cooksland in north-eastern australia

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ENTERPRISE

IN

TROPICAL AUSTRALIA

G. WINDSOR EARL, M.R.A.S.

LINGUIST TQ THE NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION, AND

COMMISSIONER OF CROWN LANDS FOR PORT ESSINGTON.

LONDON:

M A D D E N A N D MALCOLM, LEADENHALL STREET.

1846.

TO

COMMODORE SIR J. J. GORDON BREMER,

K.C.B., K.C.H.,,&c

UNDER WH08E SUPERINTENDENCE THE PORT E8SINGTON SETTLE

MENT WAS F O U N D E D ; AND WHOSE CHBERFUL PARTICIPATION IN THE

LABOURS AND PBIYATIONS THAT MUST ALWAYS FALL TO THE LOT OF

PrONEERS OF CIVILIZATION IN A NEW COUNTRY GAYE LIFE TO THE

ENTERPRISE, AND RENDERED THAT WHICH WOULD OTHERWISE HA YE

BEEN AN ARDUOUS DUTY, A PLEASING AND AGREEABLE TASK, THIS

LITTLE WORK IS INSCRIBED BY HIS ATTACHED AND OBEDIENT SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

47tiK>i

By the same Author,

Will shortly be published, in One Volume Post Octavo,

A GENERAL VIEW

OF THE

F I E L D S OF C O M M E R C E

-ISLANDS AND COUNTRIES ^OF EASTERN ASIA.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

EXPEDITIONS TO THE TROPICAL COASTS OF AUSTRALIA.

Expeditions of the Dutch—Voyage of Flinders—Meets with Vessels from Macassar at the Head of the Gulf of Carpentaria—lieutenant King's Survey—Discovery of Port Essington—The Melville Island Expedition—Early Struggles—The Raffles' Bay Settlement founded—Encounter with the Natives—Melville Island abandoned—Character of the Natives—Progress of Raffles' B a y -Settlement abandoned—The Occupation of the North Coast' of Australia again proposed—Project of the French—The Port 'Essington Expedition fitted out . . . 1

CHAPTER II.

THE PORT ESSINGTON EXPEDITION—VOYAGE THROUGH TORRES STRAIT.

Departure of the Expedition from England—Arrival at Sydney-r Preparations for the New Settlement—Sail for Port Essington— Rendezvous off Smoky Cape— Mount Warning—Meet a Whale-ship—Pass round Break-sea Spit—The Great Barrier Reefs— Percy Islands—Cape Upstart—Natives seen—Hoist out the decked Boat—The Mountain Range—Anchor near the Frankland Islands —Fitzroy Island—Natives near the Hope Islands—Cape Tribulation and Captain Cook—Termination of the Mountain Range— Change in the Appearance of the Country—Visit to the Clare-mont Islands—Natives near Cape Direction—Recreations, on Shore—Weymouth Bay and the Bird Islands—The Albany Islands—Excursion to Cape York—The Ceremony of taking Possession—Natives of Torres Strait-* Booby Island—Leave Torres Strait for Port Essington . . . , 12

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

PORT ESSINGTON—FOUNDING THE SETTLEMENT.

Arrival at Port Essington—Appearance of the Coast—Visit from the Natives—Examination of the Harbour—Site fixed for the Settlement—Occupation and Amusements—The Springs—Topography of the Settlement—Progress of the Buildings—Wells— Alligators—Narrow Escape—Intercourse with the Natives—Detection of a Pilferer—The Schooner Essington chartered—Dutch Establishments on the Islands—Voyage of the Dourga—Settlement on New Guinea—Fate of the Lady Nelson and Stedcombe— Of the Alexander—Sail from Port Essington—Kissa—Commerce of the Island—Native Traders—The Chief of Obousa—Character of the Natives—Survivor of the Crew of the Stedcombe—Letti— Moa—Return to Kissa—Live Stock*—Arrive at Port Essington— Wreck of the Orontes . , 3 1

CHAPTER IV.

PORT ESSINGTON—PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT.

Preparations for the Rainy Season—Excursion of the Britomart to Timor—Arrival of Macassar Prahus — Strange Ships upon the Coast—Arrival of Commodore D'Urville—lieutenant Stanley's Excursion to the Ami Islands and Timor Laut—Departure of the Prahus—Fate of Bapa Padu—Lieutenant Stewart's inland Excursion—Departure of the Alligator for Sydney—The Pelorus and Gilmore dispatched from Sydney — Notice respecting Leases of Land—Hurricane—Her Majesty's Ship Pelorus stranded—Return of the Alligator—Trading Vessels from the Indian Archipelago— Progress of Events—Annual Visits of the Macassar Prahus— Arrival of Her Majesty's Ships North Star and Alligator—Influence of the Settlement on the neighbouring Islands of the Indian Archipelago—Arrival of a party of Marines to relieve the Garrison . . . . . 5 4

CONTENTS. vii

CHAPTER V.

THE COBOURG PENINSULA— GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, SOIL, AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

Nature of the Country—Lakes and Streams—Rivers—Harbours— Valleys and Uplands—Wells — Trees—Patches of Indian Vegetation—Timber—Vegetable Productions—Grasses—Wild Animals—Birds—Jungle-Fowl—Water-Fowl—Irruptions of Hawks —Fish and Turtle —The Carvalho — Salmon — The Trepang Fishery . . . . . 7 2

CHAPTER VI.

THE COBOtfRG PENINSULA—SEASONS AND CLIMATE.

The Trade Wind—Seasons—Temperature—Climate—Comparative salubrity of Places in the Indian Archipelago — Influences of Swamps and Mud-Banks—Straits and Land-locked Harbours— Failures of Attempts at European Settlement — Climate of the Peninsula generally . . . 8 6

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL VIEW OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA CAPABILITIES FOR PRODUCING ARTICLES OF COMMERCE.

Recent Surveys—The Adelaide and Victoria Rivers—Head of the Gulf of Carpentaria — The North-east Coast —The Wild Buffalo—Pastoral Pursuits—Experiments in Culture—Tropical Vegetation—Garden Produce — Articles of Commerce—Sugar Cane — Coffee—The Cotton Plant: Bourbon and Pernambuco Cotton—Cotton Culture at Moreton Ray . . 99

CHAPTER VIII.

SOURCES OF LAB UR.

Effects of Climate on European Labourers—The Aborigines—Imported Labour in Tropical Settlements — Collisions of Races —

V l l l CONIES! S.

Europeans and the Australian Aborigines — Tropical Labour — Timor Laut.—The Ki Islanders—Over-population at Kissa—The Natives of Rotti—Native Christians—Timorians—People of 05-lebes—Labour at Singapore—Malays, Chinese, and Natives of India—Cost of Labour—Advantages of employing Labourers of different Nations—Comparative Qualities of Indian, Chinese, and Malayan Labourers . 116

CHAPTER IX.

SETTLEMENTS IN TROPICAL AUSTRALIA AS CONNECTED WITH THE INTERESTS OF THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.

Tropical Plantations—Cotton Culture in India and America— European Superintendence—Tropical Colonization in the United States—Its influence on Emigration from Europe—Slave and Free Labour — Influence of the American System on Great Britain—Movement of the Australian Colonists—Progress of New South Wales—"Van Dieman's Land and Port Philip—Swan JRiver— Supposed Scarcity of Labour in New South Wales — Field of Production in the Southern Colonies—South Australia— Effects of the South Australian System on New South Wales— The late Commercial Crisis—Efforts of the Colonists to retrieve their Affairs—Petition to import Coolie Labour—The Overland Expedition to Port Essington—Efforts pf Jthe Squth Australian Colonists to reach the Northern Coasts—Recent Events in Europe and America as connected with the' Australian Colonies—Concluding Note. . . . . . 1 2 8

ERRATUM.

Page 136, third line from the bottom, for parent read present.

r

LLA-

tfX'y^Z-'u

E N T E R P R I S E , &c.

C H A P T E R I.

EXPEDITIONS TO THB TROPICAL COASTS OF AUSTRALIA.

Expeditions of the Dutch—Voyage of Minders—Meets with Vessels from Macassar at the Head of the Gulf of Carpentaria—lieutenant King's Survey—Discovery of Port Essington—The Melville Island Expedition—Early Struggles—The Raffles Bay Settlement founded—Encounter with the Natives—Melville Island abandoned— Character of the Natives—Progress of Raffles Bay — Settlement abandoned—The Occupation of the North Coast of Australia again proposed—Project of the French—The Port Essington Expedition fitted out.

THE tropical coasts of Australia were first explored during the early part of the seventeenth century by the Dutch, who were naturally anxious to gain a knowledge of the countries closely bordering on their valuable possessions in the Spice Islands; but they appear to have been satisfied with a very cursory examination, which, however, was sufficient to prove that the northern coasts possessed no natural advantages likely to tempt other European powers to establish themselves there, at a period in which commerce rather than colonization was the great object of national enterprise. The occupation of New South Wales by the British, in 1788, tended to excite a more general interest respecting Australia than had ever previously existed; and, in 1801, Lieut.

B

2 EXPEDITIONS TO THE

Hinders, in the Investigator, was dispatched from this country to complete the survey of the coasts, which had been so ably commenced by our celebrated navigator Cook. Flinders arrived at Sydney in the early part of 1802, having traced the greater portion of the southern coasts during the passage out, and soon afterwards sailed for the north coast where he took up the survey at the north-east extreme of the continent, near the point at which the examination had been discontinued by Captain Cook.

Upon the Wellesly Islands, at the very head of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Flinders met with traces of a people who were evidently much further advanced in civilization than any of the aboriginal tribes of Australia that had yet been encountered; and he rightly conjectured that ihey were only occasional visitors. This point did not long remain in doubt, for near the north-west horn of the gulf, when about to leave the coast, he met with a fleet of large prahus, coming down before the wind from the Indian Archipelago; and being able to communicate with the strangers through the medium of a Malayan cook on board the Investigator, he learned that they were natives of Celebes, who were in the habit of making annual visits to the north coast of Australia, for the purpose of procuring the trepang, a sea-slug, which abounds on the coast; these animals being cured, and afterwards disposed of to the Chinese who resorted to Macassar, and by whom they were highly prized as a most nutritious article of food. Sixty prahus were then upon the coast, and as each vessel carries a crew amounting on an average to thirty men, this apparently insignificant animal was of sufficient value and importance to tempt eighteen hundred men to undertake annually a long,

TROPICAL COASTS OP AUSTRALIA. 3

and, to them, hazardous voyage, which must entail upon them an absence from home during at least two-thirds of the year.

The long detention of Flinders at the Mauritius, as a prisoner of war, retarded the publication of the narrative of his voyage until twelve years after it had terminated, and the disordered state of Europe at that time prevented any further steps being taken with regard to the tropical coasts of Australia; but when the cessation of war enabled the government of this country to turn its attention to matters connected with the extension of our commercial interests, Lieut. King was appointed to continue the Australian survey. He commenced his labours in a small cutter which was fitted out at Sydney in the year 1818, and during this and the three subsequent years, the survey of the north coast was completed. The discovery of several large rivers (two of which were accessible to ships of burthen) and of the harbour of Port Essington resulted from this examination. Of the latter, Iieut. King states in his narrative, " As a harbour, Port Essington is equal, if not superior, to any I ever saw; and from its proximity to the Moluccas, and its being in the direct line of communication between Port Jackson and India, as well as from its commanding situation with respect to the passage through Torres Straits, it must, at no very distant period, become a place of great trade and of very considerable importance."

Iieut. King returned to England at a time in which the public mind was very much occupied with the affairs of the Indian Archipelago; and the immense sacrifice that had been made by restoring Java and its dependencies to the Dutch,—an act that was followed by the virtual prohibition of our manufactures in the newly-

B 2


restored possessions,—was fully understood and appreciated; while, at the same time, the success that had attended the new settlement at Singapore, served to point out the way in which the shock that our commercial interests in this part of the world had received might be in some degree remedied. The statements of Lieut. King, coupled with the representations of parties practically acquainted with the commerce of the Indian Archipelago, were therefore not unheeded, and an expedition was fitted out to occupy the north coast of Australia, the command of which was given to Captain Sir J. J. Gordon Bremer, who arrived in Sydney with the Tamar, of twenty-four guns, in July, 1824. He shortly afterwards sailed for the north coast, having under his convoy a transport and a government brig, conveying a detachment of the third regiment and forty-five convicts, with stores and provisions for the new settlement. Their destination was Apsley Strait, the channel which separates Melville from Bathurst Island; this spot having been selected for the principal settlement chiefly on account of the great rise and fall of the tide, (24 feet,) rendering it well adapted for the construction of dry-docks, and therefore suited for a naval station. A second settlement was to have been formed at Port Essington, in the event of such a course being deemed advisable. The expedition arrived at the latter place in September, and formal possession was taken of the coast, but fresh water not having been readily discovered, the ships soon proceeded on their voyage to Melville Island. The settlement was formed in King's Cove, on the east side of Apsley Strait, about twelve miles within its northern entrance. A fort was built and the stores landed, alter which the Tamar sailed for India,

TROPICAL COASTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5

leaving behind a detachment of marines to form part of the garrison. The Lady Nelson, the government brig, remained at the settlement, with the view to her being employed in bringing supplies of stock and refreshments from the neighbouring islands.

The settlement at Melville Island was unfortunate from its very commencement. Even before the departure of the Tamar, a hostile encounter had taken place with the natives, one of whom was shot dead while attacking a party of seamen; and they never ceased, while the garrison remained upon the island, to fall upon stragglers whenever they had an opportunity. Two officers and several men were killed on different occasions, and the density of the forests enabled the natives to make their attacks with comparative impunity. The garrison also suffered considerably from scurvy, the result of long-privation from nutritious food. The I ady Nelson had been dispatched to the neighbouring islands for a supply of fresh provisions soon after the departure of the Tamar, and her return was anxiously expected month after month, until at length the most sanguine gave up all hope of her reappearance. Disease had now made rapid progress, and a schooner, the Stedcombe, which happened to visit the settlement, was hired to go in search of relief; but this vessel also was destined never to return. Vague reports were subsequently found to be current among the natives of Timor, that two small vessels had been cut off with their entire crews by the inhabitants of some of the islands lying to the east; but beyond this nothing was learned concerning their fate up to the period in which the settlement was abandoned.

At length, when almost bereft of hope, the little gar-


rison was cheered by the arrival of a vessel from New South Wales. She was instantly dispatched to Coepang, a Dutch settlement, near the south-east extreme of Timor, and soon returned with supplies of stock and other refreshments, which speedily restored the sick; but the remembrance of the sufferings they had endured could not readily be effaced, and a settled gloom pervaded the whole community, which was not a little increased on finding that the position of the settlement was not adapted for the purposes for which it was intended. The southern channel being blocked up by shoals and sand-banks, ships visiting the settlement were obliged to enter the strait by the northern mouth, where a long rocky spit projected far out to sea, while the prevailing winds, which blew directly out of the strait, added materially to the difficulties of the navigation. These circumstances probably influenced the government in forming a second settlement at Raffles Bay, on the Cobourg Peninsula, a few miles to the eastward of Port Essington. The execution of this service was entrusted to Captain Stirling, of His Majesty's Ship Success, who sailed from Sydney in the year 1827, with three transports, conveying a detachment of troops, some convicts, and the necessary stores and implements. The eastern side of Raffles Bay was the spot selected for the settlement, and the buildings were erected in the vicinity of some ponds, which ensured an abundant supply of fresh water. But here, as at Melville Island, the natives were not inclined to permit the strangers to take undisputed possession of their country, and commenced a series of attacks, which kept the garrison constantly on the alert. At length Captain Smyth, the commandant, unable any longer to bear this constant annoyance, made

TROPICAL COASTS OF AUSTRALIA. 7

a night attack upon tbeir camp, and in the course of the encounter, (or rather flight, for they offered no resistance,) several natives were killed, and the remainder driven far away. This catastrophe absolutely stunned them. They had supposed that their new visitors, like the Malays, would not dare to venture into the country, but they now felt that their only security lay in abandoning the neighbourhood of their terrible opponents. To be fully aware of the shock the survivors received from this slaughter of their friends and relatives, it is necessary to be acquainted with the nature of their own encounters, in which the death of a single warrior entails a cessation of hostilities during several weeks, this period being occupied by one tribe in mourning over its loss, and by the other in rejoicings for the blow that has been inflicted upon the enemy. It is very much to be regretted that this affair took place, but the safety of the garrison rendered it necessary that some steps should be taken to prevent the men from being cut off in detail; the mode of warfare adopted by the natives, that of creeping up close to the sentries during the night, and throwing spears at them when at a distance of a few yards, rendering such an event by no means a matter of improbability. For several months subsequent to this occurrence, no natives appeared near the settlement, but at length two of the chief men ventured to approach in fear and trembling. For some time they remained in the outskirts, refusing every invitation to enter the camp, until at length a child of one of the soldiers went out and led them in by the hand. Their reception was as favourable as they could have wished, and peace was now fairly established, never again to be interrupted while the settlement was in existence.


The garrison at Melville Island remained there during two years subsequent to the occupation of Raffles Bay. The establishment was then broken up, the stores being removed to the latter settlement. The abandonment of Melville Island can scarcely be a matter for regret. The soil proved fertile, the climate good, and the timber was found to be of a highly valuable description, the vegetation possessing rather an Oriental than an Australian character; but from the general disposition of the natives, it is scarcely probable that a friendly intercourse could ever have been established between them and their visitors. It is a singular fact, and one for which I was long unable to account, that the natives of Melville Island bear a much closer resemblance to the people of the south-west coast of New Guinea than to the more gentle savages of the adjacent continent of Australia; indeed, the latter do not recognise the Melville Island natives as being of the same race with themselves.

The settlement at Raffles Bay proved as prosperous, as that at Melville Island had been the reverse. In the first instance many of the garrison were attacked with scurvy, but this soon disappeared before proper remedies. The gardens produced abundantly, and many Macassar prahus visited the settlement, the crews bartering their commodities with the garrison for such European articles as they happened to possess; and altogether it was as successful as a mere military post could possibly be. But the existence of the settlement was destined to be of short duration. Captain Stirling, after his departure from Raffles Bay, had proceeded to the western coast for the purpose of examining the Swan River, and his report proved so favourable that government determined to colonize the country in its neigh-

TROPICAL C0A8TS OP AUSTRALIA. 9

bourhood; and as it was supposed that a commercial intercourse with the Indian Islands could be carried on as advantageously from the Swan River as from Raffles Bay, an establishment at the latter place was of course deemed to be no longer necessary. In August, 1829, several vessels arrived from Sydney to remove the garrison, and in a few days they sailed for New South Wales, the stores and cattle being taken to the new set* dement at the Swan River. Captain Barker, who had succeeded Captain Smyth as commandant at Raffles Bay, appears to have entertained a conviction that the settlement would eventually have become an exceedingly useful appendage to our colonial empire.* This gentleman was killed, while on his way to Sydney, by the aborigines at Encounter Bay in South Australia, where, being much addicted to geographical research, he had landed for the purpose of examining an opening that was subsequently discovered to be the embouchure of the Murray and Darling Rivers, which carry off the waters from the back of the Blue Mountains of New South Wales.

The interest that had been excited by these Northern settlements, especially in India and New South Wales, appears to have subsided soon after their abandonment, and in a few years, the circumstance of our ever having had possessions there was not generally known. In the year 1837, however, the subject of colonizing the tropical coasts of Australia was again revived, and many circumstances contributed to cause a considerable degree

* See Dr. T. B. Wilson's " Voyage round the World," a work which contains many interesting particulars concerning these northern settlements. A valuable paper on Melville Island, by Major Campbell, will be found in the second vol. of the Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of London.

B 5


of attention to be directed towards i t Since the abandonment of Raffles Bay, a great change had taken place in the southern or temperate regions of Australia. New colonies had been formed upon the southern and western coasts; and every port that afforded shelter for shipping had been taken possession of; while, from the strong tide of emigration that was setting in this direction, it became evident that, ere many years elapsed, every spot of country suited to the production of the staple export from the Australian colonies would be occupied ; when it would become necessary to open out those regions which, from the nature of the climate, were calculated for the growth of the numerous articles of tropical produce which form the basis of our foreign commerce. The great amount of shipping that now passed through Torres Strait, and the loss of life that had occurred from shipwreck, rendered a port of refuge in the neighbourhood an object of importance; and it was also anticipated that a settlement in these seas would lead to a commercial intercourse with the adjacent islands of the Indian Archipelago, the produce of which was known to be of a very valuable description. While the subject was under discussion it was discovered that a French expedition was preparing at Toulon for the express purpose of taking possession of some port on the north coast of Australia. The evident inconvenience that would have resulted from the establishment of a rival nation, midway between our Indian and our Australian possessions, tended to precipitate matters, and the immediate occupation of the coast became an object of importance. Her Majesty's ship Alligator, of twenty-eight guns, was commissioned by Sir J. J. Gordon Bremer to execute this piece of # service, and the Britomart,

TROPICAL COASTS OP AUSTRALIA. 11

a brig often guns, Lieutenant commanding, Owen Stanley, was subsequently added to the expedition ; a vessel of this description being considered as well adapted for the examination of the seas and islands contiguous to the north coast of Australia, which had hitherto been very imperfectly explored. A party of marines, under the command of Captain John MacArthur, was embarked on board the Alligator, to constitute the garrison of the new settlement. The men had been selected from among the numerous volunteers who had offered themselves for the service, and each individual was acquainted with some mechanical art that would prove useful in a new country. A practical gardener, who also understood the collection of botanical specimens, was attached to the expedition; and every article necessary for the comfort of the garrison, or to render effective the service on which they were to be employed, was most liberally supplied from the dock-yards of the port at which the expedition had been fitted out.

12

CHAPTER II.

THE PORT ESSINGTON EXPEDITION—VOYAGE THROUGH TORRES STRAIT.

Departure of the Expedition from England—Arrival at Sydney— Preparations for the New Settlement—8ail for Port Essington— Rendezvous off Smoky Cape—Mount Warning—Meet a Whale-ship—Pass round Break-sea Spit—The Great Barrier Reefs-Percy Islands—Gape Upstart—Natives seen—Hoist out the decked Boat—The Mountain Range—Anchor near the Frankland Islands —Fitzroy Island—Natives near the Hope Islands—Cape Tribulation and Captain Cook—Termination of the Mountain Range— Change in the Appearance of the Country—Visit to the Clare-mont Islands — Natives near Cape Direction—Recreations on Shore—Weymouth Bay and the Bird Islands—The Albany Islands—Excursion to Cape York—The Ceremony of taking Possession—Natives of Torres Strait—Booby Island—Leave Torres Strait for Port Essington.

THE Alligator and Britomart sailed from Plymouth in the latter part of February, 1838, but the former vessel having sustained some damage during a heavy gale in the chops of the Channel, was forced to put back. On the 10th of March we again went to sea, and made a quick passage to Teneriffe, where the Britomart had arrived during the previous week. After a stay of a few days, we resumed our voyage, and, touching at Rio Janeiro, ihe Cape of Good Hope, and South Australia, arrived safely at Sydney in July, having had continued favourable winds during the entire passage. The Britomart had proceeded direct from the Cape to Sydney, and had consequently arrived some days before us. Both vessels were snugly moored in Sydney Cove, and commenced refitting,

VOYAGE THROUGH TORRES STRAIT. 13

while a number of carpenters were employed to construct the frames of several wooden tenements, which were intended for officers' quarters, barracks, hospital, and government store-houses; in fact, to form the nucleus of the new settlement.

Our arrival at Sydney took place at the commencement of that period of excitement which resulted from the combined effects of the recent discovery of large tracts of fertile country by Sir Thomas Mitchell, the introduction of the South Australian system of emigration, and the high prices that were obtained for colonial wool in this country. Emigrants and capital were pouring into the colony, and the surplus stock of the colonists was disposed of at enormous prices to the new settlers, who naturally looked upon sheep-farming as the most profitable mode in which they coidd invest their capital. This, however, did not prevent our expedition from attracting a considerable degree of attention, especially on the part of the merchants, who viewed with much satisfaction the prospect that was afforded them of increasing their commercial intercourse with the islands of the Indian Archipelago. A trade had been carried on for some years with Timor; indeed no less than three vessels arrived from that island at Sydney during our stay, but the fate of the Stedcombe and Lady Nelson had deterred European traders from visiting the groups that lie between Timor and New Guinea. They were now, however, to be adventured upon, and two vessels, the William, a brig, and a schooner that was named the Essington, were loaded with articles suited to the commerce of these islands; the merchants' stores, which had been crammed pretty full by the speculative spirit of the home manufacturers, furnishing an abundant supply.

1 4 THE PORT S8SINGTON EXPEDITION.

By the 16th of September the frames of the houses had been embarked on board a hired transport, the Orontes, which vessel was also loaded with nine months' provisions for the expedition, and with that endless variety of articles that is necessary for the establishment of a naval post. On the following morning we sailed out of the harbour of Port Jackson, after a stay of two months, which had been rendered highly agreeable by the kind attentions of the residents, perhaps the more readily accorded from the circumstance of the service on which we were employed being a very popular one. The ship was quite a Noah's ark. Cows, sheep, pigs, and poultry were quartered between the guns, and a number of giant kangaroo-dogs were incessantly stalking about the decks, trying to discover if there really existed any spot in which they could lie down for five minutes without being trodden upon. But whatever little inconveniences might have resulted from this state of repletion were most cheerfully submitted to, and a general feeling of pleasing anticipation appeared to pervade all ranks on board.

