-century Abbasid dynasty thrived.during which there were astronomical investigations and a

foundation for translating Greek works.• This time also saw economic prosperity. Baghdad became the center of a huge trade empire extending into

Asia, Africa, and Europe. Under the Abbasids, the caliph became more regal and the bureaucracy more complex. A council headed by a prime minister, or vizier, advised the caliph. During council meetings, the caliph sat behind a screen and whispered his orders to the vizier.

• Finally, the rulers of the provinces began to break from the central government. Spain established its own caliphate. Morocco became independent, and in 973 Egypt established a dynasty under the Fatimids, with its capital at Cairo. Meaning that the Islamic world was divided into many different caliphates all of which experienced a degree of independent development

Prosperity in the Islamic World • The period of the Arab Empire generally was prosperous. Much of it was based on the extensive trade by ship

and camel. Camel caravans went to countries beyond the Caspian Sea.• Trade began to prosper around 750 under the Abbasid dynasty. Gold and slaves came from south of the Sahara,

gold and ivory from East Africa. India contributed sandalwood, spices, and textiles, while China contributed silk and porcelain. Egypt provided grain, and Iraq provided linens, dates, and jewels. Banking and coin usage developed, making the exchanges easier.

• Large, magnificent cities came to prominence, Baghdad under the Abbasids and Cairo under the Fatimids. Prosperity in the Islamic World

• Islamic cities had their own physical appearance. The palaces and mosques were the most impressive buildings. They also had public buildings with fountains, public baths, and marketplaces (bazaars). The bazaar (covered market) was a vital part of every Muslim city or town. Inspectors guaranteed the quality of goods. Bazaars also had craftspeople and offered services such as laundries.

Africa in World History With the history of Africa always remember that the history of Africa is just as diverse as the history of any of the places that we have studied

Also remember that there has been a lot of miss perception about the history of Africa and the nature of the people of Africa

The land and climate of Africa Africa is the second largest continent. (Asia is the largest) It stretches for almost five thousand miles and is

surrounded by two seas and two oceans. Africa has many geographical zones. Mountainous along the Mediterranean coast, just south lies the Sahara,

Earth’s largest desert. Southwest of this desert, grasslands and then tropical jungle cover the hump of Africa jutting into the Atlantic Ocean.

To the east lie snowcapped mountains, upland plateaus, and lakes. Here also is the Great Rift Valley, where mountains rise above deep canyons and wild animals populate grasslands. Farther south lies the dense vegetation of the Congo basin, through which the mighty Congo River runs. Farther to the south, the rain forests fade into hills, plateaus, and then deserts.

Africa has four distinct climate zones, each with a different way of life. The mild climate—moderate rainfall and mild temperatures—of the northern coast and southern tip creates fertile land and abundant crops. The Sahara in the continent’s north and the Kalahari, a desert in the south, cover 40 percent of Africa.

Here a timeline of the kingdoms of Africa This timeline will help you know when the individual kingdoms of Africa were prominate

http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/africanhistory/studying_africa/kingdoms.html

here is a Link to the Crash Course in World history Video that we watched on the history of Africa , I would rewatch the video and take notes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvnU0v6hcUo

The Early Medieval PeriodThe Rise of Christianity

By A.D. 6, Judaea, which covered the lands of the ancient kingdom of Judah, was a Roman province under the direction of a procurator. Unrest was common in Judaea, even among factions of Jews.

Among the Jews, the Sadducees counseled cooperating with the Romans, the Essenes awaited a Messiah who would save Israel from oppression and establish a paradise on Earth, and the Zealots advocated overthrowing Roman rule. A revolt begun in 66 was crushed by the Romans, who destroyed the temple in Jerusalem.

Jesus, a Jew, began to preach in the midst of this conflict. Jesus taught that inner transformation was most important, not adhering to laws or rituals. He claimed that the Golden Rule summed up the Jewish teachings. He commanded that we love God and love each other, treating all as our neighbors. Jesus taught the virtues that would be the basis of medieval Western civilization: humility, charity, and love of others.

The Rise of Christianity The Judaeans turned Jesus over to the Romans as a subversive because they thought he might cause people to

revolt against Rome. The procurator, Pontius Pilate, ordered his crucifixion. Followers of Jesus believed he overcame death, however. Many Jewish followers believed he was the Messiah who had come to save Israel.

Simon Peter was a prominent figure in early Christianity. Peter and the other disciples taught that Jesus was the Savior and Son of God who had come to Earth to save all people. Jesus’ death could make up for people’s sins and offer them salvation.

Another prominent leader was Paul of Tarsus. Paul followed Jesus’ command to preach the gospel to both Jews and non-Jews, or Gentiles. He founded many Christian communities in Asia Minor and along the Aegean Sea.

