core labour standards and international trade - springer978-3-662-44619-5/1.pdf · preface...
TRANSCRIPT
Kofi AddoInternational BaccalaureateGenevaSwitzerland
ISBN 978-3-662-44618-8 ISBN 978-3-662-44619-5 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-44619-5Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014956663
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformation storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerptsin connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of beingentered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplicationof this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of thePublisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained fromSpringer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center.Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemptfrom the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date ofpublication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility forany errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, withrespect to the material contained herein.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
I dedicate this book to the women in my life,present and past:my wife, Boatemaa, and daughters, Azariah,Konadu, and Boatengmy mother, Doris Prempeh Owusumy late grandmother, Mercy Gladys Anin
Short Description of Book and About Author
The history of the linkage between the core labour standards (CLS) and interna-
tional trade dates back roughly 150 years and has recently become one of the most
vexing issues facing policymakers. At the heart of the debate is the question
whether or not trade sanctions should be imposed on countries that do not respect
the CLS as embodied in multilateral conventions administered by the International
Labour Organization (ILO). Concretely, this would entail inserting a social clause
in the World Trade Organization (WTO) rules and would trigger the imposition of
sanctions on those countries that do not adhere to the CLS.
This book examines the labour standard provisions in a number of regional and
bilateral trade agreements and assesses the potential of using the relevant clauses in
these trade agreements as a benchmark for a multilateral approach. Based on the
lessons learned from the regional model, the book proposes a global labour and
trade framework agreement (GLTFA) combined with a joint ILO/WTO enforce-
ment mechanism to resolve the contentious issue of the link between the CLS and
international trade.
Kofi Addo is a policy advisor with the Governance and Executive Support
Department of the International Baccalaureate Organization. He holds a Ph.D. in
law from the University of Bern, Switzerland.
vii
Foreword
The status of labour and human capital in the process of production of products and
of international trade ever since has been at the heart of economic theory and
political debate. In domestic law, labour standards pertain to the core of law
defining an economic system and the relationship of factors of production in a
particular country. In international law, this is much less the case. While trade
relations are legally defined in great detail in treaties and subject to law enforce-
ment in the WTO, labour standards have been largely developed on the basis of soft
law. The wide body of international agreements and conventions adopted by
Members of the International Labour Organization (ILO) does not impose strict
standards and leaves implementation to a process of reporting and monitoring. The
resulting imbalance triggered a broad debate as to whether labour standards should
be included in the multilateral framework of GATT and the WTO. Efforts so far
failed to establish such linkages in explicit terms, while progress was made on the
level of regional integration and preferential trade agreements.
The book looks into these regional and preferential efforts. In particular, it focuses
on the NAFTA North American Agreement on Labour Cooperation (NAALC) and
the new generation of preferential agreements concluded by the EU with ACP
countries, especially the Cotonou Agreement and developments within the incoming
Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). Upon exploring these and other prefer-
ential instruments, the work turns to the question to what extent these experiences
offer the groundwork for a subsequent multilateralization of disciplines on labour
relations in international law, combining ILO and WTO law. The author expounds
the fruitful relation of trade liberalization, enhancing welfare, poverty reduction and
enhanced labour relations. He takes issue with currently prevailing views in devel-
oping countries that binding labour standards reduce comparative advantages and
lays the ground for a fresh look at what is a complex issue, both in terms of political
economy and law.
The book is based upon a Ph.D. thesis in lawwritten within the doctoral programme
of the World Trade Institute and submitted to the Faculty of Law of the University of
Bern, Switzerland, in 2010. It was a privilege to work with Kofi Addo, benefiting from
ix
his experience in the field and his dedication to the cause of improving labour
conditions in the process of globalization in particular in developing countries. The
present book makes an important contribution in laying the groundwork for the
process of multilateralizing labour standards in the trading regime in coming years,
and perhaps decades, to come.
Bern, Switzerland Thomas Cottier
July 2014
x Foreword
Preface
Historically the issue of the correlation between core labour standards (CLS) and
international trade, it has been one of the most vexing issues facing global trade
policymakers—how to accommodate the growing consensus on the need to pro-
mote CLS within the framework of the multilateral trading system. The nature of
the subject raises the issues of whether CLS need to be part of a global set of trade
rules and whether doing so would be in the developmental interest of workers. The
sensitive nature of the issue, and the fact that it has been recurring for a 150 years
without any meaningful solution, makes the adoption of a novel approach very
important as the solutions being offered at the multilateral level do not seem to
satisfy both the supporters and critics of such a linkage.