I will now proceed to describe our voyage along the north-east coast of Australia, which proved to be one of the most agreeable that I ever remember to have made; and if I enter somewhat into detail, I trust that the circumstance of this portion of the continent being very imperfectly known, even in New South Wales, will prove a sufficient excuse. On leaving Sydney, after running a few leagues ofFthe land, a course was steered for Smoky Cape, two hundred miles to the northward of Port Jackson, the first point of rendezvous for the ships in case of separation. TheBritomart had been detained atSydney Heads, awaiting the departure of a merchant-ship, the Canton, the commander of which vessel had liberally undertaken to


carry uponhisdeckalargeboatintendedforthe settlement, which must otherwise have been towed, with great risk of loss; and as this ship was bound through Torres Strait, it was intended that she should hoist it out when abreast of Fort Essington, and deliver it over to the Britomart. Two other merchant-ships, which had sailed in company with us to take advantage of our convoy through Torres Strait, were lost sight of soon after leaving Sydney, so that on arriving off Smoky Cape on the 23rd, the Orontes was the only ship in company. We hove too here for fourteen hours, but the Britomart and her consort not making their appearance, we once more stood along the coast to the northward.

We, had now arrived at a part of the coast that presented a great contrast to that in the neighbourhood of Sydney. There the shore was bounded by abrupt cliffs of free-stone, and the face of the country very scantily clothed with scrubby vegetation; but here the spurs from the mountain range came down to the sea, and the 6oaet presented a pleasing alternation of jutting rocky points and sandy beaches, behind which appeared an open forest of stately trees, while the surface of the ground, wherever it could be seen, was covered with verdure.

On the 24th we saw a little sloop in shore under sail, near the mouth of a small river, apparently hove-to until the tide should have risen sufficiently to permit her to enter. We fired a gun as a signal for her to commuiriV cate with us, but she popped in over the bar, and in a few minutes was out of sight among the windings of the river. She was probably bound here for a cargo of cedar timber, but we thought at the time that she might be employed in smuggling spirits, a system that was carried on to a very considerable extent upon different parts of the coast.

16 THE PORT BH6INGTON EXPEDITION*

The banks of this river, which we subsequently learned was called the Macleay. are clothed with dense jungles, the timber being of a description superior to that of Australian trees generally. The great demand that existed at Sydney for building materials had induced parties of labourers to settle upon the banks of this, and of some of the neighbouring rivers, where they led a life similar to that of the log-wood cutters in the Bay of Honduras, occupying themselves in felling the trees and preparing the timber for exportation in the numerous coasting craft that were employed in the trade. The elevated table-land in which these rivers take their rise had lately become a favourite resort for newly-arrived settlers, the pasturage being very luxuriant

By the 1st of October we had not succeeded in advancing further than Mount Warning, a fine bold mountain, three hundred and fifty miles to the northward of Sydney, owing to almost constant foul winds having rendered it necessary to tack repeatedly; and as the current set strong with the wind, the ship, on some days, scarcely gained an inch of ground. In the afternoon we communicated with the Pocklington, a whaler, which was returning to Sydney, owing to the typhus-fever having broken out on board, and carried off the captain and several of the crew. The chief mate of this vessel, who had had much experience on the coast, recommended to the boarding-officer that we should stand off the land, when the strength of the current would be avoided, and a very fair chance afforded of meeting with a favourable wind. We did so, and in twenty-four hours fell in with a fine southerly breeze, to which we squared the yards, and set all studding-sails, and were soon sailing merrily along for Break-sea Spit.

VOYAGE THROUGH TORRES STRAIT* 17

This singular reef extends for about twenty miles out to sea in a northerly direction from Sandy Cape, where the east coast of Australia terminates, the land beyond it stretching away in a north-east direction towards New Guinea. The Spit was thus appropriately named by Captain Cook; indeed, this able navigator has almost invariably applied very striking names to those spots near which the seaman would have to exert especial vigilance, while he has reserved the more fashionable appellations of those whom he delighted to honour for parts where a distinctive title would not be particularly required. Thus, Mount Warning forms an excellent land-mark for avoiding the reef that extends out to sea from Point Danger, one of the very few obstructions to navigation that are found upon the eastern coast, and other cases are constantly met with. When the traffic upon the north-east coast increases, which will probably toon be the case, since the settlers are rapidly extending themselves in this direction, alight-house will become necessary upon the end of Break-sea Spit, and a dreary enough abode it will prove.

We had now fairly entered the limits of the south-east trade-wind, and the breeze was light but steady from the eastern quarter. In the morning, after passing Break-sea Spit, we found ourselves again near the main-land, and were now within the Great Barrier Reefs. Our course henceforward for more than a thousand miles lay close along the coast, through seas studded with islands and shoals, but as smooth as the waters of an inland lake; for the Barrier Reefs, like a mighty sea-wall, break off the swell of the ocean, and the waters within are undisturbed, except by the short ripples raised by the breeze that blows over its surface. During the 7th and

18 THB PORT ESSINGTON EXPEDITION.

8th, we were passing through the hundred islands of the Northumberland and Cumberland groups, but the breeze was too steady to admit of our stopping to examine them. The Percy Islands attracted especial attention, owing to their being covered with pine-trees, (araucaria excelsa,) which are stated to be exceedingly well adapted for jib-booms and top-masts. The glimpses that we had of the main-land, while passing through this archipelago, presented many striking views. The mountain range which extends along the coast here approaches close to the shore; the lofty pines which crown its summits, and which from their appearance we judged to be the same with those found at Norfolk Island, giving the scenery quite an Alpine character; that is to say, a portion of it, for the dark and luxuriant vegetation at the base of the range, which told tales of tropical heats, by no means served to keep up the delusion. But it was during the night, with the bright moon shining upon them, that these mountains appeared in all their glory. I remained on deck this evening until past midnight, leaning over the hammock nettings, watching the land as we glided smoothly past, and wondering whether I should ever live to see these shores occupied by a busy people. When I went below we were passing Cape Upstart, a bold, frowning promontory. Captain Cook, who saw it during the day, says that it " affords but a barren prospect;" which may probably be the case, but now, in the clear moonlight, with its rugged outlines softened by distance, its appearance was truly beautiful. On the morning of the 10th, we passed within the Barnard Islands, and now, for the first time, saw natives, five of whom appeared upon a hill near die shore. Three of their number, perhaps old men, remained sit-

VOYAGE THROUGH TORRES STRAIT. 1 9

ting upon the ground watching the ship, but the remaining two occasionally started up, and rushed too and fro past each other, jumping in die air, and waving green branches, apparently to attract our notice. After continuing these active exertions for some minutes, and when seemingly almost frantic, they would sit down so suddenly that it appeared as if they had thrown their heels high up in the air, and pitched plump down upon their latter ends. These strange antics were repeated at intervals for more than an hour, and the singular finale was looked forward to by us with great anticipation.. The poor creatures were, perbaps, inviting us to land. Some passing navigator may have treated them witb kindness, and made them anxious to renew their acquaintance with strangers. Their performance was evidently some ceremony; perhaps a dance of welcome. The abrupt termination is a peculiar characteristic of both the songs and dances of the NorthernAustralian natives. The former

f always end with a high note,which makes it appear as if the [ singer bad been suddenly cut short in his performance ;

but tbe effect is striking, and rather pleasing than other-, wise. The dances, again, terminate when the action and excitement are at the highest pitch, and, so sudden is the transition from frantic exertion to calm repose that it appears almost magical*

While yet in sight of our eccentric entertainers, the tackles were got up on the yards and the decked boat hoisted out and rigged, after which she sailed in company with the ships. Probably the natives, who were watching us, looked upon this proceeding on our part with a feeling of surprise equal to that with which we had regarded their strange evolutions. This boat, which was of ten tons burthen, had been constructed at one of our

2 0 THE PORT ESSINGTON EXPEDITION.

dockyards after a model of the Surveyor of the Navy, for general use at the settlement. She proved to be a dull sailer; but in every other respect admirably adapted to the service for which she was intended.

Throughout the day two high mountains, the Bellen-den Ker range of Captain King, were in sight, but the summits were often enveloped in clouds. I find noted in my journal that the highest of these is 6,500 feet high, but, unfortunately, I have not noted down my authority, which I very much regret, as the general height of the mountains on this coast has since been a subject of discussion. The impression on my mind is, that this calculation of the altitude was the result of observations taken by our excellent surveyor Mr. Tyers, but upon this point I cannot speak with certainty.

In the evening we anchored for the first time. Our voyage had hitherto been continued during the night, but a similar course of proceeding could not now be persisted in, owing to the numerous dangers that lay in our route. We were now six hundred miles within Break-sea Spit, and five hundred miles of difficult navigation yet remained before we should be clear of the Straits. Our anchorage this evening was within the Frankland Islands, but we arrived too late to visit them before dark. A party went fishing in the first cutter, but had very little success. The decked boat, which had been running close along-shore abreast of the ships during the day, had anchored under our quarter.

We commenced getting under weigh before daylight on the morning of the 11th, and a strong party of men was sent on board the Orontes to assist the crew in purchasing her anchor. In the forenoon we passed through the narrow but safe channel which separates


Fitzroy Island from Cape Grafton. This spot will probably attract attention when the coast hereabouts is occupied. The island is about five miles long; hilly and clothed with wood; and fresh water is found convenient to the beach. The channel between it and the main, is about three miles wide, and affords excellent anchorage, while the most direct route for ships passing this way lies right through the roads. These circumstances coupled with the apparent great fertility of the adjacent parts of the main-land, will probably lead to this being the site of one of the first settlements made upon the coast, and certainly it must prove a very delightful residence. Ten minutes9 walk from the beach leads to the summit of the hills which traverse the island from north to south; and here may be enjoyed the healthy breeze from the Pacific, together with a view, both to landward and seaward, such as very few parts of the world present.

We did not anchor this evening until eight o'clock, when three miles to the southward of the Low Islands. Throughout the following day we were running close along the land, and saw many natives on the beach. Two, who were fishing in a canoe, pulled for the shore as the ship approached them, and hauled their boat up; but beyond this they did not appear to take the slightest notice of us. In the evening we anchored near the Hope Islands, and a boat was sent fishing, but she returned without having been successful.

The channel now became narrow and intricate, owing to the Great Barrier Reefs here approaching very near to the coast. During the night we continually heard the roaring of the breakers on the outer reefs, and had reason to be thankful that so firm a barrier interposed between us and the swell of the Southern Ocean.


On the morning of the 12th the wind was light from the southward, and our progress was not very rapid. We were now on classic ground. To seaward, lay the Endeavour Reef, upon which the ship that first explored these coasts was thrown during the night, and only saved from total wreck by. the energy and skill of the ablest of navigators. Within us, Cape Tribulation, a bold and lofty headland, rose abruptly from the sea, forming the most prominent feature in the landscape, and the eye of the commander was no doubt anxiously directed towards it, when it was suddenly found that the water was gaining on the pumps, after the ship bad floated off the reef. To our left was Weary Bay, the scene of incessant labour in efforts to save the ship; and far a-head appeared the narrow opening of the Endeavour River in which she was repaired and once more rendered fit for sea. It is singular that throughout this thousand miles of coast, more recent surveys have not brought to light a single port that would have answered the navigator's purpose one half part so well as this.

The mountain range, which had been seen extending along the coast for more than six hundred miles, was suddenly lost near Cape Tribulation. It may continue running to the north-west towards Cape York, further in the interior; but, if this be the case, its height must be diminished, since no mountains were seen in this direction by Flinders, when he traced the eastern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria; and to the north of Cape Melville the land, from sea to sea, contracts to the width of little more than a hundred miles. The sudden disappearance of these mountains is rather singular, for at the point at which we lost them, they appeared to be considerably higher than in any part of the range we


had previously seen. I find noted in my journal that we estimated the height of this extreme group at 10,000 feet; and a statement to this effect, with a reservation in favour of the over-estimation that travellers are liable to fall into under these circumstances, was made by me in some evidence upon points connected with Australian geography, given before a committee of the Legislative Council of New South Wales. Captain King, however, whose experience upon these coasts gives his opinions very great weight, considers this to be considerably above their actual height.

During the next three days our course lay close along the shore, the intricacy of the navigation rendering it necessary that we should anchor even before sunset. The coast had now a very sterile appearance. The hills, which were rarely more than five hundred feet high, were very scantily clothed with vegetation, and in many places their sides were covered with large patches of white sand. Very few trees were to be *een, and these appeared stunted and unhealthy. In the evening of the 16th we anchored close to the Claremont Islands, and a large party landed for the purpose of shooting. Traces of the natives were found upon the beach ;—large fire-places at which they had cooked their food, and the back-shells of turtle, the contents of which bad been devoured. If there were any natives upon the island when we landed they must have concealed themselves; and probably they only visit it at certain seasons, when the turtle come on shore to lay their eggs. The sportsmen had their hands full, for about dusk thousands of beautiful white pigeons, with black tips to the wings and tail, (a species common to the islands of the Indian Archipelago,) came in one continued flock from the main-

2 4 THE PORT ESSINOTON EXPEDITION.

land to seek shelter for the night in the large mangrove-trees, a dense grove of which bordered a salt-water lagoon in the centre of the island. These trees are much resorted to by various kinds of birds, the circumstance of the lower part of the stems being in the water, securing them from the attacks of vermin. The pigeons had been partaking very plentifully of a fruit that very much resembled that of the date-palm, and many of them were absolutely crammed to such an extent that they could not shut their bills. One of the seamen who was per* suaded to taste a specimen of the fruit that had dropped from the mouth of a wounded or frightened bird, stated it to have a very sweet and agreeable flavour. I have not met with this fruit elsewhere in Australia, so that I have no means of giving an opinion as to the tree that produces it, but suspect that it will prove to be a palm.

We got under weigh as usual at daylight on the 17 th. The wind was well to the eastward throughout both this day and the one preceding, so that a vessel bound in the opposite direction would have had a fair wind. The appearance of the main-land had considerably improved. Trees had become numerous, and many green and apparently fertile valleys were passed during the day. Towards evening, when near Cape Direction, four natives paddled towards the ship from the main-land in a canoe that was provided with an outrigger, like those of the South Sea islanders; but their object was only to look at the ship, for when within two miles of us they stopped, and after examining us attentively for some time, returned towards the main-land. At five o'clock we anchored under a low island, covered with bushes, and the greater portion of the officers landed, together with one watch, or half of the crew, who had received per-


mission to take a run on shore. The boats, about a dozen in number—quite a musquito fleet—were soon close to the island, for the men, anxious to get on shore as quickly as possible, pulled most lustily. A more perfectly quiet scene could not be conceived than that which the island presented as we approached. A shght hissing, produced by the ripple of the swell as it washed up the beach, with an occasional scream from the red-billed oyster-catcher, as it tripped lightly along the sands previous to taking flight, were the only sounds that could be heard; but in less than five minutes after the boats had touched the beach it became a perfect bedlam-broke-loose. A number of little land-rail, which could run tolerably fast, but could only take short and imperfect flights, were found among the grass and bushes; and the sailors, to the amount of at least a hundred, were soon scampering about, through brake and briar, in chase of them, being very meritoriously aided by the long-legged kangaroo-dogs; while the sea-birds that had taken up their abode for the night on the island, alarmed at this unusual disturbance, flew screaming overhead, offering a fair mark for the sportsmen. The chase soon ended in the capture of all the land-rail that did not succeed in hiding themselves under the bushes, and the more boisterous among their pursuers commenced playing at leap-frog; while those of a philosophic turn examined the beach for shells and other curiosities, the gastronomes finding ample employment in catching the rock-fish that bad remained behind, in holes in the reef, when the tide had gone out, or in collecting crabs and shell-fish. The beach absolutely swarmed with small crabs that had taken possession of the empty shells thrown up by the sea, and which they

c


carried about with them wherever they went. It certainly appeared at first sight very singular that these creatures should have voluntarily thrust themselves into such inconvenient abodes; but the secret lies in the voracity of the sea-birds, which would soon swallow them up if they appeared outside their bouses. The sailors call them soldier-crabs, from some absurd resemblance they suppose them to bear to soldiers running about with sentry-boxes on their backs.

The land that we sailed along during the 18th was again of an inferior description, being very sandy. At nine, A. M. the ships passed close to what appeared to be a shoal of considerable extent, lying right in the fairway, about mid-channel between the dry sand-bank in Weymouth Bay and the reef(e.) An opening, apparently the mouth of a river, was seen upon the mainland, bearing S.W. by W. from Forbes' Island. In the evening anchored under the Bird Islands, and the portion of the crew that had not landed on the previous day was allowed to go on shore. This kind indulgence on the part of our commander had, I am sure, a very beneficial effect upon the men. They appeared really to enjoy themselves. Every individual seemed to think it necessary to bring something or other on board with him, and a most heterogenous collection was the result* Birds, fish, shells, and lumps of coral; sticks, branches of twigs, and pieces of wreck, formed only a part of the whole. It was feared that some accident would have occurred from the eagerness displayed by some of the younger sportsmen in the pursuit of game, but this did not prove to be the case. Certainly, on one occasion, an enthusiast in field-sports, too intent upon the game that had got up before him to pay much attention to more remote


objects, distributed the contents of his fowling piece among the starboard watch, who were just landing from the boats; but the distance being great, and the shots divided pretty equally among them, the amount of individual damage was not very considerable.

We were now within sixty miles of Cape York, the northern extremity of the eastern portion of the Australian continent; and a fine breeze, which sprung up from the south-east, when we got under weigh in the morning, brought us up with the Albany Islands, a group lying a little to the southward of the cape, early in the afternoon. As it was intended that we should anchor here, with the view of landing on the main, and taking formal possession of the coast, we hauled up round the northeastern island, and came suddenly into three fathoms, on which the anchor was dropped rather sooner than was originally intended. The Orontes, which vessel was following us, also prepared to anchor, but in hauling up to do so, she struck on a shoal which we must have passed very near. However, by backing her sails, she soon floated off and came to. We now lowered the boats to sound around us, and found that the ship had entered a sort of bight in the shoal, and as there was no room to turn, it became necessary to back her out into deep water. This was soon done, but the day was so far spent before all these arrangements were completed, that no time remained to visit the shore before the evening had set in.

The early part of the following day, the 20th of October, was spent in ascertaining the depth of water between the ship and the main, and in searching for a good landing-place. The boats employed upon this service did not return until one o'clock, when the ship

c2

2 8 THE PORT ES8INGTON EXPEDITION.

was removed further in shore, and Sir Gordon Bremer, with the greater portion of the officers, and the marines under arms, landed upon the coast, and proceeded along a fine sandy beach towards a hill near Cape York, the boats9 crews carrying a spar which was to be erected upon it as a flag-staff. Sixteen natives and three dogs had been seen upon this beach at dusk the previous evening, and many others bad appeared in the course of this forenoon, holding up mother-o'-pearl shells, and making signals by waving branches in the air; but they did not now think proper to show themselves, although we thought it probable that they were not far off, in the thick forest that came close down to the beach. A walk of two miles brought us to the hill, upon the summit of which a hole was made for the reception of the flagstaff, and an union-jack of very considerable dimensions was soon waving over our heads. Sir Gordon Bremer now proceeded to take formal possession of the entire north-east coast of Australia, and, if I mistake not, of the north coast too, in the name of Her Majesty the Queen; after which the marines fired a volley, all hands gave three cheers, and as we descended the hill, the ship's guns were making the woods echo with a royal salute. The flag and its staff were left for the admiration of the natives, who bad thus suddenly become British subjects. The soil appeared to be fertile, and the vegetation partook in a considerable degree of a tropical character, there being many palms and silk-cotton-trees. The Eucalyptus was the most prevalent among the forest-trees, as in every other known part of Australia. We were all on board again by dark, some among us being rather fatigued with the afternoon's excursion.


A few hours' sail would now carry us clear of Torres Strait into the open sea, a prospect which no doubt afforded unmitigated satisfaction to those who had had the trouble of weighing the anchor every morning for some time past. We were under weigh on this occasion rather before day-light, and in a few hours reached Hammond's Island, where several large canoes were seen upon the beach, near an encampment of natives. They launched one of the canoes, and seven or eight men put off towards us, hoisting, or rather setting up, a singular sail, which was suspended between two slim masts, stuck up near the bow of the canoe. They held up pieces of mother-o7-pearl and tortoiseshell, and evidently wished to barter with us; but time was precious, and we were soon far away from them. These were evidently natives of some of the islands in Torres Strait, perhaps of Murray Islands, who have long been in the habit of taking up their quarters hereabouts during the season in which our vessels pass through the strait, for the purpose of trading for axes, iron, and tobacco.

At one, P.M., we hove-to off Booby Island, where Torres Strait may be said to terminate. Ships passing invariably send a boat on shore here, and leave a record of their having come through the straits in safety. Those that have made the voyage in company, with the view of rendering mutual assistance in case of accident, here separate, and each makes the best of her way towards the port to which she may be bound. This island, which is a favourite resort for the birds from which it takes its name, is scarcely more than a mile in circumference, and is very scantily covered with low bushes. A few stunted trees are found in a narrow gully, formed by a chasm that runs across the north-western corner of

3 0 THE PORT ESSINOTON EXPEDITION.

the island, but as these are not readily seen from a ship, the island appears as being a mere barren rock* A party that had landed from the Alligator, found a box upon the island, which an inscription upon a board erected above it designated as the " Post-Office." Several letters were found therein, addressed to the masters of some of the ships that were expected to pass through the strait by those who had preceded them; and a book, in which the names of the various ships had been entered, was carefully deposited in one corner. From this it appeared that the Essington had passed about a fortnight before us, having spent some time in trading among the Murray and Darnley Islands. She had gone on to Port Essington to land the frame of a church intended for the use of the settlement, which formed part of her cargo. * We also learned that the William, another vessel that had been fitted out to trade with the islands, had been wrecked on Cockburn Reef.

At three in the afternoon the boat returned on board. She was soon hoisted up, and the ship once more put before the wind, steering a direct course for Port Essington.

31

CHAPTER III.

PORT ESSINGTON—FOUNDING THE SETTLEMENT.

Arrival at Port Essington—Appearance of the Coast—"Visit from the Natives—Examination of the Harbour—Site fixed for the Settlement—Occupations and Amusements—The Springs—Topography of the Settlement —Progress of the Buildings—Wells— Alligators—Narrow Escape—Intercourse with the Natives—Detection of a Pilferer—The Schooner Essington chartered—Dutch Establishments on the Islands—Voyage of the Dourga—Settlement on New Guinea—Fate of the Lady Nelson and Stedcombe— Of the Alexander—Sail from Port Essington—Kissa—Commerce of the Island—Native Traders—The Chief of Obousa—Character of the Natives—Survivor of the Crew of the Stedcombe—Letti— Moa—Return to Kissa—Live Stock—Anive at Port Essington — Wreck of the Orontea.

OUR course from Booby Island lay due west, the distance to Port Essington being nearly six hundred miles. The breeze now became light, scarcely permitting us to make more than a hundred miles in the twenty-four hours; but, on the other hand, the water was beautifully smooth, enabling the decked boat to keep good way with the ships; indeed, sometimes she shot ahead considerably. At midnight, on the 26th of October, we passed to the north of New Year Island, but not sufficiently near to allow us 10 see it distinctly. In the grey of the morning the tops of the trees on Cape Croker were visible from the deck. We now hauled up for Port Essington, and all liands were anxiously looking out to catch a glimpse of the spot which would probably be our head-quarters for some time to come. The land was re-

32 PORT ESSINGTON.

ported from the mast-head at least half-an-hour before it was visible from the deck, but at length the tops of the trees showed themselves in little detached clumps above the horizon, and the land itself soon rose to the view. Presently someylow sand dunes appeared, and then came the beach, its pure white affording a pleasing contrast with the deep green of the waters that bounded it.

The scene was perfectly a quiet one. There appeared to be nothing stirring, with the exception of a few birds which were running along the beach, and occasionally wading into the water as it washed up, to seize upon any little denizen of the sea that might come within their reach. Nor was there much noise on board, for every one appeared to be occupied with his own thoughts, and the general silence was only occasionally disturbed by a remark from some keen observer, who supposed that he had been the first to discover some striking novelty. It was indeed an absorbing moment to the whole of us, for probably no expedition ever sailed upon a similar service in which both officers and men took a more general interest than in this.

The breeze had now drawn in more from seaward, and, as is usually the case in the forenoon, had freshened considerably, so that we soon shot past Point Smith, and had now fairly entered the outer harbour. As we advanced, the scene altered very materially. The sandy beach still remained, but beyond it the land rose gradually towards the interior, and was clothed with open forest, so clear of underwood that we could see some distance into the country. Many clumps of the fir-like casuarina, with its dark-green foliage, studded the beach

FOUNDING THE SETTLEMENT. 33

at intervals, apparently affording an agreeable shade; and here and there jutting cliffs of red earth and sandstone advanced to the water-side, having forest-trees on their very edges ; indeed some cases occurred of trees having fallen over the cliff into the water below. We were not a little surprised at seeing one of these trees hanging over the edge of the cliff, apparently suspended by the tap-root; and it had evidently been long in this situation, for the branches had adapted themselves to their novel position by growing upwards towards the root.

As we approached Point Record, the extremity of the low tongue of land which forms the chief shelter to the inner harbour, the Essington schooner was seen riding at anchor within a cable's length of the beach, where a number of natives were also encamped; and we now discovered the reason of our not having seen any before. Several were perceived on the deck of the schooner, dressed up in all sorts of fantastic finery which they had obtained from the crew. We did not stop here, but ran past the point into the inner harbour, followed by the Orontes and the decked boat, and anchored in the very centre of the basin, a position convenient for carrying on the general examination of its shores which was necessary before the site of the new settlement could be determined on.