After word spread that Jesus had overcome death, people converted in droves. Only 60 days after his crucifixion, Jerusalem alone had ten thousand converts. Paul wrote letters (epistles) to Christian communities and other disciples may have written down Jesus’ sayings. Between A.D. 40 and 100, these became the basis of the written Gospels(“the good news”). The Gospels tell of Jesus’ life and teachings, and form the basis of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible.

Christian values Christianity’s basic values differed from Greco-Roman values. Even so, at first the Romans paid little attention to

the spread of Christianity. That attitude changed. Romans came to see Christianity as harmful to public order and morals because Christians would not worship the Roman gods. This was an act of treason, a capital crime. Christians believed, however, in one God only and that worshipping false gods would endanger their salvation.

Roman persecution of Christians began under Nero (A.D. 54–68), who blamed them for the fire that burned much of Rome. He subjected them to cruel deaths. Until the end of the next century, persecution lessened, though it continued to a degree. By the end of the rule of five good emperors, Christians made up a small but strong minority

Christianity Triumphs Roman persecution strengthened Christianity by forcing it to become more organized. The emerging control

over Christian communities by bishops was important to this change. The Christian Church was creating a distinction between the clergy (church leaders) and the laity (everyday church members).

For a number of reasons, Christianity grew steadily. First, it was more personal than the Roman religion and offered eternal life and salvation. Second, it was familiar because it was like other religions that offered immortality through the sacrificial death of a savior-god. Third, it fulfilled the human need to belong. Christians formed communities based on love and care. Christianity was especially attractive to the poor and powerless. Everyone, regardless of status, could gain salvation and all were equal in the eyes of God.

Emperors in the third century began new waves of persecution, ending with the great persecution by Diocletian at the beginning of the fourth century. Christianity was too strong for force to destroy it, however. Christianity prospered in the fourth century. Constantine became the first Christian emperor. In 313 his Edict of Milan officially sanctioned tolerating Christianity. Under Theodosius the Great, the Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion.

The Germanic Kingdoms And now to switch gear again and return to “Europe” Germanic peoples began moving into Roman territory by the third century. The Visigoths occupied Spain and

Italy until the Ostrogoths took control of Italy in the fifth century. By 500 the Western Roman Empire had become a number of states ruled by German kings. Although these kingdoms kept the Roman governmental structure, Germanic warriors dominated the native populations and eventually excluded Romans from holding power.

The Germanic Angles and Saxons moved into Britain in the fifth century. Eventually these people became the Anglo-Saxons.

The only German kingdom to last long was the Franks. Clovis, who converted to Christianity around 500, established the Frankish kingdom. Clovis had resisted the pleas of his wife to convert, but during a battle that was going badly he called on Jesus, promising to believe and be baptized if Jesus came to his aid. After his plea, the enemy fled and Clovis converted.

The Germanic Kingdoms His conversion won Clovis the support of the Roman Catholic Church, as the Christian church in Rome had

become known. By 510 Clovis had established a Frankish kingdom from the Pyrenees to present-day western Germany. Following Frankish custom, after Clovis’s death his sons divided the kingdom among themselves.

Germans and Romans intermarried and created a new society in which German customs had an important role. The extended family was the center of German society. They worked the land together and protected each other in violent times.

The German concept of the family affected crime and punishment, say for murder. In the Roman system, as in ours, most crimes are considered offenses against the state, not the person. Thus, a court hears evidence and makes a judgment. Germanic law, however, was personal. One person injuring another often led to a savage blood feud.

A system using a fine called a wergild (“money for a man”) developed to avoid bloodshed after crimes such as murder. The wrongdoer paid the injured party’s family a set amount of money, which varied by social status.

The ordeal was one Germanic way of determining guilt. The practice was based on the belief that the gods would not let an innocent person be punished. If the accused was unharmed after a physical trial (ordeal), he or she was presumed innocent.

The role of the Church in the German kingdoms Christianity had become the supreme religion of the Roman Empire by the end of the fourth century. By this

time the church had developed a system of organization. Priests headed local communities called parishes. A group of parishes was headed by a bishop, whose area of authority was called a bishopric, or diocese. Bishoprics were joined under the direction of an archbishop.

The bishop of Rome came to claim he was the leader of what was now called the Roman Catholic Church. The claim was based on the belief that Jesus gave Peter the keys to Heaven. Peter was considered the chief apostle and the first bishop of Rome. The bishops that succeeded him in Rome came to be called popes, from the Latin word papa, “father.”

Always keep in mind when studying medieval history how important the church is as an institution. That throughout the middle ages the Church is the only stable political, social, cultural and Religious entity in the lives of the majority of people

Also remember that a large percentage of the population served the Church in some capacity and that the Church owned about 1/3 of the land and for the most part did not pay taxes

The Role of the Church Pope Gregory I strengthened the power of the papacy. He was pope from 590 to 604. He took political control

of Rome and its surrounding territories, later known as the Papal States. He extended papal authority over the Western Church and actively converted non-Christians through the monastic movement.

