cooperative governance in the water sector: an alternative...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cooperative Governance in the Water Sector:
An Alternative Model for Intervening in Water-Service Delivery Failures at
Local Government Level
Presented to
The Graduate School of Business University of Cape Town
In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Business Administration specialising in Executive Management
SUBMITTED BY: BONISWA DEBBIE HENE
SUPERVISORS:
ROBERT BURAWUNDI AND PROFESSOR KOSHEEK SEWCHURRAN
December 2017
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DECLARATION
1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another‟s work and pretend that it is
your own.
2. I have used the APA convention for citation and referencing. Each significant
contribution and quotation from the works of other people has been attributed, cited and
referenced where appropriate.
3. I certify that this submission is all my own work.
4. I have not allowed and will not allow anyone to copy this assignment with the intention
of passing it off as his or her own work.
Date: 04 December 2017 Copyright UCT
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ABSTRACT
The general public and the civil society organsiations always call for national government to
intervene in cases of water-service delivery failures at local government level. Urgent
intervention will be called upon to ensure the provision of clean drinking water and to save lives.
National Ministers see themselves as dealing with poor municipal performance, by having to
give instructions to mitigate risks, and so on. Service delivery protests that have beset South
Africa since 2008 have mainly been characterised by grievances related to municipal services
such as lack of electricity, water and sanitation, with water being frequently cited as the main
grievance.
When local government fails to provide basic services – in this case, water supply – the
Constitution requires the national and provincial spheres of government to intervene, take over
and execute the function. This paper argues that the process of intervention as prescribed in the
Constitution and legislation is very lengthy and time-consuming, and not efficient as a response
to water-related service delivery failure. The paper explores options on how the intervention
process can be remodelled to clarify roles, responsibilities and accountability between the three
spheres of government with regards to the failure of water-supply service delivery.
The study followed an inductive qualitative research methodology and draws conclusions on the
basis of a pattern that emerges from the collected data.
The key findings of the research suggest that the intervention process in general is indeed too
onerous and that it has been used to manage day-to-day operations instead of dealing with
emergency situations. Among other things, the findings highlight a need for the provincial and
national spheres to intensify or enhance their constitutional role to monitor and support
municipalities and avoid managing servicer delivery though emergency interventions.
Keywords: Governance, cooperative government, water supply, water service delivery failure,
organisational design, spheres of government, intervention process, Informants, Constitution
(1996), accountability.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisors, Robert Burawundi, and Professor Kosheek Sewchurran for
being there to offer a helping hand, guidance and direction during the process of writing this
paper.
Special thanks go to Jenny McDonough for her guidance, for always being there to help get us
unstuck with her ability to simplify and demystify the concepts of this programme during the two
years of its duration. To all my EMBA 18 classmates: we were a special cohort. We loved and
hated each other, and we dealt with uncomfortable issues. I learnt a lot from each of you. I am
sure the GSB learnt a lot from us, and I hope the experience will add value to the programme.
Special thanks are also due to Professor Evans Kalula, my cheerleader, for insisting that I sign up
for the programme. Indeed, as he had advised, I may not have grasped all the learnings, but the
programme has been of significant value to me – one of which is to talk less and listen more.
I thank Vuyiseka Makhubalo for being there to take care of household chores when I needed
time to concentrate on writing. I see her as a daughter, but she has also indeed been a friend in
need.
I dedicate this study to my children. To my twin sons, Jabulani Ncube and Luzuko Ncube, and
my daughter, Lilitha Hene, thank you for enduring the unending hours of Mama being at the
desk: yours was the most significant contribution to this study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................................................. ix
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................................................................ x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Literature that informs the study ...................................................................................... 6
1.4 Research methodology ........................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Rigour and ethical considerations ................................................................................... 10
1.6 Outline of the study ........................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Pragmatism research paradigm ....................................................................................... 13
2.3 Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................... 15
2.4 Research method: Data gathering and analysis ............................................................. 21
2.4.1 Data-gathering techniques ............................................................................................. 21
2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................. 26
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Governance and cooperative governance ....................................................................... 26
3.3 Organisational design ....................................................................................................... 30
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3.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS .................................................. 41
4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 41
4.2. Background to the respondents ...................................................................................... 42
4.3. Data presentation and analysis .......................................................................................... 42
4.4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 5: A NEW CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR INTERVENTION IN THE
WATER SECTOR ..................................................................................................................... 56
5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 56
5.2. A process for integrative thinking ..................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND LEARNING JOURNEY ............................................. 64
6.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 64
6.2. My experience in undertaking this project ................................................................... 64
6.3 My experience in interviewing informants .................................................................... 66
6.4. My experience with the data gathering, presentation and analysis ............................ 67
6.5. The development of my integrative-thinking capacity through this project ............. 68
6.6 Recommendations for future consideration ................................................................... 68
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 71
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 75
Appendix 1: Theoretical Propositions ...................................................................................... 75
Appendix 2: Interrelationship Diagraph (ID) ......................................................................... 84
Appendix 3: Framing of ID variables ...................................................................................... 84
Appendix 4: Interview Guide Questions .................................................................................. 85
Appendix 5: Interview Log ....................................................................................................... 86
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Rich picture showing how the three spheres of government are constituted .................. 1
Figure 2: A cooperative governance intervention process as per s 139(7) of the Constitution
(1996) and s 63 of the Water Services Act (108 of 1997). ............................................................. 4
Figure 3: Venn diagram showing areas of literature consulted for this study ................................ 7
Figure 4: A basic VSM diagram (Walker, 1991) .......................................................................... 17
Figure 5: The integrative thinking process ................................................................................... 19
Figure 6: A depiction of the study‟s research methodology ......................................................... 24
Figure 7: Diagram showing levels of recursion and system to be diagnosed ............................... 31
Figure 8: A system-in-focus showing operational units and their respective environments ........ 32
Figure 9: VSM of cooperative governance for water supply ........................................................ 33
Figure 10: Knowledge funnel uncovering the salient features of the intervention process through
cooperative governance ................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 11: A Causal Loop Diagram depicting variables related to intervention process within a
cooperative governance system in the area of water supply. ........................................................ 39
Figure 12: Key concepts and themes emanating from the data structure ..................................... 48
Figure 13: Emergency intervention mechanism ........................................................................... 57
Figure 14: Institutionalised support mechanism ........................................................................... 57
Figure 15: A "Double Down" technique for model generation ................................................... 60
Figure 16: A "Hidden Gem" technique for model generation ...................................................... 61
Figure 17: A "Decomposition" technique for model building ...................................................... 61
Figure 18: Illustration of the integrative resolution ...................................................................... 62
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: The data structure ........................................................................................................... 44
Table 2: What is retained and rejected in the models ................................................................... 58
Table 3: How the new model affects stakeholders ....................................................................... 63
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACRONYM DESCRIPTION
BMI Business model innovation
COGTA Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs
DWS Department of Water and Sanitation
GSB Graduate School of Business
ITP Integrative thinking practice
MEC Member of the Executive Council
NFER National Foundation for Educational Research
STF Safe to Fail
SALGA South African Local Government Association
VSM Viable systems model
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TERM MEANING
Cabinet member National minister responsible for a portfolio
Local Authority Municipality
Member of the Executive
Council
Member of a provincial cabinet
National Council of Provinces House of Parliament representing provincial
governments and local government
Original powers and functions Deriving directly from the Constitution
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
South Africa has three spheres of government – national, provincial and local. They are
constitutionally obliged to observe and apply the principles of cooperative governance and
intergovernmental relations while developing and implementing policies and executing their
functions (Constitution, 1996, s.40). In the case of water services, national and local spheres
are key role-players alongside citizens, who constitute an important segment of governance,
particularly at the local level. An integrated development plan is designed to facilitate
cooperative governance across the three spheres of government. For efficient delivery of
water and sanitation services, local governments‟ integrated development plans need to be
aligned with the national Department of Water and Sanitation‟s Water Services Development
Plans. Provincial governments play a key role in coordinating alignment between the
integrated development plans and water services development plans. They manage the water
function in relation to development planning and environmental management, which includes
disaster management. Figure 1 show how the three spheres of government are constituted in
relation to the water function.
Figure 1: Rich picture showing how the three spheres of government are constituted
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This chapter explains the study‟s focus on a situation of concern relating to water
management. It provides background context and outlines research goals and focal questions,
which highlight the study‟s importance. Using grounded theory methodology to develop its
theoretical framework, the study proposes an alternative model to cooperative governance in
the water sector. The study is thorough and accurately represents information gathered from
informants. The concluding section summarises the key issues of this chapter and outlines
how the study will unfold.
1.2 Background
This section explains the significance and relevance of the study. It outlines the situation of
concern and the researcher‟s personal, practical and intellectual goals. The study has
identified focal questions to guide the research into the situation of concern. The questions
also guide the literature review which, according to the National Foundation for Educational
Research (NFER, 2015), helps one to understand how, if at all, the situation of concern has
been addressed within the research community. The study is conducted within the framework
of a viable systems model (VSM) and integrative thinking practice (ITP). These frameworks
help to diagnose the current cooperative governance system in the water sector and to
develop the prototype model.
The research methods for data gathering include conducting interviews with individuals,
facilitating focus groups and offering personal observations.
1.2.1 Situation of concern
The study‟s situation of concern is that national government takes too long to intervene when
local government fails to execute its constitutional obligation to supply water. The
intervention process needs to be reviewed. The current cooperative governance system in the
water sector involves many actors and lengthy bureaucratic procedures. The system does not
allow for national government to respond efficiently when a municipality fails to fulfill its
constitutional obligation to supply water. Sections 139(7) of the 1996 Constitution and 63 of
the (Water Services Act, 1997) prescribe the legal framework for national government‟s
response when a municipality fails to execute its water services-related function. The
framework requires cooperative governance, which this study argues is too lengthy and
inefficient.
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A crisis in the water sector requires a prompt response, given that water shortages have life-
threatening consequences. For instance, in the community of Biesiesvlei, in Ngaka Modiri
Molema local municipality in the North West province, about eight children under the age of
two died, and the residents strongly believed this to have been connected to possible water-
related deaths in the district (Infrastructue News, 2014). It was also reported that about 18
babies died in two different municipalities in the North West province. These deaths are
understood to have been caused by poor-quality drinking water allegedly contaminated by
sewage (Infrastructure news, 2014).
This makes the water sector an exceptional area, one requiring a different approach to
rectifying problems than other sectors.
1.2.2. The cooperative governance intervention process
When a local authority (municipality) fails to execute a water function, such as failing to
supply potable water, the cabinet member responsible for managing the nation‟s water (the
Minister of Water and Sanitation) is required to consult the cabinet member responsible for
overseeing the local government sphere (the Minister of Cooperative Governance and
Traditional Affairs). The Minister in the Department of Water and Sanitation should in turn
request a Member of the Executive Council (MEC) responsible for local government to
intervene in the relevant local authority to manage the execution of the function the
municipality failed to execute. If the intervention by the MEC fails or is not effective
(Constitution, 1996 s 139(7)), the national Minister of Water and Sanitation is required to
assume the function pending permission from national parliament through the National
Council of Provinces, which has discretion to approve such an intervention (s 63 Water
Services Act). If it does not approve it, the intervention must be terminated immediately.
Figure 2 illustrates the intervention process prescribed by the legal framework.
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Figure 2: A cooperative governance intervention process as per s 139(7) of the
Constitution (1996) and s 63 of the Water Services Act (108 of 1997).
1.2.3 Research goals
Maxwell (2009) argues that goals should answer questions about the purpose of the study,
issues intended to be clarified by the research, structures, processes and practices the study is
likely to influence, and why the results are worth noting. The overall objective of this
research is to influence policy and legislative review processes in relation to the management
of water services. This study aims to review the cooperative governance process between the
national Department of Water and Sanitation and municipalities to ensure effective water
service delivery. This is necessary because the Department of Water and Sanitation and/or the
national government sphere is regularly called upon to account for failures relating to water
services, yet it does not directly manage local government and the municipalities that execute
that function.
The ministers of Water and Sanitation, Health, and Cooperative Governance and Traditional
Affairs were requested by the Centre for Environmental Rights (CER) to intervene urgently
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to ensure the provision (Chigwata, T.C., O‟Donovan, M.O., Powell, D.M. Civic, 2017)of
clean drinking water to a number of towns in the North West province (Infrastructure News,
2014). The residents of Mokgola village in the North West province demanded that they be
addressed by the Minister of Water when they staged a protest over water-supply
interruptions that were caused when three pumps broke down (Infrastructure News, 2014).
As a practical goal of this study, institutionalising the relationship between the Department of
Water and Sanitation and local authorities would shorten the intervention process required
when a municipality fails to supply water. It would allow challenges such as water services
delivery protests to be managed better and more decisively if final accountability were
assigned to the Department of Water and Sanitation.
This study aims to understand why service delivery failures occur when there is a legal
framework that promotes cooperative governance for policy implementation and service
delivery. Research by the (Water Research Commission, 2013) and the University of the
Western Cape shows an increase in protests since 2008 and that public dissatisfaction with
municipal water services is high (Chigwata et al., 2017). It is important to understand why
water services continue to be a major reason for public protests. Legally, citizens are required
to be involved in local government decision-making (Local Government: Municipal Systems
Act, 2000) through integrated development plans and water services development plans.
1.2.4 Focusing questions
Section 27 of the Constitution makes access to water a human right for all citizens. Although
it is a function of local government to provide access to water (Constitution s 152(1)(b) and
Schedule 4 Part B), the national and provincial government spheres have a constitutional duty
to support local government (s. 54(1)).
The local government framework legislation takes the cooperative nature of governance
beyond the three spheres of government to include citizens. A municipality is officially
defined as consisting of (i) the political structures and administration of the municipality, and
(ii) the community of the municipality (s. 2, Local Government: Municipal Systems Act,
2000). Despite their statutory inclusion in local government, citizens are overwhelmingly
dissatisfied with local government‟s provision of services. Given the evident failings in the
existing system of cooperative government, this study explores the following question:
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Macro question
Is the current cooperative governance framework effective in responding to a service
delivery failure with respect to water supply at local government level and, if not,
what is the alternative?
The question is addressed through the following sub-questions:
1. What is the framework for managing water in South Africa?
2. What does the cooperative governance system for water management entail?
3. Is the cooperative governance system effective in dealing with a water-related
service delivery failure at local government level?
4. What is the alternative model for dealing with such failures?
5. What would the alternative model entail? Does it require constitutional
amendment or institutional reform?
1.3 Literature that informs the study
The background to the study, which includes the outline of the situation of concern, the goals
and focal questions help to guide the literature that informs the study. The study draws from
three sets of literature based on the key variables of the study. Figure 3 below shows the
specific areas of literature that was consulted for the diagnosis of the current cooperative
governance system generally and specifically in the water sector.
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Figure 3: Venn diagram showing areas of literature consulted for this study
1.3.1 Governance
The study explores international perspectives on the concept of governance by examining
reports of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The
OECD, a group of thirty-four member countries that develop economic and social policy,
operates on cooperative governance principles. In examining governance in South Africa,
the study is guided by the King code of governance principles. The study draws insights
from the King reports (King i, ii, iii and iv) as well as King‟s views on cooperative
governance in South Africa. The South African King Committee was established in 1992
with a mandate to propose corporate governance principles in preparation for the democratic
dispensation of 1994.