When the ship swung to her anchor, she headed to the eastward, in which direction lay one of the deep bays of the inner harbour, which was subsequently named Barrow Bay, after the secretary to the Admiralty, who had taken a very active part in setting on foot the expedition. On our right lay Middle Head, the highest land on the shores of the inner harbour, and which

c 5

3 4 PORT BSSINGTON.

appears like an island when seen from the entrance of the port, before the low land of Point Record becomes visible above the horizon. Astern of us, on the western side of the harbour, was a singular white cliff, having to the south of it a pretty-looking bay, with a smooth sandy beach, which contrasted strongly with the deep green of the mangroves that lined the shores beyond it, up to the very head of the inner harbour. Over the white cliff were seen Mounts Bedwell and Roe, two flat-topped hills, lying far away in the south-west point of the Cobourg Peninsula, being the highest land in sight.

While passing the schooner Essington to enter the inner harbour, Mr. Watson, the master, had come on board, and reported that be had arrived about ten days previously. The natives had been very friendly, and had afforded material assistance in landing the frame of the church, which had been deposited on the beach above high-water mark. Our curiosity to see these denizens of the forest did not long remain ungratified, for shortly after anchoring, a small canoe, containing two men, was seen approaching the ship, and from the direction in which they came, we judged that they did not belong to the party that had visited the schooner. As the canoe neared the ship, both the men stood up, and the elder made a short speech, the purport of which, as may be imagined, was perfectly unintelligible to us. They seemed very reluctant to come close, and it was not until after repeated invitations that they at length came alongside. The elder, whose name was Langari, singled out Sir Gordon Bremer the moment he came on board, and delivered a long address, shedding many tears, and frequently touching his shoulders with both


hands in a sort of half embrace. From his repeatedly pointing towards Raffles^Bay, and making use of the term " Commandant" in a tone of endearment, it appeared that Langari, who, although belonging to the Port Essington tribe, had been a frequent visitor at our settlement at Baffles' Bay, had mistaken Sir Gordon Bremer for Captain Barker, the last commandant there, to whom the natives had been very much attached. The younger man, Wanji-wanji, who must have been under twenty years of age, was in a state of the most intense fright from the very commencement of the interview, and I expect that it was owing to his remonstrances that they had hesitated about coming on board at once. His teeth chattered, and his eyes rolled about in an agony of alarm and apprehension, which had not completely subsided when he returned to the shore, after a visit of upwards of an hour, loaded with presents, and possessed of a greater amount of wealth than he had ever before even contemplated. This youth, who belonged to a tribe inhabiting the south coasts of the peninsula, soon afterwards became an almost constant resident among us, and proved highly inteUigent and useful.

I did not fail to examine attentively our new friends, with the view of comparing them with their brethren on the eastern, southern, and western coasts of Australia, with whom I had already been familiar. The same general resemblance pervaded the whole. Both our visitors had the skin embossed with raised cicatrices, the septum of the nose bored, and each had lost a front tooth. Nor did their hair differ greatly in its texture from that of the southern natives. Wanji-wanji, how-

36 PORT ESSINGTON.

ever, who was a small, but exceedingly well-made young man, displayed a skin, when the dirt was washed off, much fairer than is generally met with among Australian aborigines, and scarcely a shade darker than that of individuals among some of the Polynesian tribes of the Indian Archipelago. With this single exception, I saw nothing about them that would have led me to single them out, had I met them among the tribes of the southern part of the continent.

The day after our arrival was a busy one for everybody. Sir Gordon Bremer and Captain MacArthur started in the morning to examine the shores of the harbour, and were away nearly all day. Middle Head, from its commanding position, was the first part examined, but it was found that a bank of mud and sand, which became perfectly uncovered at low-water springtides, extended far from it in every direction, perfectly precluding its being chosen as the site of the settlement. Several other spots were examined during this and the three subsequent days, and at last the white cliff on the western side of the harbour was selected, the depth of water being sufficient to allow the vessels to anchor within a quarter of a mile of the shore.

On the 2nd of November the ships were removed to this spot, and a party sent on shore to cut a road through the steep bank, a little to the north of the white cliff, to lead to the table-land above. Others *ere set to work to prepare enclosures for the stock; and the gardener, with the assistance of several of the marines, commenced laying out and enclosing a spot of land on the shores of the sandy bay at the south extremity of the cliff, for the reception of the plants that had been


brought from Rio Janeiro and Sydney. But the main body of the men were employed in the more arduous and less-exciting duty of bringing on shore and laying out ready for the carpenters the frames of the buildings, which had to be set up and completed before the more damageable portion of the stores could be landed. Nor were those of the officers who were not employed in superintending the working-parties unoccupied, for the woods abounded with game,—pigeons, tree-partridges, quail, and, above all, the bounding kangaroo, which were as yet unaccustomed to the sound of the gun. The seine-net, too, was occasionally hauled on the beach of Point Record, ensuring a plentiful supply of carvallo, mullet, and several other kinds of excellent fish.

A fine spring of water had been pointed out by Wanji-wanji, on the shores of a cove about half-a-mile to the south of the settlement, which afforded a supply of that necessary commodity until wells were dug in and about the settlement. An open valley, containing a chain of deep ponds of clear and pure water, was discovered about a mile-and-a-half inland from the settlement by Mr. James Mac Arthur, during a short excursion; so that all fears with regard to an abundant supply of water were now dissipated. It is a very singular circumstance that Port Essington had long been considered as being devoid of fresh water, and it has since been found that there are at least thirty places on its very shores in which it can be obtained at all seasons. This goes to prove how Utile can be learned concerning any tract of country from a mere cursory examination.

The spot upon which the settlement had been formed was a piece of table-land, about a quarter of a mile in

38 PORT ESSINGTON.

extent from north to south, and projecting from the main-land about the same distance. At its south extreme lay the white cliff which has been already mentioned, and the northern part consisted of a knoll rather above the general level, which was named Minto Head. The landing-place was formed nearly midway between these two points. A short but steep ascent led up to the table-land, which continued nearly level for about three hundred yards, when it sloped gradually towards the interior, but soon rose again to an elevation rather greater than that of the table-land. The northern part of this promontory, if I may so term it, was bounded by a bay, which, however, was rendered useless by a mud-bank, dry at low-water, that entirely filled it; and its shores consisted of a deep and impenetrable belt of mangroves. To the south lay the little sandy bay that I have already mentioned as being the spot in which the garden was made.

The party of marines intended to form the garrison had been landed soon after the operations had commenced, and now occupied several tents in the centre of the table-land, round which a rough fence had been formed with the limbs and branches of the trees that had been felled in clearing the ground. Sir Gordon Bremer and Captain MacArthur occupied a large tent which had been erected on the verge of the white cliff, a spot which commanded a view of the entire harbour. This tent also served as a mess-room for the officers attached to the garrison, who occupied smaller tents in the neighbourhood. A more busy scene than the little settlement presented cannot well be conceived. The woods absolutely rang with the sound of the hammer, and in every


direction the white posts of the new buildings were seen gleaming through the trees. The organ of construc-tiveness also became developed to an alarming extent among the junior officers of the frigate, several of whom displayed their architectural skill in constructing little tenements of the materials that were at hand, in which to pass the hotter parts of the day, during which period the men ceased their labours for a time. It does not fall to the lot of many to witness the early struggles of a new settlement, but I can assure those inexperienced in such matters, that although certain privations and inconveniences must necessarily be endured by those who become the first occupants of a new country, yet there are still many little pleasures attending such operations that go far to mitigate these evils. Scarcely an individual can be met with whose tastes are so peculiar that he cannot find some occupation in which he will take an interest. Everything possesses the charm of novelty. The naturalist is constantly stumbling upon objects hitherto unknown. The geographer has new lands to explore and new seas to examine; and every individual must, more or less, take pleasure in watching the progress of operations which convert the untenanted forest into an abode for civilized man. There is scarcely an individual talent possessed by man that cannot he usefully brought into play in the formation of a new settlement; and nothing can exceed the satisfaction with which one contemplates any little improvement that he has effected, be it merely a path through the woods, or a small patch of garden-ground reclaimed from the waste. Most undoubtedly, too great an indulgence in these pursuits leads to a confirmed habit, and in this lies the secret of so many who have enjoyed a similar kind of life in their

40 PORT ESStNGTON.

youth becoming restless and uneasy after their return to an old-established community; and at length, putting aside all worldly considerations, again embarking in enterprises which cannot but be attended with the loss of many of those comforts which are thought by some to be almost absolutely necessary to our very existence.

The distance of the springs from the settlement, which rendered the task of obtaining supplies of fresh water a very laborious one, induced a search in the more immediate neighbourhood. The first well was sunk near the shores of the sandy bay, a little above high-water mark, and after digging down a few feet, a spring was found which soon filled the well. From being so near the sea, it was liable to be damaged by the salt water, until a wall was built to protect it, but otherwise the water was sweet and good. The circumstance of fresh water being found so readily at the end of the dry season, when no rain appeared to have fallen for some months, gave very general satisfaction. Wells were subsequently sunk in several parts of the settlement, and in a short time the original one was only used for the supply of ships, its close neighbourhood, to the beach proving highly convenient. A circumstance occurred while this well was in progress that made a great sensation at the time. One of the men employed, while sleeping in a hammock suspended between two trees, was disturbed during the night by something dragging away the blanket that covered him, and on looking over the side of the hammock he discovered, to his intense horror, that the intruder was a large alligator. His shouts alarmed the animal, which retreated in great haste into the sea. The man's story was not at first credited by those who came to his assistance, but in the morning, sure enough, the


blanket was found on the beach half immersed in water, and the animal itself was shot a few nights afterwards, the ball striking the forehead above the eye, and splintering off a portion of the skull, thus exposing the brain. He did not die, however, until after a violent struggle of many minutes, during which he lashed the sea around him into a foam. Some of the men returned the com* pliment he was supposed to have intended for their companion, by eating a considerable portion of his remains.

From the knowledge that we subsequently gained concerning these animals, I very much doubt whether the one in question really intended mischief. The natives, whose encampments are generally close to the beach, are never carried off, and the alligator is such a cowardly animal, that it very rarely ventures to molest them even in the water, which may be considered as its proper element. Certainly, upon one occasion, a woman and several children were attacked by an alligator as they were leisurely swimming towards the shore from a vessel in the roads. It came up behind them un-perceived, and endeavoured to seize the woman with one of its claws, but it soon desisted, and the entire party succeeded in escaping to the shore. I had been alarmed,—as was the case, I believe, with all the people in the settlement,—by their screams, and arrived on the beach as they were landing. The woman was terribly scratched upon one shoulder, but the greatest sufferer appeared to be a poor little girl about eight years of age, who stood upon the beach the very picture of paralyzed terror. The excitement that had enabled her to escape from the monster had subsided the moment she was safe on the beach, and she now stood with stiffened limbs,

42 PORT ES8INGTON.

and staring eye-balls, and was only prevented from falling to the ground by timely support. So long did the fit remain upon her, that we really feared the poor little thing had lost her senses altogether. However, two or three shakes, the universal remedy in such cases, brought her to herself, and putting her bands before her face, she commenced crying as if her heart would break. This soon brought relief, but for many days she was sad and thoughtful, and will certainly never forget the events of that day. Dr. Sibbald, the surgeon, who had witnessed the affair from its very commencement, after having, in a paroxysm of indignation, fired a rifle-ball at the alligator, which I believe struck it, proceeded to dress the wounds of the woman, and in a few days she was herself again.

A large party of the natives had established themselves on the sandy beach to the south of the settlement immediately after our arrival, and they held constant intercourse with us. Their chief occupation consisted in collecting fish, crabs, and oysters, which they exchanged with our people for biscuit, old clothes, and other articles that happened to strike their fancy. Several among them proved to be great adepts at pilfering, an art which they had long been in the habit of practising upon their annual visitors, the trepang fishers from Macassar. Knives, clothes that had been hung out to dry, and, occasionally some of the carpenters' tools were found missing from time to time, and at length Mallamaya, a brother of Wanji-wanji, was caught one evening after dark in the very act of stealing a shirt from a clothesline within the men's encampment. Notwithstanding an immense deal of struggling and noise upon his part, he was dragged by his captors to the tent, where we were


sitting after tea, chatting upon the topics of the day, and presented before Sir Gordon Bremer for judgment. The native, who afterwards proved to be a very Mercury, or prince of thieves, was evidently in a great state of alarm, for I suspect that the Macassars had been in the habit of dealing very summarily with plunderers; but he had his wits about him, and his eyes were constantly wander* ing in search of some mode of escape. He was, however, in the hands of men to whom bis strength was but as that of a child; two stout marines, each of whom grasped a wrist of the offender. I must confess that they presented rather a ludicrous appearance as they stood "attention" before the door of the tent, with the native between them, while the serjeant of the guard came forward and made his report. The prisoner spoke very energetically in his own defence, making a most elaborate use of the few English words that he had picked up; and Sir Gordon Bremer, thinking the fright he had endured would be sufficient punishment, and in consideration of this being the first offence, allowed him to depart, no doubt to his great joy, for I really think he expected to have been put to death. On being released, he walked away for a few yards in as composed a manner as be could assume, and then bounded off through the dark forest like a deer.

It has been mentioned in the preceding chapter that on our arrival at Port Essington, the Essington schooner was found lying at anchor in the harbour. Having landed the church, she was then ready to proceed on her voyage, but a speedy supply of fresh meat and vegetables being deemed necessary for the health of the men, she was engaged on the part of government to bring a cargo of buffaloes, pigs, and yams, with any

4 4 PORT ESSJNGTON.

other useful articles that were obtainable, from some of the neighbouring islands of the Indian Archipelago,

The former settlements at Melville Island and Raffles' Bay had been supplied with stock from the Dutch town of Coepang, at the south-west extreme of the islaud of Timor; the fate of the brigs Lady Nelson and Sted-combe haying prevented any further attempt being made to maintain an intercourse with the islands more immediately adjacent to the settlements. We were now, however, in possession of a considerable amount of information concerning these islands, which were almost a terra incognita when Raffles9 Bay was abandoned. During the early period of Dutch supremacy in the Indian Archipelago, small military posts had been established upon all the larger islands lying between their

s possessions in the Moluccas and the north coast of Australia, with the double purpose of eradicating the spice-trees, and preventing rival European nations from fixing themselves in positions that would enable them to interfere with the rigid monopoly which had been the great principle of Dutch policy in the East. Towards the close of the last century, previous to the conquest of the Moluccas by the British, these establishments had been withdrawn; nor were they renewed after the restoration of the Spice Islands, at the close of the war; indeed, so little intercourse was maintained with these southern groups, that when Melville Island was settled in 18*24, some of the islands had not been visited by a Dutch vessel for a period of half a century. The presence of the British on the north coast of Australia, however, appears to have drawn attention towards these groups, which lie about midway between the Dutch possessions in the Moluccas and the Australian con-


tinent, for shortly after the occupation of Melville Island, a brig of war, the Dourga, having on board a civil officer of the government, was sent from Amboyna to visit all the islands lying between Timor and New Guinea, for the purpose, as stated in the commander's instructions, of inquiring " as to what remains exist of the forts erected by the (Dutch) East India Company," and " to kindle and renew friendly relations with the natives, and to invite them to visit Banda for the purpose of trading." During this and two subsequent excursions, the Dourga visited all the principal islands which compose these groups, and also explored the western coast of New Guinea from Cape Valsch, the south-west extremity, to the neighbourhood of the Moluccas. An opening was discovered near the Cape, which afterwards was found to be a strait; and here a settlement was attempted shortly after the return of the Dourga, but the land proving very low and swampy, it was finally established considerably more to the northward, in Tritons Bay, so named from the ship-of-war that was employed upon the service.

A narrative of the voyage of the Dourga, written by Lieut. KolfF, the commander, and containing many interesting particulars concerning the islands he visited, was published in Holland, in 1828. I had obtained a copy of this work shortly before leaving England for Port Essington, and obtained from it the first particulars that had been known in this country respecting the fate of the two vessels that had been sent from Melville Island for supplies. One of these, which subsequently proved to be the government brig Lady Nelson, had been captured by the natives of Baba, and the entire crew murdered; and the other, which, from there being two boys on board,

46 PORT ESSINGTON.

was supposed to be the Stedcombe,had been plundered by the natives of Timor Laut, and the crew also killed, with the exception of these two youths. A period of thirteen years had elapsed since the capture of this vessel when the'information was obtained, and it was thought that in the meantime these boys must have perished ; but shortly afterwards news arrived from Batavia that a boat containing five men, the survivors of the ship Charles Eaton, wrecked in Torres Strait, had reached that port, after having resided some months at a village in Timor Laut, only a few miles to the southward of that near which the Stedcombe had been cut off. These men reported that an European, the sole survivor of the crew of a vessel that had been captured by the people of this village, which was called Laoura, many years previously, was then residing among the natives, and it became evident that this must have been one of the boys in question.

From the information contained in Mr. KolfFs narrative, it appeared that no vessel, except one of force, could with safety visit either Baba or the Timor Laut group; indeed if any doubts remained upon this point, they were removed by the fact of the Alexander, a vessel from Java, under Dutch colours, but commanded by an Englishman, Mr. Harris, had been captured by the natives of an island near Timor%Laut shortly previous to the sailing of the Port Essington expedition, and the European portion of the crew murdered; this being the only European vessel that was known to have visited the group since the voyage of Mr. Kolff. Still the natives of the islands lying between Baba and Timor, were known to be far better disposed than the others, many of them being Christians; while at the same

FOUNDING THE SETTLEMENT. 4 7

time these islands were well adapted for furnishing the supplies that were required for the new settlement, the distance being less by nearly half than that between Port Essington and Coepang. As it was necessary, however, in opening an intercourse with these islands that some one acquainted with the language and character of the natives of the Indian Archipelago should be employed upon this duty, Sir Gordon Bremer proposed that I should embark on board the Essington, but at the same time kindly offering me the option of remaining until the arrival of the Britomart would place at his disposal a vessel better adapted for this kind of service. Had the Britomart been in the harbour I certainly would have preferred accompanying my friend Captain Stanley, in his well-manned brig; but at the same time the Essington being a trading vessel, and having on board a cargo of British manufactures, would afford me an opportunity of gaining a practical knowledge concerning the commerce of the islands, which ought not to be allowed to pass.

We sailed from Port Essington on the 1st of November, and, while clearing the harbour, saw the Britomart coming in from the eastward, with the large boat that had been brought by the Canton towing astern. Our course was now directed for Kissa, an island which had the repute of being the most civilized of the Serwatty group, the distance from Port Essington being rather more than three hundred miles. We here found that a German missionary, Mr. Bier, in the service of the Netherlands7 Missionary Society, had been residing upon the island several years, and he willingly afforded us all the information and assistance in his power. The island possessed a population of about 8,000, nearly

4 8 PORT ESSINOTON.

one-fourth of whom were Christians of the Dutch reformed church, and among these were several hundred of the decendants of the Dutch who had resided here when the island was occupied by the Kast India Company. Although my expectations had been raised very high by the reports I had heard concerning the social state of the inhabitants, I certainly had not anticipated meeting with so well-regulated a community. The superior intelligence of the people, and the security of property resulting from the mild and equitable nature of their laws, had rendered their little island a sort of emporium for the neighbouring groups, and at the period of our visit, natives of the various islands, as far to the eastward as Timor Laut, were congregated here for the purpose of obtaining those articles of European manufacture which had become necessary to them, and which were not procurable at their own islands from their reckless thirst for plunder having deterred foreign traders from venturing among them. Nor were we the first English vessel that had visited Kissa. During several years past, whale-ships passing through the Straits of Timor, the high-road between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, occasionally hove-to off the island, and sent their boats on shore to barter for the supplies and refreshments that the island afforded; for, although Kissa itself scarcely yielded produce sufficient for the consumption of its own inhabitants, the superior state .of their commercial relations enabled them to command the produce of some of the neighbouring islands, especially of the east end of Timor, which is distant somewhat less than twenty miles. Prahus from Macassar, bringing European goods from our settlement at Singapore, and small Chinese vessels from Java and Timor, also

THE SERWATTY ISLANDS. 49

came down to Kissa with the westerly monsoon, but at the period of our visit, a Chinese prahu from Banda was the only foreign trading vessel at the island. The goods brought by Mr. Watson, fresh from the stores at Sydney, attracted great admiration, and he reaped a tolerably rich harvest in tortoise-shell, bees'-wax, and sandal-wood.

My reception by the chiefs proved highly favourable ; for they had already derived considerable benefit from their intercourse with the British, and this they naturally supposed would be greatly increased now that a settlement had been made by us in their immediate neighbourhood. The chief of Obousa, a very intelligent man, proposed sending his son to Port Essington with a large prahu when the westerly monsoon had set in; but I was unable to give this scheme the encouragement that it deserved, from my being aware that the market for their produce was as yet an extremely limited one, being confined to articles required for the supply of the garrison; while their prahus were unfitted for the transport of live-stock, which, of all other articles, was most required. I promised, however, to find some means of conveying to them the earliest intelligence of any change in the state of the settlement that might render an intercourse of the kind profitable.

The natives of Kissa, indeed of the entire chain of islands as far as the Ki group, near New Guinea, are a branch of the Great Polynesian race, bearing considerable resemblance in customs, personal appearance, and language to the inhabitants of the Society and Sandwich Islands. 1 had previously suspected that this affinity would be found to exist in a certain degree, but did not anticipate its being so considerable as it proved.

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5 0 PORT ESSINOTON.

Kissa afforded in abundance all the articles we required for the settlement. But in carrying live-stock, it is important that the voyage should be rendered as short as possible, and I had learned that buffaloes could be obtained at Mowai, on the island of Moa, seventy miles nearer to Port Essington, the chiefs of Kissa candidly informing me that these animals could be obtained there at a cheaper rate and of better quality than at their own island. My proposal to proceed to Mowai also accorded with the views of Mr. Watson, as it would afford him an opportunity of trading with the different villages on Letti and Moa.

The presence of so many strangers at Kissa enabled me to prosecute inquiries concerning the capture of the Lady Nelson and Stedcombe, and in several cases my information was derived from parties who had been personally engaged in these nefarious transactions. Not the slightest offence had been committed by the crews of either vessel. The capture of the Lady Nelson had been the result of a deliberate conspiracy on the part of the natives of Baba, who had first met with her at Letti, and had succeeded in drawing her on from island to island by promises of providing her with supplies of stock, and had at length consummated their purpose at their own remote abode. That of the Stedcombe had been unpremeditated, but the impunity that had attended the capture of the Lady Nelson had led to the attempt One of the survivors, who was known to the natives by the name of " Joe," was still residing among them at Laoura, but was reported to be in a very bad state of health.

The islands of Letti and Moa are considerably larger than Kissa, but in point of population they are not greatly

THE SERWATTY ISLANDS. 51

superior. Two missionaries had been residing on Letti, and one on Moa, for about four years previous to our visit, but their task had been by no means so pleasing as that of Mr. Bi6r. The people of Letti were rather turbulent and unruly, quarrels constantly taking place between the different villages, which generally ended in a sort of desultory war, not attended with much bloodshed, but highly detrimental to the advancement of productive industry. The inhabitants of Moa, on the other hand, employed themselves almost exclusively in cultivating the soil, and tending their flocks and herds; but being rather an obtuse people, they were kept under in a very extraordinary degree by their neighbours of Letti, who for years past had retained a sort of monopoly of the trade of Moa. While on the south side of this island with one of the boats, attending a meeting of the chiefs, I received news that induced me to hasten on board the schooner, which I expected to meet at Mowai, about fifteen miles from the spot at which I then was. I was accompanied by Mr. Dommers, the missionary of Moa, who purposed taking this opportunity of inspecting the Christian school there. The schooner had gone on to the neighbouring island of Lakor, and we arrived on board at dusk in the evening, just in time to prevent a massacre of the crew by the people of Baba, who had followed the vessel from Kissa and the east end of Timor with several large prahus, which Mr. Watson had imprudently permitted to anchor within half a cables9 length of his vessel. We now returned to Kissa, and during a stay of forty-eight hours obtained a full cargo for the settlement, consisting of nineteen buffaloes, sixty pigs, ' more than a hundred sheep, several tons of yams, and a quantity of poultry; with a number of banana stems, *

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52 PORT ESSINGTON.

cocoa-nuts, and seeds to plant in the garden; the whole having been purchased with goods that cost at Sydney somewhat less than £30 sterling.

Although the month of December had now arrived, the easterly monsoon still continued, which prevented our reaching Port Essington until the 15th. Only one of the buffaloes had died during the passage, but two or three of the pigs, which were too fat to stand upon their legs, had fretted themselves to death. We also lost nearly one-half of the sheep, these being wretched long-legged things, not at all fitted for a sea voyage. I was very much pleased, and somewhat surprised to find that the banana stems, with only a few exceptions, began to shoot soon after being put in the ground, for they had been brought in bags, suspended under the deck, and I had often to rescue them out of the throats of the buf-falos, these animals appearing to have a great taste for the delicate juicy morsels.

By this time the stores and provisions brought by the Orontes had been landed, and on the 16th of December she sailed for India; but while standing out to sea from the entrance of the port, she struck upon a reef of rocks previously unknown, and came off in such a damaged state that it became necessary to run her on shore near Vashion Head, to avoid foundering in deep water. The accident became known in the settlement the same evening, and on the following morning Sir Gordon Bremer proceeded in person to the wreck, with the Britomart and the boats of the Alligator, to render all necessary assistance. It was found that the vessel was so much damaged, that to heave her off and repair her would occupy the entire force of the settlement at a time when its services were particularly required for other purposes;

POKT ESSIN6T0N. 5 3

she was therefore abandoned, and the crew, with all the stores that could be saved, brought to the settlement. This addition to our numbers rendered it necessary again to dispatch the Essington for supplies, and as some ponies were also required by the officers, she on this occasion proceeded to the Portuguese town of Dilli, near the north-east end of Timor, about four hundred miles distant from Port Essington.