A monk is a man who separates himself from worldly, everyday life to dedicate himself entirely to God. Monasticism is the practice of living the life of a monk. In the sixth century, Saint Benedict founded an order of monks and wrote rules for their practice.

Benedict’s rules divided the day into activities, emphasizing prayer and much physical labor to keep the monks busy. Idleness was “the enemy of the soul.” Prayer was the proper “Work of God.” Monks meditated and read privately. They prayed together seven times a day. All aspects of Benedictine life were communal.

The Role of the Church An abbot (“father”) ruled each Benedictine monastery. Monks were to obey the will of the abbot. Monks took a

vow of poverty. The monks’ dedication made them the new heroes of Christian civilization. They also were the social workers of the community, and monasteries became centers of learning.

Women, called nuns, also began to withdraw from the world to dedicate themselves to God. Nuns lived in convents headed by abbesses. Many of them belonged to royal houses. The abbess Hilda founded a monastery in Whitby in 657, where she was responsible for giving learning an important role in the monastery. Five future bishops were educated under her direction.

Charlemagne and the Carolingians In the 600s and 700s the Frankish kings lost their power to the chief officers of the king’s household, called

mayors of the palace. One of these mayors, Pepin, assumed the kingship. His son became king after Pepin’s death in 768.

Pepin’s son was Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, one of history’s greatest kings. Charlemagne was curious, driven, and intelligent. He was a strong warrior and statesman, and a devout Christian. Although illiterate, he strongly supported learning.

He ruled from 768 to 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into what became known as the Carolingian Empire, which covered much of western and central Europe.

The Middle Ages Periodization – Very Important

• Middle Ages – lasted from the 5th to the 14th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery.

• Early Middle Ages –5th to the 10th century ( previously referred to as the dark ages)• High Middle Ages – 11th, 12th and 13th centuries • Late Middle Ages – 14th and 15th centuries

( the Late Middle Ages includes the Renaissance and the early age of exploration) Characteristics of the Middle Ages

• Lack of central governmental authority • Growth of regional authority• Growth of local authority • Growth of Church authority • A considerably different social structure than we have studied so far • Different agricultural practices • Different trade practices • Enduring social and law systems

The Development of Feudalism (make sure to be able to explain Feudalism and its importance and its lasting impact)

• Invaders posed a threat to the safety of the people, especially in the absence of a strong central government. People began to turn to local landed aristocrats or nobles to protect them. This change led to the new political, social system called feudalism. It arose between 800 and 900 and thrived for four hundred years. Similar systems were found in Japan and among the Aztec.

• At the heart of this system was the idea of vassalage. It came from Germanic society, where warriors swore an oath to their leader. By the eighth century a man who served a lord militarily was known as a vassal.

• The Frankish army initially was made up of foot soldiers in mail (armor made of metal links or plates) armed with swords and horsemen who threw spears.

• In the eighth century, larger horses and the stirrup were introduced. Horsemen now wore mail and used long lances as battering rams. For the next five hundred years, heavily armored cavalry called knights dominated warfare. They had great prestige and formed the backbone of the European aristocracy

The Development of Feudalism• In the Early Middle Ages (500–1000), wealth was based on owning land. There was little trade. When nobles

wanted men to fight for them, the nobles granted the vassal a piece of land that supported the vassal and his family.

• The relationship between lord and vassal was made official by a public act of homage of vassal to the lord. Loyalty to one’s lord was feudalism’s chief virtue.

• By the ninth century the land the lord granted to a vassal was known as a fief. Vassals had political authority in their fiefs. The number of separate powerful lords and vassals increased; many different people were now responsible for keeping order.

Feudalism • Feudalism became complicated. Kings had vassals who themselves had vassals. Feudalism came to be

characterized by a set of unwritten rules known as the feudal contract. These rules determined the relationship between lord and vassal. The major obligation of a vassal was military service, about 40 days a year.

• Vassals also were summoned to advise the lord and had financial obligations to the lord on such occasions as the marriage of the lord’s eldest daughter, knighting of his eldest son, or ransoming the lord. The lord had responsibilities to the vassal. He supported the vassal with a land grant and protected him militarily and in court

Castles The growing number of castles made visible the growth of the nobility in the High Middle Ages (1000 to 1300). They were permanent residences and fortresses. Castles had two parts, the motte—a natural or artificially created hill—and the bailey—an open space. The castle’s central building, the keep, was built on the motte. All were encircled by large, stone walls. The keep included a great hall where the lord held court and received visitors, and people ate and even slept. As lords got wealthier, the castles became more complex and ornate.

Make sure to think about how Castles changed over time and what their purpose was

The Nobility of the Middle Ages• In the Middle Ages, nobles dominated European society. The main concern of many was warfare. The nobles

were kings, dukes, counts, barons, and even bishops and archbishops. They formed a wealthy aristocracy, or nobility, with political, economic and social power. The institution of knighthood united lords and knights in the aristocracy. Trained as warriors but with no adult responsibilities, young knights began to hold tournaments in the twelfth century. These were contests for knights to show their skills. The joust became the main attraction.