The study refers to the work of scholars who have contributed to the debate on the
constitutionally guaranteed cooperative governance system. The extensive work of Steytler
& De Visser (2009) on the constitutional powers and functions of the three spheres of
government has been consulted. Steytler and De Visser are internationally acclaimed public
law scholars focusing on multilevel government and have contributed to the drafting of
Governance/
cooperative
Governance
Water
Governance/coope
rative governance
Organisational Design
(VSM & ITP theoretical
frameworks)
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many constitutions around the world. Their extensive work on the Local Government Law
(2009) in South Africa has been particularly relevant for the study.
1.3.2 Water governance
The second component of the literature review concerns water governance. The report of the
Ministerial Council meeting on (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,
2015)(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015) provides important
international perspective on water governance. According to the report, an argument was
made that “water crisis is primarily a governance crisis” (2015, p. 2). This argument is the
basis of this study. The focal questions aim to explore how the institutional realignment
affects the technical and administrative competence of an institution. Discussion at the
Ministerial Council meeting on water governance raised questions about how to proceed in
the event of a water-related crisis: Who does what at which level of government? How? It is
important not only to identify where power is nested in a system but to assess more closely
the value and impact of each individual‟s or institution‟s contribution to the system.
1.3.3 Organisational design
As mentioned, the main aim of the study is to diagnose the current cooperative governance
system with a view to building an alternative model for cooperative governance in the water
sector. Beer, (1989) viable systems model (VSM) helps with the diagnosis of the current
cooperative governance system. The study draws on different authors‟ perspectives on
Beer‟s contribution. Walker, (1991) notes the hermeneutical character of VSM, arguing that
it helps to interpret the complexity of water governance. Pérez Ríos‟s perspective (2010) on
organisational cybernetics exists side by side with the VSM as another powerful tool in
facilitating the design or diagnosis of organisations. Flood and Jackson‟s concept of
requisite variety demands that organisational intelligence to be alert and respond to changes
triggered by internal and external forces. This is relevant as the democratic nature of
governance needs to anticipate and appropriately respond to diverse stakeholders. The
integrated thinking practice (ITP) framework (Martin, 2010) has mainly been used to help
build an alternative prototype model for cooperative governance in the water sector. In
particular, Martin‟s (2007, cited in Sewchurran, 2017) theory of opposable minds has been
helpful in integrating the current cooperative governance system with an alternative
solution. The model-building was guided by the phronetic social science research approach,
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which emphasises practical research by answering critical value-rational questions
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 474).
1.4 Research methodology
The study uses a pragmatic, qualitative research approach. It is a flexible approach that is
suitable for any method of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2014). Pragmatists believe
in multiple perspectives (Hernes, 2014, Baker & Schaltegger, 2015) and that reality is a
social construct determined by context (Coyne, 2005, cited in Mcdonogh, 2014).
The data collection and analysis are based on the grounded theory method, which requires
the researcher to present the lived, unadulterated experiences of the informants when
presenting and analysing the research findings (Charmaz, 2014; Gioia, Corley, & Hamilton,
2013). The grounded theory research methodology operates inductively in that the data has
been analysed in terms of repeated elements. These have then been coded using themes that
have emerged from the data collected to generate a conceptual theory that accounts for a
pattern of behaviour, which is the main goal of grounded theory (Glazer & Holton, 2007). In
other words, this study followed a phronesis values-based research style, which distinctly
considers the interests of the informants (Flyvbjerg, 2006).
1.4.1 Data collection method
The research methodology involved a literature review as a secondary research method to
understand the perspectives of other researchers in dealing with the same or a similar
situation of concern (Anderson, et al., 1970, cited in McDonough‟s class presentation,
2017). Along with the literature review process, theoretical propositions were developed
around the key concepts that guided the literature search. These concepts are governance,
cooperate governance and the theoretical frameworks VSM and ITP used as lenses for the
organisational design. The theoretical propositions were developed to help with
understanding and synthesising the literature, and they appear in Appendix 1 of this report.
A questionnaire was used as a guide for the one-on-one unstructured interviews to diagnose
and identify challenges with the current cooperative governance system. The interview log
regarding my informants and their relevance to this research is appended as part of this
report. Some of the informants opted to respond to a questionnaire and sent their responses
to me. Interviews were conducted as part of the primary research and for the purposes of
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undertaking business model innovation (BMI) using Martin‟s integrative thinking process.
The interviews were mainly an opportunity to test the views of those who have been
identified and their experiences in relation to the identified situation of concern (NFER,
2015).
A focus group was convened with a COGTA team to discuss the focusing questions and
views that emerged during data collection. It was necessary to hear the views of COGTA
because the key recommendations, which appear in chapters 4 and 6, point to COGTA for
implementation as the custodian of local government and the basic service delivery.
1.4.2 Data presentation and analysis method
The research findings have been presented and analysed using the Gioia data analysis
approach. This method requires that the research findings be recorded first using the original
language of the informants and then using the technical language of the researcher. In other
words, the data analysis is based on the “1st-order‟‟ and „„2nd-order‟‟ analysis (Gioia,
Corley, & Hamilton, 2012). This recording and analysis is followed by categorisation. The
process inductively allows a new conceptual theory to emerge for the study. The actual
research process with time lines for the study is comprehensively dealt with in Chapter 2
and also appears in the appendices section of the report.
1.5 Rigour and ethical considerations
The adoption of a phronesis research style is, among other things, an indication that this study
is rigorous and has a strong ethical element. A further indication of its validity and reliability
is that it is transparent about the informants who have been consulted – these are noted in the
interview logs in the appendices. As suggested in Amle (2006), the study demonstrates rigour
in being transparent about how the research unfolded and where it deviated from the plan.
The study, indeed, deviated from the proposed plan of convening two focus groups for the
BMI process and the STF process. The BMI process was done through one on one interviews
with the help of the Gioia data analysis method and the integrative thinking process.
The questionnaire guide and focus group photos have been appended to this report. As
mentioned previously, the audio-recorded data, transcripts, hand-written notes and flip
charts have been archived and will be made available for future research and/or verification,
if the need arises.
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The use of the Gioia method, informed by the grounded theory for data collection and
analysis, is another way that the study demonstrates not only qualitative scholarly rigour but
ethical probity. Recording original responses in the terminology of the informants guarantees
its validity and reliability (Seale and Silverman, 1997). The study declares that the conclusion
is not consistent with the preconceived ideas or the expectation of the researcher (Chia,
2014). Contrary to the researcher‟s belief that water is only a function of the local and
national government, the information gathered points to provincial governments having a
constitutional role in the management of water.
1.6 Outline of the study
This chapter has outlined the situation of concern for the study, the background, strategic
goals and focal questions. It presented the VSM and ITP theoretical frameworks as the lenses
through which to diagnose the existing challenges and how to resolve them. It gave a brief
overview of research methodology, in particular the grounded theory used by Gioia, et al.
The chapter has outlined mechanisms that were used in the study in order to ensure its rigour
and attentiveness to ethical considerations.
Chapter 2 details the study‟s research methodology. It explains the pragmatist approach as the
research paradigm. Pragmatists believe that reality or knowledge is continuous, socially
constructed and depends on context (Kuhn, 1962). The chapter explains how the process of
interviewing individuals and convening focus groups are key factors in ensuring the study is
valid and reliable. The chapter discusses the sampling and data collection process, theoretical
propositions, and facilitated sessions with relevant focus groups. It also explains the VSM
and ITP as theoretical frameworks.
Chapter 3 reviews existing literature on the intervention process for water-related crises at
local government level. It outlines the current cooperative government framework within the
water-supply value chain through the lens of the VSM. The diagnosis concerns the three
spheres and does not include the two tiers of local government. Local government is a two-
tier system consisting of local municipalities (LMs) which are responsible for water provision
and are called water service providers (WSPs) and district municipalities (DMs); the latter
oversee the LMs and are called water service authorities (WSAs) (Local Government:
Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998).. Examining the relationship between these two
categories of municipalities and their performance is a subject for a different study.
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Chapter 4 presents and analyses data using a grounded theory approach to present raw data,
technically synthesising it to get the themes for modeling.
Chapter 5 outlines and describes the process that led to developing a new conceptual
cooperative governance model. It describes how the focus group came to identify the
opposing models and the motivation for developing a new model. The evaluation of findings,
as well as the presentation and analysis of data, are dealt with in this chapter.
Chapter 6 summarises the main areas of the study and recommends areas for future research.
It brings out the reflections on the researcher‟s experience and lessons learned during the six
months of conducting the study.
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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
A research methodology is a process or a strategy one follows for answering questions about
a situation of concern when undertaking a study. According to Checkland (2000),
methodology is a consideration of all the methods a researcher uses in a study which can take
the form of a specific approach and things the user of a methodology chooses to do in a
particular situation. The user selects particular methods from a range of possible methods
(Checkland, 2000, p. 38). For instance, in the context of this study a combination of research
methods that are aligned with the pragmatism research paradigm have been selected. These
are one-on-one qualitative interviews, written responses to the questionnaire guide, focus
group sessions, observation, categorisation of findings, and theme identification from
findings.
This chapter explains the research paradigm for the study as well as the different methods
used for data collection and analysis. As already mentioned in Chapter 1, the study uses a
pragmatic research approach and phronetic research style as a way of balancing theory and
practice. The pragmatic research approach is one which allows a researcher to use his or her
judgment in determining which method is best suited for the type of enquiry and the context.
Hence, it is justifiable to use it alongside the phronetic social science research style. The
phronetic style to research helps to take the enquiry beyond the scientific and technical
analysis and to consider the wisdom and experience of the informants. VSM and ITP have
been used as the theoretical framework with which to examine the current cooperative
governance process and explore alternatives. A literature review and interviews have been
used for secondary and primary data gathering, respectively. The chapter concludes by
graphically presenting the study‟s research methodology.
2.2 Pragmatism research paradigm
2.2.1 What is pragmatism?
Pragmatism is premised on the idea that thinking does not necessarily result in solutions but
provides tools to more effectively manage day-to-day living (McDonogh, 2014). Pragmatists
are not only theory-oriented but also believe knowledge is based in action and practice. Their
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ontological stance is that truth is not absolute, and that reality is constantly renegotiated,
debated and interpreted (Hansen, 2008; Hernes, 2014; and Baker and Schaltegger, 2015). The
epistemological stance of pragmatists is that truth is socially constructed and therefore
professional rationality cannot exist as both the researcher and the researched are part of the
context (Coyne, 2005, cited in McDonogh, 2014). The pragmatist research approach allows a
researcher flexibility to use any data collection and analysis method that appears best suited
to the research problem as dictated by the context and the objective of the study (Creswell,
2014). The criticism levelled against the pragmatist approach is that it lacks certainty and its
potentially endless process of discovery would fall short of providing direction and guidance
to organisational challenges. It also is argued that the scientific and technical research
approaches, which are components of pragmatism, can be narrow and misleading for
organisational research (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The pragmatism research approach is well suited
to complementing the phronetic social science research style (Flyvbjerg, 2006), which
considers the impact of research on the researched and the supposed beneficiaries of research.
2.2.2 What is phronetic social science?
1. Aristotle, the founder of phronesis (cited in Flyvbjerg, 2006), defines phronesis as a
values-driven approach which “goes beyond analytical, scientific and technical
knowledge and involves self-judgement and well-considered decision making”
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 70). The phronesis values-driven social science approach focuses
on responding to four value-rational questions related to enhancing practical wisdom:
(i) Where are „we‟ going? (ii) Is the development in the situation of concern
desirable? (iii) What, if anything, should we do about it? (iv) Who gains and who
loses, in the short, medium and long term and by which mechanisms? (Flyvbjerg et
al., 2012, p. 5). (v) Sewchurran adds a fifth question that requires the researcher to
reflect on the research journey: what has been the experience of the researcher in
investigating the problem? (Sewchurran, 2017).
According to Flyvbjerg, Landman & Schram (2012), phronesis can be considered as an
alternative to the three main social science research approaches, which make various
knowledge claims about the social world. The three main approaches are:
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(i) a qualitative problem-driven research approach that is inductive and uses a set of
questions based on a perceived puzzle that emerges from a predetermined social
world;
(ii) a theory-driven, deductive and quantitative approach premised on a number of
hypotheses about human behaviour, beliefs, or preferences; and
(iii) a data-driven research approach based on the collection of data, which is analysed to
produce patterns, problems and puzzles that are in turn used as basis to develop a
research programme.
In this study, phronesis has been used side-by-side with, and to complement, the pragmatism
research approach. The study adopts a qualitative problem-driven, inductive research
approach, using focused questions that are based on what is known about the world of water
supply. The study is also data-driven, as it uses the data collected to formulate a theoretical
understanding of the social world on the basis of patterns that emerge in the data.
The strength of the phronetic research approach is that it considers the context of the research
subjects (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Taking context as the basis of analysis, the phronetic research
approach indiscriminately accommodates the views even of people who never participated in
the research. This enhances the reliability and validity of the study (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The
data collected from the interviews and focus group could be generalised to the whole
community even though data was not collected from ordinary members of the community but
share the context with the informants.
To satisfy the principles of validity and reliability in qualitative research, inputs based on
lived experiences from the informants are important especially for the stages of exploring
options during model building and for testing and assessing the prototype model. The
integrative thinking process in Chapter 5 is based on the data collected through the interviews
and focus group.
2.3 Theoretical framework
“Frameworks are mental maps that help us make sense of the territory we are dealing with”
(Moldoveanu and Leclerc, 2011, p. 5). The authors discuss two types of frameworks: single-
purpose frameworks that are suited to particular problems under particular conditions and
more flexible, “global” frameworks that can be used to understand the behaviour of
individuals, teams, groups, firms, markets, institutions and societies. This study uses two
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theoretical frameworks which fall in the category of global frameworks suitable for the
behaviour of institutions and societies: the VSM and ITP framework. They are applied to
identify tension points in the current governance system in the water sector and explore
possible ways of resolving these problems. This chapter explains the two frameworks.
Chapter 4 discusses their application.
2.3.1 Viable systems model (VSM)
The VSM is a framework that helps with understanding why institutions operate the way they
do and offers intervention options in the event of a desired change or transformation (Espejo,
2003). Espejo describes the VSM as a diagnostic tool which is particularly helpful with
exploring the structural mechanisms in an organisation.
Stafford Beer is known as the father of the VSM framework. He designed it in the 1950s by
drawing an analogy with the way the human brain organises its operations (Walker (1991).
Beer equated the three elements of the VSM – the Operation, the Metasystem and the
Environment – to the “three main interacting parts of human organism i.e. the body which is
the muscles and organs, the brain which is the nervous system and the external environment”
(Walker, 1991, p. 8). Beer is credited with having identified and codified the scientific laws
that underpin the viability of any system, whether biological or social. A social system is
defined as anything to do with social structures, including an organisation (Hendry and Seidl,
2003).
In criticising the VSM, Checkland and Holwell (1998) argue that the biologically modelled
VSM is not consistent with the field of social science, which is action-oriented and where
knowledge and truth are constantly evolving as they are determined by context; on the on the
other hand, the authors argue, natural science and its methodologies are based on a
philosophy of things being “homogenous through time” (Checkland and Holwell, 1998, pp.
19-20), i.e. the situation putatively remains unchanged and the results universally applicable.
Figure 4 illustrates the basic diagram of the VSM.