Whilst developing countries oppose the inclusion of labour standards in the
WTO Agreement, they are, however, entering into bilateral, free trade agreements
or regional trade agreements, which include clauses on labour provisions among
themselves and also with developed countries, notably the United States of America
and the European Community.
Whilst there are some benefits to the inclusion of the core labour standards in
these regional arrangements, there is the need for an international legal framework
that would improve and strengthen the capacities of parties to these arrangements
(especially the developing countries), as a means of ensuring that the dots between
social, legal, and economic progress are connected, and also consolidate and sustain
growth for employment creation. This is an issue that not only has economic
consequences but also has legal, social, and political implications. And a discussion
of the issue will show how these factors relate to the debate as a whole.
This book considers whether the labour standard provisions in some of the
regional trade agreements could act as a stimulus for the multilateral system and
whether the regional model that has acted as a laboratory for other areas in the
multilateral trading system could again be relied upon to bridge the gap between the
opposing views on the correlation between labour standards and trade. An assess-
ment of the labour provisions in a number of RTAs is made to determine whether
those provisions are an effective means of protecting labour standards in the
xi
specific countries that are party to those agreements. The most prominent of these
agreements is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) side agree-
ment, the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC). Even
though there are significant limitations that hinder its effectiveness as a tool of
social change, its use since 1994 has enabled the rise of strong cross-border
cooperation and also drawn the public attention to the respect for the core labour
standards.
Regional trade agreements have become a testing ground for linking labour
standards and international trade. The successes and failures of this model could
hold the key in making trade work for development. This book proposes a legal
framework based on the structure of recent international framework agreements
(IFAs) that could act as a template to be adapted by signatories to these regional
arrangements to ensure that the principles that have guided the ILO and to which
the international community subscribe to are met. It is also a means to ensure that
social objectives are taken into account in economic and trade policy decision-
making—a simple but effective mechanism of resolving a contentious issue. The
framework is structured on the ILO tripartite system (compared to agreements
between governments), which has a greater potential to lead to constructive social
dialogue and make a positive contribution to respect for the core labour standards.
In proposing a blueprint or international legal framework template based on the
model in the regional trade agreements and also the IFAs, we are cognisant of the
shortcomings. However, this approach appears to be the best tool available in
reaching consensus on this vexing issue. The key is how the international commu-
nity translates the lessons learned at the regional level onto the global scene and
make the regional approach a force for good in promoting policy coherence at the
multilateral level.
Such an agreement has a greater possibility of extending the protection accorded
under the CLS beyond workers involved in production for export and workers who
work for multinationals to also workers involved in domestic production. This in a
way would help achieve the balance of equities both within the multilateral
economic rule-making process1 and through the incorporation of social concerns
and also at the national and enterprise levels.
Geneva, Switzerland Kofi Addo
1Abbott, F. M. (2000). Distributed governance at the WTO–WIPO: A evolving model for open-
architecture integrated governance. Journal of International Economic Law, 3, 65.
xii Preface
Acknowledgements
Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Thomas
Cottier for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His
encouragement, dedicated involvement, and guidance helped me during the period
of research and writing of this book. I cannot imagine having a better mentor for my
doctoral research.
I would also like to thank Prof. Steve Charnovitz for his insightful comments on
the earlier version of this book. His expert knowledge of the subject matter and the
hard questions on the draft was instrumental in getting the book to its present state.
Special thanks to Anke Seyfried (Associate Editor, Law) for her kind assistance
in getting the book to this stage. Thanks also to Julia Pelikan (Editorial Assistant,
Law) for her wonderful editorial work and Dagmar Kern (Project Coordinator,
Production). Thanks to all staff at Springer, who were involved in the publication
process.
I thank Dr. Edwini Kwame Kessie for introducing me to the world of trade law. I
am grateful to Donata Rugarabamu for reading the first draft of this book and for her
comments. I also express my appreciation to Karen Curtis for the opportunity to
work at the ILO, and also Dr. Konstantinos Papadakis for directing me to the
international framework agreements. Working at the ILO gave me firsthand expe-
rience in understanding how international framework agreements could be adapted
to the core labour standards and international trade issue.