• In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, under the influence of the Church, an ideal of civilized behavior among the nobility evolved. It was called chivalry. Knights were to defend the Church and defenseless people, treat captives as honored guests, and fight for glory and not material rewards.

The Celts and the Vikings • We have just finished covering the German Kingdoms that emerged during and after the fall of Rome • Now we are going to go back in time a bit and cover a culture that is really just starting to gain historical

attention

• We are going to cover the Celts and also the Vikings in this lecture • The Celts have an ancient history and a lasting impact • The Vikings are actually several groups of people about who much myth and legend are told

The Celts • Who were the Celts?• Ethnographers and historians today speak of Europe’s “Celtic Fringe”: Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and

Brittany in France. • This represents a sad remnant of a culture that once reached from Turkey to Ireland.• The Celts occupied center stage of Europe for hundreds of years with various starting and stopping dates (ranges

from 700 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.,) and thus for some historians they are called the “Fathers and Mothers of Europe.” • Many legacies have come down from the Celts including plaid cloth, holidays like Halloween and May Day,

leprechauns, rainbows, mistletoe usage, literature (King Arthur – last notable Celt? Loch Ness Monster), blue tattoos, artistic designs of knots and spirals, and sacred springs/wells.

Where did the Celts come from?• we actually do not know the origins of the Celts• By ca. 700/600 B.C.E. their cultural distinctions had solidified into a distinctive language, art, metal working, and

similar outlook on the world, including their religious tenets. • This first strong evidence of a distinctive Celtic presence is the so-called Hallstatt Culture, recognizable from

about 700/600 B.C.E., the center of which is the modern Austrian town of Hallstatt. • Evidence of this is strictly archaeological taken from cemeteries, salt mines, and settlements. Nearby salt mines

was one of the major sources of their wealth. They were also farmers, and metalworkers of iron, bronze, and gold.

• A few centuries later there was even wider diffusion of the Celts, including a site named La Tene that was located in Switzerland. Given the right circumstances the Celts might have united into a nation. However, they were extremely individualistic, and their primary allegiance was to their tribe. They fought one another as fiercely as they clashed with groups outside their cultures.

The Fighting Celts • When a group of Celts sacked the city of Rome in 390 B.C.E., the Romans never forgot this humiliation. Later on

in 279 B.C.E. the Celts attacked the Delphi Oracle in Greece. The third century B.C.E. is considered the apex of the Celtic territory and power. Celtic military technology with their war chariots and iron swords devastated all their adversaries, but when Rome finally developed its legions, then one by one the Celtic Tribal Kingdoms fell to them and the Germanic tribes.

• After years of fighting the Gauls, Julius Caesar finally prevailed, and this led to the westward migration of Celts to Britain. By the 5th century C.E. only Britain remained a Celtic stronghold. This is the time of the legendary King Arthur who was a Celt. Britain was being attacked by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, etc., and once again the Celts were forced to flee westward. Today, the country of Ireland gives us the best chance to see the residue of the Celtic traditions.

Celtic Culture• the Celts were not a single people, though they spoke dialects of the same language , the individual Celt was

ultimatly loyal to his tribe • Drinking, eating, and fighting were the great love of the Celts. They even had fines for obesity.• This zest for war frightened the Romans and others. Celtic women fought too: “A whole troop of foreigners

would not be able to withstand a single Gaul if he called to his assistance his wife, who is usually very strong and with blue eyes.” These Celts rushed into battle, blowing trumpets and emitting blood- chilling war cries. Severed heads of their enemy were slung from their horses’ bridles

• Most of the men wore trousers and tunics, although some fought in the nude. Their bodies were tattooed with blue dye from the woad plant, and their hair was spiked with lime to keep it out of their faces during the heat of battle. They carried javelins, swords, daggers, shields, and wore armlets, helmets, and torques. The Celts believed their fighting gear possessed magical lifesaving properties.

Celtic Political and Legal Structure • A tribal chieftain or king was elected for life by the nobles. Aristocracy was achieved either by birth or

accomplishments. These were the wealthy and most honored warriors. Freemen were well off farmers, bards, and highest-ranking artisans. The laborers, serfs and slaves were relegated to the lowest rung of society.

• Their society displayed many unique customs. Equality of women with men was evident in allowance for girls’ education, choosing a mate, ability to divorce, ownership of property, and even to fight and wage war alongside the men. Some of the women achieved the highest political power, the Queenship of a tribe.

• As Celts were tribal, they lived in villages of thatched houses usually at the base of hills. These hills served as forts with surrounding ditches and hills for defensive purposes. The top of the hill fort served as home for the chieftain who was elected for life, and other prominent members of the community.