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Figure 4: A basic VSM diagram (Walker, 1991)
The arrows in Figure 4 indicate the various ways the three elements interact. According to
Walker (1991), S1 fulfils the support function and is responsible for the overall functioning
of the organisation; S2 and S3 interact with the internal environment; S4 interacts with the
external environment; and S5 is the ultimate authority responsible for developing policies,
providing ground rules and the enforcement measures for a well-functioning system. Rios
(2012, p. 23) argues that it is necessary to clearly identify a system under study to remain
constantly aware of the level that is being considered. He describes this as a process to
identify a system-in-focus or organisation-in-focus.
2.3.2 Defining a system-in-focus using the VSM framework
Chapter 1 identified the situation of concern as being a too lengthy intervention process by
national government when local government fails to execute its constitutional obligation to
supply water. The intervention process does not allow the Department of Water and
Sanitation to efficiently lend its constitutionally mandated support to the local government
sphere (Constitution, s 154(1)).
The study uses Checkland‟s formula of root definition to identify and define the system-in-
focus as well as to describe the purposeful activity. The formula is: doing P by Q to achieve
R, where P = what to do? Q = how to do? and R = why do it/reason for doing it? The
purposeful activity in this study is to diagnose problems in the current cooperative water
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governance framework in order to propose an alternative system in which water-related
service delivery at local government level can be more efficient.
The process to identify the systems-in-focus is part of the nine-step process of the VSM
application to diagnine nose and design/transform (if need be) the organisation (Walker,
1991).
These steps are (i) mapping the relevant recursions, (ii) identify the problem recursion, (iii)
map the system-in-focus, (iv) look for weaknesses (gaps) in the five systems, (v) examine the
information flows, (vi) check the patterns of relationships, (vi) make a diagnosis, (vii) change
everything, (ix) monitor, review, re-think, and try again.
2.3.2 The Integrative Thinking Practice (ITP) framework
Integrative Thinking Practice (ITP) is the “ability to face constructively the tension of
opposing models and instead of choosing one at the expense of the other, to generate a
creative resolution” (Martin, 2007, p. 15). In other words, ITP is a decision-making process
that integrates and balances diverse perspectives. According to Martin (2007), integrative
thinkers are always ready to leverage a complex situation because they see limitations with a
prevailing situation as an opportunity to generate a new situation. They leverage tension by
integrating what, in their perspective, are positive elements of the existing system into a new
system (Martin, 2007).
Integrative decision-making process follows four steps (Riel & Martin, 2017):
(i) articulating the models: involves identifying salient features and determining the
relationships between parts of the problem;
(ii) examining the models: is about identifying what is of value form both models so as to
keep for building a new model and what to discard;
(iii) exploration: a stage for building a prototype model for integrative resolution; and
(iv) undertaking the Safe-to-Fail (STF) experiments to test and evaluate the prototype
integrative resolution.
Figure 7 is a generic diagram of an integrative thinking and/or decision-making process.
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Figure 5: The integrative thinking process
2.3.2.1 Flexons for salience and causality
Moldoveanu and Leclerc (2011) suggest a need for systematically clarifying the confusion
before solving the problem, maintaining that this starts with stimulating innovative thinking
through using multiple lenses. This suggests embarking on a process to identify and articulate
salient features of the situation of concern as well as identifying the relevant variables and
their relationship to each other. Flexons, “shorthand for Flexible Objects for the generation
of Novel Solutions” (Moldoveanu & Leclerc, 2011, p. 7), are said to be helpful in sorting out
the confusion by shaping and/or remodeling the problem to reveal innovative solutions that
would otherwise remain hidden (Moldoveanu & Leclerc, 2011). The latter sentiment is based
on the realistic assumption that tricky problems must be shaped before they can be solved to
widen the thinking space and stimulate innovative thinking.
Moldoveanu and Leclerc (2011) identify five flexons which are routinely used as lenses in
analysing and diagnosing a problematic situation. These were reiterated in the Sewchurran
lecture (EMBA18, Course4, 2017). These are the network flexon, decision agent flexon,
information-processing flexon, evolution flexon and systems dynamics flexon.
The networks flexon emphasises the value network and that different relationships and their
influence on the organisation can help define and structure a problem to pinpoint its
fundamental elements. “A value network is any web of relationships that generates tangible
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and intangible value through dynamic exchange value through complex dynamic exchanges
between two or more individuals, groups or organisations” (Alee, 2002).
The decision agent flexon is a soft systems method or approach that considers a combination
of strategies and actions by different people (agents) to unpack a solution to a problem. As a
“problem sense-making tool” (Sewchurran & Petkov, 2007), the decision agent flexon helps
determine the level of analysis through different people‟s systemic processes of dealing with
a problematic situation (Checkland as cited in Mcdonogh, 2014, p. 25). This study uses the
evolutionary and system dynamics flexons as lenses to diagnose, unpack and study the
situation of concern.
The information-processing flexon is best illustrated by the VSM. It is a flexon that views
various parts of an organisation as information-processing functions and the type of information.
The evolutionary flexon follows a design-thinking approach that embraces randomization
which allows one to make educated guesses, test, and learn and produce better solutions to
complex problems.
The evolutionary flexon helps with exploration, for which Martin (2010) recommends the
use of a “knowledge funnel”. A design-thinking approach using a knowledge funnel has
been adopted as one of the approaches for exploring the complex problem of a cooperative
governance intervention process for water supply service delivery.
The system dynamics flexon, represented by a causal loop diagram, is another approach that
has been adopted by this study to further consider how the situation of concern can best be
explored. The system dynamics flexon helps with identifying key variables, internal or
external to the organisation, and how they affect each other over time. This flexon is helpful
to understand the underlying causes of a situation of concern and in alerting one to a point of
intervention in a system. The system dynamics flexon “creates search spaces for causal
connections and feedback loops” (Moldoveanu & Leclerc, 2011, p. 7). It assumes that
entities are linked by causal relations that are difficult, if not impossible, to modify through
choice. The causal map representations at the heart of system dynamics are used to identify
the key points in improving a system‟s performance, thus making the relations between
variables of a system, along with the causes and effects of decisions, more explicit. The latter “is
useful for understanding the impact of such relationships over time” (Moldoveanu & Leclerc,
2011, p. 16).
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2.4 Research method: Data gathering and analysis
This section outlines the research methods the study used in collecting and analysing the data.
It explains the type of data that was gathered and the linkage between the data gathered and
the questions the study explores. The research method refers to the different ways a
researcher gathers (relevant) information about the identified situation of concern. As noted
at the beginning of this chapter, Checkland defines methodology as all the methods a
researcher uses in a study. This study was conducted following a pragmatic, qualitative
research methodology where a combination of primary and secondary data was gathered
through a literature review, focus groups and participant observation.
2.4.1 Data-gathering techniques
This study used a literature review, interviews and a focus group as its data-gathering
techniques.
2.4.1.1 Literature review
According to NFER (2015), a literature review is a secondary data-gathering method and
involves searching for and synthesising other people‟s research. It is necessary in all types of
research approaches and styles for the purpose of understanding how, in the context of this
study, the situation of concern has been addressed within the research landscape. Anderson,
et al. (1970, cited in McDonough, 2017) state that a literature review shows how the problem
being studied relates to previous research in the field. This study has reviewed literature
related to governance, cooperative governance and organisational design , doing so with a
view to responding to the focal questions of the study.
2.4.1.2 One-on-one interviews
Data collection involved interviewing eight informants, who include politicians, academics
and practitioners (their profiles appear in the appendices section under interview logs). The
informants were asked open-ended, unstructured questions. The key question was whether
they agree that the intervention in water-related service delivery is not efficient and needs to
be reviewed. They were also asked what powers they would give the Minister responsible for
water management to enhance the efficiency of service delivery in the water sector. These
are key questions that directly link to the main question about whether the current
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cooperative governance framework enables the national government to respond effectively to
a service delivery failure in water supply at local government level. What emerged from
these one-on-one interviews is presented and analysed in Chapter 4.
Conducting interviews during the period of drought in Cape Town almost affected the focus
of the study. Although the drought scenario is a good example of a ground for a cooperative
governance intervention, the focus of this study is intervention during service delivery
failures caused by inefficient administrative processes and/or management of the cooperative
governance system due to, for instance, lack of infrastructural maintenance, or lack of
expertise and resources. On the other hand, drought is about water security, which involves
planning at the level of water resources (rivers, dams and other water storage capacity). In
essence, drought is more about water conservation and demand management while the focus
of the study is about the management of water service provision.
2.4.2 Data analysis
It has been observed that pragmatic, qualitative research is often lacking in scholarly
accuracy and thoroughness (Gioia et al., 2013). In this study, accuracy and thoroughness has
been proven by systematically presenting and analysing the data collected through one-on-
one interviews and focus groups at two levels. The data was analysed by putting down the
responses of informants in their own words and categorising them in terms of what they mean
in the context of the respective informants. The categories were then conceptually framed to
synthesise their meaning and inductively interpreted and analysed by the researcher. This
process culminated in the emergence of a new theory that is based on the concepts that were
inductively generated. According to (Gioia, et al., 2013), this is a grounded theory approach.
It is based on presenting an undiluted version of the informants‟ experiences while also
observing the scientific rules of presenting evidence systematically.
2.4.3 Research methods appropriate to the subject
The pragmatic research approach, which allows the use of any data collection and analysis
method as dictated by the context and objective of the study, is appropriate for this type of
qualitative, open-ended study, with no predetermined hypothesis and outcome. As the study
is more about exploring new ground and finding a way to resolve the tension in the situation
of concern, grounded theory is the appropriate method.
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Giving the participants free scope to discuss and be spontaneous in an informal way through
the unstructured questionnaire guide is aligned to what Gioia, et al. (2013) call the
“designed-in flexibility of interpretive research” (at p.20), which, they argue, recognises that
interview questions must change with the progression of the research. This is indeed the
reality one encounters on the ground when an informant can provide a response which
indirectly suggests restructuring a question or a different but relevant question to pose.
Although this may be helpful and a practical demonstration of qualitative research being
action-oriented, it needs a high level of alertness as it may also refocus one from the
situation of concern. This almost happened with one informant when we found ourselves
talking about how South Africans are paying close to nothing for water usage compared to
other countries. The informant was trying to explain that water supply challenges are also
connected to water demand management in that water tariffs are not adequate and cannot
help with water infrastructure operations and maintenance.
The flexibility of the pragmatic research paradigm also benefited the study in that some
informants, due to time constraints, preferred to send written responses instead of juggling
around the time that suits them and the researcher. This may also have serious consequences
as the informant can interpret the questions according to their own understanding of them.
The brief background that was supplied for each question in the open-ended questionnaire
was especially useful to the informants who preferred to give responses in writing.
Providing context in this way helped the informants to understand the objective of the study
and thereby ensure that their responses were relevant and well substantiated.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter explained the research paradigm of this research as a pragmatic approach, which
is based on the premise that reality is not static but context-based and as interpreted by the
researcher and the researched. In terms of the pragmatic research approach, theory is not
hypothesised but is grounded and inductively emerges from the data collected and interpreted
by the researcher and the researched. The approach resonates with the study because the
conclusion is determined by an aggregated pattern that emerges from analysing the inputs of
the informants through one-on-one interviews and a focus group. The wisdom of the
informants is paramount in pragmatist research approach.
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The chapter has introduced the VSM and ITP as the frameworks which the study uses for
organizational diagnosis and design, respectively. Using a VSM framework, the study has
identified the whole system of government as the system-in-focus, i.e. a system that will be
diagnosed and for which the alternative will be explored; in other words, all three spheres of
government comprise the relevant levels of recursion. The chapter has dealt with the first
three steps of the VSM diagnosis, i.e. identifying all the relevant recursion levels, identifying
a problematic recursion level (R0) as well as identifying a system-in-focus.
The chapter has also identified evolutionary and systems dynamic flexons that will be used as
part of the ITP framework to identify salient features and causal relationships that contribute
to the situation of concern. This is part of the diagnostic process and helps one to understand
the underlying factors in order to generate options towards a resolution. Figure 6 depicts the
study‟s research methodology.
Figure 6: A depiction of the study‟s research methodology
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The next chapter reviews the literature related to the study‟s three key concepts: governance,
cooperative governance and organisational design. The review has been conducted by using
the focal questions of the study. The chapter identifies the system-in-focus in order to enable
meaningful diagnosis of the situation of concern. It starts the exploration of options for
resolving the situation of concern by using the knowledge funnel to uncover the salient
features of the intervention process within a cooperative governance system in the area of
water supply. The exploration is again undertaken by using a causal loop diagram to identify
the variables related to the intervention process.
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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Introduction
The literature review is undertaken to interpret and synthesise published research material
that relates to one‟s area of study. The aim of reviewing literature is to determine what is
known about the topic under study, what this research contributes to the topic and what
insights are gained in terms of policy and practice (McCabe & Sambrook, 2014).
This chapter reviews and synthesises the literature on (i) governance and cooperative
governance in the water sector, and (ii) organisational design. The literature review is guided
by the questions posed by the study, especially in relation to cooperative governance in the
water sector: Is it effective to address service delivery failure of water supply at local
government level? What does the cooperative governance system for water management
entail?
The literature review on organisational design uses the VSM framework to identify and
examine challenges with the framework for the management of water in South Africa and
how it could be changed, if at all. The study adopts an ITP framework to explore alternative
perspectives. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the alternatives are explored using flexons, showing
information flow and relational cause and effect. These are diagrammatically presented as the
VSM, the knowledge funnel and the causal loop diagram.
3.2 Governance and cooperative governance
3.2.1 Governance
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2015) defines governance as
“structures and processes that are designed to ensure accountability, transparency,
responsiveness, rule of law, stability, equity and inclusiveness, empowerment, and broad-
based participation”. The African Economic Outlook report defines governance as “the way
different state and non-state actors make public decisions and manage economic and social
resources for development (ADB Group, 2016, p. 116). The report further states that state-
owned entities, political parties, civil society organisations and private sector actors all play a
role in the process of governance. Lewis & Millar (2009), writing in the context of
information technology, define governance as a complex, dynamic system involving multiple
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disciplines and multiple stakeholders. Environmental Scientists (2017) argue that there is no
universal definition of the term “governance”, it means different things to different people
and that context matters. It follows that each context will unavoidably be grounded in a
theoretical perspective. The theories of governance relevant to this study are stakeholder and
agency theories. Respectively, the theories are (i) an acknowledgement of the existence of
multiple stakeholders that create incremental value (Freeman, 1984, Donaldson and Preston,
1995, cited in Burawundi, 2017) and (ii) the alignment of interests of executives with those of
stakeholders (Jensen and Meckling, 1976, cited in Burawundi, 2017).
Consistent with the latter definitions of governance is the principle of broad-based
participation in the structures and processes of governance. The definitions also align with the
principles-based approach which emphasises ethical consciousness and conduct as critical to
good governance (King, 2016). “Ethical consciousness and conduct” can be interpreted as
referring to leaders and executives governing and managing in an inclusive manner that
recognises the importance of different perspectives for the sustainability of an organisation.
3.2.2 Cooperative governance
Given that broad-based participation is a common variable in the concept of governance, it is
logical to argue that governance, whether it is in the context of structure or process, is
essentially cooperative. Section 1 of the Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act (At 13
of 2005) defines intergovernmental relations as “relationships that arise between different
governments or between organs of state from different governments in the conduct of their
affairs”.