To my mother, Doris Prempeh Owusu, who taught me the value of education,
perseverance, and encouraged me to stay the course, thank you, as well as to my
uncles, David Samson Effah and Felix Charles Kharsa, whose love of the law made
me choose the legal path. To my wider family, in particular my sisters: Joyce and
Linda, for their encouragement and support throughout the years.
I likewise thank my friend George “Billy” Addai for his encouragement during
the years of writing, and for being a great and wonderful friend for more than three
decades.
xiii
Finally, I wish to express my deepest gratitude and love to my children, Azariah,
Konadu, and Boateng, and my wife, Boatemaa—deepest thanks for her loving
support and for being the perfect partner for over a decade. My debt to her is
immeasurable, as is my deepest love.
xiv Acknowledgements
Table of Cases
1. International Court of Justice
Nicaragua Case, 1986 I.C.J. Rep. 14, 97.
Continental Shelf Case (Libya v. Malta), 1985 I.C.J. Rep. 13, 29.
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co. Ltd. (Belgium v. Spain) Second Phase,[1970] I.C.J. Rep. 4.
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (F.R.G v. Den., F.R.G. v. Neth.), 1969
I.C.J. Rep. 3,
Asylum case (Colombia v. Peru), 1950 I.C.J. 276, at 277 (20 November).
2. WTO Panels and Appellate Body
Argentina – Footwear (EC) Appellate Body Report, Argentina – SafeguardMeasures on Imports of Footwear, WT/DS121/AB/R, adopted 12 January
2000, DSR 2000:I, 515
Argentina – Footwear (EC) Panel Report, Argentina – Safeguard Measures onImports of Footwear, WT/DS121/R, adopted 12 January 2000, as modified by
Appellate Body Report WT/DS121/AB/R, DSR 2000:II, 575
Brazil – Retreaded Tyres Appellate Body Report, Brazil – Measures AffectingImports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R, adopted 17 December 2007
Brazil – Retreaded Tyres Panel Report, Brazil – Measures Affecting Imports ofRetreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/R, adopted 17 December 2007, as modified by
Appellate Body Report WT/DS332/AB/R
Canada – Autos Appellate Body Report, Canada – Certain Measures Affecting theAutomotive Industry, WT/DS/ 139/AB/R, WT/DS 142/AB/R, adopted 19 June
2000
xv
Canada – Autos Panel Report, Canada – Certain Measures Affecting the Automo-tive Industry, WT/DS 139, WT/DS 142/R, adopted 19 June 2000, as modified by
the Appellate Body Report WT/DS 139/AB/R, WT/DS 142/AB/R, DSR 2000
EC – Asbestos Appellate Body Report, European Communities – Measures Affect-ing Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products, WT/DS135/AB/R, adopted
5 April 2001, DSR 2001:VII, 3243
EC – Asbestos Panel Report, European Communities – Measures Affecting Asbes-tos and Asbestos-Containing Products, WT/DS135/R and Add.1, adopted
5 April 2001, as modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS135/AB/R, DSR
2001:VIII, 3305
EC – Bananas III Appellate Body Report, European Communities – Regime forthe Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas, WT/DS27/AB/R, adopted
25 September 1997, DSR 1997:II, 591
EC – Tariff Preferences Appellate Body Report, European Communities – Con-ditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries,WT/DS246/AB/R, adopted 20 April 2004, DSR 2004:III, 925
EC – Tariff Preferences Panel Report, European Communities – Conditions forthe Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/R,
adopted 20 April 2004, as modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS/246/
AB/R, DSR 2004:III, 1009
India – Quantitative Restrictions Appellate Body Report, India – QuantitativeRestrictions on Imports of Agricultural, Textile and Industrial Products,WT/DS90/AB/R, adopted 22 September 1999, DSR 1999:IV, 1763
India – Quantitative Restrictions Panel Report, India – Quantitative Restrictionson Imports of Agricultural, Textile and Industrial Products, WT/DS90/R,
adopted 22 September 1999, as upheld by Appellate Body Report WT/DS90/
AB/R, DSR 1999:V, 1799
Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II Appellate Body Report, Japan – Taxes onAlcoholic Beverages, WT/DS8/AB/R,WT/DS10/AB/R,WT/DS11/AB/R,
adopted 1 November 1996, DSR 1996:I, 97
Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II Panel Report, Japan – Taxes on AlcoholicBeverages, WT/DS8/R, WT/DS10/R, WT/DS11/R, adopted 1 November 1996,
as modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS8/AB/R,WT/DS10/AB/R,WT/