Celtic Marriage and Family Customs • Both girls and boys took part in fosterage, the Celtic system of education. Before the age of seven, the children

were sent to foster families, usually in a different settlement. • They were taught skills commensurate with their social status. Boys were taught physical and fighting skills,

while girls were taught sewing and weaving as well as fighting skills. • Girl’s parents paid about one-third more for their education than for the boys. These fostered children were

expected to provide new bonds between their family’s groups and foster parents’ group to prevent war and robbery.

• When the girls were about fourteen, they returned to their natal families, and were ready for marriage. • There is much evidence that women had the right to choose their husbands, or choose not to marry. In some of

the tribes the young maiden would choose her husband by offering to wash his hands. • In Ireland the man wishing to marry had to deposit the right of purchase with the prospective wife’s father. In

Wales, there was an additional requirement for the new husband. He had to pay the cowyll, the price of her virginity, but significantly it was paid before the first night of their marriage.

• The husband was not always the dominant marriage partner. If the wife had the greater fortune, then she was the unchallenged head of the family. Polygyny was practiced, but there was always a chief wife. There is some evidence in Scotland of polyandry. Widespread sexual freedom for both genders was another unique custom for the Celts.

• Even after the Celts were Christianized divorce was easy for them. Why? Marriage was a free union protected by their laws, which could always be broken.

• If the husband was found guilty of adultery the wife could immediately obtain the dissolution of the marriage, although in some tribes the wife could be killed for adultery.

Celtic Religious practices • The religious practices of the Celts are difficult to reconstruct as they were mostly Christianized by the time Celts recorded their own history. there is even evidence that the Romans borrowed some of the Celtic goddesses. The druids were the priesthood, and were composed of both men and women. Their function was to memorize, preserve, and recite on request ancient laws, genealogies, epics, myths, and memories of their people.

• These druids clung to their monopoly over the collective tribal memory, and thus they did not reduce this ancient lore to writing as this would have deprived them of their functions as recorders of the past. It is thought that the druids could read and write Greek and Latin, and their apprenticeships lasted nearly twenty years, what is considered the full cyclical time of the moon. • As the druids were not necessarily tied to one tribe, they held worship services that were designed to appease the gods and goddesses, in natural settings of the forest. It is thought that the oak tree was sacred to these druids, and that mistletoe that grows on these mighty trees was also revered by them because it possessed magical powers to heal humans and even to imbue them with fertility. Occasionally, humans were sacrificed presumably using criminals or prisoners of war.

• The number three was also sacred to the Celts and there are many surviving artifacts that have a three sided head and three statues at a well. Water also had special meaning for the Celts, and many artifacts have been found that were probably deliberately thrown into the rivers and lakes. Celtic Religious Festivals • Celtic Religious Festivals and Primary Deities There were four great Celtic festivals, Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasa, and Samhain, celebrated on February 1, May 1, August 1, and November 1.• When the Celts became Christianized one Celtic holiday November 1st became All Saints Day with the night before celebrated as Halloween.• May Day was never accepted by the Christians. The Celts worshipped a variety of gods, numbering over two hundred. • One of the greatest was Lug, a magician who practiced all the useful and decorative arts; playing the harp, writing poetry, building houses, and forging iron for winning battles.• Lyon, France or the Roman Lugudunum, and Ludgate Hill in London came from Lug• Irish leprechauns and fairy shoemakers also come from him. The White Horse of Uffington in England may be a depiction of the Celtic Goddess Epona. • Another popular deity with the Celts was the triple goddess Bridget. She was in charge of water, artistic crafts, and blacksmithing.• Later on when the Celts became Christianized, they converted her to St. Bridget, who established a nunnery in Ireland, where a sacred flame was never allowed to go out.

The Vikings • What do you think of when you hear the word Vikings?

Myths about the Vikings • they wore horned helmets , all the time• They were a violent warring people • they only raided other settlements • They were barbarian and unruly• they only took from other societies • The reality of the Vikings is very different than the myths surrounding Vikings, but like with all• myths there is some truth to the legends

The History of the Vikings • The Vikings are actually several different groups of people • Who come from different places in what we now consider Europe • The Vikings were called by many names ( partly because they came from different places )• Normanni, Northmen, Norsmen Lochlannach, Gall, Rus

Vikings • Viking, also called Norseman or Northman, • Scandinavian seafaring warriors who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the 9th to the 11th

century and whose disruptive influence profoundly affected European history. • These pagan Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish warriors were probably prompted to undertake their raids by a

combination of factors ranging from overpopulation at home to the relative helplessness of victims abroad.The Vikings

• The Vikings were made up of landowning chieftains and clan heads, their retainers, freemen, and any energetic young clan members who sought adventure and booty overseas.

• At home these Scandinavians were independent farmers, but at sea they were raiders and pillagers. During the Viking period the Scandinavian countries seem to have possessed a practically inexhaustible surplus of manpower, and leaders of ability, who could organize groups of warriors into conquering bands and armies, were seldom lacking.