According to Steytler and De Visser (2009), in a cooperative governance system, roles,
responsibilities and final accountability need to be clarified from the outset. They argue that
if this is not done, there is a risk of cooperative governance undermining the democratic
principles of transparency and accountability. It is also important to expressly outline the
objective of cooperative governance to clarify roles and responsibilities and to allow for a
proper evaluation of capacity needed to meet the organisational goals (Pérez Ríos, 2010).
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3.2.2.1 Cooperative governance in the water sector
While it is agreed that there is no universal definition for governance, regardless of the
sector, Karar ventures to define water governance as “a process through which society and
the economy are pushed to work towards a common goal for the benefit of society as a
whole” (Environmental Sciences, 2017, p. 3). Karar goes on to note that the common goal
can be realised through different modes of hierarchy, through markets or through networks
that emphasise the interactive nature of making decisions. “A combination of the different
modes would exist depending on the framing of the water problems” (p. 13). Authors in the
same publication (Environmental Sciences, 2017) agree that water governance is a
multisectoral, dynamic process, a complex socio-ecological system involving continuous
learning and the capacity to adapt to unpredictable outcomes, where the results of system
interventions are not predictable.
The report of the Ministerial Council meeting on OECD principles for water governance
notes that “water crisis is primarily a governance crisis” (OECD, 2015, p. 2). This is
reiterated by an argument that governance failures, not necessarily resource scarcity, is the
reason for water crises in most countries (Environmental Sciences, 2017). The discussions at
the OECD Council of water Ministers also advanced an argument that future water
challenges raise questions such as: What to do? Who does what? Why? At which level of
government? And how? These questions are not only concerned about where power is
located in a system or organisation but about the value each individual, institution and sphere
of government adds and their respective impact on the system.
In the definition of governance given above, structure and process are two key variables
through which a system of governance is organised. Structure refers to roles, powers and
authority while process is the manner in which decisions are made, the allocation of roles in
relation to the work flow (Burawundi, 2017).
3.2.2.2 What does a cooperative governance system for water management in
South Africa entail?
Cooperative governance in South Africa means that the three spheres of government
(national, provincial and local) are distinct, interdependent and interrelated. According to
Steytler and De Visser (2009), this means each sphere cannot execute functions without the
help of, and/or being overseen by, another. One of the informants reiterated the point that “in
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cooperative governance, each sphere is strong inasmuch as it cooperates with another
sphere”. They further explain that the national sphere oversees the provincial spheres while
they both oversee the local government sphere. Both the national and provincial spheres
regulate, monitor, support local government sphere and intervene if a need arises such as
failure to supply water. Intervention, “refers to the competence (and often duty) of the
national and provincial government to direct activities and outcomes in municipalities”
(Steytler & De Visser, 2009, p15-5).
The latter explanation aligns with the directive in section 154(1) of the Constitution (1996)
which enjoins national government and provincial governments to support and strengthen the
capacity of municipalities to perform their functions. It is further articulated in the preamble
to the Water Services Act (108 of 1997), which makes access to water supply by all a
responsibility of all spheres of government by “[a]cknowledging that there is a duty on all
spheres of government to ensure that water supply services and sanitation services are
provided in a manner which is efficient, equitable and sustainable”.
The government responds to a water-related service delivery failure at local government
through a constitutionally prescribed intervention process based on the principles of
cooperative government and intergovernmental relations (IGR). The Constitution (1996,
section 139) empowers the provincial sphere of government to take appropriate steps to
ensure the fulfilment of a service delivery function when a municipality cannot or is unable to
execute such a function. This includes a provincial government‟s aligning the municipal
integrated development plans (IDP) with the water services development plans of national
government, and is at the core of the cooperative governance system for water management.
The Constitution in section 139(8) requires legislation to regulate section 139(7)
interventions. The Water Services Act (108 of 1997) of the Department of Water and
Sanitation is that national section 139(8) legislation, specifically its section 63. It is a
commendable effort by the Department, but the provision is long-winded (as described in
Figure 2 above) and not practical. On the occasions that have been cited when the national
Ministers were called to intervene, this process was never invoked and the Ministers were not
challenged by anyone. What this means is that the statutory intervention in terms of section
63 of the Water Services Act is not only bureaucratic but it is also not practical to implement.
The urgency of water-related challenges does not accommodate delays. The same law of the
Department of Water and Sanitation places constraints in its efficiency and effectiveness.
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This calls for urgent action at either policy or legislative level. One of the informants is of the
view that the action is needed at legislative level, observing that “we need a realistic s 139(8)
law and COGTA must do it”. COGTA is the department of Cooperative Governance and
Traditional Affairs, i.e. the department responsible for managing the local government
sphere.
3.3 Organisational design
Organisational design is defined as “the deliberate process of configuring structures,
processes, reward systems, and people practices to create an effective organization capable of
achieving the business strategy” (Kates, Amy and Galbraith, 2007, p. 1). The authors identify
five specific organisational design challenges that, in their experience, seem to be common to
most organisations. These include (i) designing for the customer, (ii) organizing across the
borders, (iii) making a matrix work, (iv) solving the centralisation-decentralisation dilemma,
and (v) organizing for innovation, an approach that supports in particular breakthrough
growth; it requires developing new capabilities while still optimising existing business, rather
than growth by extending the core business through improvement in products. Breakthrough
growth is an innovative process of turning ideas into commercially viable products and
services (Kates, Amy and Galbraith, 2007, p173).
3.3.1 The VSM for organisational diagnosis
The VSM has been used in different contexts as a basis for understanding governance. It was
created in the 1950s by Stafford Beer in the context of work in cybernetics (Espejo, 2003).
Appropriate information flows and communication links are important for the VSM for
encouraging communication among the different parts of the system in relation to the goals of
the organisation (Flood and Jackson, 1991). Walker (1991) argues that VSM encourages
looking beyond the traditional hierarchical pattern of an organisation and offers structural
adjustments for more efficient and effective organisational arrangements and working
practices. It is an arrangement of five functional systems that are interconnected through
communication and control loops (Flood and Jackson, 1991). The communication is within
and between the five functional systems that are located within the metasystem (systems 2 to
5), the operational system and the environment, as per Figure 4 in Chapter 1. For effective
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communication internally and externally, Ross Ashby‟s Law of Requisite Variety, which is at
the core of the VSM, is important. The Law of Requisite Variety broadly states that a
metasystem has the necessary variety if it has the capacity to produce responses to all
disturbances that come from the external environment (Espejo, 2003).
The VSM can be used for redesigning the metasystems of an organisation, for developing
organisational strategy, and for examining the corporate ethos (Schwaninger, 2006). In the
context of this study, the VSM is used to redesign the metasystem of cooperative governance
for efficiency in the supply of water. An innovative resolution presented in Chapter 5 brings
together those activities that can best be performed at the appropriate level (government
sphere) for better results.
Figure 7 shows the three spheres of government as the levels of recursion in the VSM. Levels
of recursion imply that the same organisational principles and rules apply at all levels. In this
context, the same governance principles apply to all the three spheres of government
(Walker, 1991). The first recursion (R0) level is the overall government system constituted of
all three spheres. Thereafter, R1, R2 and R3 recursion levels are the national, provincial and
local government spheres, respectively. Figure 7 depicts the levels of recursion, the
respective objectives and where the system-in-focus is located.
Figure 7: Diagram showing levels of recursion and system to be diagnosed
The identified situation of concern (i.e. failure to supply water) plays out at the local
government sphere, i.e. at recursion level 3 as shown in Figure 7. However, the responsibility
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to ensure access to water is legally that of the overall system of government, given that water
is constitutionally a human right. The study therefore identifies R0 recursion level (the whole
system of government) as the level of focus for the study. Applying the formula for root
definition, Figure 8 shows the system in focus, with the latter‟s objective being to facilitate
efficient local government through improved cooperative governance to achieve sustainable
water supply.
Figure 8: A system-in-focus showing operational units and their respective
environments
The diagnosis of this study is nested on the R0 level of recursion, with the focus being to
make local government efficient through improved cooperative governance and thereby
achieve sustainable water supply service. The reason for this is that all three spheres of
government have the responsibility “to provide water supply and sanitation services”, and
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“must observe and adhere to the principles of co-operative government” (Preamble to the
Water Services Act, 1997).
Figure 9: VSM of cooperative governance for water supply
Figure 9 shows that the local government sphere reports directly to national government as
the regulator, supporter and overseer of the local sphere for water-related functions.
On the VSM, the operational system (S1) is the local government sphere, as it is responsible
for the supply of water. The metasystem (S2, S3, S4 & S5) is made up of national
government and provincial governments for supporting, regulating, monitoring and
intervening at local government level. The metasystem can wield power only if the system is
in danger of breaking apart (Walker, 1991), doing so, for instance, by invoking sections
139(7) and 139(8) of the Constitution (1996). The metasystem (NG and PG) coordinate the
operational units (LG) to make a single, integrated and coherent system. The metasystem
should be concerned only with how the unit of S1 interact and not with internal matters, since
the operational system is autonomous.
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According the Walker (1991), all systems, without exception and regardless of their nature,
have stability problems. The metasystem, through S2, is also responsible for the stability of
the whole system, which must be continuously resolved. In Figure 9, S2 are the PGs which
oversee the Local Municipalities (LMs). Conflict and instability can emanate from the
resources allocated for the implementation of plans (IDP) by different operational units.
Legislatively, the PGs are responsible for the production and alignment of IDPs at local
government level, and therefore should be able to resolve related conflicts (Local
Government: Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998)
The NG, through the DWS and National Treasury (NT), is systems 3 (S3). It allocates
financial resources to S1 for operational efficiency and effectiveness in the water services.
System 3 has an important role to optimise performance in S1 by allocating resources, among
other things. More importantly, it has a duty to intervene only when the cohesion of the
whole system is threatened and “intervention means loss of autonomy” (Walker, 1991, p43).
System 3 (S3), in this case NG, ensures that the operational units (S1) comply with policy,
legislation and regulations. As part of S3, S3* serves as a final link of S3 to the operational
units and is responsible for auditing in terms of providing situational analysis to determine
the resources that are needed for performance optimisation.
System 4 (S4) identifies elements in the system-in-focus that are concerned with future
planning and strategies in response to the external environment. The viability of a system
depends on continuous assessment of the external environment and strategising about how to
respond to the unknown future. System 5 (S5) is responsible for the vision, mission policy
and establishing a context within which the whole organisation can function.
3.3.2 Integrative thinking process for generative resolution
In the book edited by Karar (2017, p. 3), three points are made that are relevant for this
study. First, the old forms of governance in the public and private sectors are becoming
ineffective. Secondly, the new forms of governance that are likely to be needed over the
next few decades involve a much broader range of active players. Thirdly, and most
important, the usually fixed allocation of powers in many organisations and the tendency to
put initiatives exclusively in the hands of senior positions in leadership or management look
set to undergo fundamental changes. The third point suggests a practice of management that
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creates awareness and recognises a range of perspectives within an organisation
(Sewchurran & Mcdonogh, 2015).
Battram, discussing “navigating complexity” (Sewchurran‟s lecture, 2017), argues that to
engage constructively with complexity, it is important to adopt a perspective which admits
that more than one thing can be true at once. This allows one to consider existing options
while exploring alternatives.
3.3.2.1 What is the alternative model for dealing with a water-related
service delivery failure at local government level?
Osborne, Randnor and Nasi (2012), arguing for the transformation of the public service,
propose a “public service dominant” approach. They suggest that “the business of
government is, by and large, not about delivering premanufactured products, but rather it is
about delivering a public service” (p. 136). Their criticism of prevailing public management
is that it is concerned about intra-organisational processes when in fact public service
delivery should focus on inter-organisational processes. This public service dominant
approach seeks to understand the needs and expectations of citizens and service users
broadly. It is further argued that the approach helps to achieve operational efficiency and
effectiveness, enhances citizens‟ trust and creates tangible public value.
3.3.2.2 What would the alternative model of cooperative governance in the
water sector entail?
Karar (2017, p. 13) argues that when under pressure water can carve new paths to flow in.
She says the same applies to water governance, which has a non-linear evolutionary path
and unpredictable future. Sewchurran & McDonogh (2015) note that when society is faced
with worsening challenges, be it financial or socio-economic, the practice is to continue with
regimes that existed when the problem arose. They argue that if this is the case, it means
leaders and executives are ambivalent about humanity‟s challenges. The authors advocate
for a willingness to be more proactive. They argue that to improve many of such humanity‟s
socio-ecological threats, an attitude of being-in-management must be adopted to manage a
messy situation (Ackof, 1981, 22, cited in Sewchurran & McDonogh, 2015). Although
Sewchurran and McDonogh illustrate this in the context of teaching, it is applicable to all
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situations. Applying this argument in the area of public service needs a more managerial
orientation as opposed to administrative approach (Osborne, Radnor, & Nasi, 2012).
Management is concerned with directing or guiding the operations of the organisation,
while administration formulates policies, strategies and objectives (Surbhi, 2015). “Being-
in-management” by executives means more intense engagement with and articulation of
complex socio-economic and environmental challenges, thus enriching management
experience and making an impact in the real world (Sewchurran & Mcdonogh, 2015).
To improve management and leadership, Sewchurran and McDonogh (2015) propose that
contemporary leaders need to champion the role of articulating new regimes of common
sense and new concepts. They argue that this is necessary in order to bring the disparate raw
experiences of the many into discussions about new business models, new policies and new
worlds of possibilities. They argue that a manager is fundamentally a high-value decision
maker, an integrator and an articulator who resists making choices but allows for new
options to emerge when faced with two or more opposing ideas.
3.3.2.3. Flexons as tools for organisational design and insight
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the evolutionary and system dynamics flexons are used in this
study to identify the salient features that contribute to service delivery failure at local
government level and gain insights on how these could be resolved by establishing the causal
relationship between the relevant variables that are involved.
3.3.2.3.1 Evolutionary flexon
The evolutionary flexon has been used to help unpack the process of cooperative approach to
the intervention by process. The aim is to determine the salient features. The concept of the
knowledge funnel is used to uncover such salient features and insights. Figure 10 below
shows the three steps of the knowledge funnel process.
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Figure 10: Knowledge funnel uncovering the salient features of the intervention process
through cooperative governance
The knowledge funnel above is a three-phase model for exploring possible options of how the
current cooperative governance system for water supply might be improved. The mystery
stage represents a situation of concern which prompts one to explore a better model for
cooperative governance for the supply of water. The heuristics phase simplifies and narrows
down the question, bringing to light factors that possibly underlie the problem situation. This
stage points to a general lack of common understanding of what intervention means within
the three spheres. Intervention rules and processes are not clearly defined. Although there is a
common understanding of the need for the spheres to interact, cooperation, especially during
an emergency, is not very structured.
Next, the algorithm stage relates to having clear rules and processes for success. Intervention
should be issue-and context-specific – in other words, targeted. Rules and terms of reference
are not always clear, even though the law suggests “implementation protocols” (in s 35 of
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Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act 13 of 2005) as a mechanism to guide
cooperative governance and, by implication, intervention. Putting in place implementation
protocols will help define the purpose of the intervention as well as clarify its outcomes,
timeframes and allocation of roles during the intervention process, all which will culminate in
placing accountability at an appropriate level. The algorithm stage also suggests that the
intervention process should consider the interests of the citizens.