54

C H A P T E R IV.

PORT ESSINGTON—PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT.

Preparations for the Rainy Season—Excursion of the Britomart to Timor—Arrival of Macassar Prahus — Strange Ships upon the Coast—Arrival of Commodore D'Urville—Lieutenant Stanley's Excursion to the Ami Islands and Timor Laut—Departure of the Prahus—Fate of Bapa Padu—Lieutenant Stewart's inland Excursion—Departure of the Alligator for Sydney—The Pelorus and Gilmore dispatched from Sydney — Notice respecting Leases of Land—Hurricane—Her Majesty's Ship Pelorus stranded—Return of the Alligator—Trading Vessels from the Indian Archipelago-Progress of Events — Annual Visits of the Macassar Prahus— Arrival of Her Majesty's Ships North Star and Alligator—Influence of the Settlement on the neighbouring Islands of the Indian Archipelago—Arrival of a party of Marines to relieve the Garrison.

THE new year commenced with the usual festivities, for the supplies brought from the Serwatty Islands furnished abundance of good cheer. Three of the seven houses that had been brought from Sydney in frame, each being forty feet long by sixteen wide, with walls ten feet high, had by this time been completed, and all the officers and men forming the shore-party had some sort of an abode erected to shelter them during the rainy monsoon, the approach of which had been advertised by occasional heavy showers; indeed, it was expected that it would have set in before the termination of the previous year. The wind was now usually from the western quarter, and occasionally blew rather fresh in squalls.

The Essington returned from Dilli, after an absence of somewhat less than a month, and brought some Singa-

PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT. 5 5

pore papers containing English news of a very lake date, which had arrived there by the overland mail. Dilli being the nearest European settlement to Port Essing-ton, a regular communication between the two places became an object of importance, and Sir Gordon Bremer determined to proceed there in person in the Britomart. The brig sailed on the 15th of February, and found the westerly monsoon blowing rather strong outside the harbour, which occasionally brought her under double-reefed topsails, and rendered the passage rather tedious, as it occupied nearly a fortnight. The Britomart remained five days at Dilli, and then sailed on her return voyage, touching at Kissa and Moa. Mr. Dommers, the missionary at the latter island, informed us that several large Macassar prahus had passed through the strait that separates Moa from Letti a few days previous to our arrival, and that they were steering to the south-east, towards the coast of Australia. On our return to Port Essington, we found that they had not visited the settlement; indeed, they could not yet have been aware of its existence, and we therefore concluded that they must have sailed on for the Gulf of Carpentaria, We were not, however, suffered to remain long in doubt upon this point, for before the end of the month two natives arrived from the eastward, who informed us that several Macassar prahus were at anchor in Bowen Straits, and that the nakodahs or commanders had heard of our proceedings from the natives, and intended soon to pay us a visit. They also informed us that two large ships had been lying for some days in Raffles Bay, and that the crews, which consisted entirely of Europeans, had commenced building houses on shore. This news puzzled us exceedingly, for it was evident that these ships could not

56 PORT ESSINGTON.

have come through Torres Strait, as the westerly mon-soon had scarcely terminated, and many were inclined to suppose that the natives must have given us incorrect information.

On the following day five vessels, under Dutch colours, were seen standing into the harbour, and they proved to be our long-expected friends the Macassar trepang fishers. They anchored for the night under Point Record, and in the morning moved into the sandy bay to the south of the settlement, where in a few hours they had erected a number of sheds, covered over with large mats, in which to cure the trepang. They seemed very much pleased at finding us established here, for they rightly conjectured that our presence would prevent the natives from molesting them, which had heretofore been the case to a very considerable extent. Bapa Padu, the commodore, was the oldest nakodah upon the coast, having been in the habit of visiting it annually for upwards of thirty years. Many inquiries were made respecting Captain Barker, the last commandant at Raffles' Bay, whom they appeared to esteem very highly. Bapa Padu was in possession of a telescope that he had purchased there, and the compasses by which they directed their course had been derived from the same source.

Our new visitors confirmed the account that had been given by the natives respecting two ships being at anchor in Raffles' Bay, and as it was desirable to ascertain who the strangers might be, Lieut. Stewart was dispatched in the decked boat to pay them a visit. On entering Raffles' Bay he descried the two ships at anchor near the old settlement, and the French tricolour flying over two or three tents upon the shore informed

PROGRESS OP THE SETTLEMENT. 57

him as to the nation they belonged to. These vessels proved to be the corvettes Astrolabe and Zel6e, under the command of Commodore D'Urville. They had sailed from Toulon about six months previous to the departure of the Alligator from England, and had entered the South Sea by Cape Horn, visiting the Marquesas and Tahiti in their passage across the Pacific. The last port at which they had touched was Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the Spice Islands. Several of their boats had been absent two or three days, surveying Bowen Strait, which separates Croker's Island from the main, a channel much used by the Macassar prahus, about thirty having passed through during the ten days in which the French ships had been staying at Raffles' Bay.

Lieutenant Stewart having returned to the settlement with this intelligence, was again dispatched with an invitation from Sir Gordon Bremer to Commodore D'Urville, requesting him to visit the settlement before leaving the coast. The commodore very courteously complied, and on the 6th of April the two corvettes anchored off Point Record. The three days during which they remained were occupied by a constant interchange of courtesies between the officers of the two expeditions; and on the 9th they sailed to the northeast, towards the Ami Islands.

On the 15th of the same month Captain Stanley arrived in the Britomart from a visit to Timor Laut, the Ki, and the Auru Islands.* At the latter group h& found a number of Dutch, Chinese, Bughis, and Ma-

* A very interesting account of this excursion by Captain Stanley, it given in Captain Stokes* Narrative of the Voyage of the Beagle.

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5 8 PORT BSSINOTON.

cassar trading-vessels, which had collected there to barter for the varied produce of these islands. On touching At Timor Laut on his return, he found that the youth who had dwelt so many years among the natives,;the sole survivor of the crew of the Stedcombe, had been taken off the island by Mr. Watson, the master of the Essington. His name proved to be Joseph Forbes. His health had suffered very severely from the privations he had endured while residing among the natives, with whom he had now been upwards of fourteen years.

The five Macassar prahus remained at the settlement during three weeks, and collected a considerable quantity of trepang upon the shoals and mud-banks of the harbour. The canoes, four or five of which were attached to each prahu, generally returned from their excursions loaded with these slimy creatures, which were instantly popped into large cauldrons, and simmered over a fire during several hours; after which they were well smoked in the drying-houses, and had then become articles of commerce. Three of the prahus, under Bapa Padu, sailed together for Macassar, but the grey-headed old man was destined never to revisit the country that had been for so many years the scene of his labours; for the prahus were attacked and taken by pirates from the Phillipine Islands, while passing the island of Flores, and the crews carried as slaves to Mindanao. Menangbari, the youngest of the Pngawas, alone was liberated, owing to his father having been known to the chief of the pirates. He returned among us two years after this event, and related the sad fate of his old commodore. The two remaining prahus were under the orders of Lalang, an intelligent and well-mannered

PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT. 59

young man, who appeared to experience some difficulty in tearing himself away from us, and he never failed subsequently to pay us an annual visit, being always a welcome guest. The fact is, that they were treated, not only by the chief authorities, but by every individual officer and man in the settlement, with a kindness and consideration which they had been previously unaccustomed to experience from Europeans; for the example of our respected commander, whose spirit of benevolence recognized no distinctions of complexion or race, was very generally followed by those under his orders.

During the month of April only occasional showers were experienced, and in May the rainy season ceased entirely. The south-east trade-wind now blew steadily, and the sun being far to the north, the weather became cool and agreeable. Hitherto every individual had been so actively employed in the immediate affairs of the settlement, that the country had been little explored, except in the neighbourhood of the harbour: preparations were therefore made to extend our acquaintance with the Cobourg Peninsula, and Lieutenant Stewart, of the Alligator, who had lately completed a stone jetty at the landing-place, was dispatched with a small party to traverse the peninsula towards the point at which it is connected with the main-land, and to penetrate as far as possible into the country beyond it. He returned after an absence of ten days, and gave a very flattering ! account of the Country he had met with during his excursion.

By the end of May all the preliminary arrangements in the settlement had been so far completed, that Sir Gordon Bremer felt himself at liberty to proceed with the Alligator to Sydney, where it was anticipated that

60 PORT KSSINGTON.

orders for opening Port Essington for colonization would be found awaiting her arrival. Government-house, officers' quarters, two store-houses, and a hospital, had been completed, and the garrison were all housed in neat little thatched cottages. Several wells, affording an abundant supply of water, had been sunk in different places about the establishment, and a battery, armed with some of the Alligator's eighteen-pounders, had been formed upon the edge of the white cliff, commanding the entrance of the inner harbour, and giving the settlement quite a warlike appearance. An excellent survey of the port, and of the coast to the eastward, had been completed by Mr. Tyers, assisted by Mr. Byron Drury, of the Alligator; and the excursions of Lieutenant Stanley in the Britomart had made known to the people of the neighbouring islands that a British force had been established in their neighbourhood, which would render any further attempt at molesting the European strangers that might visit them a highly hazardous undertaking; indeed, the circumstance of no single aggression having been committed upon one of the many English vessels that have since traversed these seas, proves, even if further evidence were wanting, that the previous hostile attacks of the natives had been perpetrated under an impression that we possessed no military force wherewith to punish them.

Captain MacArthur, R.N., took charge of the settlement as commandant, having under his orders Lieutenant Priest, R.N.; Mr. Whipple, assistant-surgeon, R.N.; Mr. James MacArthur, store-keeper; and about forty marines. Lieutenant Stanley remained in the harbour with the Britomart, to render any assistance or protection that might be required.

I

PROGRESS OP THE SETTLEMENT. 6 1

The Alligator sailed from Port Essington on the 3rd of June, 1839, and arrived at Sydney on the early part of July, having had favourable winds throughout the voyage, which occupied altogether thirty-six days. As the passage from Sydney to Port Essington through Torres Strait is performed in from fifteen to twenty days, seven weeks may be considered as an approximation to r' ' the period required to circumnavigate the continent of Australia; somewhat less than the usual duration of a voyage from England to the Cape of Good Hope.

The scurvy had broken out on board the ship shortly after leaving the north coast, and almost every individual among the crew had become more or less affected by it by the time she arrived at Sydney. As it was feared that the garrison at Port Essington and the crew of the Britomart might also be sufferers from this distressing malady, the Pelorus was dispatched from Sydney to relieve the Britomart, a small transport accompanying her, laden with stores and refreshments for the settlement. The Alligator prepared to follow in September with the Gilmore, a hired ship, in which had been embarked a number of working oxen and some cows; but when nearly ready for sea, a disturbance among the troops at Norfolk Island rendered it necessary that some ship of war should proceed there, and as the Alligator was the only vessel of the description then at Sydney, Sir Gordon Bremer undertook to perform this piece of service, and the Gilmore was sent on under the orders of Lieutenant Drury. The Alligator did not return to Sydney until the end of October, and as the passage to the westward through Torres Straits is supposed to be closed by the westerly monsoon during this and the five ensuing months, the southern passage, by Cape Lieuwen, was the route chosen for the return voyage.

©2 PORT ESSINGTON.

It had been anticipated that orders for throwing open Port Essington for settlers would hare been found at Sydney awaiting the arrival of the Alligator, but this proved not: to have been the case. Many applications having) however, been made by parties desirous of proceeding there forthwith, Sir Gordon Bremer, previous to his departure, issued a notice, a copy of which is given below,* to the effect that parties of respectability resorting to Port Essington for purposes of trade, would

* " PORT ESSINGTON. u Notice is hereby given that persons of respectability resorting to

Port Essington for purposes of trade, will be permitted to occupy, for a-period not exceeding seven years, town allotments, containing each about half-an-acre of land, within one mile of the pier a t ' Victoria,* and suburban allotments of five acres each, within five miles of the same, on the conditions undermentioned.

"Parties desirous of availing themselves of this permission are requested to transmit written applications to that effect, addressed to me, at the Harbour Master's Office, in Her Majesty's Bock-yard, Sydney, specifying the allotments they wish to obtain, and the time within which they will be prepared bond fide to enter upon the land, if approved.

" The conditions are the following; viz. the lease to continue for a period not exceeding seven years, but renewable or not at the discretion of the commandant, or of Her Majesty's Government.

" The payment of an annual rent, at the rate of five shillings per half acre; the lease to be determinable at any time by the commandant, on giving a twelvemonth's notice.

" All improvements to be effected at the expense and risk of the lessee.

" The lessee not to destroy or injure timber, &c, without previous permission.

" (Signed) J. J. GORDON BREMER,

" Commandant of Her Majesty's Settlement of Port Essington.

Sydney, Sept. 1839.

Parliamentary Papers relating to Port Etsington, p. 11.

PROGRESS OP THE SETTLEMENT. 6 8

be permitted to occupy portion's of land in or about the settlement; The uncertainty'that existed as to whether the establishment would be maintained, for already reports had gone abroad that it would soon be abandoned, prevented any individuals from availing themselves of the terms offered, although the colony of New South Wales had already begun to experience that plethora of capital and immigrants which contributed to produce the commercial crisis that soon afterwards took place; indeed, the position of the settlers would have proved a singular one had the garrison of Port Essington been removed.

The Pelorus with her convoy arrived at the settlement in due course, and it was found that the malady which had afflicted the crew of the Alligator had not extended itself to the garrison, probably owing to a tolerable supply of vegetables having been obtained, either from the cabbage-palms which abound in the interior of the peninsula, or from the produce Of the gardens. The Gilmore also arrived safely with the cattle, after rather a tedious passage through Torres Strait, the winds proving light and variable during the latter part of the voyage.

The course of events had hitherto been uninterrupted by any occurrence of a distressing nature, but towards the close of the month of November, at the period of the change of the monsoon, a violent hurricane swept over the settlement, which stripped the trees of their leaves, blew down the church which had been nearly completed, and unroofed the cottages that had been constructed for the men. Her Majesty's Ship Pelorus was driven on shore to the north of the settlement, where she fell over on her broadside, and the gunner with several of the crew were unfortunately drowned. The Britomart only avoided the same fate by striking her lower yards and

64 PORT ESSINGTON.

topmasts and letting go her sheet-anchor, and even then she drove to a considerable distance from the spot at which she had been lying. The buildings that had been brought in frame from Sydney were comparatively uninjured, but a considerable portion of the biscuit in the stores was destroyed by the rain, so that it became necessary to put the garrison upon short allowance. Captain Stanley had intended to sail for Sydney on the day subsequent to that on which the hurricane took place, but it now became necessary that he should remain to render assistance to the crew of the Pelorus and the garrison of the settlement in digging the vessel out of the mud and getting her afloat, a work of great labour, which was not completed until the beginning of the following year, and it was then found that the ship had been so much strained during the operation that she could never be again serviceable as a vessel of war.

The Alligator returned to Port Essington in the early part of March, 1840, having touched at Penang, Madras, and Trincomalee, at which latter place Sir Gordon Bremer had hoisted his flag on board the Wellesley, seventy-four, as commander-in-chief on the Indian Station, which post had become vacant by the death of Admiral Sir Frederic Maitland. As the services of the Alligator were required to aid in carrying on the war which had lately broken out in China, she only remained in the harbour until the stores she had brought from India were landed, and then sailed for China, under the command of Captain Kuper, late of the Pelorus.

In the meantime reports had been spread abroad throughout the Indian Archipelago that the British had established themselves at Port Essington, and the westerly monsoon had scarcely set in when vessels began

PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT. 65

to arrive from some of the neighbouring European settlements. They all brought supplies of some sort or other, and the cattle especially proved highly acceptable to the garrison. The first vessel that appeared was the Lul-worth, an English schooner, on a trading voyage among the Indian islands. She brought cattle, horses, and maize from Coepang, and would gladly have laid in a fresh supply of European goods, to enable her to continue her commerce with the neighbouring islands. The Lul-worth was followed in a few days by the Ondernemer, a brig under Dutch colours, but owned by a British merchant in Java. In March another Dutch vessel, the Diana, arrived from Coepang, and reported that a fourth ship, the Talsum, had put in there on her way from Java to Port Essington, but that the master, hearing that the settlement had not been thrown open, had altered his plans and proceeded to Amboyna.

The first batch of Macassar prahus, three in number, arrived on the 24th of March. Four more followed on the 4th of April, and single prahus continued to drop in until the end of the month, the entire number that visited us during the season being thirteen. Eleven of these were from Macassar, the remaining two being a small prahu from the island of Sumbawa, and a vessel belonging to that singular people the Badju, a tribe without any fixed home, living constantly on board their prahus, numbers of which congregate among the small islands near the southern coasts of Celebes. The Macassar prahus were engaged in the trepang fishery, but the Badjus had turned their attention exclusively to the capture of the hawk's-bill turtle, which yields the tortoise-shell of commerce; and being skilful fishermen, they had met with great success. All these vessels brought

66 PORT ESSINGTON.

rice, sugar, poultry, and cloths of native manufacture, and one of their number had on board an assortment of articles that had been shipped by a Dutch merchant at Macassar. I am sorry to say that their goods did not come to a very good market, our numbers being too limited to permit our purchasing their entire stock, but what they did sell, brought prices that appeared to be highly satisfactory to them. Several prahus that intended to visit the settlement were unable to do so owing to their inability to beat up against the south-east monsoon, which had been blowing out of the harbour from the early part of March. The last of the prahus sailed for Macassar on the 4th of May, and we were again left to ourselves.

The history of the settlement from this time forward is that of a mere military post, or rather naval station, for it partakes more largely of the latter character, a vessel of war of ten guns having been constantly attached to it. Captain MacArthur found ample employment for the garrison under his command, in cultivating the gardens and keeping the buildings in repair, and occasionally in affording assistance to the vessels that visited the harbour in distress. The ship of war upon the station was at the same time pretty constantly engaged in visiting the islands and settlements in the neighbouring seas, and the result has been a mass of information concerning countries hitherto little known, which cannot but be of importance whenever our nation shall make a movement in this part of the world. Two or three ships from Sydney arrived in the course of each year, with supplies for the garrison, and others occasionally put in, either from motives of curiosity, or to dispose of their surplus stores; but our main dependence was placed


upon a vessel that was sent to us annually by the firm of Messrs. Almeida and Sons, of Singapore, which touched at the settlement on her way to the Ami Islands and New Guinea, bringing live-stock and refreshments, with all those little articles of luxury which become almost necessary to Europeans in tropical climates. Our friends, the Macassars, never failed to visit us during the season, and their arrival was always looked forward to with much satisfaction. They furnished us with an abundant supply of rice ; large quantities of which were consumed in the settlement, not only by the * garrison, but by the natives, who had become habituated to this description of food; and it invariably formed a portion of any payment made to them for the fish, turtle, &c, with which they supplied us; or for any little services that they might perform. Our visitors sometimes outnumbered the garrison seven- i fold, yet their conduct was invariably orderly in the extreme. The greatest offence committed by any indi- !

vidual among them consisted in one of the crew of a prahu encouraging a native to steal a pumpkin from one of the gardens, and in being the receiver of the stolen goods.

In the early part of the year, Her Majesty's ship North.Star, of twenty-eight guns, arrived at Port Essing-ton, convoying Her Majesty's ship Alligator, now con-verted into a troop-ship, the latter vessel being laden with a portion of the surplus provisions that remained at the close of the war in China, which had been forwarded for the use of the garrison, and of the surveying-ships which were expected to touch here in the course of the season for supplies. SirEverard Home, the captain of the North Star, had been instructed to visit the

68 PORT ESSINGTON.

settlement for the express purpose of instituting an inquiry as to its capabilities. His report, which proved highly favourable, has been printed in one of the Annual Reports of the Commissioners of Colonial Lands and Emigration. This paper is the more valuable from its giving expression to the opinions of an experienced officer, who had not previously taken any interest in the affairs of the settlement. The state of the adjacent seas, with regard to the safety of merchant-ships that might traverse them, presented, indeed, a striking change. Previous to the occupation of Port Essington, every English vessel that had resorted to the islands lying between Timor and New Guinea had been attacked, and, when successfully, the crew massacred; so that the names of many of the larger islands were associated with outrages committed on our countrymen. The Essington schooner, the first vessel sent out to the islands, was only saved by an accidental occurrence; but no sooner had it become known that the British possessed a settlement in the neighbourhood, (and this occurred within an exceedingly short space of time,) than these aggressions suddenly and totally ceased; and although the number of vessels resorting to these islands is far greater than it had ever previously been, no single act of hostility was ever again committed. Indeed I speak advisedly when I say that small vessels may now traverse the adjacent seas with greater safety than they can coast the island of Java, the oldest established of the European colonies in the Indian Archipelago. The western coasts of New Guinea were never visited by our merchant-ships for purposes of trade previous to our establishment in these seas; but an intercourse has now been opened which bids fair to


become a thriving and profitable branch of commerce. The Timor Laut group, again, the nearest to Port Essington of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, was so notorious previous to our arrival, that even the native traders of the Eastern Islands dared not visit it. Vessel after vessel, whether English, Dutch, Chinese, or Macassar, was cut off and plundered; but the spirit of peace has now extended itself to this important group, and it has become a favourite resort for traders: an intercourse having been established with ports, especially in the southern part of Timor Laut, which were never before frequented. When it is taken into consideration that our manufactures form the bulk of the cargoes of all vessels resorting to these remote parts, whether European, Chinese, or Indian, the circumstances here detailed become interesting. The commerce of these Eastern Islands is little regarded by the mercantile community in this country, simply because its details are not known. The merchant loses sight of his goods after they reach Singapore, for even his consignee in that emporium of the further East has only a vague notion of what becomes of a large portion of them. He knows that they are carried away to the eastward by hundreds of small craft, which return in the course of time, laden with valuable produce, but of the particular countries from which it comes he does not often know even the name. I will, however, dismiss this subject at present, as I have more fully entered upon it in a work exclusively devoted to the commerce and resources of the Eastern Islands, which will appear in due course.

But to return to Port Essington. In the month of October, 1845, the transport Cadet arrived from

70 PORT ESSINOTON.

England, via Hobart Town, having on board three officers and sixty marines, to relieve the garrison, who had now been the protective force of the settlement exactly seven years. Seven of our number had died during this period (all within the course of the last three years), and several others had been invalided home at various times, so that scarcely more than half of the original garrison remained. Their task had been one that rarely falls to the lot of their gallant and distinguished corps, and it served to display their character in a new light. For high discipline and steady courage they had long been celebrated, but now they had had to exhibit patient endurance under privations of no ordinary description, and right well they have stood the test. I cannot recall to mind the period in which we were associated without experiencing strong feelings of gratitude for thousands of little services and attentions which did not fall within the regular routine of duty; and the pleasing fact presents itself to me, that throughout our long intercourse, although frequently in charge of parties in positions removed from the immediate superintendence of their commanding officer, 1 never in a single instance experienced other than the most cheerful and ready attention to my wishes.

Captain MacArthur remained in command of the settlement, so that his valuable services will still be retained to carry out the able system of organization which he had succeeded in establishing—a system which has brought civilized man into close communication with the savage without any of those violences which usually attend the mingling of such opposite ingredients, and which rendered the course of events in the settlement an uninterrupted flow of harmony and goodwill between

PROGRESS OF THE SETTLFMENT. 71

the native tribes and their visitors. The remainder of the old garrison sailed for England in the Cadet towards the close of the year, and arrived safely at Plymouth in the following April. The author of this work had sailed for Singapore, en route for England, in Her Majesty's ship Royalist, a few weeks previous to the arrival of the new garrison, which came rather unexpectedly ; a series of attacks of the fever common to the Indian islands having rendered it necessary that he should remove as speedily as possible to a temperate climate, from which alone relief could be expected.

The latest dates of news from Port Essington are up to the month of June of the present year. The settlement continues to be prosperous, and a temporary accession had been made to their numbers by the arrival of the crew of the ship Coringa Packet, and a portion of that of another ship, the Hyderabad, in all sixty individuals; the vessels to which they had belonged having been wrecked in Torres Strait a short time previously.

72

CHAPTER V.

THE COBOURG PENINSULA—GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, SOIL, AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

Nature of the Country—Lakes and Streams—Rivers—Harbours— Valleys and Uplands—Wells — Trees—Patches of Indian Vegetation—Timber—Vegetable Productions—Grasses—Wild Animals—Birds—Jungle-Fowl—Water-Fowl—Irruptions of Hawks —Fish and Turtle —The Carvalho — Salmon — The Trepang Fishery.

THE Cobourg Peninsula, which is joined to the mainland of Australia by an isthmus about three miles across, has a circumference of one hundred and twenty miles; but the country is so indented with ports and inlets that it contains less than four hundred thousand acres. The peninsula is traversed by five ranges of hills, running north-north-west and south-south-east, which vary in elevation from one hundred and twenty to three hundred feet; Mounts Bedwell and Roe, at the southwestern extreme, which are nearly five hundred feet in height, forming the only exception to the general rule. The face of the country generally is undulating; indeed, there are few dead levels, except in certain spots near the coast which appear to have been formerly occupied by the sea. The basis of the hills consists of old red sand-stone, and this appears to be the only description of rock found upon the peninsula, unless that singidar composition called " laterite" by Indian geologists, and which is common near Malacca, and on

UK.

KIVEUS AND LAKES. _73_

RIVERS AND LAKES. 73

the Coromandel coast, may be considered as possessing a distinct character.

A few lakes, or rather lagoons, are to be met with in different parts of the peninsula, especially towards the north. They appear to have been originally formed by the sand of the sea-shore having been washed up, and enclosing patches of level land that bad previously been occupied by the sea. In some of these the water becomes brackish towards the close of the dry season, when the lakes are low, apparently from the soil beneath being impregnated with salt. Others, however, contain water that is perfectly fresh throughout the year.