• These bands would negotiate the seas in their longships and mount hit-and-run raids at cities and towns along the coasts of Europe. Their burning, plundering, and killing earned them the name vikingr, meaning “pirate” in the early Scandinavian languages.

• The exact ethnic composition of the Viking armies is unknown in particular cases, but the Vikings’ expansion in the Baltic lands and in Russia can reasonably be attributed to the Swedes. On the other hand, the nonmilitary colonization of the Orkney Islands, Faroe Islands, and Iceland was clearly accomplished by the Norwegians.

The beginnings of the Vikings • approx. 200 CE to 700 CE• Language: The Old Norse form of the Germanic languages is implanted with the written form (futhark) in place.

The original "older futhark," consisting of a 24-character script is used until approx. 600 CE when it is replaced by a 16-character script. The symbols, runic letters, are carved in stone, on wood and on metal. The stones are largely memorial, monumental.

• Settlement Patterns: Scandinavia in the "Iron Age," is an agricultural society. Tribal structure changes to a system of family farms. Farm house construction remains fairly consistent through the iron age and Viking age with "long houses" of various sizes

Causes for Viking Expansion• Desire for adventure and riches. The would be manifested by small-group pirate raids in the early Viking period.

Increased in intensity as decades passed.• Commerce and Trade. This activity occurs throughout the Viking age and sometimes parallels raiding and

settlement activity. Swedish vikings emphasized trade and individuals, such as Ottar (Othere) [cited in 9th century English translation of Orosius Universal History] was a "trader," not a "raider.“

• Colonization and Settlement. This becomes a major factor of Viking expansion after mid-9th century, especially in England, Normandy, North Atlantic islands

More causes of Viking expansion• Military/Political Expansion. With the emergence of the nation states of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,

Viking raiding assumes the character of invading national armies. This most apparent with the Danish invasions of the early 11th century let by Svein Forkbeard and Knut the Great and the 1066 attack on England spearheaded by Harald Hardrade.

• God's Punishment. This explanation was prominent among Christian clerics in the early Viking period. Alcuin explained the surprising attack on Lindisfarne monastary in 793 CE by claiming that God was unhappy with the English for "turning away from God" and therefore, sending the Vikings as evidence of his wrath.

Interacting with the Vikings • Eastern Slavs had also settled in present-day Ukraine and Russia. There they encountered Swedish Vikings, who

came to dominate the native peoples. These peoples called the Viking rulers the Rus. The name Russia is derived from this term.

• The Viking leader Oleg created the Rus principality of Kiev in the tenth century. Successors expanded Kiev until it included territory between the Baltic and Black Seas and the Danube and Volga Rivers. Civil wars and invasions ended the first Russian state of Kiev in 1169. The Mongols conquered Russia in the 1200s. They occupied Russia and required tribute from Russian princes.

Why the Dark Ages were not Dark Why the Dark Ages ? the idea that the Dark Ages were dark comes from several places :

The examination of the Roman and Greek periods( antiquity) Examination of the world after the “fall “ of Rome The advancement of non European cultures and societies during the middle ages The reduction in the amount of written records that we have from the early middle ages The lack of central authority during that time The appearance that the works and advancements of antiquity had been forgotten or not used in the middle

ages The dark ages started being called the dark ages by writers and historians in the late middle ages and the in the

Renaissance Problems with calling the Dark Ages dark

the Dark Ages were not called Dark by the people living in them Calling them the dark ages ignores the advancements in technology, science, medicine and architecture that

took place in the early middle ages

Calling them the dark ages also makes the advancements of the late middle ages and the renaissance appear to have come out of thin air.

Which we know as history students that nothing appears out of thin air and that there are always preexisting conditions for the development of technology, science, medicine and architecture

Calling the dark ages dark also, ignores the power of the development of local knowledge, tradition and ingenuity

And calling the dark ages dark also suggests that its it only through written sources that we can gain legitimate knowledge of history ( which we know is not true)

Technologies of the Early Middle Ages Most of the innovations applied to agriculture Most technologies were borrowed Europeans of this time were expert innovators and had a remarkable capacity for assimilation Technology and technological innovation were not evenly distributed a new form of agricultural organization emerges and the rise of a new military caste

Agricultural technology Heavy plough (5th - 8th) - The heavy wheeled plough first appeared in Slavic lands before it came to Northern

Italy (the Po Valley). By the 8th century it was used in the Rhineland. The Heavy Plough was important in cultivation of the rich, heavy, often wet soils of Northern Europe.

Horse collar (6th - 9th) - The Horse Collar went through multiple evolutions from the 6th to 9th centuries. It allowed more horse pulling power, such as with heavy ploughs.