3.3.2.3.2. System dynamics flexon
The systems dynamics flexon helps with insights into the intervention problem by using
causally linked variables to establish the characteristics of the cooperative governance
intervention system. The system dynamics flexon “creates search spaces for causal
connections and feedback loops” (Moldoveanu & Leclerc, 2011, p7). It helps to understand
the underlying causes of a situation of concern and in alerting one to a point of intervention in
a system. The three spheres of government can then have a purpose to intervene after the
analysis of such a causal relationship and its impact.
Figure 11 illustrates in the systems dynamics flexon in the form of a CLD.
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Figure 11: A Causal Loop Diagram depicting variables related to intervention process
within a cooperative governance system in the area of water supply.
The causal loop diagram (CLD) in Figure 11 reflects the underlying factors for failure to
supply water by the local government sphere (i.e. water services authorities). Not planning
for water service delivery in terms of the IDP and WSDP results in not taking frequently
increasing population growth into account, especially in urban areas. This leads to water
infrastructure capacity not coping with servicing an expanded community. This then affects
operations and maintenance, which have been the overriding factor in the collapse of water
supply. As we will see in the following chapter, this phenomenon of collapse in operations
and maintenance also emerged during the interviews and was attributed to local government
not allocating budget. Lack of operations and maintenance leads to the pollution of water
resources (rivers), further snowballing into health hazards. The migration of people into
urban areas in search of livelihoods results in increased numbers of people who are indigent
and in an insufficiency of revenue collection; this in turn results in failure to supply water,
following which the situation can degenerate into service delivery protests.
Concern Variable:
failure to supply water
Number of servicedelivery protests
Level ofpopulation growth
Number ofindigents
revenuecollection
status of waterinfrastructure
Level of capacity foroperations &maintenance
Status of waterservices development
plans
Status of IndependentDevelopment Plans
(IDP)
Level of waterpollution
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
- -
+ +
+
-
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3.4 Conclusion
This chapter has used micro-focal questions to review and synthesise literature on
governance, cooperative governance and organisational design. The questions for diagnosing
the cooperative governance intervention process have been attended to through the lens of
VSM. The questions that guide the generation of a prototype model have been responded to
by using the knowledge funnel and the causal loop diagram (CLD).
There is no universal definition of governance, but the key common elements are structure,
process and broad-based participation. In a social system such as the water management
system, the element of process is the defining factor, and it refers to process of all
stakeholders working towards a common goal to benefit society. This means working
together in water management to benefit society, which in South African is a statutory and
constitutional requirement for the three spheres of government under the cooperative
governance system.
The VSM has diagnosed and analysed the cooperative governance system in relation to water
supply. The knowledge funnel and the CLD have teased out the salient and causal elements
underlying the situation of concern, which range from lack of coordination to not defining the
objective and outcome for cooperative government. The alternative to the present
intervention process in water-service delivery failure must focus internally and externally, i.e.
it must have an “intra-organisational and inter-organisational” focus. The alternative must use
the public-service dominant approach, which considers the needs and expectations of broader
society. Adopting a public-service dominant approach helps one to be realistic about practical
challenges facing the public and to be willing to generate new ideas for new regimes.
The next chapter presents findings from the interviews. The findings are presented by using,
to a greater extent, the language of the informants as a way of validating the study, among
other things. The presentation and analysis is again guided by the focal questions of the
study.
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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1. Introduction
The data which are presented in this chapter responded to the main question of the study: Is
the current cooperative governance framework effective in responding to a service delivery
failure with respect to water supply at local government level and, if not, what is the
alternative?
As already noted, the cooperative government intervention process, represented graphically
in Figure 2, is this study‟s situation of concern, as it is seen as not being efficient as a
response to water supply delivery failure.
The diagram in Figure 2 is a response to a constitutional requirement that when there is a
failure of service delivery at local government, the level the provincial sphere should
intervene and resolve the failure: “[I]f the provincial executive cannot or does not adequately
exercise the powers or perform the functions referred to … the national executive must
intervene … in the stead of the relevant provincial executive” (Constitution, s. 139(7)). The
Constitution further provides that “national legislation may regulate the implementation of
this [latter] section, including the process established by this section” (Constitution, s.
139(8)). Figure 2 above is therefore the section 139(8) legislation for responding to water-
related service delivery failure at local government level, i.e. the Water Services Act 108 of
1997.
The objective of this chapter is to present the data that were collected during the interviews
with the informants appearing in the appended interview log. The data are presented in
response to the focal questions of the study, and to a large extent, the responses are shown
using the words and phrasing of the informants. The focal questions are reconciled with the
questions that guided the interviews for sense-making and consistency. A “data structure” is
created to feature the original language of the informants and to be consistent with the
inductive qualitative research approach adopted in the study. A data structure is a graphic
presentation of the raw data being interpreted into technical research language for the
purposes of theory building. The data structure allows making sense of the data collected and
helps to discover new concepts (Gioia et al., 2012).
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4.2. Background to the respondents
A total of eight interviews were conducted, one of them with a SALGA team represented by
two people. A focus group with a team of four officials from COGTA was also convened,
among other things, to gain insights in their experience with the service delivery intervention
process, seeing as they (the COGTA team) are the ones directly responsible for managing
municipalities (the local government sphere). The reasons why the identified informants were
thought to be relevant to the study is explained in the interview log attached as Appendix 4,
which also indicates the date, time and place where the interviews were conducted.
All interviews were conducted at a date, time and place determined by the informant. Of the
eight informants, four were interviewed face to face, and four opted to send responses by
email. Six informants are based in Cape Town, and two live in Port Elizabeth and Pretoria.
Making appointments was relatively easy, but, as expected, availability was a challenge as
appointments were constantly rescheduled. The focus-group meeting with the COGTA team
was conducted via a video link connection, which broke down in the middle of the discussion
and meant the discussion was continued telephonically. I was in Cape Town and the team, in
Pretoria.
Not all the respondents gave permission for their names to be used in this research report; the
names are therefore the informants are being labeled as Inforrmant-1 to Informant-9 Even
though labeling is used, SALGA (Informant-3) and COGTA (Informant-9) teams will be
referred to as such and/or used interchangeably, the reason being that they are government
entities and their views are important for the subject under discussion, since they are speaking
in an official capacity, what they say is public business and hence in the public domain.
4.3. Data presentation and analysis
As indicated, the data from the interviews are presented in a narrative in relation to the focal
questions of the study. They are then graphically presented in the data structure, appearing as
Table 1 following the Gioia data presentation and analysis methodology. The Gioia method
entails developing a data structure where the views and insights of informants are recorded
using their original language, and these appear as the first-order concepts on the data
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structure. The interpretation and/or analysis of data is thereafter recorded in the technical
language of the researcher and appears as the second-order themes on the data structure.
The first and second columns of the table show how the focal and interview guide questions
have been reconciled. The columns showing the first-order concepts and second-order themes
are, respectively, the raw data and the analysis in the technical language of the researcher.
The last column shows how the language of the informants and that of the researcher have
been synthesised and aggregated to identify themes and/or patterns emerging from the data.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the data presentation and analysis considers first and foremost the
experiences and/or views of the informants and the resolution about the situation of concern
will be based on the pattern that emerges from the data.
According to the Gioia method, “a key component in demonstrating rigor in qualitative
research” (Gioia et al., 2012, p. 20) is to demonstrate how the analysis progressed from raw
data to the researcher‟s technical language. Table 1 is the data structure showing the key
concepts from the raw data and themes that emerged from interpreting and analysing the data.
The data structure in Table 1 highlights decisive leadership and accountability as important
elements of good governance. Institutionalising support to avoid and/or manage service
delivery failures and unsustainable emergency interventions also come up as important
concepts and themes. Interventions should not be used as for day-to-day management
processes but to respond to and benefit the citizens. Water is listed as a basic human right,
and it can, therefore, be prioritised as well as used to influence change at institutional and
constitutional level. An appropriate legal framework for intervening and/or managing service
delivery failures is also highlighted in the data structure.
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Table 1: The data structure
Focal questions Interview / research
questions
1st order concepts 2
nd order themes Aggregate dimensions
/ themes
1. What is the framework
for managing water in
South Africa?
1. “[The] water crisis is
primarily a governance crisis”
and not necessarily based on
resource (human and financial)
scarcity. What is your
comment?
Governance is generally
defined as made up of three
variables – policy, structure
and process - Which element
do you think should be the
area of focus should one
decide to remodel the
management of water value
chain, and why?
“Taking responsibility,
budgeting appropriately and
investing in long-term
planning and in
infrastructure”
“Make process the main focus
- process of budgeting, assess
effectiveness, process of
intervening effectively”
“Provincial government is
somewhere in between and
not sure what to do with this
issue of water and sanitation”
Decisive Leadership
Intervention to benefit citizens
Differentiated approach to
basic services
Institutionalise and regulate
intervention
Institutionalise support, avoid
ad hoc interventions
Autonomous and accountable
Focus on service delivery and
not intervention
Cooperate and be accountable
Decisive and efficient
intervention
Customer-centric
intervention
Decisive Leadership
Institutionalise support /
intervention
Accountability is good
governance
Prioritise water as human
right
2. What does the
cooperative governance
system for water
management entail?
The constitutional obligation
for national government to
support municipalities
[s154(1)] and to regulate
municipalities [s155(7)] has
not had an impact, at least in
the water sector, and this needs
to be reviewed - What is your
view and what do you think
should be done?
“Intervention is too onerous
and time-consuming”
“It is a long distance for the
Minister to travel to
municipalities and the country
is too big”
“when the poop hits the fan,
we rely on provinces”
3. Is the cooperative
governance system
effective in dealing with
a water-related service
delivery ?
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Focal questions Interview / research
questions
1st order concepts 2
nd order themes Aggregate dimensions
/ themes
4. What is the alternative
model for dealing with
such failures?
UWC released a protest
barometer that indicates water
listed at the top of grievances
by service delivery protestors -
How would you prioritise
water service delivery to be
given special attention by
government?
“Yes, water is unique, we are
in trouble, we need decisive
action”
“access to water is a human
right”
“enact a law that allows
greater water specific
cooperation across the
spheres”
“Review current intervention
framework, with much tighter
conditions and timeframes for
intervention”
“Stakeholders must be
consulted and agree if
something must happen at
local government level”
5. What would the
alternative model entail?
Does it require
constitutional
amendment or
institutional reform?
Intervention process as
provided for in section 139(7)
of the Constitution and enacted
in 63 of the Water Services Act
is not efficient when it comes
to especially the national
minister responsible for water
to intervene when there is
failure of water service
delivery at local / municipal
“Breach of the Constitution
and interfering with original
powers of the other spheres”
“Section 139(8) legislation
has become necessary to deal
with the “leap frogging work
of the provincial and local
spheres”
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Focal questions Interview / research
questions
1st order concepts 2
nd order themes Aggregate dimensions
/ themes
level. Do you agree that the
intervention is not efficient,
especially for water service
delivery? If yes/no, why?
I am proposing that the
national minister responsible
for water be given direct access
to interact directly with
municipalities to the extent of
giving instructions in relation
to the water function. If you
agree, what powers should
the Minister have in this
regard? If you do not agree,
please give reasons?
“The DWS does not have
operational experience and
skills to deliver services”
“Create a section 154 support
programme under municipal
institutional support centre”
Who should finally account for
service delivery failure
Service delivery is a function
of local government and “is
firmly entrenched in the
Constitution and cannot and
should not be changed”
Rationalise by “housing all
basic services under one
department for certainty with
accountability”
“The fact that there is no
MEC for water does not mean
that the MEC for LG and the
Premier do not take
responsibility for water”
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Focal questions Interview / research
questions
1st order concepts 2
nd order themes Aggregate dimensions
/ themes
“each sphere is as strong as it
cooperates with another
sphere”
“the speed and effectiveness
of intervention by the
province and national
spheres, when the service is
not delivered, should be
addressed”
“Mass action can also be used
to get the municipalities to
spend money as intended”
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Figure 12 shows key themes that emanated from the analysis of the data using the data
structure (Table 1).
Figure 12: Key concepts and themes emanating from the data structure
The data are presented by answering the five micro-focal questions of the study: (i) What is
the framework for managing water in South Africa? (ii) What does the cooperative
governance system for water management entail? (iii) Is the cooperative government system
effective in dealing with a water-related service delivery failure at local government level?
(iv) What is the alternative model for dealing with such failures? (v) What would the
alternative model entail? Does it require constitutional amendment or institutional reform?
4.3.1. What is the framework for managing water in South Africa?
Responses to issues of governance were discussed under this focal question. The general
view is that issues of governance are closely related to and/or impacted on by lack of
resources, i.e. finances and skilled personnel. There is agreement that issues of governance
(e.g. delayed decision-making) play a more significant role in service delivery than
availability of technical expertise and financial resources. As one informant notes, “Decision-
making by politicians hampers governance and this affects service delivery.” One informant
argues that the crisis in governance is due to a lack of accountability: “governance crisis
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means there is no accountability and no consequences for mismanagement and non-
performance” (Informant-8).
The framework for managing water is essentially about governance of the water value chain,
which involves the national sphere being responsible for developing the policy and legislative
framework for implementation by the local sphere. This is a general understanding based on
the fact that water is a national competence with no political boundaries. Hence, it does not
have a political leader at the provincial government level. In practice, the streams of funding
and regulations flow from national and local government level, i.e. from National Treasury,
DWS, COGTA to municipal councils (the COGTA team). One may add that even the
statutory reports from local government go straight to the national government, i.e. to
COGTA for local government in general, to DWS for water and sanitation regulation, and to
the National Treasury for financial reporting (Department of Water Affairs, 2010).
It was thus revealing when one of the informants tabled a different view and argued that the
prevailing parading that excludes provincial governments from being part of the water and
sanitation function is flawed, as “it leaves the provincial sphere somewhere in between and
not sure what to do with this issue of water and sanitation” (Informant-2). According to
informant-2, provincial governments are constitutionally obligated to execute all the
functions being executed by the national government, functions that involve developing a
policy and legislative framework to monitor and support the local government sphere. This is
because provincial governments have concurrent functions with national government in terms
of schedule 4 of the Constitution (1996). In other words, they are required to jointly oversee
the schedule 4B functions of the local government sphere, which include water and sanitation
services. This is true in the context of section 139(7) instructions to provincial governments.
However, the statutory gap in terms of reporting, along with the the absence of a political
head to lead the service delivery programme on water and sanitation, needs to be addressed.
4.3.2. What does the cooperative governance system for water management entail? Is it
effective in dealing with water-related service delivery failure at local government level?
A point was made by informant-5 that the intervention process is constrained by procedural
processes that result in long, drawn-out negotiations and discussions between the national
department (DWS) and the relevant province; as such, there is almost never a quick response.
All the informants unanimously agree that the current cooperative governance system for
water management is not only inefficient but “too onerous and time-consuming” (informant-
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5). This means that the provincial government sphere is failing in its function to oversee the
local government sphere. Informant-2 makes a point that "provinces have never had
provincial departments responsible for water and sanitation, despite the fact that it is a
concurrent provincial power. As a result, there is very little capacity at the provincial level to
oversee municipal delivery of water and sanitation services, both at political and technical
level. Yet, when the poo-poo hits the fan, we rely on provinces." Informant-2 used this
expression to demonstrate the gravity of the consequences when the provincial government
neglects to execute what is constitutionally its duty to ensure that service delivery happens at
local government level. The Western Cape‟s drought experience was cited as a case in point
of where the province did not have a plan or an early warning system to foresee that the city
would experience a drought.
The intervention process is constrained by procedures that result in long, drawn-out processes
of negotiation and discussion between the national department (DWS) and the relevant
province, with the result that there is almost never a quick response (Informant--5).