The valleys are all traversed by watercourses, which carry off the copious rains that fall during certain seasons of the year. The greater portion of these dry up soon after the rains have ceased. Others retain the water in chains of deep pits, but a few only of the larger streams, which drain a comparatively great extent of country, continue to run throughout the year.

Surface-water is, however, tolerably abundant at all times, for, even at the end of the dry season, it is to be met with in so many places, that a traveller could scarcely find himself in any spot where a supply might not be obtained within the distance of a mile in one direction or the other. The nature of the country prevents any of these streams from attaining a sufficient size to entitle them to the appellation of rivers, although this term has been applied to two or three estuaries near the head of the harbour of Port Essington, which can be ascended by boats for a short distance. On the main-land, however, to the south of the neck of the peninsula, are the mouths of several large rivers, which

E

7 4 THE COBOURG PENINSULA.

carry off the waters of the great hill-range that abuts on this part of the coast, and these are for the most part accessible to ships of burthen; one, indeed, which was ascended by Captain King, is navigable by vessels of one hundred tons for upwards of fifty miles inland.

Four harbours, capable of admitting ships of the largest size, have been found on the north side of the peninsula, namely, Ports Essington and Bremer, Raffles' Bay, and Bowen Strait. Ships may ride perfectly sheltered in any of these; but the last is the most convenient, from the circumstance of a vessel being enabled to proceed at once to sea, either by the north or by the south channel, without being liable to delay from contrary winds, which is the case with the others. The accompanying plan of the Cobourg Peninsula will render any further description of these harbours unnecessary.

The nature of the soil varies considerably in different parts of the peninsula. Near the summits of the ridges the sand-stone rock is laid bare in places, but the grass and trees that shoot up between the blocks relieve these spots from an appearance of absolute sterility. Upon the slopes of the hills the soil appears to consist of decomposed particles of this rock mixed with vegetable matter, the proportion of the latter increasing as the slope is descended, until, in the valleys that separate the ranges, the soil becomes a rich vegetable deposit. That of the uplands is invariably of a light description, and rapidly absorbs the moisture. Its appearance to a stranger is not very promising, and had it not been for the abundance of grass that* covered the face of the country, we should at first sight have formed but an unfavourable opinion as to its fertility. We soon found,

SOIL. 75

however, that the rules by which soils are tested in temperate climates were not applicable here; heat and moisture having so great an influence on tropical vegetation that descriptions of soil, which, according to recognized principles, should have been of inferior fertility, often proved to be the most productive. The soil of the valleys or flats, as we termed them, is precisely similar to vegetable deposits in all tropical countries; rich and black, with a dank disagreeable smell. The proportion in point of extent that the valleys bear to the uplands is about as one acre to twenty.

The sub-soil consists of red earth, interspersed with lumps of sand-stone rock, and occasionally of thick layers of a white or yellow saponaceous substance,'somewhat resembling pipeclay. The rains percolate through the whole of these ; but at a depth closely corresponding with the level of the sea, a stratum of hard, clayey ground, impervious to water, is met with, beyond which our operations have not been extended, for the springs which were here struck upon rose so rapidly in the wells, to form which was the object of our labours, as to impede further progress. Several wells were sunk in the neighbourhood of the settlement;—upon the crest of the ridge, on the slopes, and at the base of the hills; and the supply of water obtained was invariably good and abundant. From the general uniformity that exists in the nature of the country, I suspect that no difficulty would be experienced in obtaining a supply of fresh water, by means of wells, in any part of the peninsula.

The uplands are well wooded, chiefly with the eucalyptus, as in New South Wales; indeed, during a recent visit to the country lying at the back of the Blue-

E 2

7t> THK C0B0URG PKNINSULA.

Mountain range of Sydney, I recognized many of the trees and also of the grasses, that had been familiar to me at Port Essington. The trees are generally smaller than those of the southern parts of Australia, and lie closer together. The valleys are generally clear of timber; the nature of the soil, which retains the moisture even during the dryest seasons, being apparently unfavourable to the growth of the more common kinds of eucalyptus. The streams which traverse these valleys are, however, fringed with rows of the blue-gum, the stateliest of Australian trees, among which are mingled many tall palms.

Throughout the Cobourg Peninsula, generally near the sea-shore, are found patches of land varying in extent from two or three acres to fifty acres and upwards, on which the vegetation is perfectly in character with that of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. These spots are covered with a thick jungle, difficult to penetrate, and the trees are often of an enormous size. Among these I have recognized the waringin, or banyan-tree of the Indian Islands; the kanari, (a tree producing a nut which yields a kind of sweet-oil, and under the shade of which the nutmeg-trees are planted at Banda,) together with many others common to the Spice Islands. The shrubs, and even the birds that inhabit these patches, are also in character with those of the Indian Islands; the kangaroo, which seeks shelter here from its enemy, the native dog, being almost the only peculiarly Australian animal that is found in them, and these obtain their food in the open grounds. The soil is here of the richest description, and I have no doubt that it would produce any articles that are grown at the Moluccas. I do not think, however, that more

TIMBER-TREES. 77

than a thousand acres of this land will be found in the entire peninsula.

A considerable proportion of the timber-trees that cover the face of the country are hollowed out in the centre by the white ant; and previons to our ascertaining that certain descriptions of timber were free from its ravages, much labour was thrown away in felling trees that proved to be unsound. The timber generally answers well for house-building and all domestic purposes, but whether it is adapted for the construction of ships we had no opportunity of judging. Some of the trees found in the jungles above mentioned, will, • I think, prove useful for these purposes; and on the south side of the peninsula, Lieut. Stewart, and others who have penetrated in that direction, found groves of cedar-trees, many of which were ten feet in circumference, and thirty feet in length from the root to the lower branches. The cypress was also met with, together with a tree from which the natives form their canoes, the trunks being twelve feet in circumference, and from fifty to sixty feet long. The timber furnished by these is spoken of by Lieut. Stewart in the highest terms, both for its lightness and the closeness of the fibre: I suspect that it will prove to be either the Jcanari or the bintangor of the Indian Islands.

The Macassar trepang- fishers find that the timber, generally, is well adapted for repairing their prahus, and also for the construction of masts and wooden anchors. The latter are made from a tough and heavy description of timber that has received the name of iron-wood, and these are so highly prized at Macassar, that many are carried away by the prahus every yenr. The bark

78 THE C0B0UHG PENINSULA.

obtained from the roots of the mangkudu, (morinda citrifolia,) which yields a red dye, together with an inferior kind of sandal-wood found upon the coast, are also exported by the Macassars whenever their prahus are not too deeply laden with trepang; and these, as far as I have been able to discover, are at present the only vegetable productions of the coast that constitute articles of commerce.

The various grasses closely resemble those of New South Wales. They do not cover the surface of the ground with their roots, as is the case in the meadows of England, but grow in tufts or tussocks, the arrangement being very similar to that of the tufts of hair in a shoe-brush. During the rainy season the grass shoots up with great rapidity, the seed-stems of some of the larger kinds attaining a height of from six to eight feet. The men of the garrison were employed for a few days during each year in making hay on certain spots at the back of the settlement that had been previously cleared of branches of trees, and other obstructions to the scythe. The produce furnished an abundant supply of nutritious food for the working cattle during the dry season, and but for this precaution it would have been necessary, during two or three months of the year, to have sent them every day to the meadows, which lie inland from the settlement at the distance of about a mile.

Towards the middle of the dry season the grass becomes yellow and withered, and were it not for the forest-trees scattered over its surface, the country would have the appearance of a field of standing corn. The grass is now burnt off by the natives, who are glad to remove such an obstacle to their inland excursions; but no sooner has the fire passed over the ground than the young

QUADRUPEDS. 79

sprouts begin to shoot out from the roots, proving most delicate food for the cattle and horses.

As may naturally be expected under these circumstances, the country teems with animal life. The smaller kinds of kangaroo herd in the valleys where the grass is high and thick, and are particularly numerous where there happens to be a patch of Indian jungle in the close vicinity. The large or forest kangaroo is found only on the hills, where the country is more open: they run strong and well, but proved no match in point of speed to the breed of dogs we had introduced. Wild dogs, similar to those of New South Wales, are often met with; indeed, sometimes prove very troublesome by preying upon the kids, young pigs, and poultry. Little, grey flying-squirrels flit about the trees, and animals called bandicoats, (but for what reason I do not know,) with long noses like those of the shrewmouse, burrow underground like rabbits.

Emus are occasionally to be met with in the inland parts of the peninsula; and the native companion, a gigantic crane, may be often seen stalking about amid the grass on the borders of the lagoons, or flying high overhead with their long legs stuck out straight behind them. Pelicans take up their abode on the sandy islands, occasionally hovering over the settlement as they pass to and fro, and another and even more gigantic bird has been seen in the air, but concerning which we have as yet learned no particulars. The jungle-fowl, a blackish brown bird, resembling.a guinea-fowl in size and appearance, inhabits the patches of jungle, where it scratches for food amid the decaying vegetation, and makes enormous nests, like heaps of garden rubbish, in which it deposits its eggs to be hatched by the heat

80 THE COBOURO PENINSULA.

engendered by the vegetable matter as it becomes decomposed. Another gallinaceous bird, the pheasant, a scraggy creature, rather a libel upon its English namesake, feeds in the swamps, and is a sluggish, stupid groveller. When put up it takes to the first tree, and it is scarcely possible to induce it to take flight again, even by firing one barrel to scare it. The only birds that rise well are the quail, partridge, and bronze-winged pigeon, and as these feed on the uplands, where the country is open, they afford unexceptionable sport to those who delight in such amusements.

Ducks and teal are found in the lakes at all times of the year, but it is only towards the end of the dry season that they appear in large flocks. Whence they come we have not been able to discover. During several months of the year, large flights of the whistling duck were in the habit of passing over the settlement in rapid succession during the early part of the night, and from the direction in which they came, we at first suspected that they arrived from the Indian Islands; but I know no country in that quarter that is likely to furnish such an abundance of water-fowl, and the probability is that the same flocks passed over every evening. Perhaps they roosted during the day in the mangroves at the head of Trepang Bay, and passed the settlement on their way to their feeding-ground, the lakes in the southeast part of the peninsula. Flights of geese, some entirely black, others of a grey colour, also favoured- us with their presence during certain seasons, taking up their abode about the lagoons and marshes. The settlement did not seem to lie in the route of their migrations, for it was only occasionally that a wandering flock came near us. Their appearance was always attended with

BIRDS. 81

a stir in the settlement, for it almost invariably happened that when the houses caught their view, they gave two or three whirls around and then perched upon the trees, where, after a great deal of floundering, they would at length establish themselves, and sit gazing around with stupid wonderment. It is scarcely necessary to say that they generally paid dearly for the gratification of their curiosity. The black cockatoo also displayed a similar, desire to see what was going forward, and a flock would often be seen sitting on some bare and withered tree, holding a noisy confabulation, which was generally cut short by one or more of their number being tumbled head over heels by some lover of field-sports. But the most singular phenomena that occurred in^connexion with birds were irruptions of large hawks, which took place on two occasions, the interval that elapsed between their visits being about three years. At these times not only the settlement itself, but the woods for some distance around, absolutely swarmed with them for days together. Their numbers must, indeed, have amounted to many thousands. The havoc made amongst them was immense, for it was thought, and perhaps not without reason, that they had a design upon the poultry. That they were ravenously hungry we had abundant proof, for a dead buffalo that fell in their way was eaten up in a very short time. A scarcity of food in the interior had probably led to their migration.

The waters of the harbour were even more replete with life than the land and the air. Shoals of small fry congregated near the shore, and occasionally a small party of swift and handsome carvalho dashed in amongst them, their white bellies glancing in the sun as they turned about and sprang out of the water after their

E 5

82 THE C0B0URG PENINSULA.

prey, which was scattered in every direction. Porpoises were almost constantly rolling about, blowing vapour from their nostrils, and occasionally an immense flat* fish sprang high in the air to fall upon the surface of the water with a noise resembling the report of ordnance, and which could be heard on a calm day at a great distance. Sea-turtle were occasionally found feeding on the shoals of the inner harbour, but their chief places of resort are the sandy beaches of the sea-shore, where, especially during the season in which they deposit their eggs, they congregate in great numbers. The green turtle, the loggerhead, and the hawksbill turtle, which last furnishes the tortoiseshell of commerce, prove the most numerous; but other varieties are found, with whose distinctive appellations I am not acquainted. The natives, who look upon the turtle as being the greatest delicacy that their country affords, wage constant war with them, and are very expert at taking them with the harpoon.

The carvalho, a fish of very delicate flavour, afforded the most constant supply for the table, as it was exceedingly abundant, and took the hook with great boldness. Mullet were also numerous, but these could only be taken with the seine net, which, from the number of hands required to draw it, could only occasionally be used. Some of the rocky patches of the outer harbour abounded with a fish with large scales that was named the " salmon," many of which attained a size equal to that of the cod-fish. This also proved an exceedingly bold-biting fish, and from its delicate flavour was much sought after at times. The snapper, perhaps the most numerous of all fish on the southern coasts of Australia, is only found in the open sea, and not, I think, in

MARINE PRODUCTIONS. 8 $

any great abundance; indeed, it delights most in seas with sandy bottoms, and the few specimens I met with had by no means the clear and clean appearance of those to the south.

But of all the marine productions, the trepang, or sea slug, from its constituting a valuable article of commerce, is most deserving of notice. In point of size and appear ance it resembles a prickly cucumber, except that the colour is a whitish brown. I here allude to the most common description, for there are several varieties, one of which is perfectly black. The trepang is found in all the sheltered harbours, where it gropes about the bottom, and feeds upon weeds and mollusca. It is taken at low water, upon the shoals or mud-banks, over which the fishermen wade knee-deep in water, dragging their boats after them, and when the feet come in contact with a slug, it is picked up and thrown into the boat. They occasionally search in deeper water, when the fishermen avail themselves of the services of the natives, who are expert divers, or if they cannot obtain such assistance, they prick for them with barbed iron darts, provided with long bamboo handles. The process of curing is very simple. The slug, on being taken from the boat, is simmered over a 6re in an iron cauldron for about half-an-hour, after which it is thrown out upon the ground, and the operation of opening commences, this being effected by a longitudinal cut along the back with a sharp knife. It is then again placed in the cauldron and boiled in salt water, with which a quantity of the bark of the mangrove has been mixed for about three hours, when the outer skin will begin to peel off. It is now sufficiently boiled, and after the water has been drained off, the slugs are arranged in the drying-houses,

84 THE COBOURG PENINSULA.

(small huts covered with mats,) upon frames of split ! bamboo spread out immediately under the roof. Each slug is carefully placed with the part that has been cut j open facing downwards, and a fire is made underneath, ' the smoke of which soon dries the trepang sufficiently to J permit its being packed in bags or baskets for exporta- f tion. The entire process is a very simple operation, and the utensils required are far from being costly. \

It is difficult to form an estimate as to the amount of ; trepang annually exported from the coast. From thirty to forty prahus, varying from twenty to seventy tons burthen, are employed in the fishery, the crews amount- i ing to about twelve hundred men. They receive no wages, but are entitled to a certain portion of the profits I of the voyage, the system being somewhat similar to that adopted in our whale-ships. The provisions and stores i required for the voyage are advanced by Chinese or Dutch merchants at Macassar, who thus acquire a right to the entire proceeds at a certain price which has previously been fixed upon, and which is invariably much beloW the current value. Taking the average amount of trepang obtained by each prahu at twenty tons, this will give six hundred tons as the quantity annually exported from the coast. The value at Macassar is seventy rupees, or somewhat less than £7 sterling for the picul of 138 lbs. avoirdupois. The price to the consumer in China is enhanced to the amount of about one-third. i

The value of this commodity as an article of export ] to China has long been known to the people of New South Wales, and small vessels have been irom time to time sent out from Sydney to collect trepang on the northern coasts, but the success met with appears not to have been sufficiently great to afford much encourage-

MARINE rRODtJCTIONS. 85

ment; indeed, it is an employment for which European seamen are by no means well adapted.

The oyster-beds which line the shores of the harbour afford a never-failing supply of food to the natives when they cannot obtain any of a better quality. There are two descriptions of ground-oysters, the common and the pearl-oyster; and a third kind, the best flavoured of the whole, is found adhering in masses to the roots of the mangrove trees, which are often so completely covered, that the substance to which they cling cannot be perceived.

86

C H A P T E R VI.

THE COBOURG PENINSULA—SEASONS AND CLIMATE.

The Trade Wind—Seasons—Temperature—Climate—Comparative salubrity of Places in the Indian Archipelago — Influences of Swamps and Mud-Banks—Straits and Land-locked Harbours— Failures of Attempts at European Settlement — Climate of the Peninsula generally.

THE Cobourg Peninsula is situated within the limits of the south-east trade-wind; but towards the close of the year, when the sun crosses the equator, the trade-wind is interrupted by westerly breezes, which blow at intervals until the month of March, when the sun again crosses the equator. As the sun recedes to the northward, the strength of the trade-wind increases, and blows a strong and steady breeze until the month of August, when it becomes light and variable.

The westerly monsoon, if it may be so called, seldom sets in decidedly until the last month of the year. It then blows with considerable strength, especially about the change of the moon, and continues without interruption for days together, bringing dense clouds surcharged with moisture from the Indian Ocean. This is the commencement of the rainy season. Squall after squall passes along, the clouds discharging their contents in heavy showers, which often continue for several hours together; but no sooner have they passed, than the bright sun appears to be again obscured in the course of a few hours by a squall similar to the one preceding. The sun, when at the meridian, is now directly overhead, and the combined effects of heat and moisture upon

SEASONS. 87

the vegetation are indeed extraordinary. The weather continues thus for ten days, or perhaps a fortnight, when it becomes fine, with only occasional showers, until the change of the moon brings another series of squalls and down-pouring. During the intervals of fine weather, the south-east trade-wind often resumes its course for a day or two, but it is comparatively faint and interrupted. Towards the latter end of March, or at the commencement of April, it asserts its authority with more effect, and blows steadily, with considerable strength, bringing back the clouds that have passed over from the westward, which discharge their contents in occasional showers until May, when the rains cease entirely. From this period until October or November, the weather is fine, with scarcely a shower. The breeze, which blows directly from the mountain range that abuts on the coast near the neck of the peninsula, is cool and agreeable, and in June and July, when the sun is furthest to the north, the nights are often sufficiently cold to render blankets necessary as a covering.

The south-east trade-wind often blows with sufficient strength to reduce a ship to double-reefed topsails, if close-hauled upon a wind. The westerly monsoon occasionally freshens to a degree that amounts almost to a gale, but the sea is true, and a well-found ship experiences no difficulty in beating up against it. The ricketty nature of the vessels in which the trepang-fishers make their annual voyages, proves that they do not expect to meet with bad weather. Nevertheless, a hurricane, and a very severe one while it lasted, occurred in the month of November, 1839, as detailed in a preceding chapter. Its course could afterwards be distinctly traced by the fallen trees. It crossed the centre of the peninsula from south-fast to north-west, and extended over a


space seven or eight miles in width, the centre of the gyrations apparently passing directly over the settlement. As the natives had never before witnessed such a phenomenon, we may conclude that it is not of frequent occurrence, but I have reason to believe that upon the north-west coast, between Java and the North-west Cape, scarcely a year passes without one of these tornadoes taking place about December or January. The hurricane gave warning of its approach not only by its effect upon the barometer, but also by the singular appearance it produced in the sky to the south-east, where the lightning was almost continuous for twenty-four hours before the gale commenced.

The general temperature at the settlement is shown by the table of the ranges of the thermometer given below, which were registered with the greatest care by Captain MacArthur. The instrument was suspended in Government-House, a wooden building, with a roof of split shingles, eighteen feet wide and forty feet long, situated on the highest ground in the settlement. It will be seen that the thermometer ranged from 63° to 97°, the lowest temperature occurring during the prevalence of the south-east trade-wind, and the highest in the month of November, during the period of calm which obtains between the cessation of one monsoon and the springing up of the other. The temperature may be considered as closely approximating to that of the Indian Islands generally, except during the south-east monsoon, when the weather at Port Essington is considerably cooler than in any of the settlements in the neighbouring seas. A register of the thermometer kept by Dr. Corbett, on board Her Majesty's Ship Royalist, during a voyage from Banda in July, 1844, furnishes very striking evidence upon this point. On leaving

TEMPERATURE. 89

Banda, the thermometer ranged from 79° to 82°, and as they proceeded to the south, towards the coast of Australia, it gradually fell, until, on arriving off the settlement, it ranged as low as from 62° to 73°. At Point Smith, near the entrance of the outer harbour, the range was found to be three or four degrees lower than at the settlement.*

* Table shewing the Mean Temperature of each Month of 1839, and the first Six Months of 1840.

Months. Mean at. ' Maxi

mum. I Mini

mum. Range. 1 Remarks. Months. ' Maximum.

I Minimum. Range. 1 Remarks.

6 A.M. 2 P.M. 1

1839. January . 8216 88*90 96-5 77. 19.5 February . 80*60 89 07 96- 78. 18. March . . 80 80 9058 94- 78. 16. 5 From 1st to 7th

t omitted. April . 81*09 9195 95- 78. 17. 5 From 1st to 7th t omitted.

May. 76*60 8860 < 94- 78. 16. June . . 75*41 85 79 90- 68. 22. July. . . 70-70 84 36 89 63. 26. August. . 73 19 85*90 90- 67. 23. September 71*86 9006 94* 69. 25. October , 7776 9163 96- 74. 22. November. 80*96 92 25 07- 76. 21. December. 81 00 9148 96- 79. 17.

1840. January . 7920 84 62 94- 76- 18. February . 79-44 85*54 92- 77' 15. March . . 7896 9140 96- 7& 20. April . . 79 H 88 39 94- 76- 18. M a y . . . . 7563 85-20 89- 73- 16. June . • 6917 8313 88 64- 24.

The thermometer is situated in the house, about 40 feet above the level of the sea, and midway between the harbour frontage and the bay which runs up behind Minto Head.

(Signed) JOHN MACA&THUR,

Capt. B.M. Acting Commandant.

Parliamentary Paper* relating to Port Etsinaton. T>. 15.


The opinions of medical men respecting the climate of Port Essington have differed so much, some describing it as the most healthy of all tropical climates, while others have maintained opinions, if not directly contrary, -at least very different from the above, that it becomes necessary to go deeper into the subject than would otherwise have been the case. The fact is, that both parties are in a certain degree right; for, while the climate of

I the Cobourg Peninsula generally may be pronounced as ! one of the finest that can be found within the tropics,

there are certain spots which are so unhealthy that even the natives of the country cannot reside there with impunity. One of the most conspicuous of these is Port Bremer, a land-locked harbour to the eastward of Port Essington, the shores of which are so pregnant with malaria, that the natives never take up their abode there; and the Macassar trepang-fishers, who have resorted to it on one or two occasions, suffered so much from fever, that although the harbour abounds with trepang, which is the object of their enterprise, and at the same time affords excellent anchorage, they avoid it most scrupulously. The upper parts of the inner harbour of Port Essington are also regarded with great dread by the Macassars, who, previous to our arrival, invariably anchored their prahus at Point Record, although the trepang is only found in large quantities within the inner harbour.

During nearly four years subsequent to the occupation of Port Essington, very few cases of fever, and not one of death, occurred among the garrison; but towards the close of 1842, fevers, generally tertian, became prevalent, and when I left the settlement in September last year, I believe that not a single indi-

CLIMATE. 91

vidual residing there had been entirely free from attacks. These, generally, had not been very violent, six cases only having terminated fatally; but the mortality was sufficiently great to cause a considerable degree of uneasiness on the part of the authorities. We at first supposed that this liability to sickness arose from the constitutions of the men having become impaired by long residence in a tropical climate; but it was found that individuals who had recently arrived were equally subject to attacks of fever and ague.

We had, however, the satisfaction of discovering that the malaria was confined to the shores of the inner harbour; for while the natives who resided in and about the settlement suffered as much, indeed even more than ourselves, those who lived upon the eastern coast of the outer harbour, which may be considered as the head-quarters of the Port Essington tribe, did not suffer in the slightest^ degree. This induced Captain Mac-Arthur to send the convalescents for change of air to Observation Cliff or Point Smith, whenever circumstances permitted; and although they were subjected to considerable exposure and inconvenience, the rapidity with which they were restored to health was very remarkable. It generally occurred, however, that they suffered a relapse soon after their return to the settlement.

It will very readily be conceived that these circumstances gave rise to great anxiety on the part of those interested in the welfare of the settlement; for although it was evident that the infliction was only of a local nature, still, until the causes were ascertained, no rule could be established by which unhealthy spots might be avoided in founding future settlements upon the coast; and as the subject is one of great importance as


connected with tropical colonies generally, I will give the result of an inquiry into the subject, which, at all events, was carried on under peculiarly favourable circumstances, as far as regards the facilities that were presented for visiting the different places in the neighbouring seas that were remarkable for their salubrity or otherwise.

Swamps and mud-banks, of which there are several in the immediate neighbourhood of the settlement, are generally assumed to be the chief sources of malaria in tropical countries, and this is probably the case; but that these alone are insufficient to give rise to the insalubrity that afflicts certain spots is evident from the fact that Singapore, near the southern extreme of the Malay Peninsula, and Sourabaya, the capital of the eastern districts of Java, are very unfavourably situated in this respect, and are at the same time the most healthy of all the European settlements in the Indian Archipelago. The most populous part of the town of Singapore is absolutely erected upon a mangrove swamp, which extends for some distance inland, and, when the tides are unusually high, many of the streets are flooded, the water sometimes penetrating into the lower parts of the houses. The suburbs also are low, and for the most part saturated with rain during at least half the year, whilst the sea-shore is fronted by extensive mud-banks, dry at low-water. Yet fever is almost unknown there, and so generally healthy is the climate considered, that Singapore is a favourite resort for invalids from the neighbouring countries of Asia. Sourabaya, again, is entirely surrounded by mangrove and fresh-water swamps; yet this settlement enjoys an almost perfect immunity from fever. Under ordinary circumstances both these

CLIMATE. 9 3

places should be perfect storehouses of disease. The only peculiarity in their position that tends to afford a clue to the mystery, consists in their being situated upon narrow straits, through which the tide flows with great rapidity.