Horseshoes (9th) - Horseshoes let horses adapt to rocky terrain, mountains and carry heavier loads. They may have been known to the Romans and Celts as early as 50 BC

Agricultural advances The number of people almost doubled in Europe between 1000 and 1300, from 38 to 74 million people. One

reason is that increased stability and peace enabled food production to rise dramatically. Food production increased also because a climate change improved growing conditions and more land was

cleared for cultivation. Europe had more farmland in 1200 than it does today. Technological changes also aided farming. Water and wind power began to do jobs once done by humans or

animals. Also, iron was used to make scythes, axes, hoes, saws, hammers, and nails. Most importantly iron was used to make the carruca, a heavy, wheeled plow with an iron plowshare pulled by animal teams. A new horse collar, that distributed the weight throughout the horse’s shoulders, and the horseshoe allowed horses to replace the slow oxen to pull the extremely heavy carruca.

The Three Field System Using this heavy-wheeled plow led to the growth of farming villages. The plow was so expensive that

communities bought one plow. People also shared animals. The shift from a two-field to a three-field system of crop rotation also increased food production. Earlier,

peasants had one part of their field lie fallow and the other was cultivated. Now, one part of the field was planted in the fall with grains for a summer harvest, a second part was planted in

spring with different grains for a fall harvest, and the third would lie fallow. Only one-third of the land now was not being used, and the rotation kept the soil from being exhausted so quickly.

The New Military Caste we have already talked about this new military Caste Knights

What sort of technology came with the development of Knights as a social and military class? The stirrup Spurs Curb bit The contoured saddle Plate armor

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture 1. Grand, Tall Designs, Which Swept Upwards With Height and Grandeur 2. The Flying Buttress 3. The Pointed Arch 4. The Vaulted Ceiling 5. The Light and Airy Interior 6. The Gargoyles of Gothic Architecture 7. The Emphasis Upon the Decorative Style and the Ornate

Cathedrals and Castles Offer prime examples of Medieval architecture Though they do serve different societal purposes We have many of them today , showing the impressive strength with which they were built They are amazing sights to behold One example is Notre Dame in Paris (one of the oldest churches still active in Europe)- 1163 was when construction started - 1345 was when Notre Dame was opened

Technology from the later middle ages Mechanical artillery

Counterweight trebuchet (12th) - Gravity powers these weapons revolutionized medieval siege weapons by use of counterweights allowing it to hurl huge stones very long distances. It was first used in the eastern Mediterranean basin. Trebuchets were used in the Crusades by the 1120s, Byzantium by the 1130s and in the Latin West by the 1150s.

Missile weapons Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th) - The Longbow was powerful, accurate and contributed to

the eventual demise of the medieval knight class. It was used by the English against the French during the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453).

Steel crossbow (14th, late) - The first hand-held mechanical crossbow, this European innovation Came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power. Large and complete full plates of armour appear by the end of the 14th century.

Building technologies Artesian well (1126) - A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in a bore hole and repeatedly struck

with a hammer. Underground water pressure forces the water up the hole without pumping. Artesian wells are named for Artois in France, where the first was drilled by Carthusian monks in 1126.

Wheelbarrow (1170s) - Useful in construction, mining, and farming. Wheelbarrows appeared in stories and pictures between 1170 and 1250 in North-western Europe. First depiction in a drawing in the 13th century.

Blast furnace (1150-1350) - Cast iron first appears in Middle Europe around 1150. The technique was considered to be an independent European development.

Other Medieval Inventions Vertical windmills (1180s) - Invented in Europe as the pivotable post mill it was efficient at grinding grain or

draining water. The first mention of one is from Yorkshire in England in 1185. Spectacles (1280s) - From Florence, Italy, convex lenses to help far-sighted people. Concave lenses fro near-

sighted people weren't developed before the 15th century. Spinning wheel (13th) - Brought to Europe probably from India. Chess (1450) - The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th century AD India and spread through

Persia and the Muslim world to Europe. The game evolved to its current form in the 15th century Mirrors (1180) - First mention of a mirror was made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham who said "Take away

the lead which is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in." Quarantine (1377) - Initially a 40-day-period, the Quarantine was introduced by the Republic of Ragusa to

prevent the spreading of diseases like the Black Death. Venice began quarantines, then the practice spread around in Europe.

The Revival of Trade In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a revival of trade and the associated growth of towns and cities changed

the economic foundation of Europe from being almost exclusively agricultural. Italian cities took the lead. Venice developed a mercantile fleet and became a major trading center by the end

of the tenth century. The Italian cities traded mainly in the Mediterranean area. The towns of Flanders—the area along the coast of present-day Belgium and northern France— traded in

northern Europe. These were most known for woolen cloth. Flemish towns like Bruges and Ghent became centers for the trade and manufacture of this cloth.

Trade continued To encourage exchange between Flanders and Italy, the counts of Champagne in northern France held six trade

fairs a year. Northern merchants exchanged furs, woolen cloth, tin, and honey for the cloth and swords of northern Italy and the silks, sugar, and spices from the East.