However, the majority of the informants do not agree with that the Minister responsible for
water should be given powers of direct intervention. Political and administrative (managerial)
arguments were advanced for rejecting direct intervention by the national Minister to manage
and supervise the local sphere for water service delivery. Allowing the Minister to do so
would be a breach of the Constitution and an unacceptable encroachment on the original
powers of local government. As one of the informants argues, the review of local government
powers and functions cannot be triggered by reviewing the water services function alone but
would be done through a process of a general review of powers and functions of the three
spheres. Politically, South Africa is a unitary state with federal features, and this makes it
difficult for the national Minister to overlook the provincial sphere of government. The
function of water and sanitation cannot be left to the national department only, as the country
is too large for this and “it is quite a distance for the Minister to travel to get to
municipalities”.
One of the few informants who agrees with the sentiment that the Minister of Water and
Sanitation should have direct intervention sees the Minister intervening to adjust the tariff
structures for water provision to ensure that sufficient funds are raised to achieve sustainable
water supply (Informant-6)
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4.3.3. What is the alternative cooperative governance model for dealing with water
supply failures at local government level?
There is general agreement that water can be prioritised. Informant-1 is of the view that “yes,
water is unique, we are in trouble, we need decisive action”. Informant-1 goes on to suggest
that “we need a law that allows greater cooperation across the spheres”; in addition, “there is
a need to constitute a water-focused IGR forum in which COGTA, the DWS, local
government MECs and SALGA to work together”. In my view a law that allows for greater
cooperation across the spheres already exists in the form of Intergovernmental Relations
Framework Act (IGRF Act) 13 of 2005. Greater cooperation could therefore be achieved if
all parties were to sign implementation protocols and thereby formalise the suggested
cooperative relationship and make it enforceable (s 35, IGRF Act, 2005)). Consulting with
stakeholders was also mentioned several times: “the stakeholders must be consulted and
agree if something must happen at local government level”. This may be done by involving
members of civil society in the implementation protocols to encourage communities to
participate in local governance (Local Government: Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000).
There are many compelling reasons for prioritising water. According to the Water Research
Commission (WRC, 2013) and the Civic Protest Barometer study by the University of the
Western Cape (Chigwata et al., 2017), water always appears at the top of the list of
grievances whenever there is a service delivery protest. Amongst other things, this is because
water impacts and is impacted by the activities of almost all the sectors, for example, health,
agriculture and construction. Informant-3 confirms this and says that water is always
mentioned with every demand that is put on the table by the public and different sectors. An
interesting view is that water cannot be compared with electricity as a basic service because
the two services have different degrees of importance. As noted by Informant-5, unlike
electricity, water has no substitute; moreover, “unlike [the case with] electricity, the Bill of
Rights lists access to water as a human right”. The view is that the Bill of Rights should guide
prioritisation and determine which service should trigger an automatic right of intervention.
4.3.4. What would the alternative model entail, and does it require constitutional
amendment or institutional reform?
It is generally agreed that the current intervention framework is not efficient and must be
reviewed to empower the relevant sphere of government to take immediate action if there is
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an interruption and/or threat of interruption of basic service delivery. Informant-5 is of the
view that whatever alternative intervention is in place, “the relevant sphere should be given
much tighter timeframes and conditions to intervene”
Following up on the contention that the framework for managing water is flawed at the level
of practice, Informant-2 submits that section 139(7) is flawed inasmuch as it gives the
provincial sphere the first right to intervene despite its sharing the same powers and authority
with the national sphere to oversee water service delivery. Again, since the country is too big
and logistically cumbersome for the national Minister to be everywhere, appointing MECs
for Water and Sanitation to play a decisive role in the provincial sphere of water and
sanitation would be an optimal route to follow. One would correctly assume that the section
139(8) legislation which has been strongly suggested would give direction in this regard.
Despite the fact that the current intervention process is long, drawn-out and cumbersome, it is
not clear when the national sphere should jump in to rescue the function, nor is it clear who
determines the ineffectiveness of the provincial sphere and on what basis this is determined.
Informant-2 is of the view that enacting section 139(8) legislation has become necessary as
well as to “deal with the leap-frogging work of the provincial and national government
spheres”. The suggestion is for a national legislative framework to guide sectoral legislation
in this regard. It is believed that the national legislation on intervention would facilitate clear
terms of engagement that are necessary for the location of accountability in the cooperative
governance system (Steytler & De Visser, 2009). It would also prevent “leap-frogging”
(Informant-2) by the two spheres, as well as speed up and create certainty in the intervention
process The Macmillan dictionary defines leap-frogging as a “children‟s game in which one
child bends down so that another child can jump over”. In the context of government, this
would mean the two spheres (provincial and national) keep jumping in and out of
municipal/local governance without following any defined process, causing more confusion
than solving the problem.
However, the COGTA team feels that the discussion around interventions is not necessary
and that the focus should be on the effectiveness of monitoring by the relevant sector, the
DWS in this case, for early warning signs to prevent interventions that have so far not been
effective in resolving the problem, if at all. The SALGA and COGTA teams are of the view
that the proliferation of these interventions are as a result of failure to monitor by the DWS,
and according them and/or popular belief, water management lies squarely on the shoulders
of the DWS and the municipalities.
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A view was also expressed which points to a need for institutional reform as a clear
implementation of section 154(1) of the Constitution (1996) (Informant-4). According to this
informant, such reform would require clear terms of reference on how the national and
provincial government spheres to support local government in a cooperative arrangement.
Informant-4 is further of the view that section 154(1) support to local government by the
other two spheres is ad hoc, uncoordinated and without dedicated human resources and a
committed budget. The establishment of a “section 154 support programme” in the form of a
“municipal institutional support centre” (MISC) is therefore recommended. It is also
advisable, according to the informant, that the MISC be an entity of a department that is
responsible for the management of local government (municipalities) and that all basic
services be housed under one department in order for the MISC to function effectively. It is
believed that once the MISC is established, the intervention process will not be necessary as
the latter will be dedicated and focus on monitoring and support.
4.3.5 Who should finally account for water-related service delivery failures?
It should be noted that while the question above was not one of the focal questions, it was
among those raised in the interviews, as there needs to be clarity and certainty about
accountability in the cooperative governance system.
The informants were unanimous that the local government sphere (municipalities), as an
autonomous sphere with original powers, must account for (water) service delivery failures.
A view from Informant-5 was that “the real problem is that municipalities are not prioritising
basic service delivery in their budgets – so when municipalities fail to deliver water, it is
owing to a long-standing problem and not a problem that came up overnight”. The informant
further believes that more focus should be placed on addressing this root cause rather than on
the actual failure when it happens. This is an indirect indication that, according to the
informant, the root cause is lack of planning and monitoring for early warning signs of
service delivery failure.
There is also recognition that in a cooperative governance system “each sphere is as strong as
it cooperates with another sphere”. As one informant observed, “The fact that there is no
MEC for water does not mean that the MEC for LG [local government] and the Premier do
not take responsibility for water, at least from the human rights point of view”; moreover,
“what needs to be addressed is the speed and effectiveness of intervention by the province
and national spheres, when the service is not delivered”.
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One dissenting but equally important view, offered by Informant-1, concerns where
accountability should be located in the cooperative governance system. The point was made
that “philosophically, legally, constitutionally, politically, national government is ultimately
responsible for service delivery failure”. The current drought was again cited as a case in
point, with the argument being that national government should be held accountable because
the country needs to prepare for drought. The view of the COGTA team (Informant-9) is that
all water-related service delivery failures at local government level are due to a lack of
effective monitoring by the Department responsible for water (the DWS). According to them,
the high rate of intervention shows that there are no systems in place within the DWS to
conduct the much-needed monitoring and avoid emergency interventions. Both SALGA and
COGTA teams made a similar contention, arguing that invoking the intervention process
should be a last resort. According to them, many things need to happen before intervention –
financial and human resource support to the municipality, and assessment of whether a
municipality has the capability to execute what it is obligated to execute. The latter
submission points, in essence, to the notion that the DWS should take responsibility in all
water-related service delivery breakdowns.
4.4. Conclusion
The findings point to the fact that when local government fails to deliver services, the
intervention process gets stuck in negotiations, is cumbersome and time-consuming, and
undoubtedly needs to be reviewed. The proposed review has been suggested both at
constitutional and institutional levels. At a constitutional level, clarity is needed for the
explicit function of provincial government in water and sanitation, as was intended by
schedules 4 and 4B of the Constitution.
Although many reasons were given for service delivery failure at local government level,
governance and leadership are the most cited. A general view is that in the main, local
government uses emergency intervention mechanism as a day-to-day management process.
On the other hand, provincial and national government spheres do not effectively and
sustainably execute their constitutional obligation to support local government. The issue of
accountability is of utmost importance in relation to cooperative government. The risk
entailed in leaving the intervention process loose without strict conditions and timeframes is
that no one is held responsible if service delivery is not restored.
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There are diverse views on who should be held accountable. The views are: hold provincial
government accountable (e.g. for the drought in the Western Cape); hold national government
accountable, as it is responsible for planning or early warnings in terms of water security;
and, lastly, hold municipalities accountable, because the responsibility for water services
delivery by the municipalities “is firmly entrenched in the Constitution and cannot and should
not be changed”.
The informants were unanimous that local government, as an autonomous sphere with
original powers and functions, must account for (water) service delivery failures. This
sentiment is in line with the VSM principle that the Metasystem should not get involved in
the internal matters of S1 function, on the basis that the Operational System is autonomous
and must be left as such. In the context of this study, this means that the provincial and
government sphere provide support but that final accountability resides with local
government.
The next chapter explores options for generating an integrative cooperative governance
model to resolve water-service delivery failures at local government level.
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CHAPTER 5: A NEW CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR INTERVENTION
IN THE WATER SECTOR
5.1. Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to present a conceptual model for the cooperative governance
intervention to address water-supply service delivery failure at local government level. The
model has been developed using what currently exists and what the research, i.e. literature
review and interviews, reveals. The options for the model are explored using the process for
integrative thinking, which involves (i) framing the problem and identifying two opposite and
conflicting answers; (ii) defining the areas of conflict and similarities; (iii) exploring common
ground towards generating resolution; and (iv) assessing the feasibility of the new resolution,
i.e. the prototype model.
5.2. A process for integrative thinking
This section outlines the process of integrative thinking taken to decide on an alternative
model to be used by national government to intervene effectively in cases of failure of water-
supply service delivery by local government. As previously mentioned, the situation of
concern is that “the intervention process by a national government for a water-supply
delivery failure at the local government level is inefficient”.
5.2.1. Articulating the models
In order to identify the two extreme and opposing answers to the situation of concern, the
following question is asked: “What is the model for national government to intervene in the
water-supply service delivery failure at local government level and what might the alternative
model be?” The following opposing answers have been identified: (a) manage water-supply
service delivery failure at local government level by using emergency intervention
mechanism in figure 13, or (b) manage water-supply service delivery failure at local
government level through a structured support mechanism, in figure 14.
-
Figure 13 represents an emergency intervention mechanism and it indicates that the
provincial and national governments are called upon to provide incident-specific solution
when there is a crisis. The mechanism applies to a situation similar to that when the Minister
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of Water and Sanitation donated wheelbarrows that have water containers and built-in taps in
Sheldon village in Mpumalanga for the elderly to store water as part of “the water supply
intervention projects ongoing in the area” (Infrastructure news, 8 June 2016).
Figure 13: Emergency intervention mechanism
Figure 14 represents a structured support mechanism with an ongoing monitoring of service
delivery at local government level and a coordinated support for sustainable service delivery.
Figure 14: Institutionalised support mechanism
Figures 13 and 14 diagrammatically articulate the two opposing models of national
government intervention in case of service delivery failure. Model A (Figure 13) aims to
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resolve water-supply service delivery failure at local government through an emergency
intervention process. On the other hand, model B (Figure 14) aims to resolve it at local
government level through a structured, proactive, coordinated, sustainable support
mechanism.
5.2.2. Examining the models
Examining the models involves unpacking the models in terms of what each model entails.
Based on the assumption that no model is completely wrong, the unpacking further involves
identifying what can be retained and rejected from the two models in order to come to a
resolution. Table 2 represents the two models and identifies what would and would not be
useful for the final resolution model. The two elements of model A, as indicated by “no”, are
rejected because they form part of the key variables that make the current intervention
process inefficient and its rejection by this study. They represent the intervention process as
shown in Figure 2 above, which involves onerous bureaucracy and is devoid of sustainability.
Table 2: What is retained and rejected in the models
MODEL A:
Resolve water-supply service
delivery failure at LG through a
reactive intervention process
YES/NO MODEL B:
Resolve water-supply service
delivery failure at LG through a
structured support mechanism
Lack of coordinated intervention
and support is incidental
No Yes Coordinated intervention and
continuous support by all spheres
Roles, responsibilities and
timeframes are not clearly spelt
out for spheres to intervene
No Yes Clear roles & responsibilities of all
spheres
Project/incident-based resources
(funding)
Yes Yes Dedicated (financial & human)
resources
Prioritised & project-focused
monitoring over time
Yes Yes Scheduled monitoring &
intervention
Ad hoc, crisis-driven
intervention
Yes Yes Proactive intervention
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Although model A is a reactive model, it is, however, beneficial for a community- and/or
incident-focused intervention. The community- and/or incident-focused model A can be
beneficial in providing specific and tailored needs for the affected community as opposed to
general support.
According to the collected data, even though model B, i.e. the proactive and coordinated
support, is a preferred model, there is still a need for emergency interventions to deal with
life-threatening emergencies. Model B is also a sustainable approach to the ongoing neglect
of water infrastructure operations and maintenance that significantly contribute to supply
interruptions leading to civil protests.
Both models provide an opportunity to monitor, support and give feedback and/or account to
the public, although at different levels. The involvement of all spheres is necessary in both
models but with clear roles and responsibilities. It would be helpful if different spheres
“leapfrog” to their roles and responsibilities and not step on each other‟s toes.
5 .2.3. Exploring possibilities
With the opposing models having been defined and examined, this section proceeds to
explore those elements from each model that can make up a final integrative resolution
model. Riel and Martin (2017) suggest three questions to guide the exploration stage of the
integrative thinking process.
Q1. How might we create a new model using one building block from each opposing
model, while throwing away the rest of each model?
This requires identifying the most valued component of each model, discarding the rest and
productively combining them for a new model. Coordination of intervention and support is
the most valued element in both models although they are carried out differently. In an
emergency intervention model (A) coordination is ad hoc and not sustainable, while in a
proactive support model (B), continuous coordination is used as a monitoring and early
warning system. This is a technique called a “Double Down” (Martin, 2007), in which the
key attributes of model B, in this case a coordinated plan for intervention, can also be
beneficial to an emergency situation (model A).
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Model A: Reactive intervention Model B: Proactive intervention
Figure 15: A "Double Down" technique for model generation
Q2. Under what conditions could a more intense version of one model actually generate
one vital benefit of the other?
