cp9101 method of instruction · 2012. 1. 15. · cp9101 method of instruction course notes page 2...

CP9101 Method of Instruction Course Notes

of 12 Department of Computer Science Prof. Alexander Ferworn January 2012

CP9101 Method of Instruction

Prof. Alexander Ferworn Department of Computer Science

Ryerson University Table of Contents

1 Brief Description .....................................................................................................2 2 Introduction.............................................................................................................2 1 Learning ..................................................................................................................3

1.1 Recall, Interpret and Apply ..............................................................................3 1.2 Analyze, Synthesize and Evaluate....................................................................4 1.3 Right Method for the Right Learning Type.......................................................4 1.4 Enhancing Learning.........................................................................................6

1.4.1 Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)....................................................6 1.4.2 Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy)......................6 1.4.3 Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) .........................6 1.4.4 Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) ...........................7 1.4.5 Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding)....................7 1.4.6 Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding) ...........................................7 1.4.7 Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement)..........................................7 1.4.8 Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval) .............................................7 1.4.9 Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization)....................7

1.5 Adult Learners .................................................................................................8 1.5.1 Other Ways of Promoting Learning..........................................................8

1.5.1.1 Instructional Level Matching................................................................8 1.5.1.2 Scaffolding...........................................................................................8 1.5.1.3 Achievable Steps ..................................................................................9 1.5.1.4 Modeling & Demonstration ..................................................................9 1.5.1.5 Performance Feedback .........................................................................9 1.5.1.6 Drill & Practice ....................................................................................9 1.5.1.7 Student Talk Throughs .........................................................................9 1.5.1.8 Periodic Review ...................................................................................9 1.5.1.9 Progress Monitoring .............................................................................9

1.6 Learning Styles ..............................................................................................10 1.7 The Laws of Learning....................................................................................10

1.7.1 The Law of Readiness ............................................................................10 1.7.2 The Law of Relationship ........................................................................11 1.7.3 The Law of Effect ..................................................................................11 1.7.4 The Law of Exercise ..............................................................................12 1.7.5 The Law of Recency ..............................................................................12 1.7.6 The Law of Primacy...............................................................................12 1.7.7 The Law of Intensity ..............................................................................12

1.8 Learner Progression and Development ...........................................................12



1 Brief Description Students will learn to select appropriate teaching methods; establish goals and performance objectives and construct lesson plans. Students will be shown classroom management and presentation techniques. In addition, students will be introduced to the principles of learning and instruction. Student will learn to formulate questions and employ good questioning technique. Each student will be given opportunities to prepare and present short lessons. Each student will be required to prepare and present at least two five-minutes lessons based on computer science related topics. Student lessons will be evaluated by the students themselves, class members and the course instructor.

2 Introduction Why does no one teach teachers how to teach at universities? This is a question that has bothered me for years. I understand that there are many measures that have been taken by different universities to address this fundamental question—including our own--but the question is still relevant. This year, Professors will be hired that have never made a single presentation in front of anyone who was interested in hearing what they had to say. Fledgling graduate students will be thrust in front of unsuspecting student tutorial sessions without even being giving the benefit of informal advice. This must stop! Given that teaching happens everywhere at a University, you would think that some more formality would have been pumped into the machine that produces our educated population. Well, here it is. In this course you will be presented with a number of fundamental tools that are intended to allow you to become a good teacher (eventually). Good teaching is hard work and takes practice but is ultimately rewarding in ways that make bad teaching even worse. Along with some information about pedagogy, which has been gathered by blatantly lifting components from other sources1, the fundamental parts of this course are:

• Practice teaching people in a class, • having your teaching assessed, and • assessing other people’s teaching

Let us teach better.