On the other hand, the most unhealthy spots are the shores of the land-locked harbours. There are certainly not many such ports in the Indian Archipelago, but this very circumstance renders them the more valuable, and the European powers which possess territory in this part of the world, have repeatedly attempted to avail themselves of the advantages which they present for the formation of naval arsenals. The inner hai'bour of Amboyna, the capital of the Moluccas, is, in every respect a perfect port, as far as security and convenience for shipping is concerned, while the anchorage abreast of the town, which is situated on the shores of the outer harbour, is exceedingly unsafe; indeed it is only near the fort, where a rocky bank extends a little more than a cable's length from the shore, that anchorage can be met with. This has induced repeated attempts on the part of the Dutch, during the last two centuries, to * form arsenals on the shores of the inner harbour, but they were on each occasion obliged to desist, owing to the excessive mortality from fever that took place among the people employed. Strangers who visit the Indian Archipelago are often surprised to find that the landlocked harbours are neglected by the natives in favour of spots which present no palpable advantages. The chief commercial settlement on the island of Lombok, which is resorted to by hundreds of ships, is situated upon an open roadstead, not only exposed to the westerly gales, but subject at all times to a rolling


swell, which causes so dangerous a surf upon the beach, that communication with the shore is sometimes cut off for days together. Yet there is a landlocked harbour within the distance of a few miles, which affords perfectly secure anchorage, and is accessible to ships of the largest size; but here again the climate is so unhealthy that its shores cannot be inhabited. The same rule appHes to every spot similarly situated throughout the Indian Archipelago.

What may be the causes of the insalubrity of these land-locked harbours can only be judged by inference, for malaria does not admit of analysis. That it is engendered by mangrove-swamps and by mud-banks exposed at low-water, I have not the least doubt, but at the same time the action of strong tides must tend to remove the impurities which create it, otherwise both Singapore and Sourabaya would be unhealthy. I have reason to believe also, that the effluvia produced by the action of a powerful sun on stagnant salt-water is highly unfavourable to the constitution.

In taking under review the circumstances of the various settlements in these seas, it would appear that the most salubrious spots are those situated upon narrow straits. The banks of navigable rivers, above the reach of the salt-water, hold the next rank. Open bays are by no means to be recommended; but landlocked harbours appear to be perfect repositories for all that can be injurious to the constitution.

The repeated failures that have attended the efforts of Europeaus to form settlements in this part of the world afford support to the above view of the case. A secure harbour has always been a point of the first consideration, and although this can often be obtained in a

CLIMATE. 95

strait, which at the same time would prove most convenient for merchant-shipping, still the superior facilities for defence presented by a harbour with a single entrance has proved too attractive to be overlooked. The English East India Company have twice attempted to establish themselves upon the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, at Port Cornwallis, and at Port Chatham; but the settlements were in both cases abandoned in consequence of the unhealthiness of the climate. More recently, the Dutch made a similar effort with the like result at Triton Bay, on the southwest coast of New Guinea, another land-locked harbour. It is singular that in the last instance the settlement was about to be formed upon a narrow strait, near a spot which had been selected by the natives as the site for their principal village; but the intention was abandoned, chiefly on account of the strength of the tides. Indeed the natives of these countries appear to form the best selections of spots adapted for occupation, although, as far as I could discover, even the more intelligent of the Indian islanders had established no fixed rules, but were rather guided in their choice by instinct than by conclusions drawn from a course of reasoning. All the principal European settlements in the Archipelago were originally native towns, with the exception of Batavia, the capital of Java. This spot was selected on account of its being a favourable position for a fortress, and at a convenient distance from the native capital, which was situated some miles inland.

The above remarks axe of course only applicable to places on the sea-coast, and even there other influences beyond those mentioned above are found to exist, especially in spots situated near the base of abrupt ranges of


hills, where the deposit of decomposed vegetable matter is great. The Portuguese town of Dilli, on the north side of Timor, is rendered very unhealthy by its position upon a swampy plain of the richest alluvial soil, rank with tropical vegetation; while an amphitheatre of steep and high hills encloses it to landward, obstructing the course of the trade-wind, and thus preventing a proper circulation of air.

But to return to the Cobourg Peninsula. Our experience with regard to the climate generally accords pretty closely with the view given above as applicable to countries in the Eastern seas. There is one point, however, which presents some difficulty, namely, the comparative salubrity of the settlement during the early period of its occupation. It is possible that the hurricane, which agitated the waters of the harbour to a great degree, and broke up the surface of the mud-banks and mangrove-swamps, may have tended to dissipate the malaria for a time. In the cases of fever and ague that occurred, the symptoms very closely resembled those of tropical fevers elsewhere, except that they were of rather a milder form.

The only spots that appear to be subject to malaria are the inner harbour of Port Essington, Port Bremer, and Limba Apiu, a bay on the north-west coast of the peninsula, where several cases of ague occurred among the Macassar trepang-fishers who frequented it. I think it will also be found to exist at the heads of Knocker and Raffles Bays, from the circumstance of the natives seldom residing there except, occasionally, for a few days. With regard to the outer harbour of Port Essington, our experience tended to prove that it was free from all obnoxious influences, since no individual of the numerous parties from the settlement and ships which took up their

CLIMATE. 97

residence there, in several instances for weeks together, felt any injurious results from the exposure to which they were necessarily subjected. The former settlement at Raffles' Bay, which was situated near the entrance, on the eastern side, also enjoyed a perfect immunity from febrile sickness; and we had no reason to suppose that any portion of the coast beyond the spots mentioned as being subject to malaria are otherwise than perfectly salubrious.

Our experience with regard to the interior proves equally favourable. Exploring parties have tiaversed the country, exposed for many successive days to the fatigues and privations that must always attend such expeditions, sleeping upon the ground, with no shelter i from rain or dew, beyond a few branches of trees placed ! overhead. Other parties have resided for weeks together i among the hills at the back of the settlement, for the purpose of hunting the kangaroo; but in no single instance has any individual suffered ill effects from such » exposure.

The most agreeable spots for the residence of Europeans are the coasts, where there is always a free circulation of air, and the eye is amused by the unbounded prospect to seaward; and the upper parts of the hill-ranges, where a fine bracing breeze is often felt, when the lower lands are close and sultry. Upon the whole it would appear that the inland parts of the peninsula are not in any degree inferior in point of salubrity to other portions of Australia; allowing, of course, for the height of the temperature, which must always have an injurious effect on the constitutions of those who have been habituated only to temperate climates.

Our knowledge with regard to the climate of spots be-F


yond the limits of the Cobourg Peninsula is confined to the experience of parties who have only been occasional visitors. The exploration of the coasts and rivers has been unattended with injurious effects to the crews of the vessels employed, although the service necessarily entailed a greater degree of exposure than would have been necessary under ordinary circumstances. The Macassar trepang-fishers visit the greater part of the harbours and islands lying between Port Essington and the Wellesley group, at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria ; but they rarely suffer from any more dangerous malady than violent colds, the result of the very inefficient shelter from the weather that their vessels afford. Blue Mud Bay, on the west side of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and an inlet lying to the south-west of Cape Cock-burn, appear to be the only spots resorted to by them in which malaria exists; and as the crews of the piahus that have chosen these harbours as their fishing-ground, never have more than two or three of their number afflicted with ague, we may conclude that they are not particularly insalubrious. I should mention that the natives of these Oriental countries are quite as subject to the influences of malaria as Europeans; indeed I am inclined to suspect that they are even more so; but an European, after repeated attacks of fever, finds it necessary to seek a more temperate climate before he can become thoroughly free from liability to relapse, which is not the case with the others.

I

99

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL VIEW OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA—CAPABILITIES FOR PRODUCING ARTICLES OF COMMERCE.

Beoent Surveys—The Adelaide and Victoria Rivers—Head of the Gulf of Carpentaria — The North-east Coast —The Wild Buffalo—Pastoral Pursuits—Experiments in Culture—Tropical Vegetation — Garden Produce — Articles of Commerce—Sugar Cane—Coffee—The Cotton Plant: Bourbon and Pernambuco Cotton—Cotton Culture at Moreton Bay.

RECENT surveys and explorations have tended to add materially to the amount of knowledge we acquired of the tropical coasts of Australia from the voyages of Captains Flinders and King, which had been undertaken chiefly with the view of defining the general form of the continent, and of smoothing the path of the navigator, by fixing with accuracy the positions of the various reefs and shoals which lie in the adjacent seas. For this additional information we are chiefly indebted to the officers of Her Majesty's surveying ship Beagle, which vessel had sailed from England a few months previous to the departure of the Alligator and Brito-mart, the exploration of the interior parts of the country being one of the most important objects of the expedition. The great extent of the coast rendered a complete examination impossible, but wherever rivers were discovered that afforded facilities for penetrating into the interior, explorations were carried on with the utmost zeal and perseverance. The Adelaide River, the

100 ADELAIDE AND VICTORIA RIVERS.

mouth of which lies at a distance of about eighty miles to the south-west of Port Essington, was found to be navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet water throughout fifty miles of its course, which lay for the most part through extensive plains formed by the alluvial soil brought down from the hills; the banks of the river in many places being covered with forests of bamboo. The Victoria, another large river, which was discovered at the bottom of the deep bight that lies between the north and north-west coasts, was explored to a distance of a hundred miles from its mouth. Both these rivers appear to take their rise in the hill-ranges that abut upon the north coast, and which constitute the most interesting geographical feature of this part of the continent.

The head of the Gulf of Carpentaria was found to consist of vast accumulations of alluvial soil, covered with luxuriant herbage, and to which Captain Stokes gave the name of * Plains of Promise.' These extended as far as the eye could reach, the clumps of trees which bordered the numerous water-courses presenting only a slight obstruction to the view. The question as to the extent of these plains towards the interior can only be decided by future explorations, but the nature of this part of the continent lends probability to the supposition that the country far inland will be found to consist of similar deposits, resembling in character the alluvial plains which lie to the westward of the Blue Mountain-range of New South Wales. The rivers discovered here were found to be inaccessible to shipping from the accumulations of mud and sand at their mouths; but as they were ascended in the boats, the debris that was seen lodged amid the branches of the

GULF OF CARPENTARIA. 101

trees over-head proved that the body of water poured out by these channels at Certain periods must be immense. This tends, in a measure, to confirm the statements of the Indian navigators who visit these parts during the rainy season, respecting the nature of the waters at the head of the gulf, which are then so free from saline matter that the voyagers are enabled to fill up their casks with fresh-water, when so distant from the shore that the low-land is barely visible from the deck. Whether the rivers, or rather water-courses, discovered here by the officers of the Beagle are independent channels, or the embouchures of one large river which carries off the waters of a great extent of country, and which, like the mouths of the Indus, become partially closed during the dry season, is a point of the deepest interest, and which will probably not remain long undetermined. That the land here is fast gaining on the sea becomes evident from the fact of its having outstripped in its progress the advance of Australian vegetation; the period that has elapsed since its elevation above the level of the waters not having been sufficient to allow the forest-trees to overspread the face of the country. If the overland communication between the head of the gulf and the colony of New South Wales is found to be easy, and the probability is that the land will prove to be nearly a dead level throughout the entire distance, this tract of country will assume a degree of importance that will place it in the first rank amongst our Australian possessions.

But of all the parts of this great continent that have been hitherto explored, the north-east coast, a cursory description of which has been given in one of the early chapters of this work, presents the greatest natural

102 THE NORTH-EAST COAST.

advantages. A range of lofty mountains, extending close along the shore, carries an European climate far within the tropic, and, by intercepting the clouds brought by the trade-wind from the Pacific, produces a moisture highly favourable to fertility, the effects of which are apparent in the verdure that overspreads the face of the country. The Great Barrier Reefs, which extend along the shore for a thousand miles, protect it from the swell of the ocean, and render the waters they enclose as smooth as those of an inland sea. Yet this great coast, so admirably adapted for the abode of man, will probably remain unoccupied until after many spots with fewer natural advantages will have been peopled. Labour, without which the most fertile soil is valueless, cannot be brought here so readily as to the northern and north-western coasts, and it will therefore have to yield in point of priority of occupation to spots, perhaps less fertile, but more advantageously situated in other respects.

The explorations carried on from time to time on the tropical coasts of Australia have tended to prove that the nature of the country accords very closely with that of the south-eastern parts of the continent; and, with the exception of the bamboo forests, the vegetation generally is of a similar character. The savannahs at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and upon the main-land near the neck of the Cobourg Peninsula, find a parallel in the plains to the westward of the Blue Mountains; and the patches of tropical jungle are also met with near the banks of the rivers to the north of Sydney. The forest lands are of the same open description, and we may conclude that they are equally well adapted for pasturage, since the buffaloes that had

THE WILD BUFFALO. 103

been left behind when the settlement at Raffles9 Bay was abandoned, have increased to a surprising degree, and wander about the country near the neck of the peninsula, in herds consisting of forty or fifty. Stragglers have often been encountered in the more immediate neighbourhood of the settlement; large, unwieldy bulls that have been driven out of the herd by others stronger than themselves, and who roam about in search of other herds; or, on finding a spot suited to their tastes, pass their time away in alternately feeding on the rich pasturage and wallowing in the mud, like swine; in which positions they are often met with so immersed in mire that they experience some difficulty in extricating themselves.

The buffalo, although large and powerful, is, in other respects, a very inferior description of animal, and I do not anticipate that it will ever prove of much service to settlements upon the coast; indeed, on the contrary, the tendency to increase is so great, that their numbers may eventually prove a nuisance. The European breeds of cattle, for which both climate and pasturage are equally well adapted, prove far superior in every respect; and the ships that now pass through Torres' Strait to India in ballast afford a cheap and ready mode of transport from the southern colonies. And, if the nature of the intermediate country is found to present no natural obstacles to their transit, it may be expected that when the demand is sufficiently great, individuals will undertake to drive herds of cattle overland, as they were formerly introduced from New South Wales into South Australia.

I have already stated that the sheep brought to Port Essington did not thrive, and, even if it be found that

104 PASTORAL PURSUITS.

other pasturages are better suited to them, the nature of the climate, generally, forbids the hope tnat wool, j the staple export from the southern colonies, can ever • be produced with advantage in the tropical regions. j The country at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria, \ and the hills that abut upon the north coast, which, from their peculiar position, enjoy a lower temperature i than other parts, may prove to be adapted for sheep- I farming. But the heat and moisture of the tropics, so highly favourable to vegetation, point out the produce I of the soil as that to which future settlers must look I forward as the reward for their toil. I

As the settlements that have been formed from time I to time upon the northern coasts have never yet been I thrown open to individual enterprise, the only criterion I from which we can judge of the capabilities of the soil is that afforded by the portions of ground that have been brought into cultivation for the purpose of furnishing a supply of fruits and vegetables for the garrisons. These have been generally termed gardens, but they must not be associated with gravel walks, neat hedgerows, and beds carefully manured; since they consist of mere patches of waste land, with the smaller trees grubbed up by the roots, and the stumps of the larger ones left standing; unsightly objects, certainly, but land being abundant, the space they occupy becomes of little importance. A ring-fence, to keep out the cattle and pigs, completes the preliminary arrangements, and the ground is then dug up, cleared of weeds, and planted.

A detailed account of the progress of the various fruits and vegetables, the cultivation of which has been attempted, would occupy many pages; and I will there-

GARDENS. 105

fore confine my remarks chiefly to those productions which either failed or succeeded beyond our expectations ; referring the reader who may be inclined to go more deeply into the subject to the printed reports of the progress of the settlement, contained in the Parliamentary Papers relating to Port Essington; and this will enable me to devote more space to descriptions of produce which, from their constituting articles of commerce, must be considered as being of major importance. Our earlier operations were rather impeded from the circumstance of no individual in the settlement being practically acquainted with tropical agriculture; but unremitting attention on the part of Capt. Mac-Arthur, with the assistance derived from the experience of a native of the Indian Islands, the servant of one of the officers, soon remedied this defect.

The first garden was formed near the sea-shore, to the south of the settlement, where the soil was of the light description that I have termed upland soil; but from its position near the foot of the slope, the quantity of decomposed vegetable matter it contained was considerable. The young trees and seeds brought from Rio Janeiro and Sydney were planted in this garden, and the tropical productions generally succeeded; but the European vegetables, although the seeds germinated, gave little promise, with the exception of melons and pumpkins, which, indeed, appear to grow well in all climates that are not too cold. A second garden was subsequently formed at the back of the settlement, partly on upland soil, and partly on a rich alluvial flat; and this was taken by Capt. MacArthur under his own immediate superintendence. The men of the garrison Also planted the wound in the neighbourhood of their

F 5

106 TROPICAL FRUITS.

houses with yams, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, bananas, X}> Chili pepper, &c, with complete success, although the

soil was apparently the poorest of the upland description. To mention all the productions that were introduced

would be giving nearly a complete list of the principal fruits and vegetables of the Indian Archipelago, for we had many kind friends who took a pleasure, whenever an opportunity offered, in furnishing us with seeds and plants, to become the parents of a future progeny in the new country. We were greatly indebted to Colonel De Steurs, the governor of Amboyna, and to Colonel Cabrera, the governor of Dilli, for their contributions; but our chief benefactor was the Commandador D'Almeida, the consul-general of Portugal at Singapore, who not only supplied us with several boxes of young trees from his extensive plantations, but gave us the aid of his great personal experience, both in selecting plants of the very best description, and in seeing that they were packed in a manner that ensured a safe transit.

The plants obtained from the countries of the Archipelago that are of the primary formation, invariably flourished better than those from the volcanic islands; the productions of Singapore and of the Malayan Peninsula adapting themselves at once to their new quarters. This is accounted for by the circumstance of the soil, and even the rocks and stones of the northern coasts of Australia being precisely similar in their character to those of the countries in the south-eastern parts of Asia. Even the general direction taken by the hill-ranges is the same in both countries, and were it not that they are separated by a narrow but unfathomable gorge, studded with volcanic islands, they might be considered

.<i

JUNGLES. 107

as forming portions of the same region. The indigenous productions of the soil certainly differ considerably in their character, but a process is at present going on in Australia which, in the course of time, if left untouched, would produce a similarity upon this point. Innumerable patches of oriental vegetation, many of them thousands of acres in extent, are spreading inland from the northern and eastern coasts, even in spots far beyond the tropic, eating up, as it were, the Australian vegetation, which disappears before them as the marsupials disappear before the animals of Europe. Every inch of ground gained is made good. The dense foliage, impervious to the sun's rays, spreads out above, sheltering the mass of dank vegetation that accumulates on the surface of the ground, which is thus left to rot and form new soil. But I find that I am digressing from my subject, although the above is not altogether irrelevant, since an inquiry into the physical geography of this part of the world tends to elucidate many interesting points in connexion with agriculture; and especially informs us why certain productions do not succeed in an equal degree in different spots which present no striking dissimilarity with regard to climate.

We found that yams and sweet potatoes improved on cultivation, the soil and climate being evidently well suited to them; indeed, the former is indigenous, and constitutes the chief article of vegetable food used by the natives. The common potatoe, which was introduced from Celebes, where it is cultivated on the higher lands, did not thrive. The same occurred with regard to onions. The culture of wheat was never attempted, nor do I think there is any probability of its succeeding; at all events not on the low-lands. All of these are

108 SUGAR CANE.

grown on the neighbouring island of Timor; but the plantations are situated on the elevated plains of the interior, where the climate is cool. The maize grown in the settlement proved greatly superior to that of the Indian Archipelago, but this was probably owing to the seed, which had been brought from Sydney, being of a very fine description. The banana flourished in the lowlands ; the pine-apple on the dryer soils. The trees of the bread-fruit, sour-sop, mangusteen, and nangka, or jack-fruit, which had been brought from Singapore, took at once to the soil, but had not attained a sufficient age to bear when I left the settlement, with the exception of the latter, and these were loaded with fruit.

With regard to produce suited to the consumption of Europe, our experiments, although not conducted on a very extensive scale, will still afford a fair criterion of the capabilities of the soil. The sugar-cane was introduced from Rio Janeiro, and planted immediately on our arrival. It continued to flourish remarkably well from the very first. Several individuals acquainted with the culture of sugar in the West Indies and at the Mauritius, who visited the settlement on different occasions, considered that our cane contained a very fair amount of saccharine matter, but we had no opportunities of testing it by converting it into sugar. It appears to me that the soil of the valleys only is suited to this production, and there, I think, the cultivation may be carried on with as great success as at Penang and Singapore; but the amount of produce is not likely to be so great as upon the alluvial plains on the north side of Java, which contain a large amount of volcanic soil, brought down from the mountain range.

Coffee, some plants of which were brought from Dilli,

COTTON. 109

in Timor, was a decided failure; nor do I think it is likely to succeed. This plant is pecuUarly adapted to volcanic soils, and it is only on these that it flourishes. Spices will probably succeed in the patches of jungle, if planted under the shade of the forest-trees, as at Banda, but they have not been tried; nor has pepper, for which the soil and climate seem well adapted, been introduced; that is to say, the round pepper, for the Chili pepper was cultivated in every garden.

The cotton-plant appears to be better adapted to the soil and climate of the Cobourg Peninsula, and indeed of the northern coasts of Australia generally, than any other description of produce. If the seed is sown at the proper season, the plants arrive at maturity soon after the cessation of the rains, and a period of dry weather ensues, during which the crop may be gathered without any liability to damage from moisture. And it is of all tropical products the best suited for a new settlement, since the land requires comparatively little preparation, while no expensive machinery is necessary to render the cotton fit for the market; the planter, again, obtains a return even during the first year, and although this may not be sufficient to reimburse him for all the expenditure incurred, it still affords him a very considerable degree of encouragement. There are political rea-. sons too for wishing that cotton should become the staple product of the tropical parts of Australia, which must be evident to all those who are aware of the source from which our chief supply of this important article is at present derived, and how liable we are to have this supply cut off at a moment's notice.

The description of cotton first introduced at Port Essington was that common to the Indian Islands. It

110 COTTOH.

produced abundantly, and the staple appeared to be good, but the wool adhered with great firmness to the seeds, a peculiarity of this description of cotton, and injurious, from the circumstance of the seeds being often broken in the gin during the process of cleaning, thus deteriorating the quality of the produce. Seeds of the Bourbon and Pernambuco cotton, were subsequently obtained from the plantations of the Comnfandador D' Almeida at Singapore, where they had been found to produce abundantly; but the rains which occur there at all seasons were apt to damage the wool, by drawing the oil from the seeds before it had become sufficiently dry to be gathered. The experiments made at Port Essington in the culture of these cottons were eminently successful as far as they went. The seeds were first sown in the early part of April, 1842, at the commencement of the dry season. The pods began to appear upon the Pernambuco cotton-plants in three months from this time, and in August both descriptions were in full bearing. The plants produced most abundantly during the third year, from which circumstance I presume that these cottons are perennials. I give below the report of an experienced cotton-broker in London to whom specimens of the produce were lately submitted for examination, and which I believe upon the whole to be favourable; at all events the prices quoted are such as to afford encouragement.* No attention was bestowed

* Specimens of cotton grown at Port Essington. MARKS.

No. 1.—BOURBON.—Long and fine, but rather woolly staple; good colour and clear. Value about 6d. to 6Jd. per pound.

No. 2.—PERNAMBUCO.—Staple long, but woolly and harsh; dingy in colour and a little stained.—Value about fid. per pound.

COTTON. I l l

upon the plants after they had appeared above ground, beyond keeping their roots clear of weeds; indeed they had been introduced rather with the view of discovering whether obnoxious influences, in the shape of insects, &c might not exist, that would retard the successful cultivation of the plant, than to test the capabilities of the soil for producing the finer descriptions of cotton; a proceeding that would have entailed a degree of care and labour of which our circumstances would not admit. Nor did such experiments appear to be absolutely necessary, since it is well known to those acquainted with the culture of this article, that it can be produced in all tropical climates which enjoy alternate rainy and dry seasons, where the soil is not of so rich a nature as to cause the plant to luxuriate too freely. Cotton culture is by no means new to Australia. It has been carried on for several years past, upon a small scale, at Moreton Bay, the northernmost settlement of New South Wales, situated a few degrees beyond the tropic. Mr. Hodgkin-son, in his work upon the Moreton Bay district, mentions that some of the produce had been taken to Glasgow, where it was highly approved of; but I have had no opportunities of making inquiries into the subject. Several acres were planted near Moreton Bay, in the year 1844, by Dr. J. V. Thompson. It was feared, however, that the high price of labour would prevent the speculation from proving very profitable. A packet of seeds of the Moreton Bay cotton was kindly furnished me by this gentleman, during one of my earlier visits to Sydney; but it was unfortunately mislaid during our

" I may remark that both marks, but more particularly that from Pernambuco seed, are deficient in strength of staple—the clearness of the first mark is all that could be wished."

112 COTTON.

excursions among the Indian settlements, previous to returning to Port Essington.