This involves “extending one model to capture a single important benefit from the opposing
model” (Riel & Martin, 2017). Model B could be beneficial to model A in terms of clearly
outlining roles and responsibilities for the spheres. If the roles are clear, these could be
applicable even in a situation that is defined by Figure 2 above, i.e. the current model that
does not clearly define the roles nor the conditions for the spheres to intervene. If roles are
clear, the “leapfrogging” work can be better managed. Even if both the provincial sphere and
national sphere can intervene at the same time, as they both have the same constitutional
powers and authority, what is important is to clarify roles and responsibilities for certainty in
terms of accountability whether service delivery is restored or not. In this situation, the
national government could present a (financially) resourced plan and/or strategy on how to
solve the problem. The provincial government would table an implementation plan with
human resources, including timeframes to resolve the problem. This is an application of a
“Hidden Gem” technique (Martin, 2017) which allows one to look for an essential attribute
that creates a common ground for the two models. The emergency situation (model A)
attracts the attention of all, including the media, while the media would also be attracted to
the model B which is coordination of intervention through support. This raises awareness and
is a lesson to other municipalities and communities.
Uncoordinated
intervention and incidental
support
Coordinated intervention
and support
A two-pronged intervention for emergencies
and ongoing, continuous support.
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Figure 16: A "Hidden Gem" technique for model generation
Q3. How might the problem be broken apart in a new way so that each model could be
applied in whole to distinct parts of the problem?
This question requires thinking differently about the problem and in a condition where both
models are attractive and can be applied in different parts of the problem. The situation of
concern could be resolved at two levels: (i) intervene to deploy expertise and funding in an
emergency, and (ii) intervene in water-supply service delivery failure by ongoing monitoring
and support. This is an application of a “Decomposition” technique (Martin, 2007) where
both models co-exist in different conditions and for different purposes. Model A can exist
side by side with model B – the former in conditions of natural disasters or emergencies, and
the latter as a programme of government dedicated to monitoring and support.
Figure 17: A "Decomposition" technique for model building
5.2.4. Assessing and validating the prototype
This section consolidates and validates the new conceptual model. The new model takes
away the concepts of “intervention” and “failure of service delivery” in the process of
governance. It proposes to limit intervention to emergency situations such as disasters rather
than use it as a day-to-day mode of governance with no operational procedures in place in the
three spheres of government. As one of the informants noted, there needs to be a clear
support programme by the provincial and national government spheres to implement section
Ongoing coordination, monitoring and
support and for use during emergencies
(e.g. drought)
Awareness of water supply interruptions
through media to serve as a lesson for all for
proactive support
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154(1) of the Constitution. The structured and coordinated section 154(1) support programme
should be resourced and factored into the government‟s programme of action to facilitate
dedicated and continuous monitoring to avoid failure of water-supply service delivery, thus
avoiding unnecessary emergency intervention. In this way, resources are saved and service
delivery protests, eliminated.
The proposal for structured and coordinated section 154 support responds appropriately to the
concern raised by one of the informants about placing greater focus on addressing the root
causes of service delivery failures by municipalities‟. The proposal also responds to calls by
the COGTA and SALGA teams for a strong monitoring programme and for the use of
intervention as a last resort.
Figure 18: Illustration of the integrative resolution
On the whole, the new model will have positive impact on all the different stakeholders in the
long term. However, as information from interviews suggests, the model would require a
rationalisation of government departments in which all social services, such as water and
electricity, are housed under one department for the efficient management of service delivery.
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Table 3: How the new model affects stakeholders
Stakeholder Impact
Citizens Certainty of service delivery
Confidence in government
Elimination of service delivery protests
Government Certainty about roles and responsibilities at different
levels of government
Certainty regarding allocation of resources
Business/industry Clear governance procedures encourage a good
relationship with government
Attracts investment, from which government
benefits
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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND LEARNING JOURNEY
6.1. Introduction
This paper has identified and addressed a concern that the framework for the intervention
process, as prescribed in section 139(7) of the Constitution (1996) and section 63 of the
Water Services Act (1997), is too long and drawn-out and is not efficient as a means for the
national government to intervene when local government fails to execute its constitutional
obligation to supply water.
The situation of concern has been addressed by answering specific questions, the macro
question being, “Is the current cooperative governance framework effective in responding to
a service delivery failure with respect to water supply at local government level and, if not,
what is the alternative?” For the purposes of generating a model, the macro question was then
framed as follows: “What is the model for national government to intervene in the water-
supply service delivery failure at local government level and how might the alternative model
be?” The main question was answered through the following sub-questions:
What is the framework for managing water in South Africa?
What does the cooperative governance system for water management entail?
Is the cooperative governance system effective in dealing with a water-related service
delivery failure at local government level?
What is the alternative model for dealing with such failures?
What would the alternative model entail?
Does it require constitutional amendment or institutional reform?
The sub-questions guided the literature review, data presentation and analysis. The rest of the
chapter outlines my experience in the different stages of my research. It concludes by pulling
together all the findings and presenting recommendations for future research.
6.2. My experience in undertaking this project
Undertaking the research and writing the paper was an experience filled with anxiety and a
feeling of being stuck. However, in October 2017, during a flight to Johannesburg, I
happened to read Sawubona, the inflight magazine, and came across the sentence: “Imperfect
action is better than no action at all” (Sawubona, October 2017, p. 121). This got me inspired
and gave me the courage to continue with my paper.
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Key learnings?
Setting up appointments and targets is very useful, but following up on them and sticking to
the research calendar come what may is the most important step of all. People receiving the
requests for interviews are busy and have their own priorities, so it is up to you, the
researcher, to persist in following up with them.
What worked?
What worked was my interview request letter, which was clear and thorough in outlining the
objective of the study, and the consent form, which helped in setting up appointments.
Having the official approval of the Ethics Committee also gave the request validity and
authenticity. In addition, providing detailed information about a research project in advance
of an interview helps to save time in explaining the study to the informant, leaving more time
available for the interview itself. This was important, as people have limited time on hand to
give interviews. A thirty-minute interview is a comfortable length of time to spend with the
informant. Voice-recording, to which all the informants agreed, also saves time and enables
both the interviewer and interviewee to focus on the business at hand of conducting an
interview.
What was a struggle?
Writing Chapter 3 of the paper was challenging. What was particularly difficult was situating
my topic in the framework of the VSM and ITP. I read the VSM literature over and over.
Although I had written PP2 and had propositions on the VSM, applying them to my area of
study turned out to be difficult.
My interview guide questions were not developed with the focal questions fully and clearly in
mind, so it took considerable effort to reconcile the two sets of questions. I felt it necessary to
reconcile them during the presentation and analysis of findings and for the purposes of the
data structure, this so that it could all make sense to me.
What helped, and why?
The position papers, especially position papers 2 and 4 (i.e. PP2 and PP4), assisted me in
writing this paper. Chapter 2 (research methodology) borrowed a lot from PP4, and the VSM,
from PP2. I came to understand the concepts better during this research than when I was
writing position papers. However, writing them was a good exercise and valuable practice for
a final dissertation. Most of the literature consulted for this dissertation was used for the
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position papers, and the experience was an opportunity to develop a technique for dealing
with the massive amount of reading and referencing. Most of the theoretical propositions in
this document were exported from the position papers (PP2 and PP4).
In terms of working practice, I found that establishing a sleeping pattern and routine helped
me to build and keep up momentum. I also got into the habit of taking thirty-minute morning
walks: every time I came back to my work station I would have thought of another idea to
add to my writing. Whether the thought was right or wrong, useful or not, I would note it
down and sort it out later. As I was writing, I would come across the same or related ideas
when working through literature that would help me with an academic citation.
My most surprising (unexpected) finding
The interpretation of the Constitution by one of my informants was the most fascinating
finding. The finding, based on the interpretation of the Constitution, is that section 154(1) and
schedule 4(B) of the Constitution allocate the same authority and power to provincial and
national government to supervise the local government. This finding differs from my
understanding that the management of water is inherently a function of national and local
government. It was not only my understanding and interpretation; most of us in the DWS, as
well as the SALGA and COGTA teams in the focus group sessions, share it. However, this
new insight also confirms an assertion made by Steytler and De Visser (2009) that the system
of cooperative governance may interfere with accountability if not well managed.
6.3 My experience in interviewing informants
As expected, the responses of the informants reflected their respective career backgrounds.
Politicians would not suggest an amendment of the Constitution or the review of the law, as
this would interfere with the structure of political power and authority. Academics did not
hold back in interpreting the Constitution with suggestions that are aimed at benefiting the
citizenry. The practitioners had an all-encompassing view based on an operational
understanding of how processes should change.
I found it useful to transcribe each recording before I proceeded to the next informant. This
allowed me to follow up on issues that seemed important and to compare points of emphasis.
I would ask follow-up questions or see if different issues are important to different
informants.
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I also noticed that, with the first two informants, I gave long background explanations for
questions, to the extent of giving them clues as to the answers I was looking for. I tried to
refrain from this, as I realised that I was, in a way, leading the interview towards my own
perspective on the issues. However, I never applied what Gioia, et al. (2013) suggest and
reverted to previously interviewed informants to ask questions about matters arising from
subsequent interviews, due to time constraints.
As mentioned earlier in the paper, the drought situation that is currently raging in Cape Town
almost side-tracked me from the focus of the study. I had to stay alert and refocus the study to
the concern about the governance of service delivery failure.
6.4. My experience with the data gathering, presentation and analysis
Developing the data structure that appears under Table 1 was a challenge because, first, all
data gathered seems important and so interrelated that it becomes difficult to prioritise. The
literature review that was carried out before the actual field-based data gathering (i.e.
interviews) seemed to influence the structuring of data. Gioia, et al. (2013) caution that “there
is value in semi-ignorance or enforced ignorance of the literature because knowing the
literature intimately too early puts blinders [on one]” (at p.21) and may lead to biased
assumptions and conclusions. More importantly, it may limit options for exploration during
the generation and innovation exercise. One also is face with the dilemma that before one
innovates, one needs to know; but if one knows too much, one is hypnotised by all the ideas
in the literature into thinking in readymade ways … and thus one cannot innovate.
I recognise a gap in my informants in that I should have also consulted the people
experiencing the phenomenon of theoretical interest (Gioia, at al., 2013). It would have been
useful to test the assumptions and the focal questions by interviewing members of the public
who are the “customers” of water supply service delivery. Despite the fact that the people
who were interviewed are practitioners and experts in the field, the study‟s aim is to influence
policy, which means that interviewing the actual customer for a customer-centric
organisational design (Kates & Gaibraith) would have added more value to the study.
Giving the participants free scope to discuss and be spontaneous in an informal way through
the unstructured questionnaire guide is aligned to what Gioia, et al. (2013) call the
“designed-in flexibility of interpretive research” (at p.20), which, they argue, is the
recognition that the interview questions must change with the progression of the research.
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This is the reality one encounters on the ground when engaging with informants. It is also a
practical demonstration of the fact that qualitative research is action-oriented
The flexibility of the pragmatic research paradigm, in terms of which any style or approach
may be relevant, also benefited the study. Some informants, due to time constraints, preferred
to send written responses instead of juggling their schedules around to find appointment
times suitable to both them and the researcher. The video link connection with the COGTA
team disconnected during the focus group session and we continued the discussion
telephonically.
6.5. The development of my integrative-thinking capacity through this
project
My self-assessment is that my integrative-thinking capacity needs more practice. However,
when I was writing position paper 4, this capacity was at a very elementary stage. This paper
has helped me in taking it to the next level, but there is still room for improvement.
6.6 Recommendations for future consideration
The recommendations that emerge from the study, based more on the data collected from
interviews and the one focus group are as follows:
(i) Section 139(7) of the Constitution should be amended in order to consider the
concurrent powers and authority of the provincial and national spheres of government.
Section 139(7) must be aligned with schedule 4B of the Constitution which allocates
concurrent functions to provincial governments and national government.
(ii) Section 139(8) legislation should be in place to guide the intervention by different
spheres. The COGTA team mentioned that the process of drafting this legislation has
started. It is national framework legislation that will guide sectors on the dealing with
interventions.
(iii) The amendment of section 139(7) of the Constitution and the enactment of section
139(8) framework legislation will lead to consequential amendment of the Water
Services Act.
(iv) The “enforceable” IGR forum that involves the DWS, COGTA and SALGA should
be implemented as a short-term measure to manage water-supply interruptions. It can
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be made enforceable by adopting implementation protocols wherein all stakeholders
make a commitment as to what resources and expertise they bring to the table and to
the programme of action that is adopted.
(v) The establishment of the proposed Municipal Institutional Support Centre (MISC)
would be welcomed as a medium-term measure to deal with the issue of service
delivery failures at local government level. This entity would facilitate ongoing
monitoring and support, doing away with unsustainable emergency interventions.
6.7 Conclusions
This minor dissertation has answered the following broad question: Is the current cooperative
governance framework effective in responding to a service delivery failure with respect to
water supply at local government level and, if not, what is the alternative? The question was
broken down into five focal sub-questions.
The first two questions asked: What is the framework for managing water in South Africa?
What does the cooperative governance system for water management entail? The study found
that the diagnostic review and organisational design of the current framework for water
management in South African reveals that all three spheres of government are involved with
water management. The provincial government and national government operate in the
Metasystem function and this means they are responsible for policy and strategy formulation
for implementation at a local government sphere, which is the Operational level of the
organisational/government system.
The third question asked: Is the cooperative governance system effective in dealing with a
water-related service delivery failure at local government level? The study found that the
absence of a political champion for water and sanitation at provincial level renders the
cooperative governance in water and sanitation ineffective. This capacity for managing water
and sanitation has not been developed at the provincial government level, either politically
and technically; hence, cooperative governance in the water sector will always be ineffective.
The final two questions asked: What is the alternative model for dealing with such failures?
What would the alternative model entail? Does it require constitutional amendment or
institutional reform? The study found that the basis for the alternative model requires one to
adopt an attitude of being-in-management and have the ability to deal with complex socio-
economic and socio-environmental challenges. In other words, the alternative must use the
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public-service dominant approach, which considers the needs and expectations of broader
society.
The many innovative ideas from the data collected respond to the call for executives to
articulate new regimes and new concepts. The proposed section 154(1) Municipal
Institutional Support Centre/support programme towards the local government sphere is a
technical measure that can be implemented in the short term while the constitutional
(political) change in terms of a constitutional amendment is being considered. Accountability
is important in the system of cooperative government; as such, the alternative model should
be strictly rules-based and enforceable.
The prototype integrative resolution model that was undertaken through the Business Model
Innovation (BMI) process should exist under the rules-based conditions and thus must be
regulated, with there being strict protocols to guide the stakeholders involved.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Theoretical Propositions
Appendix 1A: Theoretical propositions on Pragmatism
Concept (e.g.
“Pragmatism”)
Evidence and source(s) (Summarise
or quote from literature, together
with sources written as Author,
date, page number)
Proposition (Your
interpretation, in your
own words, of the
theoretical claims made in
the literature)
“Creation of new empirical evidence”
suggests philosophy of science view
that departs from the idea of discovery
of a reality lying there to be
discovered and deciphered to a reality
whose richness is engaged with and
co-created with those who live it”
(Hermes, 2014, p. 853)
Pragmatism is about
continually finding facts,
considering different
perspectives and
interpreting them based on
the prevailing situation.
“Practice is activity framed by
organisations as contexts, practice
instantiates those very contexts”
(Hermes, 2014, p. 854)
All types of practice in an
organisation contribute to
establishing context, and in
turn practices are concrete
examples of context.
“Prominent scholars in shaping the
field of organisation and management
studies have consistently worked from
pragmatist perspectives, where
thinking and understanding have been
accompanied and framed by actions”
(Hermes, 2014, p. 854)
Perspectives of pragmatists
are informed by practice
and action, not only theory.