Demand for gold and silver arose at trading fairs and markets. A money economy—an economic system based on money, rather than barter—arose. Trading companies and banks began to manage the exchange and sale of goods. These new practices were part of the rise of commercial capitalism—an economic system in which people invested in trade and goods to make profits.

The Growth of Medieval Cities So as historians (which you are becoming) why do you think that Medieval Cities would be experiencing growth

in the 1100’s through the 1300’s Expanding trades led to a revival of cities. Merchants began to settle in the old Roman cities. Artisans followed.

They brought skills to make goods that merchants could sell. New cities and towns were founded, especially in northern Europe. Typically, a group of merchants built a

settlement near a castle for the trade and the lord’s protection. If the settlement prospered, walls were built to protect it. The merchants and artisans of these cities later came to be called burghers or bourgeoisie, from the German word burg, which means “a walled enclosure.”

Medieval cities were comparatively small. A large trading city would have only about five thousand inhabitants. In 1200 London had only thirty thousand people. The large Italian cities had about one hundred thousand inhabitants. Constantinople and the major Arab cities were much larger, however.

The Growth of Cities The towns were tied to the lords and land around them. Lords wanted to treat the townspeople as vassals or

serfs, but the inhabitants saw things differently. By 1100 townspeople had the right to buy and sell property, freedom from military service to the lord, and laws guaranteeing their freedom.

Some towns had the right to govern themselves. Over time the cities developed their own governments. Only males born in the city or who had lived there a long time were citizens. These often elected a city council, who served as judges and local legislators. Elections were carefully rigged to make sure only the patricians, members of the wealthiest and most powerful families, won.

Daily Life in the Medieval City Medieval towns were surrounded by stone walls, which were expensive. Therefore, the space inside was filled

tightly. Thus, houses were close to each other, and the streets were narrow. Fire was a great danger because houses were wooden up to the fourteenth century. It was also a constant

threat because candles and wood fires were used for light and heat. Once a fire started, putting it out was difficult.

The physical environment of the towns was unpleasant. The cities and towns were dirty and smelled of human and animal waste. Air pollution from the ubiquitous wood fires was a problem. Blood from slaughtered animals and chemicals from such activities as tanning went into the rivers. Cities relied on wells for drinking water.

Medieval cities had private and public baths. The great plague and pressure because of the nudity permitted in the baths closed them in the fourteenth century.

There were many more men than women in medieval cities.

Industry and Guilds in Medieval Cities Medieval cities became important manufacturing centers for such goods as cloth, metalwork, shoes, and leather

goods. Beginning in the twelfth century, craftspeople organized into business associations called guilds. They played a leading role in urban economic life. Almost every craft had a guild, as did some kinds of merchants.

Craft guilds directed almost every aspect of the production process. They set quality standards, specified methods of production, and fixed the prices for the finished products. Guilds determined how many people could enter a guild and the procedure for entering.

A person who wanted to learn a trade first became an apprentice to a master craftsperson at around age 10. Apprentices received room and board, but no pay. After learning for five to seven years, apprentices became journeymen. They worked for wages for other masters. To become a master, the journeymen had to produce a masterpiece, a finished product in their craft. The journeyman was admitted to the guild or not based on this work

The Rise of Universities So what do you think Medieval Universities were like ? How were they the same, how were they different than Universities are today? How did Universities start ? What did it mean to get a degree? What types of people attended Medieval Universities ? Who taught at Medieval Universities ? Consider the words you use: campus, tuition, classes, courses, lectures, faculty, students, administration,

chancellor, dean, professor, sophomore, junior, senior, fees, assignments, laboratory, dormitory, requirements, prerequisites, examinations, texts, grades, convocation, graduation, commencement, procession, diploma, alumni association, donations, and so forth. These are the language of the university, and they are all derived from Latin, almost unchanged from their medieval origins.

So how did Universities start Schools had existed since ancient times During the early and high middle ages , Cathedral and Monastery Schools began to emerge and thrive The Trivium curriculum = Grammar, rhetoric, and logic The Quadrivium= arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music Standard texts start to emerge in 1079 Pope Gregory VII issued a papal decree ordering all cathedrals and major monasteries to establish

schools for training of clergy Centers of learning began to emerge in Paris, Bologna, and later Oxford

Paris Learning in Paris was originally centered in the Ile de La Cite , this is where Notre Dame is and is also where the

Chancellor resided, the Chancellor who had the sole power to issue the licenses necessary to preach and/ or teach in the diocese.

In the monasteries schools on the left bank of the Seine Faculty , Professor and associate professor, assistant professors and instructors

Professors offered courses of lectures in which they would read from a text, then the students would copy down what they heard and would take notes on the explanations that the professors gave , and write these notes in the margins

When the student felt ready he could appear before the chancellor to be examined. If approved, he was given a diploma, an official document that permitted him to preach or teach in the diocese of Paris

The Birth of the University The University as we know it today did not start in a way that you would expect It started because a German student in the Latin quarter was holding a party and needed more wine