DS11/AB/R, DSR 1996:I, 125
Turkey – Textiles Appellate Body Report, Turkey – Restrictions on Imports ofTextile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R, adopted 19 November 1999,
DSR 1999:VI, 2345
Turkey – Textiles Panel Report, Turkey – Restrictions on Imports of Textile andClothing Products, WT/DS34/R, adopted 19 November 1999, as modified by
Appellate Body Report WT/DS34/AB/R, DSR 1999:VI, 2363
US – Gambling Appellate Body Report, United States – Measures Affecting theCross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R,
adopted 20 April 2005, DSR 2005:XII, 5663 (Corr.1, DSR 2006:XII, 5475)
US – Gambling Panel Report, United States – Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/R, adopted
xvi Table of Cases
20 April 2005, as modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS285/AB/R, DSR
2005:XII, 5797
US – Gasoline Appellate Body Report, United States – Standards for Reformulatedand Conventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/AB/R, adopted 20 May 1996, DSR 1996:
I, 3
US – Gasoline Panel Report, United States – Standards for Reformulated andConventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/R, adopted 20 May 1996, as modified by
Appellate Body Report WT/DS2/AB/R, DSR 1996:I, 29
US – Section 211 Appropriations Act Appellate Body Report, United States –Section 211 Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998, WT/DS176/AB/R, adopted
1 February 2002, DSR 2002:II, 589
US – Section 211 Appropriations Act Panel Report, United States – Section 211Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998, WT/DS176/R, adopted 1 February 2002,
as modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS176/AB/R, DSR 2002:II, 683
US – Shrimp Appellate Body Report, United States – Import Prohibition ofCertain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/AB/R, adopted 6 November
1998, DSR 1998:VII, 2755
US – Shrimp Panel Report, United States – Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimpand Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/R and Corr.1, adopted 6 November 1998, as
modified by Appellate Body Report WT/DS58/AB/R, DSR 1998:VII, 2821
US – Shrimp (Article 21.5 –Malaysia) Appellate Body Report, United States –Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products – Recourse to Article21.5 of the DSU by Malaysia, WT/DS58/AB/RW, adopted 21 November 2001,
DSR 2001:XIII, 6481
US – Shrimp (Article 21.5 –Malaysia) Panel Report, United States – ImportProhibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products – Recourse to Article 21.5of the DSU by Malaysia, WT/DS58/RW, adopted 21 November 2001, as upheld
by Appellate Body Report WT/DS58/AB/RW, DSR 2001:XIII, 6529
3. GATT
The reports are listed in order of the date of adoption or, if unadopted, the date of
publication.
EBelgium – Family Allowances GATT Panel Report, Belgian Family Allowances,G/32, adopted 7 November 1952, BISD 1S/59 (1953)
EEC – Import Restrictions GATT Panel Report, EEC – Quantitative RestrictionsAgainst Imports of Certain Products from Hong Kong, adopted 12 July 1983,
L/5511, BISD 30S/129
EEC (Member States) – Bananas 1, European Economic Community-MemberStates’ Import Regimes for Bananas, unadopted, Jun. 3, 1993, DS32/R.
Table of Cases xvii
Japan – Imported Wines and Alcoholic Beverages: Japan – Customs Duties,Taxes and Labelling Practices on Imported Wines and Alcoholic Beverages,adopted on 10 November 1987, BISD 34S/38 (1988)
Korea – Restrictions on Imports of Beef – Complaint by the United States,
adopted 7 November 1989, L/6503, BISD 63S/268.
US – Tuna (Mexico) GATT Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on Importsof Tuna, DS21/R, DS21/R, 3 September 1991, unadopted, BISD 39S/155
US – Tuna (Mexico) GATT Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on Importsof Tuna, unadopted, 3 September 1991, DS21/R, BISD 39S/155
US – Tuna (EEC) GATT Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on Imports ofTuna, DS29/R, 16 June 1994, unadopted
US–Tuna I: United States – Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, not adopted, BISD,39S/155 (1993).
US–Tuna II: United States – Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, not adopted,
33 I.L.M. (1994), pp. 839–903.
US – Tuna, GATT Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on Imports of Tuna(DS29/R), GATT Panel Report, circulated on 16 June 1994 (not adopted).