1 A primary reference is a rather strange one: Canadian Forces Individual Training & Education System (CFITES) Manual of Individual Training and Education—Volume 6. Conduct of Instructional Programmes. A-P9-050-000/PT-006. This is not a secret, you can download it from http://www.cda-acd.forces.gc.ca/dte-die/downloads/cfites/cfitesvol06_e.pdf



1 Learning When you break a bone in your body, there is no known medical way of repairing the damage except to allow your body time to repair itself by promoting healing. Teaching may be very similar. We teach in so far as we promote learning in others. Learning is conducted by learners. Learning is a change in behaviour that occurs as a result of the acquisition of knowledge, skill or attitude. Learning is the individual creation of knowledge and change in behaviour as a result of experience. It is a lifelong, continuous process, which does not stop at the end of a course or activity but continues as it is applied in various contexts2. Learning is a developmental process that builds incrementally in layers as knowledge increases and skills the learner performs become more complex. For example, a student must understand the keywords in a programming language before those keywords can be applied in the programming task. This developmental building process is depicted in the learning continuum for cognitive skills in the figure below. As learners progress they build on each level to achieve the next more complex cognitive skill. To facilitate learning, delivery of instruction should flow from simple to complex.

Figure 1 Learning Continuum for Cognitive Skills3

1.1 Recall, Interpret and Apply Most undergraduate programs in Computer Science focus on the first three levels. In the initial stage learners are introduced to new concepts and ideas—the notion of an algorithm is introduced for example. In Figure 1, this level is identified as the recall information level of learning, and recalling information or recognizing concepts are the

2 From A-P9-050-000/PT-006 Canadian Forces Individual Training and Education System—Manual of Individual Training and Education. 3 From Bloom, B.S. and D.R. Krathwohl. (1972). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay.



types of activities an individual is expected to perform. Generally speaking, Computer Science students usually move past this stage very quickly. As concepts are developed, the learner integrates them into their existing knowledge base and begins to understand and interpret the information. The learner is expected to be able to explain or describe concepts—as teachers, we expect a student to be able to describe not only what an algorithm is but how to use or create one. With this foundation, the learner begins to apply the concepts in different situations and under different conditions. Solid development of these first three cognitive skill levels generally produces competent performance and meets most of the goals that employers and other practitioners have.

1.2 Analyze, Synthesize and Evaluate Advanced education and professional development at the upper undergraduate and graduate levels target development of the higher-order cognitive levels, from application to evaluation. Once the application level has been mastered, the learner can expand skill and knowledge by examining information and breaking it down to make meaning of it. Based on mastery of the analysis level, individuals begin learning to consolidate information from various sources to find patterns, solutions or meaning to a given problem. Finally, based on mastering all other levels, the learner builds the critical thinking or assessment skills required at the evaluation level. Each level builds upon the preceding level.

1.3 Right Method for the Right Learning Type One cannot expect learners to generate solutions to problems if they have been required only to memorize information in the classroom and repeat it on a test. When learners must acquire lower level skills such as remembering and understanding information appropriate strategies include interactive lectures and self-study. However, as complexity increases and learners must apply knowledge to new or different situations, or break down and analyze information, strategies such as guided discussions and role-playing and other simulated exercises are required. These may include the use of case studies and other methods. Table 1 Instructional Methods Appropriate for Learning

Type of Learning Instructional Methods Recall/Interpret Lecture, Self-Study Application Tutorial, Guided Discussion, Self-Study Analysis Case Study, Simulation, Games, Problem-based Learning Synthesis Simulation, Case Study, Problem-based Learning Evaluation Study Assignment, Case Study, Simulations, Problem-

based Learning



Instructional Methods will be discussed further in the “Delivering Instruction” section of this course. The developmental building process that takes place during learning is often a combination of cognitive and physical skills. For instance, to set up a desktop computer, learners must first have some knowledge of the components, operating system and software suite. Another example is the developmental learning process of learning to drive. The learner must first recall and understand the rules of the road before they can apply them while driving. An indication of the levels of learning that must occur before a person drives is illustrated by reading the statements in the Figure below from the bottom to the top.

Figure 2 Levels of Learning Applied to the Driving Skill



1.4 Enhancing Learning According to Gagne4, successful learning takes place in an active environment. At a minimum, teachers must employ the following:

• explain the lesson objective; • present material to stimulate learners; • stimulate recall of prior learning; • guide learners; • allow learners to perform; and • provide learners with feedback and guidance on their performance.

In a more expanded form Gagne provides a checklist5 presented in the sections below.