As I am not prepared to enter into any details connected with the culture of cotton, I give below an extract that I lately met with, which strikes me as conveying a very considerable amount of information, in a condensed form. It becomes the more interesting from the circumstance of the cotton-plant having been first introduced into the United States from the Bahamas, where its cultivation had been carried on for some years by the American royalists who had sought refuge there during the revolutionary war.*

* CULTIVATION OF COTTON IN THE BAHAMAS.—[From the Na*-

sau Guardian.}—Cotton-seed, unlike sugar-cane, coffee, and many other tropical productions, yields a rich harvest the first year of planting. There are two modes of cultivating the cotton-plant in hot countries, where it is perennial, viz. 1st, annually, by planting the seed with the May or spring rains; 2dly, by allowing the plants of the first year to remain, and treating them as orchard-trees. The treatment for the first year is the same in either case, viz. topping the cotton when a foot high; and when the flowering of the cotton is over, the ends of the branches should be nipped off. The second year prune in February, leaving four prongs on the stem. In succeeding years, follow the plan proposed for the second year, keeping the tree at a convenient height for picking. In the Bahamas the cotton-seed may be planted in rows six feet by four, giving 2,151 cotton-plants to the acre, rooting out every other tree after bearing; thus leaving the permanent cotton orchard 6 feet by 8, with 1,075 plants. By top dressing with ashes and sand (or other compost manure) a peck to each tree, the plants so treated would retain their pristine vigour for many years, and the whole waste lands of the colony, not fit for pineapple cultivation, and not otherwise wanted, might be converted into cotton-plantations. Cotton luxuriates in situations sheltered, particularly from the north wind, and the valley between the Baillou Hills and Nassau (where facilities for agricultural improvement have lately been much increased by the completion of an excellent carriage-road

COTTON. 113

through a flat country, hitherto a wilderness) would, in this respect, be well adapted for the plant, as some experiments have shown, particularly if the cavity in which the seed is deposited were filled up with adjacent dirt. There are, however, equally sheltered situations with more soil on New Providence uncultivated, and consequently unproductive to their owners; while on the out islands of St. Salvador, Long Island, Watling's Island, Grand Bahama, Bimi-

. nis, and others, there are thousands of acres of uncultivated land, well adapted to cotton culture. The chenille insect is said to attack the plants of the first year's growth only, and the red bug is said to prefer the tomato-plant to the cotton-shrub, if planted in the vicinity. The Anguilla cotton has been preferred in consequence of its flowering in the winter, and being consequently less liable to be attacked by bugs. But, on the other hand, the autumnal rains and heavy dews in the winter frequently chill the cotton-bud and prevent its attaining maturity; whereas the Georgia, or Sea Island cotton-plant blossoms in the summer, and, on the whole, is preferable, particularly if care is taken to plant plenty of tomato-plants in the vicinity, as food preferred by the cotton-bug, should that insect make his appearance. It is calculated that even at the present low price of cotton, healthy trees would net the cultivator $ 75 to the acre; and if the staple could be produced equal to the Sea Island cotton, this might be multiplied by four or five, there being that difference fully in price, and there is little doubt but the finer and more valuable description of cotton might be raised in the Bahamas, the prices realized having frequently been equal to the prices commanded by Egyptian cotton. One of the discouragements to the cultivation of cotton in New Providence and many other out islands, by small proprietors, is the absence of a gin for separating the cotton from the seed; but if cotton were generally planted, one public gin might be erected which would yield a profitable return. Companies are about being formed in England for cultivating the sugarcane in the West Indies. Similar efficacious means applied to cotton culture here might once more insure the growth of a most important staple in the Bahamas, where the climate and rocky land, with fissures and crevices filled with rich vegetable earth, are peculiarly adapted to the cotton-plant. In the East Indies, and many other fertile soils, the cotton-plant grows too rank, and this over-luxuriance produces wood instead of cotton. Of all the tropical climates

114 COTTON.

in Her Majesty's dominions, there is none, perhaps, more happily situated than the Bahamas for the cultivation of cotton, but there is wanted to insure its success, capital to expend and judgment to direct the culture. It may be added, that at New Providence African agricultural labourers abound, willing to be employed as labourers ; males at the rate of a quarter of a dollar per day, and women at half that amount, and that crown-land may be purchased at 6s. sterling per acre, and private land at moderate rates $ die application of British capital is what is wanted to supersede the native " bush " by the graceful cotton-plant, with its golden blossoms and silver fleece.

115

CHAPTER VIII.

SOURCES OF LABOUR.

Effects of Climate on European Labourers—The Aborigines—Imported Labour in Tropical Settlements — Collisions of Races — Europeans and the Australian Aborigines — Tropical Labour— Timor Laut.—The Ki Islanders—Over-population at Kissa—The Natives of Rotti—Native Christians—Timorians—People of Celebes—Labour at Singapore—Malays, Chinese, and Natives of India—Cost of Labour—Advantages of employing Labourers of different Nations—Comparative Qualities of Indian, Chinese, and Malayan Labourers.

ALTHOUGH the climate of the Cobourg Peninsula, and of the tropical coasts of Australia generally, may be considered as not unfavourable to the constitutions of Europeans, still the temperature is so high that it cannot be recommended as a field for the employment of European labour. Occasional active exercise is not found to be injurious, but the flow of perspiration induced by continuous labour must, sooner or later, produce an effect upon the constitution. A very considerable amount of work has certainly been performed by the garrison of Port Essington and by the crews of the different men-of-war that have been from time to time stationed there;- but it was found to be necessary that the men should rest during three or four hours of the day, when the rays of the sun were most powerful, and even with this precaution the effects of a relaxing climate soon became evident in the appearance of the men.

If agricultural operations are ever carried on here upon an extensive scale it must lie by means of labourers to

116 SOURCES OF LABOUR.

whom the climate is natural. The natives of the country are few in number, and although they would prove useful as fishers, herdsmen, and even as seamen on board coasting vessels, still other sources must be looked to for that combined labour necessary to produce articles of commerce, or even of domestic consumption.

But I do not anticipate that the circumstance of the aboriginal tribes being small and scattered will prove a bar to success, since we find that the most productive colonies possessed by Europeans in tropical countries are those which were originally either uninhabited, or occupied only by a thinly distributed people; the labourers that it then became necessary to import being employed almost exclusively in producing articles of European consumption; even the food consumed by them being in some instances, at the Mauritius for example, also imported from older and more densely populated countries. In the West India Islands, the Brazils, Demerara, and in the southern states of America, (which last, although not situated within the tropics, are appropriated to the culture of tropical productions,) the labourers were originally brought from distant countries, and in most of these the process of importation is still going on.

The history of colonization furnishes some very interesting facts respecting the effects produced by the contact of Europeans with aboriginal tribes in the countries of the east and west that have been from time to time occupied. This has always been attended with the least violence where the native inhabitants have been either comparatively advanced in civilization, or where they have been so low in the social scale as to be mere wanderers over the face of the country, without a fixed

ABORIGINES. 117

abode. Those in an intermediate stage have invariably suffered, and in many instances have been exterminated. Too barbarous to appreciate the advantages of civilization, but too much accustomed to independence to become slaves on the soil where they once were masters, collisions have occurred, which have invariably terminated fatally to the weaker race. In the West India Islands the work of destruction has been completed. In the south-eastern states of North America, the last remnant of the ancient inhabitants has been driven into the natural fastnesses of the country, where it maintains an unequal struggle with the European, which cannot last long, even if it has not already terminated. The same process has been going on for some years past on one of the principal groups of the Pacific, and has now commenced in New Zealand, where, it is to be feared, it will not readily be stayed. We, who are remote from the spot, can appreciate the generous courage of the former lord of the soil; but with the settler, who sees his hopes frustrated by the determined hostility of those whom he regards as being infinitely beneath him in the scale of humanity, the case is different; and none but those who have witnessed it can understand the bitter hatred that is engendered, even in the most humane dispositions, by a constant dread of attack. But on the Indian Peninsula we found a people considerably advanced, and accustomed to a change of masters, so that the struggle was not with the native inhabitants, but with their former conquerors, who were often less civilized than the people whose country they had invaded. The superiority of the European soon prevailed, and we then quietly took possession of the vacated territory, in most instances adopting the laws of our predecessors; so that the change


was scarcely perceptible, except in the increased vigour of rule which followed the establishment of our power..

In Australia, where the aboriginal tribes are so barbarous as to depend entirely for subsistence on the spontaneous productions of nature, they have generally, after a few trials of strength, quietly submitted to the new order of affairs; and although the tribes in the neighbourhood of our settlements are undoubtedly disappearing, still the process is not attended with sufficient violence to shock the feelings. If this apparently inevitable result can anywhere be effectually stayed, it is upon the northern coasts, where the aborigines have long held intercourse with a people not greatly superior to themselves, at all events, not presenting so hopeless a contrast to their own degraded state as that presented by the civilization of the European. They have here made the first step towards an improved condition. They have acquired the rudiments of commerce, and although the cultivation of the soil has not yet been attempted, they have learned to collect the natural productions of the country, with the view to exchanging them for food of a superior quality to that which their own land affords. A considerable number have paid one or more visits to Macassar, residing there for months together, which has familiarized them with the language and manners of the people of that country, and may probably lead to a closer intercourse, should the Macassars establish themselves upon the coast. The presence of Europeans has here been decidedly beneficial to the aborigines, by putting a stop to the contests which frequently took place between them and the Macassars, before they had a third party to refer to for the settlement of their disputes, and which were often attended with fatal results to both parties.

INDIAN ISLANDERS. 119

If it were found desirable to carry on agricultural operations in the northern coasts of Australia, no difficulty would be experienced in obtaining any amount of cheap and effective labour from the neighbouring islands of the Indian Archipelago, or from the continent of Asia. The only point upon which any difference of opinion is likely to exist is with regard to the particular people that it would be most advantageous to employ. And as this is a subject to which, from its importance, a considerable degree of attention was directed by the authorities of Port Essington, I will give the result of .the inquiries that were set on foot to ascertain the sources whence labour might be derived in the event of these parts being thrown open for settlement.

To commence with the chain of islands extending from Timor to New Guinea, which from its contiguity to Port Essington deserves the first notice. This group is inhabited by a branch of the Polynesian race, the natives bearing a great resemblance in personal appearance, language, and customs to those of the South Sea Islands. We found a considerable difference to exist with regard to the social state of the natives of the various islands. Those among whom Christianity has made much progress proved mild in their manners, industrious, (for excess of population obliges them to be so), and skilful in the rougher mechanical arts. Others again who had held little intercourse with strangers were bold and warlike, but they cultivated the soil, and dwelt in neat and well-built villages. The natives of Timor Laut, the nearest island to Port Essington, being distant only one hundred and eighty miles, are of the latter class. The population is considerable, but constant wars between the different tribes prevent it from becoming


excessive. Still emigration takes place to a certain extent. At the Dutch settlement of Banda we found about three hundred natives of this island, many of whom were employed as police peons, or as servants to the inhabitants, the remainder occupying themselves in cutting fire-wood and in growing vegetables to supply the market. The influx of these people was so great a few years ago that the government thought proper to stop further migration. They generally return to their own country after having acquired a little property.

The Ki Islands, which lie to the north of Timor Laut, are well peopled, but the inhabitants, when not employed in agriculture, find abundant employment in constructing prahus and boats from the magnificent timber with which the inland parts are covered. They are, indeed, a nation of carpenters, and the greater portion of the vessels employed in the trade of this part of the archipelago are constructed by them. Their boats are perfect models of beauty and speed, and many have been brought to Port Essington, where they are highly prized. At the Ami Islands, again, the natives are almost exclusively occupied in collecting the valuable natural products, which attract European, Chinese, and native traders from various parts of the archipelago.

But of all the islands of the group, those in which Christianity has made considerable progress present the most available sources of labour. The comparative civilization that exists has caused a cessation of the wars that formerly kept down their numbers, and the population has, in several instances, increased to an extent that renders the country they inhabit insufficient to afford them supplies of food; while at the same time they have become familiarized with Europeans, and are glad to


engage themselves in their service. The island of Kissa, which has been alluded to in the previous part of this work, is much overpeopled. When first visited by us, the security of property that resulted from their superior organization had caused their island to become the chief resort of the foreign traders, and thus the emporium for the commerce of the neighbouring islands; but subsequently, when it became safe for traders to visit the groups that had not previously been frequented, their commerce declined, and they no longer had the means of purchasing food from the neighbouring countries.

On revisiting Kissa in Her Majesty's ship Britomart in ] 842, after an absence of two years, we found that owing to this circumstance, coupled with a visitation from one of the periodical droughts to which the island is subject, so great a scarcity of food existed, that no less than three hundred of the inhabitants had perished, either from absolute starvation, or from disease induced by the necessity for resorting to descriptions of food that were not suitable to man. Many of the natives had left the island in their prahus, and were wandering among the neighbouring settlements, seeking subsistence. The Swiss Missionary, Mr. Bier, unable to bear the sight of so much misery, had fled to Amboyna in a small trading cutter; and the governor of that settlement, Colonel De Steurs, had sent a quantity of rice to be distributed among the starving people, but this did not go far among so many. It was truly lamentable to witness this state of distress without it being in our power to afford relief. My servant, who was a native of this island, was very anxious that we should allow his relatives to take a passage in the vessel to Port Essington, but while an uncertainty existed as to whether the settlement would be maiu-

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tained, such a step would have been unadvisable. The following year a favourable season for their crops placed them in better circumstances; but a long period must elapse ere they entirely recover themselves.

Rotti, near the south end of Timor, is also much over-peopled, the number of inhabitants being above twenty thousand, (the Dutch authorities give a much larger number,) and so great a scarcity of food exists, even after favourable harvests, that the poorer people are forced, during several months of the year, to subsist chiefly on a liquid sugar extracted from the palm-trees which overspread those parts of the island that are too rocky to admit of cultivation. The Dutch settlement at Coepang is the only spot to which they can at present resort for employment, and here they form the bulk of the labouring population, the aborigines of Coepang being by no means an industrious people. Amboyna, Kissa, and Rotti, are the headquarters of Christianity in the Indian Archipelago; and as the natives are an intelligent people, and much attached to Europeans, I look upon them as being likely to prove highly useful to any future settlement that may be made on the northern coasts of Australia. They acquire the English language with considerable facility, and many are sufficiently educated to read and write Malayan in the Roman character. Their services would, therefore, probably be found valuable as interpreters in the event of an increased intercourse taking place between the inhabitants of the Archipelago and Europeans. It is singular enough that in these remote islands, I found a far greater number of natives who had a sufficient acquaintance with our language for the common purposes of trade, than in the western part6


of the Archipelago, even about our own settlements. There, however, the Europeans generally speak Malayan, while our countrymen who resort to this part of the Archipelago, chiefly whalers, or traders from Sydney, are rarely acquainted with the language.

The great island of Timor is very populous, but the slave-trade exists here, especially about the northern settlements; and although the number exported is not very great, still I look upon it as being unfavourable to spontaneous emigration.

The island of Celebes deserves particular notice from the circumstance of the inhabitants being already well acquainted with the northern coasts of Australia. Their spirit of enterprise has, indeed, carried them into the remotest corners of these seas, and communities, amounting in some instances to several thousands of people, are established in every European settlement in the Indian x^rchipelago; in addition to which, they have many independent colonies on the coasts of Borneo, Sumbawa, and Flores. They are generally, however, more given to commerce than to agriculture, but about Macassar the country population is very considerable. They are industrious, and much attached to the British; still I do not regard them as being quite so well adapted for an European settlement as the people previously mentioned, from the circumstance of their being Mahommedans, and therefore considerably under the influence of the degenerate Arabs; less so, however, than the Malays or Javanese. The mixed descendants of the Dutch at Macassar are an enterprising race, possessing the commercial spirit of their Asiatic forefathers, guided by the superior intelligence of the European.

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It will be unnecessary to enter into any lengthened details respecting the other countries mentioned as sources whence labour might be derived, since a continued stream of emigration from these parts has for many years past been setting upon our settlements in the straits of Malacca* Singapore, the most important of these, was founded nearly thirty years ago. During the early period of its existence, the settlement was exclusively a commercial depot, but emigrants flowed in from all the neighbouring countries, and the Chinese soon commenced levelling ihe forests and bringing the land into cultivation. Pepper, and a plant called the gambier, were the articles first cultivated. The latter plant furnishes the terra Japonica of commerce, which now forms the bulk of the cargoes of all ships that load there for England, where it is very extensively used in tanning leather, and, I believe, sometimes as a dye for calicoes. The merchants subsequently commenced laying out spice plantations; but it was not until about ten years ago that extensive cultivation was commenced by Europeans. Since then much ground has been cleared and planted, the principal labourers being Malays, Chinese, and natives of the Coromandel Coast, (Coolies, as they would be called in England,) all of whom were immigrants, for the original population of Singapore consisted only of a few fishermen. The influx was spontaneous, for they arrived in their own vessels; nor has there ever been the attraction of very high wages. Employment, and the means of subsistence proved sufficient temptation to draw forth a portion of the teeming population of China and the continent of India; and the supply of labour has always proved equal to the demand.

CHINESE AND INDIANS. 125

Wages never fluctuate very considerably; but latterly the price of field labour has been rather lower than usual, owing to the great influx of immigrants that was induced by the extensive agricultural operations entered into by the European residents. When I was last in the settlement, in the early part of this year, the wages of a field labourer were three dollars and a half per month, with which sum he provided himself with food and all necessaries, with the exception of a hut to live in, and the implements with which he laboured.

From applications that were made to me during a visit to Singapore in 1842, by several Chinese headmen, who thought that I wanted parties of labourers for Port Essington, I found that Chinese would have been willing to proceed there at from five to six dollars per month, provided they were supplied with rice at the same rate with the cost of that article at Singapore; and I have no doubt that natives of continental India could have been obtained upon the same terms. The cost of conveying them to Port Essington, provided there had been a sufficient number to fill a vessel, would have amounted to six dollars each person. The price of rice is likely to be much about the same in both places, since the islands of Bali and Lombok, the granaries of the Indian Archipelago, lie nearly midway between Port Essington and Singapore. The cost of Chinese or Indian labourers is of course greater than that of natives of the Indian islands, but even the most expensive labour in this part of the world amounts to very little more than the mere interest upon the purchase-money of a negro slave in the United States of America. I think, too, that great advantages are gained by having labourers of different nations in a tropical European

126 SOURCES OP LABOUR.

settlement. There is then little probability of combinations taking place for the purpose of raising wages to an exorbitant amount, or for enforcing any improper demands. I once saw a remarkable instance of this at Singapore, where the boatmen employed in conveying goods to and from the shipping, are exclusively natives of the Coramandel coast. On one occasion they had been forbidden by the authorities to perform one of their noisy religious processions, and they thought to obtain a removal of the prohibition by striking work in a body; but within a few hours after this occurrence, the cargo-boats, which were the property of the merchants, were manned with Chinese, and affairs proceeded in their usual course. The consequence was that the boatmen soon returned to their duty; and there is not the slightest probability of " a strike " ever being attempted again. The natives of the different countries of the East are also each proficient in peculiar kinds of labour. Thus the Malay is the best adapted for clearing new lands; the Chinese being unaccustomed to these operations, from their country having been long under cultivation. The latter, again, are the best agriculturists, and the most skilful manufacturers of raw produce; while the natives of India prove superior herdsmen. They are all acquainted with the culture of cotton, but not in an equal degree; the Chinese and natives of continental India claiming the precedence. The Indian islander is contented with simple food, but is expensive in his clothing, and therefore the best customer to the British manufacturer. The Chinese labourer wears little clothing, but expends a considerable portion of his wages in rich food. The native of continental India is sparing in everything, and saves

CHINESE AND INDIANS. 127

his wages to carry back to his own country. This was severely felt at the Mauritius when Coolie labourers were first introduced, and caused specie to be in great demand, but the evil was remedied almost as soon as it was generally felt.

When it is considered that the population of China is upwards of three hundred millions, that of the British possessions in India seventy millions, and that of the

Yi Indian Archipelago between twenty and thirty millions, it may be safely stated that the supply of labour from these sources is likely to prove inexhaustible.

128

CHAPTER IX.

SETTLEMENTS IN TROPICAL AUSTRALIA AS CONNECTED WITH THE INTERESTS OF THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.

Tropical Plantations—Cotton Culture in India and America—' European Superintendence—Tropical Colonization in the United States—Its influence on Emigration from Europe—Slave and Free Labour — Influence of the American System on Great Britain—Movement of the Australian Colonists—Progress of New South Wales—Van Dieman's Land and Port Philip—Swan River -Supposed Scarcity of Labour in New South Wales — Field of Production in the Southern Colonies—South Australia-Effects of the South Australian System on New South Wales— The late Commercial Crisis—Efforts of the Colonists to retrieve their Affairs—Petition to import Coolie Labour—The Overland Expedition to Port Essington—Efforts of the South Australian Colonists to reach the Northern Coasts—Recent Events in Europe and America as connected with the Australian Colonies—Concluding Note.

W H E N we take under review the great extent of the tropical coasts of Australia, their peculiarly accessible nature, and the inexhaustible sources of labour that lie convenient, it certainly does appear singular, that throughout so many thousand miles of sea-board only one little spot should be occupied by a civilized people, and that by a party so small as to constitute the most minute detached garrison maintained by the nation to which it belongs. But England claims the coasts as a portion of her empire, and England has already taken actual possession of vast territories in other tropical countries, which are equally favourably circumstanced in some respects, and far more so in others. British

TROPICAL LABOUR. 129

India alone, with her five hundred thousand square miles, and seventy millions of inhabitants, could supply the entire world with tropical produce were the waste lands cultivated. Yet it is familiar knowledge that the ] produce of India, even with" regard to those articles / which, from their having been originally cultivated there, * maybe considered as the natural productions of the soil, is inferior both in quantity and quality to that of .' countries presenting no advantages in point of fertility, , and far less favourably circumstanced for obtaining labour. It is notorious that our chief supply of cotton, an article peculiarly the produce of the East, is derived from the southern states of America; and England at the present moment displays the extraordinary spectacle of a great commercial nation, with immense tropical possessions, being dependent upon a foreign people for the raw material necessary for one of her principal manufactures.

The false position that this places us in with regard to the United States has long been felt, and efforts have not been wanting to counteract it. The East India Company has incurred the expense of importing experienced planters from America for the purpose of effecting improvements in the culture of cotton in their territories; and the result has been a confirmation of the fact that thjs article can be produced there of a quality equal to that of America, and at a far cheaper rate; yet the state of affairs still remains the same, or rather, indeed, we are every year becoming more and more dependent upon the United States.

Under these circumstances it might reasonably be supposed that the southern states of America possessed some peculiar natural advantages; but the contrary

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130 TROPICAL COLONIES.

proves to be the case. The climate, it is well known, is by no means especially favourable to the culture of cotton, which, indeed, becomes evident from the circumstance of the plants, and sometimes a portion of the crop, being liable to be destroyed by frost. Nor does it appear that the " pine barrens" of the southern states are in any way superior to the " cotton soils" of India* With regard to labour, the Americans lie under a great disadvantage: the mere interest on the purchase-money of a slave in America would obtain three labourers in India, each of whom would perform the same amount of work. The clue to the mystery appears to lie in this: cotton is an article the value of which depends

^ greatly upon its quality; and to produce the finer descriptions, the superintendence of a people superior in vigour and intelligence to the natives of India is required. The experiments made in the culture of cotton in the East, with the aid of American planters, were, when carried on in favourable situations, eminently successful; but the improvements introduced extended little further than the estates under their immediate care. It became evident that to compete with the growers in America, it would be necessary that every plantation should have an European conductor; and these can only be obtained in sufficient numbers in countries that are European colonies, not mere possessions,—countries in which the climate is favourable*to the constitutions of the natives of temperate regions, and where the proprietor may feel confident that the labour he bestows in reclaiming the waste lands will benefit his descendants, an event which can scarcely be expected with certainty where the native population is so enormous as in India. The object of the Europeans

BRITISH INDIA AND THE MAURITIUS. - 131

who have from time to time engaged in agricultural pursuits in our oriental possessions has been to snatch a hasty harvest from the soil, that they might be enabled to retire to some more favourable climate before their health became impaired. The experience that has been acquired is thus lost, and if any improvement has been effected in the quality of the produce it is not permanent. In the southern states of America the case is different. The son often succeeds the father in superintending the plantations; every particle of experience gained is made good, and the consequence has been that during the half century that has elapsed .since cotton was first introduced, the quality of the produce has been constantly advancing, until, at lengthy it has attained a pre-eminence which appears to defy competition.

Nor is it in America alone that the same causes have been attended with the like effects. Thus the colonists at the Mauritius find it profitable to import Coolies from Bengal to cultivate sugar, an article that > can be produced equally well in the country from which the labourers themselves, and even the food they consume, can be obtained only by a long sea voyage. But the Mauritius enjoys a climate favourable to the European constitution, and has a numerous population of individuals capable, from their superior intelligence, of conducting extensive plantations. Were British India adapted for European colonization, there would soon be an abundance of intelligent planters; but this not being the case, we must naturally look elsewhere for the country that will enable us to render ourselves independent of foreigners.