4. NAFTA/NAALC
(a) Canada
ITAPSA or Echlin Case, Canada NAO Submission No. 98-1 (April 6, 1998).
(b) Mexico
Sprint Case, Mexico NAO Submission No. 9501 (February 9, 1995).
Decoster Egg Case, Mexico NAO Submission No. 9803 (August 4, 1998).
(c) United States of America
U.S. NAO Submission No. 2005-03 (HIDALGO) (October 14, 2005).U.S. NAO Submission No. 2003-01 (PUEBLA) (September 30, 2003).Honeywell and General Electric Cases, U.S. NAO Submissions No. 940001 and
940002. (February 14, 1994).Sony Case, U. S. NAO Submission No. 940003 (SONY) (August 16, 1994)
xviii Table of Cases
5. Domestic Courts
(a) United Kingdom
Jenkins v Kingsgate (Clothing Productions) Ltd [1981] Case 96/80
E.C.R. 911, ECJ.
Murphy v Bord Telecom Eirrean [1988] Case 157/86 ECR 673.
EC Commission v United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, [1982]ICR 578, [1982] IRLR 333, ECJ.
Sibson-v-United Kingdom (Case 4/1992/349/422) [1993] ECHR 18; 14327/88;
[1993] ECHR 18.
(b) United States
State of Wisconsin ex rel v. Fitzgerald et al [2011, Case No: 11 CV 1244].
Doe, et al. v Unocal Corp. Case No. CV 96-6959 110 F. Supp. 2d 1294; 2000
US. Dist., March 25, 1997.
LFC, Inc. v. NLRB, 129 F.3d 1276 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
Sprogis v. United Air Lines, Federal Court of Appeals (Seventh Circuit),
16 June 1971.
Liggett Co. v. Lee 288 U.S. 517, 557-60 (1933)
Table of Cases xix
Table of Abbreviations
AB Appellate Body
ACP Africa, Caribbean and Pacific countries
AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial
Organizations
AGOA Africa Growth and Opportunity Act
APEC Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation
CAFTA-DR Central American Free Trade Agreement and Dominican
Republic
CAP Common Agricultural Policy (EU)
CARIFORUM Caribbean Forum of Caribbean States
CAT Centro de Apoyo al Trabajador
CAWN Central America Women’s NetworkCBTPA Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act
CEACR Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and
Recommendations
CEMAC Economic Community of Central African States plus the
Democratic Republic of Congo and Sao Tome and Prıncipe
CFA Committee on Freedom of Association
CLS Core Labour Standards
COLISIBA Coordinadora Latinoamericana de Sindicatos Bananeros
CUSFTA Canada–US Free Trade Agreement
CRTA Committee on Regional Trade Agreement
CTM Mexican Confederation of Labour
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
DSM Dispute Settlement Mechanism
EAC East African Community
EBA Everything But Arms
EC Economic Community
EEC European Economic Community
ECE Evaluation Committee of Experts
xxi
ECJ European Court of Justice
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States and Mauritania
EPA Economic Partnership Agreements
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council (United Nations)
ELSA Employment, Labour and Social Affairs Committee
ESA Eastern and Southern Africa
EU European Union
FOCAC Forum on China-African Cooperation
FPE Factor Price Equalization theorem
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FPRW Fundamental principles and rights at work
FTA Free Trade Agreement
FTAA Free Trade Agreement of the Americas
FTVO-CROC Federaci�on de Trabajadores Vanguardia Obrera de la
Confederaci�on Revolucionaria de Obreros y Campesinos
(“Workers Federation of the Revolutionary Confederation of
Workers and Peasants”)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GB Governing Body
GC General Council
GLTFA Global Labour and Trade Framework Agreement
GSP Generalized System of Preferences
IBT International Brotherhood of Teamsters
ICFTU International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
IFA International Framework Agreement
ILC International Labour Conference
ILO International Labour Organization
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
IMF International Monetary Fund
ITO International Trade Organization
IUF International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant,
Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers’ AssociationsITUC International Trade Union Confederation
LDC Least Developed Countries
LCM Labor Cooperation Mechanism
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MFN Most-Favoured Nation Principle
MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act
MNC Multinational Corporation
MSN Maquiladora Solidarity Network
MTS Multilateral Trading System
NAALC North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NAO National Administrative Office
xxii Table of Abbreviations
NBER National Bureau of Economic Research
NLRB National Labor Relations Board
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPIC Overseas Private Investment Corporation (USA)
OTAI Office of Trade Agreement Implementation
OTLA Office of Trade and Labor Affairs
PIF Pacific Islands Forum
PPM Process and Production Methods
RTA Regional Trade Agreement
RLTFA Regional Labour and Trade Framework Agreement
SADC Southern Africa Development Cooperation
TPA Trade Promotion Agreement
TRIPS Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights Agreement
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UE United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
USAS United Students Against Sweatshops
USTR United States Trade Representative
VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
WEF World Economic Forum
WTO World Trade Organization
Table of Abbreviations xxiii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Thesis of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Linkage Between the Core Labour Standards and International
Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Regional Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Legal Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 The Global Debate: The Linkage Between Labour Standards
and International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Overview of the Perspectives of the Proponents and Critics
of the Labour and Trade Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1 A Brief View of the Proponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 A Brief View of the Critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Is There a Case for International Labour Standards in
Trade Agreements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work as