1.4.1 Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception) Start the learning experience by gaining the attention of your audience. This change in stimulus alerts the group that learning will soon take place. Apply: Gain attention by raising the volume of your voice, gesturing, showing a short video on the topic of instruction, or using any other event that brings the period of "waiting for the lesson to start" to an end.

1.4.2 Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy) Next, you must ensure that your team knows what they need to learn, and that they understand why they're about to learn this new information. Apply: Explain to your team what they will have learnt by the end of the session. Then, explain how their learning is going to benefit them, and the organization. For example, you might explain that the new process that they're going to learn about will save the organization 20 percent in overhead fees. Because of recent budget cuts, the new lower-cost process will help your organization avoid laying six people off in your department. Now that your team understands why they're learning this new information, and what the risks are if they don't learn it, they'll be more motivated and more receptive to your training.

1.4.3 Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) When your people learn something new, match the new information with related information or topics they've learned in the past. Apply: Review any previous learning that you've done with your team, and apply it to what they're learning now. Also, ask your team if they have any previous experiences with the topic, or if they have experienced the problems that the training is trying to resolve. Then make connections between what they are learning, and their previous learning.

4 Gagné, R. M. (1992). Tryout of an organizing strategy for lesson design: Maintenance procedure with checklist (AL-TP-1992–0016). Brooks AFB, TX: Armstrong Laboratory, Human Resources Directorate. 5Found at http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/gagne.htm



1.4.4 Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) Present the new information to the group in an effective manner. Apply: Organize your information in a logical and easy-to-understand manner. Try to use a variety of different media and styles (such as visual cues, verbal instruction, and active learning) to suit people with different learning styles.

1.4.5 Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) To help your team learn and retain the information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate the information that you're trying to convey. Apply: Help your team learn more effectively by including examples, case studies, graphics, storytelling, or analogies.

1.4.6 Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding) At this stage, you need to ensure that your people can demonstrate their knowledge of what you've taught them. The way that they show this depends on what they're learning. Apply: If you've taught a new process or skill, ask your people to demonstrate how to use it (role-playing exercises can be useful for this). If you've taught new information, ask questions so that they can show their knowledge.

1.4.7 Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement) After your team demonstrates their knowledge, provide feedback and reinforce any points as necessary. Apply: Imagine that you've taught your team a new technique for handling difficult customers. After several role-playing scenarios, you notice that a few team members aren't assertive enough to calm the customer in this fictional "tense situation." Your feedback and tips point out their mistakes so that they can correct them.

1.4.8 Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval) Your team should be able to complete a test, or other measurement tool, to show that they've learned the material or skill effectively. Team members should complete this test independently, without any help or coaching from you. Apply: Tests, short questionnaires, or even essays can be good ways of testing your team's new knowledge.

1.4.9 Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization) In this last stage, your team members show that they've retained information by transferring their new knowledge or skill to situations that are different from the ones you've trained them on. Apply: Repeated practice is the best way to ensure that people retain information and use it effectively. Make sure that your team has enough opportunity to use their learning on a regular basis. Schedule "practice runs" if you've been training on a new process, or have a follow-up session to review information or skills. As people become more proficient, schedule in variants of the practice runs and expose people to different situations, so that they become comfortable generalizing.



1.5 Adult Learners Although the approach employed to facilitate learning can vary extensively depending on the complexity of the skills being learned, some strategies enhance adult learning in general. These are presented in the table below. Table 2 Strategies for Adult Learners

Strategy Explanation Actively Involve the Learner

Successful learning takes place in an active environment that requires learner participation. Learning that can be applied to an activity such as one that an individual is actually performing is particularly useful.

Provide a wide variety of learning activities

Use a variety of activities, tasks, methods and media. This increases the chance of appealing to a variety of learning styles and reaching all learners.

Provide opportunities for individuals to learn together

Peer tutoring or group learning activities. Allow people to be both teachers and learners. High knowledge retention rates have been shown to occur through group discussions, team projects and by having learners teach others.

Draw on the learners’ experiences

Familiarize yourself with the background and work experience of the class and allow them to provide information relevant to the teaching points when possible.

Ensure the lesion is anchored

Learning activities should be anchored to a larger task or problem. Authentic situations should be used in order to situate the learning and facilitate transfer to other environments.