“practices uphold or enable the
emergence of some organisational
arrangements rather than others, and
what characterizes those practices as
well as their linkages” (Hermes, 2014,
p. 854)
Organisational culture and
values emerge from the
practices of a particular
organisational community.
“The philosophy of pragmatism
encompasses many interesting ideas
but perhaps what is most useful for
elucidating the difference between
pragmatism and other philosophies is
its notion of truth” (Baker and
Schaltegger, 2015, p. 265)
The notion of truth not
being absolute is the
underlying element that
distinguishes pragmatism
from all other research
approaches.
“the early pragmatists all share the
epistemological position that meaning
Pragmatists believe that an
understanding a particular
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and truth is inferential rather than
representational; that meaning comes
from relationships with other
expressions rather than a
representational relationship with
objects” (Baker and Schaltegger,
2015, p. 265-6)
situation can be gained
from the available
information/data without
necessarily being expressly
represented.
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Appendix 1B: Theoretical propositions on Phronetic Social Science
Concept (e.g.
“Phronetic
Social
Science”)
„Evidence‟ and „Source(s)‟ (e.g.
Summarise or quote from literature,
together with sources written as
Author, date, page number.)
Proposition (i.e. Your
interpretation of the
theoretical claims made in
the literature)
In Aristotle‟s words, phronesis is an
intellectual virtue that is concerned with
values and goes beyond analytical,
scientific knowledge (episteme) and
technical knowledge or know how
(techne) and it involves judgements and
decisions made in the manner of a
virtuoso social actor (Flyvbjerg, 2006,
p. 70)
According to Aristotle,
phronesis is values-based
critical thinking and human
judgement, followed by
action.
It goes beyond scientific and
technical analysis, and
involves value judgments and
decisions.
The phronetic approach argues for the
application of practical wisdom in
social science research that emerges
from the development of applied expert
knowledge (Flyvbjerg, Landman &
Schram, 2012, p. 1)
Phronesis considers practical
wisdom based on experience
and expert knowledge.
“Phronetic approach scholars think
about practice and action with a point of
departure that is not in top-down,
decontextualized theory and rules, but
in „bottom-up‟ contextual and action-
oriented knowledge” (Flyvbjerg,
Landman & Schram, 2012, p. 6)
The phronetic approach
considers practical aspects
of a matter, followed by
action in the context of a
local environment and/or
informed by the researched.
“Because phronesis today is
marginalized in the intellectual scheme
of things, scientific and technological
development take place without the
ethical checks and balances ….this is a
major management problem in its own
right” (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 373).
The absence of phronesis in
scientific and technical
research renders research
unethical and unreliable.
“Tension points are the key attributes,
intrinsic feature of phronetic social
science. Tension points involve dubious
practices by key actors and agents and
may involve conflicts and may tip the
scales and trigger a change in a tension
point. These tension points are
expressed in stark terms that involve a
significant opposition between two
forces” (Flyvbjerg, Landman &
The phronetic approach to
research uncovers tension
points which can be
challenged and on the basis
of which and alternative
models proposed.
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Schram, 2012, p. 8)
“Consistent with the Weberian notion
of „value-based‟ empirical research,
phronetic social science rejects the
fact/value distinction prevalent in
mainstream social science and focuses
its efforts on answering four critical
questions related to enhancing practical
wisdom” (Flyvbjerg, Landman &
Schram, 2012, p. 5).
Phronetic social science
researchers emphasise
practical research by
answering critical value-
rational questions (Flyvbjerg,
2006, p. 374)
“phronetic social science does not
privilege collaboration with the people
being studied (as much as some forms
of participatory action research), but
privileges producing knowledge that
improves the ability of those people to
make informed decisions about critical
issues confronting them (regardless of
whether that research is done in
collaboration with those people or not)”
(Flyvbjerg, Landman & Schram, 2012,
p. 5).
Phronetic social science
research is distinct from
other participatory research
in that it does not focus on
the collaboration with the
researched; it focuses on
empowering even people
who were not part of
research to make informed
decisions.
Empower and
re-enchanting
organisation
research
“Doing organisational research is not
about producing cumulative and
predictive theory and emulating the
natural science approach. It is about
addressing problems that matter at all
levels of communities in which we live,
focal on issues of context, values, and
power, effectively and dialogically
communicating research
recommendations to the researched and
carefully listening to their feedback.”
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 370)
Three things are important
for organisational research –
to avoid being cumulative
and predictive, to consider
the researched and their
context and have a two-way
feedback process, and to
implement recommendations
from the researched.
“As key attributes, tension points
involve dubious practices by key actors
and agents within the studies,
contestable knowledge used to make
particular policy arguments, and may
involve conflicts, where even a small
challenge, such as problematization
from scholars, may tip the scales and
trigger a change in a tension point.
These tension points are expressed in
stark terms that involve a significant
opposition between two forces” (p. 8)
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“The fault lines - For us, tension points
are „the fault lines phronetic researchers
seek out”
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Appendix 1C: Propositions on Grounded Theory Methodology (GTM)
Concept „Evidence‟ and „Source(s)‟ (e.g.
Summarise or quote from
literature, together with sources
written as Author, date, page
number.)
Proposition (i.e. Your
interpretation of the
theoretical claims made in the
literature)
Inductive
research
Inductive study/research is best
known for creative, revelatory
potential for generating new concepts
and ideas.
Inductive research makes
conclusions based on
information gathered from the
informants
Inductive research/study is designed
not only to surface new concepts, but
also to generate persuasive new
theories (Gioia & Pitre, 1990).
The concepts and patterns
emerging from open-ended
interviews develop new
theories.
Advances in knowledge that are too
strongly rooted in what we already
know delimit what we can know
(Gioia, et al. p16)
Grounded theory encourages
using new data to understand
the world as it is lived beyond
what has existed over time.
We would argue that the single most
profound recognition in social and
organizational study is that much of
the world with which we deal is
essentially socially constructed
(Gioia, et al. p. 16)
Organisational studies are
unique in that they generate
theories from how people
interpret the world.
Focal too much on refining our
existing constructs too often amounts
to sharpening the wrong tools for
gaining bona fide understandings.
What we really need instead are
some new tools. In our work, those
new tools are new concepts
Constructs and variables have the
wonderful advantage of allowing
parsimony and some semblance of
consensuality as we engage in the
ambitious and ambiguous work of
trying to make sense of organizing,
organization, and organizations
Concepts are precursors to constructs
in making sense of organizational
worlds - whether as practitioners
living in those worlds, researchers
trying to investigate them, or
Making sense of an emerging
pattern during any type of
explorations starts with a
conceptual framework.
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theorists working to model them
Experience that are adequate at the
level of meaning of lived experience
and adequate at the level of scientific
theorizing about that experience ….
the latter to be accomplished by
devising a systematic inductive
approach to concept development.
Theory-building is a systematic
process of inductively
interpreting practical/lived
experience
Ground
Assumptions
People constructing their
organizational realities are
„„knowledgeable agents,‟‟ i.e. they
know what they are trying to do and
can explain their thoughts,
intentions, and actions (Gioia, et al.
p. 17):
Practitioners, researchers,
theorists and model-builders
rely on the knowledge of
informants interpreting their
world/lived experiences.
How do we enact assumptions in a
way that enables us to be true to the
informants‟ experiences while also
meeting a scientific criterion of
presenting evidence systematically?
(Gioia, et al. p. 17)
A valid theoretical perspective
considers the lived experiences
of the informants before the
scientific analysis of the
researcher.
The presentation of the research
findings in a way that demonstrates
the connections among data, the
emerging concepts, and the resulting
grounded
theory (Gioia, et al. p. 17)
Presentation and analysis of
data shows the original
language of the informants and
how the language has been
scientifically synthesised.
Qualitative research revelatory but
cannot adequately justify its
assertions, hence skepticism about
whether its researchers engage
creative theorizing on the basis of
rather thin evidence (Gioia, et al. p.
18) .
Grounded theory VS deductive
thinking, quantitative data displays,
rigorous statistical tests, and strong,
transparent connections between
hypotheses, data presentations,
results, and conclusions.
The tandem reporting of informant
and researcher voices allows not only
a qualitatively rigorous
demonstration of the links between
the data and the induction of the new
concept of sensegiving/
The double reporting in the
original language of the
informants and that of a
researcher does not only
validate social research but is
also the fundamental basis of
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sensemaking, but is also the defining
hallmark of high-quality qualitative
research.
qualitative research
methodology.
generate new concepts and grounded
theories not only via impressionistic
studies, but also via
qualitatively rigorous inductive
studies (Gioia, et al. p. 26)
The generation of new concepts
and grounded theory does not
only depend on reviewing
academic literature but can also
be done through examination of
original and practical
experiences.
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Appendix 1D: Propositions on Governance
Concept (e.g.
“Phronetic
Social
Science”)
„Evidence‟ and „Source(s)‟ (e.g.
Summarise or quote from literature,
together with sources written as
Author, date, page number.)
Proposition (i.e. Your
interpretation of the
theoretical claims made in the
literature)
“Governance
and ethical
consciousness”
The present corporate governance is
concerned with not only structure and
process, but also with an ethical
consciousness and conduct
Governance also involves being
ethically conscious of one‟s
conduct towards other
stakeholders.
“Governance
framework”
King III included a separate principle
in which a governance framework
should have been agreed upon between
the group Board and its subsidiary
Board.
Governance framework is
predetermined by all relevant
and affected stakeholders.
“Disclosure” In the spirit of transparency, King IV
emphasises the role of disclosure in
managing stakeholder relationships.
Disclosure is critical for
governance
“Governance
is multi-
perspective”
Depending on the perspective adopted
by the interested observer, the purpose
and form of governance transforms.
(Lewis and Millar, 2009. P1).
Governance is not static but
evolutionary and in context.
Governance vs
Management
Governors set norms, policies strategy,
vision and direct the organization to
work in the best interests of the public.
Managers are responsible for the day
to day operations and implementation
of decisions by the governors.
(UNESCO)
Organisations operate at a
strategic level by governors and
at an implementation level to
ensure the implementation of
decisions by managers.
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Appendix 2: Interrelationship Diagraph (ID)
Appendix 3: Framing of ID variables
1. Level of WSDP compliant
2. Level of IDP compliant
3. State of water infrastructure
4. Status of water quality (water pollution)
5. Level of increase in population size
6. Level of increased indigent people
7. Rate of revenue collection
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Appendix 4: Interview Guide Questions
Permission to record
1. According to the literature, “water crisis is primarily a governance crisis” and not
necessarily based on resource (human and financial) scarcity.
What is your comment?
2. My view is that the constitutional obligation for national government to support
municipalities [s154(1)] and to regulate municipalities [s155(7)] has not had an
impact, at least in the water sector, and this needs to be reviewed.
What is your view and what do you think should be done?
3. Governance is generally defined as made up of three variables – policy, structure and
process.
Which element do you think should be the area of focus should one decide to
remodel the management of water value chain, and why?
4. UWC releases/ed a protest barometer that indicates water listed at the top of
grievances by service delivery protestors.
How would you prioritise water service delivery to be given special attention by
government?
5. I am arguing that the intervention process as provided for in section 139(7) of the
Constitution and enacted in 63 of the Water Services Act is not efficient when it
comes to especially the national minister responsible for water to intervene when
there is failure of water service delivery at local/municipal level.
Do you agree that the intervention is not efficient, especially for water service
delivery? If yes/no, why?
6. I am proposing that the national minister responsible for water be given direct access
to interact directly with municipalities to the extent of giving instructions in relation
to the water function.
If you agree, what powers should the Minister have in this regard? If you do not
agree, please give reasons?
7. Given the current intervention process, who should be the finally account for water-
related service delivery failure?
8. What do you think of SALGA? Are they effective in their role?
Thank you very much.
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Appendix 5: Interview Log
Name of interviewee Date Time Location Relevance to research?
Informed about the
aims and nature of
research? *
Informed
about the
potential risks
of research? **
Permission
granted for
use of name
in research
report?
Informant-1 Yunus Carrim, MP
23-Aug
-17
14H30 -
15H30
Parliament,
Cape Town
Currently a Chairperson of the Parliamentary
Portfolio Committee on Finance. The PC has
oversight role over the National Treasury (NT). NT
allocates and monitors funds to the three spheres of
government. A former Deputy Minister of Local
Government (for 18 months). A former Chairperson
of the then Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on
Provincial and Local Government and all the Local
Government laws were developed during his time (
and I was the party (ANC) researcher working
directly with him. He was expected to respond to
question with his background and insight of the
Local Government legislative framework that he
was driving.
Yes. The request was
accompanied by the
formal, authorised
interview request letter
and interview consent
form. The research aim
and objective is
comprehensively
outlined on the
interview request letter
and the interview
consent form offers an
option to accept or
decline the request. Yes Yes
Informant-2 Yaap De Visser
29-Aug
-17
15h30 -
16h15
Magica
Roma
Restaurant in
Pinelands,
Cape Town
A Professor of Public Law at the University of the
Western Cape, has extensive writing, teaching and
consulting experience in multi-governance,
intergovernmental relations, good governance and
federalism, in Africa. Yes Yes Yes
Informant-3 SLGA team
05-Sep
-17
11h00 -
12h30
SALGA
Western
Cape
Offices, 44
Strand
Street, 7th
Floor, Cape
Town
Kalil Mulagie (Provincial CEO of Salga) and Ms
Shantal Harigobin )Programme Manager :
Municipal Infrastructure & Services). SALGA
Western Cape in the Western Cape. SALGA works
very close with municipalities and looks after the
interests of local government. Yes Yes Yes
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Name of interviewee Date Time Location Relevance to research?
Informed about the
aims and nature of
research? *
Informed
about the
potential risks
of research? **
Permission
granted for
use of name
in research
report?
Informant-4
Dan Mashitisho
01-Nov
17
13h30 -
15h00
Baxter
Theatre,
Cape Town
Director-General for the Department of Water and
Sanitation. He has extensive experience of being a
Municipal Manager in most of the Local
Municipalities that are responsible for water supplu
/ provision. Ye Yes Yes
Informant-5
Hildegarde Fast
18- Nov
-17
Emailed
responses
Former Head of Department: Local Government in
the Western Cape government. Formerly worked
for the Financial and Fiscal Commission that heads
and advises Parliament on the Division of Revenue
Act (DORA) between the spheres. Yes Yes No
Informant-6
Tony Brutus
18-Nov
-17
Emailed
responses
Deputy Director for Social and Economic
Regulation in the Department of Water and
Sanitation – in the Western Cape Regional office.
Tony has a background in Parliamentary Research
for the Water Committee, Ministerial Liaison and
an IGR/ Stakeholder engagement portfolio Yes Yes No
Informant-7
Thozama Mdaka
28-Nov
-17
Emailed
responses
She works for Nelsons Mandela Metropolitan in
Port Elizabeth. He came in the place of the MM
(Mr Metler) as he had commitment. Yes Yes Yes
Informant-8
Zolile Simawo
30-Nov
-17
Emailed
responses
He is a Deputy Director in the Department of Water
and Sanitation. He works with municipalities
assisting them with WSDP planning and other
programmes that are meant to support the Water
Services Authorities. Yes Yes No
Informant-9
the COGTA team
08-Dec-
17
Focus Group
Themba Fosi = DDG,
Shiella Hues = CD
Tshepo = Director
Phillip = Technical Specialist Yes Yes No
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