Enabling Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Why Intellectual Property and Not CLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.3 Views from Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Multidisciplinary of the Issue of Labour Rights and
International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.1 Legal Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Social Perspective of Trade Regulation on Labour
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 The Economic and Social Rights Divide in a Globalised World . . . 33
xxv
2.5.1 Social Policy and Trade Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.2 Globalisation and Social Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5.3 The Relevance of International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5.4 The Regional Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6 Globalisation, Labour Standards, and International Trade
Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.1 The Concept of Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.2 The Impact of Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.3 Globalisation and the Labour Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.4 The Anxiety Over Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Issues in the Labour Standards and International Trade Debate . . . 43
2.7.1 Labour Standards and Wage Inequality in Developed
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7.2 Trade and Employment and the Issue of Jobs Migration . . . 47
2.7.3 Outsourcing and the American Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.7.4 Labour Standards and Developing Country
Competitiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.5 Labour Standards and Foreign Direct Investment Flows:
Is There a ‘Race to the Bottom’? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.8 The Role of Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.8.1 Trade and Poverty Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.8.2 Changing Landscape of Trade Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.8.2.1 South–South Trade Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.8.2.2 The Impact of South–South Trade Relations
on the Linkage Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9 The Financial Crisis and Labour Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.9.1 Impact of the Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.9.1.1 Remittances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.9.2 The Impact of the Crisis on Core Labour Standards
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3 The History of Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1 The History of the Linking of Labour Standards and Trade . . . . . . 77
3.2 Early Developments of the Linkage Between Trade and
Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 The Pioneers of the Interface Between Trade and Labour
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4 The ILO and the Link Between Labour Standards and
International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 The ILO Supervisory and Enforcement Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . 86
xxvi Contents
3.5.1 Regular System of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5.1.1 Committee of Experts on the Application
of Conventions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . 87
3.5.1.2 The Conference Committee on the Application
of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.2 The Special Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5.2.1 Procedure for Representation in Applying
Ratified Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5.2.2 Procedure for Complaints Concerning Ratified
Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5.2.3 Procedure for Complaints with Respect to
Freedom of Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 Evaluation of the ILO Supervisory Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.7 Labour Standards at the International Level: The Definition
and Selection of Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7.1 The Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.7.2 The Emergence of CLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.7.3 Benefits of CLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.7.4 Freedom of Association and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.8 The ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights
at Work, 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.9 Labour Standards as Universal Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4 Legal Analysis: CLS, International Law, and the Process
and Production Method Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 Customary Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.1 CLS and Customary International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.2 State Practice as Customary Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2.3 Opinion Juris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.3.1 VCLT Article 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3.2 Article 41: Modification to Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3.3 Modification Under GATT Article XXIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4 Core Labour Standards as Jus Cogens? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.1 Brief Overview of Jus Cogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.2 Jus Cogens and Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.5 Core Labour Standards as Workers (Human) Rights . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.1 Human Rights and Workers’ Rights: Individual andCollective Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.5.2 Workers’ Rights at the International Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.6 Labour Standards and the WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Contents xxvii
4.6.1 A Brief History of the Multilateral Trading System . . . . . . 130
4.6.2 WTO Legal System: Trade Measures and Core Labour
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.6.2.1 GATT Article I: Most-Favoured Nation
(MFN) Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.6.2.2 GATT Article II: Schedule of Concessions . . . . . 133
4.6.2.3 GATT Article III: National Treatment . . . . . . . . 133
4.6.2.4 GATT Article XI:1: Quantitative
Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.6.3 Enforcement Under WTO Legal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.6.3.1 Impact on the WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.6.3.2 General Exceptions Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.7 The Process and Production Method (PPM) Debate . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.7.1 What Are PPMs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.7.2 The Political Economy of PPMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.7.3 GATT/WTO and PPMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5 Unilateral Social Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.2 Social Clauses in International Trade Agreements: Precedents . . . 148
5.3 Unilateral Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3.1 The Enabling Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4 U.S. Unilateral Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.4.1 The United States Generalised System of Preferences . . . . 151
5.4.2 Impact of United States GSP on Beneficiary Countries . . . 155
5.5 The European Union’s Generalised System of Preferences . . . . . . 156
5.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.5.2 The EU’s New GSP Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.5.3 Tariff Preferences Under the Special Incentive
Arrangement (GSP+) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5.3.1 The Provisions of the 2001 and 2012
GSP+ Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.5.3.2 The WTO Decision on the India GSP Case . . . . . 162
5.5.3.3 Panel Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.5.3.4 Appellate Body Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.5.3.5 The Relevance of the Appellate Body Decision . . . 163
5.6 Impact of European GSP Scheme on Beneficiary Countries . . . . . 164
5.7 International Framework Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.7.1 IFAs and Corporate Social Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.7.2 Expectations from IFAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.7.3 Impact of IFAs on the Labour and Trade Linkage . . . . . . . 170
5.7.4 Binding Nature of IFAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
xxviii Contents
6 Regional Trade Agreements and the Interface Between Labour
Standards and International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2 The Rise of Regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3 Legal Basis for RTAs Under the Multilateral System:
GATT/WTO Rules on RTAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.4 Relevant Multilateral Rules on Regional Trade Agreements . . . . . 182
6.5 Examination of the Relevant Sections of Article XXIV . . . . . . . . 184
6.5.1 Analyses of the Legal Implications of Regional Trade
Agreements Under WTO Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.5.2 The Scope of Article XXIV:4 and Its Relationship with
Other Provisions in Article XXIV of GATT 1994 . . . . . . . 187
6.5.3 Review of WTO Rules Relating to Regional Trading
Agreements: Examination of Article XXIV:5, 7, & 8
of GATT 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.5.3.1 Relevant Provisions of Article XXIV . . . . . . . . . 190
6.5.3.2 The Quantitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.5.3.3 The Qualitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.6 Agreements Notified Pursuant to the Enabling Clause . . . . . . . . . 198
6.6.1 Requirements Under the Enabling Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.6.2 The Enabling Clause and Article XXIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.7 The Impact of the Turkey-Textiles Case on the CLS
and Trade Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.7.1 Issues in the Turkey-Textiles Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.7.2 Appellate Body Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.7.3 The Dispute Settlement Mechanism and the Scope of
Review on the Overall Consistency of Regional Trade
Agreements with the Provisions of Article XXIV . . . . . . . 207
6.7.4 Concurrent Jurisdiction Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7 Regional Trade Agreements and Labour Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.1 Labour Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.2 United States of America RTAs with Labour Provisions . . . . . . . . 212
7.3 United States of America’s Motives for Promoting FTAs . . . . . . . 215
7.4 Review of United States of America Free Trade Agreements
and Labour Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.1 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . . . . 216
7.4.1.1 NAALC: Precedent for Labour Standards in
Trade Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4.1.2 Obligations of the Three Parties Under
NAALC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.4.2 Labour Provisions in the United States–Jordan FTA
(U.S.–Jordan FTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Contents xxix
7.4.3 Labour Provisions in the United States–Singapore Free
Trade Agreement (U.S.–Singapore FTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.4.4 Labour Provisions in the United States–Chile Free Trade
Agreement (U.S.–Chile FTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.4.5 Labour Provisions in the United States–Peru Trade and
Promotion Agreement (U.S.–Peru FTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.5 European Free Trade Agreements with Labour Provisions . . . . . . 231
7.5.1 Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.5.2 European Community–Chile Association Agreement
(EC–Chile FTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.5.3 EU–ACP Agreement (The Cotonou Agreement and the
Economic Partnership Agreements) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.5.3.1 Trade and Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.5.4 EU–CARIFORUM States Partnership Agreement . . . . . . . 240
7.5.4.1 Respect for Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.5.4.2 Dispute Settlement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.5.5 EU–Republic of Korea FTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.5.5.1 Respect for the Core Labour Standards . . . . . . . . 244
7.5.5.2 Dispute Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.6 Regional Trade Agreements of Canada with Labour Provisions . . 247