1.5.1 Other Ways of Promoting Learning Additional techniques for enhancing the learning process have been developed by many sources. An incomplete list is provided in the sections below6.

1.5.1.1 Instructional Level Matching Ensure that students are being taught at the optimal instructional level, one that challenges them but provides enough success to keep these students confident and invested in learning.

1.5.1.2 Scaffolding Provide 'scaffolding' support (individual instructional modifications) to students as necessary to help them to master a new task or keep up with more advanced learners. Examples of scaffolding strategies include reducing the number of problems assigned to a student, permitting the student to use technological aids (e.g., word processing software which predicts student word selection to reduce keyboarding), and using cooperative learning groups that pool the group's knowledge to complete assignments.

6 Adapted from InterventionCentral.org “Teacher Strategies to Promote Learning” by Jim Wright found at http://www.pasadenaisd.org/curr_instr/intervention/tchrstrategies.pdf



1.5.1.3 Achievable Steps For complex, conceptually difficult, or multi-step academic operations, break these operations down into simple steps. Teach students to use the steps. When students are just acquiring a skill, you may want to create a poster or handout for students to refer to that lists the main steps of strategies that they are to use.

1.5.1.4 Modeling & Demonstration Model and demonstrate explicit strategies to students for learning academic material or completing assignments. Have them use these strategies under supervision until you are sure that students understand and can correctly use them.

1.5.1.5 Performance Feedback Make sure that students who are mastering new academic skills have frequent opportunities to try these skills out with immediate corrective feedback and encouragement. Prompt guidance and feedback will prevent students from accidentally 'learning' how to perform a skill incorrectly!

1.5.1.6 Drill & Practice As students become more proficient in their new skills and can work independently, give them lots of opportunities to drill and practice to strengthen the skills. Whenever possible, make student practice sessions interesting by using game-like activities; coming up with real-world, applied assignments; or incorporating themes or topics that the student finds interesting.

1.5.1.7 Student Talk Throughs When students appear to have successfully learned a skill, set up activities for them to complete and ask the students to 'talk' you through the activity (i.e., announce each step that they are taking, describe their problem-solving strategies aloud, describe any road-blocks that they run into and tell you how they will go about solving them, etc.).

1.5.1.8 Periodic Review Once students have mastered a particular academic skill your task is not complete. A good teacher should make sure that students retain previously mastered academic skills by periodically having them review that material. Periodic review is often overlooked but is a powerful method for keeping students' academic skills sharp.

1.5.1.9 Progress Monitoring Teachers can verify that students are making appropriate learning progress only when they are able to measure that progress on a regular basis. There are many different sources of information about how well a student is learning that can be drawn from several assessment approaches: e.g., curriculum-based assessment (quizzes, tests, etc.), accuracy and completeness of student assignments, student 'talk-through' demonstrations of problem-solving, etc.



1.6 Learning Styles Teachers should be aware of the individual learning styles he or she will encounter in the classroom. Learning styles refer to a learner’s preferred manner of learning knowledge, skills or attitudes. Knowledge of learning styles can help the instructor to effectively employ a variety of instructional methods and media7. Terms vary, however for illustration purposes those described by Kolb (1984)8 and Honey and Mumford (1992)9 are depicted below. Table 3 Learning Styles

Learning Style Description Recommended Method Activists Individuals who learn by

immersing themselves directly in a new experience.

Field trips, shop/laboratory work, role-plays, demonstration/performance of tasks for Activists who like to experience New things.

Reflectors Individuals who observe others and consider challenges from all sides before acting or making decisions.

Brainstorming sessions, observation of films or actual tasks, recording/tracking information for Reflectors who like to observe and consider ideas carefully before leaving.

Theorists Individuals who analyze their observations objectively, trying to create explanations and theories.

Lectures, papers, self-study for Theorists who like to develop explanations and theories.

Practitioners Individuals who prefer to apply new ideas readily, with little reflection, and experiment to solve problems.

Case studies, group exercises, and simulations for Practitioners who like to apply ideas.

1.7 The Laws of Learning10 There aren’t any real laws but these are a list of some pretty good guidelines. By necessity, they are incomplete and somewhat arbitrary but, nevertheless, useful.

1.7.1 The Law of Readiness To learn effectively, people must be physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to do so. Instructors should look for the following:

7 Hartman, V.F. (1995). Teaching and learning style preferences: Transitions through technology, VCCA Journal 9, no 2 Summer. 18-20. 8 Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall. 9 Honey, R. & Mumford, A. (1992). The manual of learning styles. Maidenhead, UK: Peter Honey. 10 Derived from Thorndike, D.L. (1966). Human Learning, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press.



• Effective instructors understand the law of readiness and do their utmost to ensure that these conditions are satisfied at the onset of any lesson. If learners have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and proper motivation for learning, they will make more progress and be more receptive to the instructor than learners who lack this motivation;

• Under certain circumstances, instructors can do little, if anything, to inspire readiness to learn. If outside responsibilities, interests, or worries are weighing too heavily on a learner’s mind, if the schedule is over-crowded, if personal problems seem insoluble, the learner will be unable to develop an interest in learning. Health, finances, or family affairs can overshadow a learner’s interest and desire to learn. Good instructors will maintain a relationship with learners, which will enable them to detect symptoms of these difficulties and attempt to alleviate them, so that the learners can become ready for learning; and

• Under normal circumstances, well-conceived motivation, meaningful review, and a well-defined aim at the beginning of each lesson will fulfil the requirement of readiness.

1.7.2 The Law of Relationship The law of relationship emphasizes the necessity for learners to understand the relationship between new and old facts and between ideas and skills. Learners must understand not only why they are learning a particular sequence, but also how the sequence combines with previous ones and where it fits in the overall curriculum. Instructors can best satisfy this principle by linking the lesson to previous ones.

1.7.3 The Law of Effect This law is based on the emotional reaction of the learners. It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and, conversely, is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. Examples are:

• An experience that produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility in learners is naturally unpleasant. If instructors attempt to teach beyond the learner’s level of understanding at an early stage, the learner is likely to feel apprehensive and will not find the experience satisfying; and

• A violation of this principle can occur during fault analysis or debriefs when instructors, in an attempt to be accurate, immediately emphasize all the errors that were committed by learners. This negative approach does not give the learner the necessary positive reinforcement to make the experience satisfying. A much better method, which also contributes to the principle of effect, is to point out the positive aspects of a learner’s performance and then discuss the errors that were committed. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that positively affect the learner and give some feeling of satisfaction. Every learning experience will not always have positive results. However, the learner’s chance of success will be increased if there is some sense of accomplishment and the learning experience is pleasant.



1.7.4 The Law of Exercise This law states that meaningful mental or physical activity is essential if learning is to occur. Course members learn by applying what they have heard or what has been demonstrated to them, and each time they practice their learning continues and is strengthened. Oral questioning, hypothetical problems, review, and/or practice are methods of satisfying this law.

1.7.5 The Law of Recency Other things being equal, the last things learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed, time-wise, from a new fact or understanding, the more difficulty he or she has in remembering it. For example, it is sometimes easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes previously, but it is usually impossible to recall an unfamiliar number dialed a week earlier.

1.7.6 The Law of Primacy Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression. This means that what instructors teach must be correct the first time. A faulty or inaccurate first demonstration may leave a false impression that is difficult to change because poor examples have to be unlearned in subsequent lessons.

1.7.7 The Law of Intensity The law of intensity implies that learners learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For instance, learners learn more from a vivid, dramatic or exciting experience than from a routine or boring one, e.g., they will learn more about fire fighting by watching someone fight a fire than by listening to a lecture on the subject. Therefore, instructors must use their imagination and employ methods, which mimic reality.

1.8 Learner Progression and Development Learners begin by learning new concepts and skills. They progress by applying the knowledge and skills in various situations representative of a real setting and by reflecting on instructor feedback and direction, as well as by considering how they performed, and what to do differently next time. In the final stages of the programme, most learners will have become more capable and as they gain further insight into the tasks they must perform, they will begin to take more responsibility for monitoring and improving their own performance. Learners who have developed to this stage will require less step-by-step direction from instructors but will still need coaching and cueing from the instructor to help them improve and perfect skills.

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