7.6.1 Canada–Chile Free Trade Agreement (CCFTA) . . . . . . . . 248
7.6.2 Canada–Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.6.3 Canada–Colombia Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.6.4 Canadian FTAs with Chile, Costa Rica, and Colombia:
Labour Institutions and Dispute Settlement Mechanisms . . 250
7.6.4.1 Dispute Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.7 Selection of Other Regional Trade Agreements with Labour
Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.7.1 Asian Trade Agreements with Labour Provisions . . . . . . . 253
7.7.2 African Trade Agreements with Labour Provisions . . . . . . 254
7.7.3 Chile Trade Agreements with Labour Provisions . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8 The Impact of Regional Trade Agreements on the Labour-Trade
Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.2 The Influence of RTAs on the Multilateral System . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.2.1 RTAs as Stimulus for the Multilateral System . . . . . . . . . . 262
8.2.2 RTAs as Laboratories for the Multilateral System . . . . . . . 263
8.2.2.1 General Standpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.3 The U.S. Trade Act of 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.4 Implications of NAALC on Labour Rights Protection in
North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
xxx Contents
8.5 Labour Enforcement Under NAALC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.5.1 NAALC: The Dispute Resolution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.5.2 Review of Selected Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.5.2.1 U.S.A. OTLA (Formerly NAO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.5.2.2 Mexico NAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.5.2.3 Canada NAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.5.3 General Discussion of the NAALC Submissions . . . . . . . . 287
8.6 Impact of NAALC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.6.1 Critics of NAALC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.6.2 Supporter’s Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.6.3 Overall Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.7 Do FTAs Advance Workers’ Basic Rights? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.7.1 CAFTA-DR and Labour Standards Compliance . . . . . . . . 296
8.7.1.1 Labour Enforcement Under CAFTA . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.7.1.2 Impact of CAFTA-DR on Labour Standard
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.7.2 Lessons from the U.S.–Cambodia Textile Agreement . . . . 304
8.8 The Limits of Regional Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.8.1 Regional Efforts Versus Multilateralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.8.2 A Global Issue in a Regionalised World and Its Implications
at the National Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9 Conclusion and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.1 Social Norms and Trade Liberalisation in a Globalised World . . . 313
9.2 Lessons from the Regional Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
9.3 RTAs and an International Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.4 Development of a Global Labour and Trade Framework
Agreement: Joint ILO/WTO Enforcement Mechanism . . . . . . . . . 320
9.4.1 Institutional Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.4.2 Distribution of Governance Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.4.3 Cooperation Between the ILO and WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.4.4 Consultations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.4.5 Dispute Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
9.5 Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Contents xxxi
List of Figures
Fig. 7.1 Institutional structure of NAALC. Source: GAO-01-933 North
American Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Fig. 8.1 NAALC submission process. Source: Finbow (2006), p. 68 . . . . . . . 271
xxxiii
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Core ILO Conventions and number of ratifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 5.1 U.S. trade and investment legislation with labour standard
provisions (1890–1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Table 5.2 Evolution of labour provisions in the EU GSP, from 1995
to 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Table 7.1 United States FTAs with labour rights and social provisions . . . . 214
Table 7.2 Comparison of key provisions of U.S.–Jordan FTAs and
NAFTA .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Table 7.3 Key labour aspects of U.S. Trade Agreements in all models . . . . 232
Table 7.4 EU trade agreements with labour provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Table 7.5 Canada FTAs with labour provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Table 7.6 Asian FTAs with labour provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Table 7.7 Sub-Saharan African FTAs with labour provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Table 7.8 Latin America and Caribbean FTAs with labour provisions . . . . . 257
Table 7.9 Chilean FTAs with labour provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 8.1 NAALC labour principles and levels of treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 8.2 Regional Priorities and Recommendations of the
Working Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
xxxv
List of Boxes
Box 2.1 The Story of the Prisoners’ Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Box 2.2 Links Between Trade and CLS: The Findings of Recent Empirical
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Box 2.3 Labour Relations in Singapore (1997–1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Box 3.1 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights
at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Box 3.2 International Labour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Box 6.1 The Motives for Regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Box 7.1 The Three-Tier System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Box 8.1 Resolution of Disputes: North American Agreement on
Labor Cooperation (NAALC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
xxxvii