It will be useful to trace the progress of events that,


in so short a period, has given the Americans the com* mand of the cotton-markets of Europe ; and the enquiry becomes more interesting from the circumstance of the United States constituting the only country that furnishes a parallel with Australia, as consisting of territory, parts of which are adapted for the seat of an European race, and other parts for the culture of tropical produce, being in the occupation of one individual nation. At the close of the revolutionary war in 1783, the Anglo-Americans found themselves impoverished by a long struggle with the most powerful nation of Europe, which, at the same time, had nearly destroyed their foreign commerce. The territory they then occupied being situated under a climate similar to that of Europe, was calculated only to produce those articles which could be grown equally well in older countries. Tobacco, for the culture of which the states of Maryland and Virginia were peculiarly adapted, was then their staple export, as wool is that of the Anglo-Australians of the present day. The population of the United States was then much greater than that of our Australian colonies; but this only rendered more evident the necessity that existed for extending the field of production. In 1786, three years after the close of the war, cotton was first introduced into Georgia, the southernmost state of the Union, from the Bahama Islands, where it had been cultivated with success during several years. Slave-labour was found to be exceedingly well adapted for carrying on the necessary operations, a circumstance of no small importance, since the number of slaves had increased to such an extent, that difficulty had been experienced in finding employment for them. The success that attended the earlier efforts of the planters

THE SLAVE STATES OF AMERICA. 133

proved sufficiently promising; and the rise that had taken place in the price of cotton in Europe, owing to the invention of the spinning-jenny, encouraged them to persevere. But the climate of Georgia was found to be rather too cold for the plants, and the culture did not become greatly extended until the year 1803, when the people of the United States succeeded in purchasing Louisiana and the neighbouring territory from the French. So rapidly was the cultivation now inereased that a few years afterwards we find'bales of cotton employed to form batteries for the defence of New Orleans against the British. Hundreds of enterprising capitalists migrated from the northern states; and their new occupation proved so profitable, that it was found most advantageous to employ their slaves exclusively in the production of cotton, while they depended upon the people of the north for supplies of food. Thus every individual who embarked in the new enterprise not only relieved the parent states from the pressure of numbers, but gave employment to those who remained at home; indeed, die demand for labour in these northern states became so great as to induce a large immigration from the over-peopled countries of Europe; and thus commenced the most perfect, and at the same time the most extensive system of colonization that the world ever saw, and which has tended to promote civilization in Europe in scarcely a less degree than the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. No violent transition took place of the people of an old country to one in which they would have to begin quite a new life. The immigrants from Europe found themselves established in a community scarcely less civilized than the one they had left, and

134 TK0PICAL COLONIES.

in which they had merely to resume the occupations to which they had been accustomed; while the sons of the soil, to whom the wilderness was familiar, went forth, to the south, to reclaim new lands, and promote the wealth and prosperity of the parent states.

The territories purchased from the French soon became too confined for the extensive agricultural operations to which this system gave rise, and the Spanish possessions in Florida were added to the Union. When these bad become occupied, colonization extended to the west. The Mexican territory was invaded, and in the course of time Texas became so exclusively an Anglo-American colony, that it also was included as one of the United States. We may expect that it will now spread over Mexico and Central America, where the descendants of the original Spanish colonists have become so degenerate as to present but a very inefficient barrier to its progress; that is to say, unless a movement is made in some other part of the world that will tend to counteract it.

The entire system is regulated by the amount of natural increase of the slaves,—for the United States have long ceased to import them from Africa,—this being the only description of tropical labour that is available. The Europeans who migrate to the United States in such numbers do not incur the expense of removing themselves there for the purpose of becoming mere labourers for wages. They are, for the most part, obliged to be so in the first instance, but they prefer employment in communities where labour is not a disgrace, as it must be in slave countries; and this is the one great reason why slave and free labour can never exist together. The increase in the culture of tropical


produce is therefore regulated by that of the slave population, and as the plantations extend, commercial and agricultural activity is produced in the northern states, which, acting upon the labour-market by creating high wages, attracts a portion of the surplus population of Europe.

But the natural increase of the slaves is far less than that of the Anglo-American population, and therefore one of the elements of this system, consisting of individuals possessed of a spirit of enterprise that incapacitates them from becoming mere field-labourers or workers in factories, but who are unable to obtain employment in the south, owing to the limited amount of slave labour, advances in a greater ratio than the others. The surplus migrates to the west, and is now pouring down upon the shores of the Pacific, where it spreads over an open country, adapted for pastoral pursuits, in fact, not unlike the southern parts of Australia; and we may expect that attention will be turned to the growth of the same descriptions of produce which form the chief exports from our colonies in that part of the world. These western territories, in fact, constitute a sort of safety-valve for one of the elements of this system, which would otherwise become inconveniently oppressive from over-increase.

The only objectionable point consists in the descrip-r tion of labour employed in the southern states. The Anglo-Americans are fully alive to the evils that inevitably result from slavery. They were pointed out to them in strong terms by one of their ablest statesmen half a century ago. But combined labour suited for tropical culture is absolutely necessary to their advancement, and they have not, like the Anglo-Australians, the

186 TROPICAL COLOMrES.

densely populated countries of Asia lying at their door. They do their best, however, to counteract its effects. As colonization extends in the south, Ihe people of the north roll slavery before them, and state after state is reclaimed from the stigma. A celebrated English writer upon subjects connected with colonization, recommended the Americans, a few years ago, to adopt a new system of emigration he had invented, the basis of which consisted in employing the fund raised by the sale of waste lands in transporting labourers from Europe. But the Americans were aware that European labour was not adapted for tropical agriculture, and the supply in the northern states, where it could be advantageously employed, was already sufficiently abundant without there being any necessity for their spending money in introducing it; indeed, such a course would have had the effect of inundating the country with pauper labourers, at a time when it had the advantage of a well-regulated supply of the elite of the working-classes of Europe; of men who had proved themselves to be industriously inclined by the very circumstance of their having saved a sufficient sum to transport themselves to a country in which they could obtain abundant employment. The Americans, indeed, had every reason to be satisfied with their own system, which had already stood the test of years. European writers upon matters connected with political economy have generally evinced a partiality for the ancient Greek colonies, as having been perfect models of the parent state. I am willing to believe that they were so, but this does not imply that nations of the parent day should adopt precisely the course pursued by a people who, whatever might have been the condition of the


upper classes, cared little themselves for more than mere food and clothing, and, perhaps, very little of the latter. The Anglo-Americans have adopted the principle, but rejected the details, by taking their parent state as their model. The British Empire presented itself to them as consisting of a small portion of territory in Europe, and vast tropical possessions in the East and West, intercourse between which had given rise to an extensive commerce that had made England the most powerful and flourishing country of the globe. The Anglo-Americans, on becoming their own masters, proceeded to imitate us by acquiring territory of a description similar to that of our Indian possessions, and circumstances enabled them to obtain it without being necessitated to cross the ocean. They acquired it in the first instance by purchase; but latterly, having gathered strength, they have followed still further the example of the parent state in taking it by force, and the result has been that they have established an empire similar in its construction to that of Great Britain, but in one consolidated mass, that renders the command of the sea, although necessary to maintain the integrity of the British Empire, an object to them of comparatively little importance.

The Anglo-Americans are in the habit of dating their independence from the close of the revolutionary war, but they are not yet independent, fior will they be so until they manufacture their own produce, an end towards which they are certainly advancing with rapid strides. Great Britain still continues to be their mother country, and of all the nations of Europe derives the greatest benefit from the colonies she has planted in America. Of the cotton crop of the United States for


the year ending in September, 1845, amounting upon the whole to something less than two millions and * half of bales,* nearly two-thirds were exported to England, where its manufacture will afford employment to thousands of her population, and give support to a commerce that forms one of the main supports of the nation. Nor is this all. The activity produced in the United States by the culture of this article constitutes the chief attraction that draws from Great Britain a portion of her surplus inhabitants, that amounts in the course of two years to more than the entire population that has been established in Australia, notwithstanding the immense sums that have been expended in carrying out labourers. I include in the above the amount of emigration to Canada, for it is well known that a very large portion of the labourers who proceed to that colony re-migrate to the United States, while those who remain form a sort of surplus fund, a portion of which is attracted across the border whenever a demand is evinced by a rise in wages. Many would probably proceed direct from England to the United States, but the timber ships outward bound to Canada furnish them with a cheaper, and, from the circumstance of these vessels sailing from all the chief ports of Great Britain, a more ready mode of transport. If the carrying trade between England and America, and between the northern and southern

* Cotton crop of the United States for the year ending in September, 1845 . . . 2,394,503 bales Being an increase on the previous year of . 364,094 „ Of this were exported to Great Britain . 1,439,306 „

„ France . . 859,357 „ „ North of Europe . 134,501 „ „ Other Parts . . 150,592 „

INFLUENCE ON EMIGRATION. 1 3 9

States, gave employment to shipping under the British flag; and if the whole of the cotton produce of America were sent to this country to be manufactured, there would exist no absolute necessity for endeavouring to promote colonization elsewhere. But that cannot now be expected. In the course of half a century the population of the United States has become more than quadrupled, and if it continues to increase in the same ratio during only a few years longer, will become equal to that of the most populous countries of Europe; while every year sees their home manufactures increasing, the quantity of cotton retained from the last crop amounting to about one-seventh of the whole. But it is unnecessary to follow this subject any further; the restless anxiety that pervades the mercantile community of this country when news of importance is expected from the United States; the effect that this news, if unfavourable to the maintenance of peace, has upon the public funds; and the jealousy with which the progress of the Anglo-Americans is regarded by a large portion of the British community, proves that it is fully understood and appreciated.

Whether the Australian colonists can aid materially in producing a state of affairs more conducive to the commercial prosperity of the mother country, and more flattering to the national vanity, is a point that can only be determined by actual experience. Appearances are certainly favourable at present, but it often occurs that the most encouraging prospects are doomed to end in disappointment. The movement that will enable us to decide this question, has, however, already commenced. The occupation of the Cobourg Peninsula has been the first and hesitating step, and this the colonists of the

1 4 0 PROGRESS OF COLONIZATION

south hare followed up by sending out expeditions te trace a route by which the tropical coasts may be reached overland. These have not been undertaken merely for the gratification of curiosity, but from a feeling of the necessity that existed for adding to the amount of exports ; and the readiest mode that suggested itself for attaining this object, in fact the only one that it was in their power to adopt, consisted in opening a road to that portion of the continent which presented the greatest facilities for obtaining the description of labour best adapted for tropical agriculture.

That the colonists are possessed of sufficient energy to carry out the measures they have commenced, cannot be a matter of doubt to those who are aware of the struggles they have lately made to emerge from the state of ruin that had fallen upon them, and which would have been felt with crushing force by a less spirited people. The subject is indeed to them of vital importance. The labouring classes have, for the last three years, been migrating from the colony by hundreds to all the neighbouring countries that afforded the slightest prospect of employment, while the settlers of the upper class have long felt the want of some occupation better suited to men of education than that of herding sheep and cattle. Commerce is in the hands of merchants of the mother country, whose affairs are conducted by individuals sent out from home as being well acquainted with the mode of transacting business there. The consequence is that the head of a family who has probably migrated with the view of providing for his sons in a country that affords a better prospect of profitable employment than the overpeopled land of his birth, perceives that they must inevitably become mere herdsmen, and this, probably,

t

IN AUSTRALIA. 141

after their having received an education that would qualify them for any employ ment to which a youth could aspire. It may appear singular to those unacquainted with the later history of our Australian colonies that they should be suffering from evils which have been thought peculiar to old countries. Such, nevertheless, is the case. This subject, however, is one that cannot be hastily dismissed. The prospects held forth in the course of this work are at least as promising as some that have sufficed to draw from Great Britain swarms of people who were led to consider that these prospects would compensate for a total want of colonial experience on their part. Were I, therefore, to leave the subject as it now stands, I have no guarantee that my statements may not lead to a recurrence of scenes of distress and confusion that have rendered the very name of colonization hateful, and to prevent a renewal of which has been one of the chief objects of this work.

I find that I have to encounter a popular fallacy at the very commencement of my undertaking. It is generally supposed that the first object of a colonist in a new country is to obtain food for his support. This may be the case with regard to savages, but emigrants from a civilized community, who have been habituated to the use of luxuries which can only be produced in older countries, exert themselves, in the first instance, to obtain an article of export which will enable them still to purchase the necessary supply; indeed, their chief inducement to emigrate is that they may acquire these luxuries in greater abundance than at home. If the new country is rich in natural produce, they find it to their advantage to employ themselves exclusively in collecting it, and to import the food necessary for their sub-

142 PROGRESS OF COLONIZATION

sistence from other countries if it cannot readily be produced on the spot. The entire affair is a perfect matter of business, and, as such, closely corresponding with commercial transactions elsewhere. The richer emigrant transfers himself to a spot which affords a prospect of more profitable investment for his capital than his own country. Like capitalists who embark in trade, they will consent to remain for a certain period without a return, if there is a reasonable prospect of the profits being ultimately sufficiently great to compensate for the delay. But if he is disappointed in this particular, the consequences are inevitable. The labourer, again, migrates for the purpose of obtaining higher wages than at home, and these, of course, he only receives as long as there exists a profitable mode of employment. The natural produce of a new country is that which is most readily obtainable, and the success of the colony will, in the first instance, be in proportion to its abundance. The earlier colonists in North America and Canada were originally fur-traders, like those of Hudson's Bay and the banks of the Columbia at the present moment. The Spaniards, on first settling in the new world, occupied themselves in collecting gold ; and the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope obtained an export by bartering with the Aborigines for ivory and pastoral produce, and by supplying ships that touched there on their way to and from India with refreshments. But Australia was found to afford no natural produce of an importance sufficient of itself to attract colonists from Europe. The crowded state of the hulks and gaols of England suggested, however, the idea of founding a penal establishment on the coast, and the object was considered as being of sufficient national importance to authorise the

IN AUSTRALIA. 143

outlay necessary for its maintenance. The supplies of provisions for the convicts were originally sent from the mother country; but as this was found to entail an enormous expense, free emigrants were encouraged Ky the offer of grants of land to settle in the country and grow food for the consumption of the establishment, the government purchasing the produce at a high price, and at the same time furnishing the labour by which the land was cleared and the farms cultivated. Under these circumstances agricultural pursuits became so profitable as to induce a number of capitalists to embark in agricultural pursuits; but as each of these, by employing a certain amount of convicts, reduced the number of mouths dependent upon the government, while the quantity of produce became proportionately increased, the competition that took place among the settlers became eventually so great as to reduce the contract price for supplies to a rate that scarcely afforded a profit to the cultivator. The high cost of freights in those days prevented even the hope of deriving profit from the export of the surplus produce, and the settlers now found themselves with a superabundance of food, but without the means of purchasing the articles of luxury to which they had been habituated. The colony being situated under a temperate climate was calculated to produce only articles that could be grown in Europe. The great extent of the waste lands, and the rapid increase of the flocks and herds which resulted from the luxuriance of the pasturage and the absence of beasts of prey, had already suggested pastoral pursuits, which also require comparatively a small amount of labour, as those likely to prove most profitable; but still the settlers had no better prospect before them than that of becoming, like

144 PROGRESS OF COLONIZATION

the Spaniards of the Rio de la Plata and the Boon.of South Africa, mere wanderers over the face of the country, dependent for an export on the hides and tallow of their flocks and herds; for the breeds of sheep,, which had been introduced from the Cape and India, did not yield a fleece suited for manufactures.

The energies of the colonists were, however, aroused, and one of their number, Captain John MacArthur, a man of singular genius and perseverance, succeeded at great expense in introducing the fine-wooled sheep of Spain and Saxony. The climate and pasturage proved to be well adapted to them, for the flocks increased rapidly, and the fleeces were found to improve in quality. A great source of wealth was now opened to the colonists, and within a comparatively short space of time many of them had embarked their capital in " sheep-farming," and thus became not only producers of a valuable article of export, but also consumers of the surplus grain of those who still continued to be cultivators of the soil. The large profits with which these speculations were attended had the effect of attracting a considerable number of capitalists from the mother country, and an additional source of wealth was now opened to the u sheep-farmer," by disposing of the increase of his flocks to the newly-arrived settler.

The colonists now found it necessary to spread. They first extended themselves over the open country to the westward of the Blue Mountains, and as the new settlers were necessitated to proceed beyond the located districts, they soon penetrated so far into the interior that the expenses of transport for goods and produce to and from the capital consumed a large portion of the profits. Exploring expeditions, both public and private,

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND AND PORT PHILIP. 145

were now set on foot to discover new tracts of country at a more convenient distance ftojn the coast, and as these were thrown open they were quickly occupied by the flock-owners. Lands near the capital had by this time become valuable, and were no longer distributed by free grant, the sum of five shillings an acre being charged to those who wished to become proprietors; while the "squatters" as the sheep-farmers who resided beyond the boundary were termed, paid only a small sum annually as an occupation-licence for their pastures.

Van Diemen'8 Land, the colonization of which commenced about fifteen years subsequently to that of New South Wales, was also a penal settlement, and in every respect a counterpart of the latter. But the territory adapted for pastoral purposes was of more limited extent than that of New South Wales, and soonybecanie fully occupied, when a number of colonists, bbing in want of room, migrated with their flocks and herds to Port Philip, on the opposite coast of the continent, where the country presented great advantage in point of pasturage. They were soon joined by others from the country about Sydney, who drove their flocks and herds before them overland. The rapidity with which this district progressed was such as to excite surprise among those who did not take into consideration that every settler had already had some colonial experience, and fully understood the mode best adapted for rendering his capital productive. Port Philip proved in every respect the most prosperous settlement that had ever been made in Australia, that is to say, as long as it continued to be peopled from the older colonies. At least nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the district were producers. The country population was large in comparison

H

146 PROGRESS OF COLONIZATION.

with that of the towns, and the government establish-* ments were consequently small and inexpensive, white the quantity of produce exported in proportion to the number of inhabitants proved enormous.

Nor had the colonists of New South Wales confined their labours to the Australian continent. The merchant* of Sydney had established an intercourse with New Zealand soon after the colony was founded, and parties of men were employed at convenient stations upon the coast in the capture of whales and fur-seals, while small vessels were sent out to trade with the Aborigines'for flax and timber. The Bay of Islands, a fine harbour if* the northern part of the group, which was much fre~ quented by ships employed in the whale fishery of ths Southern Seas, had become a little English colony. A British government resident was established there to aid in maintaining order, and many of the mercantile houses in Sydney employed agents to dispose of manufactured goods to the Aborigines and to the foreign traders* The former had long ceased to attack the crews of vessels which resorted to the islands, and a good understanding among all parties was maintained from one end of the group to the other. '

Thus far our Australian colonies proved highly and invariably successful. England had been put to a great expense in establishing them, but the necessary funds were willingly granted by the public; for their original object had been considered as an important one, and a considerable return had been afforded by the support given to a valuable branch of home manufacture. The convict population was large in proportion to that of the free settlers; but the latter, who had emigrated to the colony for the purpose of availing themselves of the ser-

SWAN RIVER. 147

vices of these convicts, did not complain. Nor had efforts been wanting to counteract the evils that might result from this preponderance, since emigrant labourers were introduced from time to time at the expense of the government, and these the colonists found it to their advantage to employ, at good wages, as overseers and superintendents, and in other capacities for which assigned convicts were not well adapted. The progress of colonization, although rapid, had been steady and uniform. The colonists spread abroad from the parent settlements, where the difficulties of preliminary occupation had been overcome, and carried with them the experience of an old-established colony. As new districts were over-run, a port convenient for the shipment of produce was selected, and a little town sprung into being. Capital was well and profitably invested, producing wealth to the colonist, and contributing to the commercial prosperity of the mother country. Let us now turn to the other side of the picture and examine the progress of the first effort at independent colonization.

The large fortunes acquired by many of the colonists of New South Wales attracted considerable attention in England from parties who were willing to employ their capital in such profitable speculations, but who objected to transfer themselves and their families to a penal colony. This induced certain individuals to send in proposals to the government for forming a settlement in Western Australia, where a country well adapted for occupation had been explored by Captain Stirling, of Her Majesty's ship Success, while on bis return voyage from Raffles Bay in 1827; and eventually it was determined to throw open this part of the continent for colo-

H 2


nization by free emigrants; a project of the Freneh, by the way, who would have anticipated us had not their expedition been delayed on the road, having contributed to hasten the measure. Free grants of land were offered to those who were prepared to invest their capital in the new colony, the quantity to be assigned to each individual being proportioned at the rate of forty acres of land for every sum of £3 sterling he had laid out in goods and implements for use in the settlement, or in introducing labourers. The facility with which large tracts of land could be acquired, induced many, who perhaps would not otherwise have thought of emigrating, to resort to the new colony; and the government establishment had scarcely been landed a month, when ship after ship arrived loaded with emigrants, many of whom had invested a large capital in implements and provisions, and in the transport of labourers.

The capitalists consisted chiefly of members of the middle classes;—retired military and naval officers, the younger sons of men of property in England, merchants, tradesmen, and West India planters. Many of these, led away by the prospect of becoming large landed proprietors, had invested a portion of their capital in articles used by the same class in the mother country; carriages, grand piano-fortes, and blood-horses; indeed, the heterogenous nature of the collection that was formed upon the beach, where the cargoes of the ships had been landed, can only be conceived by those who have personally witnessed the arrival of emigrants in a new colony. So great an influx of people appears to have been unexpected; and the land on the banks of the river, which alone was adapted for agricultural purposes, scarcely afforded room for the

SWAK RIVER. 149

emigrants that arrived in the first ships. Those who tame at a later period were therefore forced either to remain until new lands had been explored, or to re? embark, and proceed to the penal colonies. Many chose the latter course; so that while people were flowing into the colony from the mother country, others were leaving it to seek a home elsewhere. The more persevering, especially those who had reserved funds for their support until the land could be brought into cultivation, struggled manfully to render their adopted home prosperous. But it was long before they obtained an export." Large numbers of sheep and cattle had been imported by sea from New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land during the early days of the colony, when money was abundant, but the greater portion of these had been eaten up as fast as they arrived; and it was not until three years had elapsed since the arrival of the first colonists that they began to form flocks for the growth of wool. Prosperity now dawned upon the little community. An immense sacrifice of property had been incurred in the first instance, and the early settlers were forced to submit to many privations; but since the colony commenced producing an export, it has been slowly yet steadily progressing ; and although not at present affording much support to the mother country, either by consuming ber manufactures, or by relieving her from excess of population, still a healthy and civilized community has been established in the wilderness, which is ready to advance whenever circumstances may render available the great natural resources of the country. The pecuniary losses that the early settlers incurred are such as must always fall to the lot of individuals, accustomed only to the habits of an


old established community, who undertake to perform a task that proves sufficiently difficult of accomplishment to those who have had a long colonial experience. Much has been said by parties who were interested in placing the history of the colony in the worst possible light, respecting the distress, amounting even to starvation, which existed during its early progress. That such cases would have occurred, had not government afforded support to those who were without the means of subsistence, is certain; but if any actually took place, the circumstance was not generally known to persons then residing there.

In the meantime, the colonies of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land continued to advance with rapid strides; their progress having been considerably accelerated by the influx of emigrants from the Swan River Colony. The proprietors obtained large profits on their capital, which enabled them to pay high wages to the labourers; and the prosperity of both gave an impulse to commerce. But the proprietors were not exactly contented with this state of affairs. In calculating their profits, they could not but perceive that these would have been much greater, had the price of labour been as low as in the toother country. It was not taken into

/ consideration that the labourers, as well as themselves, had migrated for the purpose of obtaining increased profits upon their capital, the labour of their hands. Some of the proprietors went to the expense of import* ing labourers from England, under engagements to serve during a certain number of years; but the capital so invested was sunk, indeed absolutely thrown away, as far as these individual proprietors were concerned; for, although they might have engaged their men in

NEW SOUTH WALES. 151

England at a low rate of wages, they soon found / themselves obliged, in order to retain their services, to increase their pay to a sum very little less than the standard of wages in the colony. The settler could certainly resort to legal proceedings to prevent his servants from breaking their engagements, but this j would have proved of no avail; for discontented men, I without absolutely refusing to work, may still perform the labour assigned to them in a manner that would render their employers glad to be rid of them upon any J

terms. The high price of labour therefore became a great

colonial grievance, that is to say, among the proprietors; for it does not appear that the labourers themselves had any objection to this state of affairs. But they had no opportunity of explaining their view of the case. The eolonial press was exclusively in the hands of the pro- ! prietor-class, who were its chief supporters; and all {

works on the colonies, published in England, emanated from the same source. These rang the changes on the high price of labour, advertizing, as it were, a premium on the invention of some system that would tend to throw a larger portion of the profits into the hands of the capitalist. Nor did a long period elapse before a new system came before the public, and one that ap* peared to present a palpable solution of the great difficulty under which the colonial proprietor considered himself to labour. Its great principle consisted in employing the sums raised by the sale of waste lands as a fund for importing emigrant labourers, the price of these lands to be raised at the same time to a sum considerably above the then standard. The colonists already established in Australia would thus be furnished


with labourers at the expense of future settlers, while the rise in the price of land would add considerably to* the value of the estates they had acquired either by free-grant, or by purchase at a lower rate. The proposed system also presented many advantages to various influential classes in England. The landed proprietors perceived in it a ready mode of ridding their estates • of a portion of the surplus population, which pressed heavy upon the rents in the shape of poor-rates, and this, again, without any outlay on their part. The merchants, who were fully alive to the importance of the trade that was already carried on with the Australian colonies, were pleased with the prospect that was afforded of a considerable extension of their commercial transactions; while the ship-owners could not be otherwise than benefited by the employment that would be given to their vessels in carrying out emigrants. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the new system attained a degree of popularity that sufficed to overcome the opposition of the government, and a portion of territory in South Australia was assigned to the promoters of the system as a field in which to carry out their new principles. These no sooner had a local habitation, than numbers of indi-duals were found ready to emigrate under circumstances that were confidently put forward as a remedy for all the evils that had hitherto attended the establishment of new colonies. The losses sustained by the early settlers at the Swan River were not yet forgotten; but then land had been granted there in the greatest profusion, and, as the opposite principle was adopted in the new colony, it was concluded that this must render it successful.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 153

' Before entering into any details respecting the South Australian colony, it will be useful to enquire into the extent of the field presented for the profitable investment of capital. The nature of the interior of the country was not known; indeed, even the coasts had only been imperfectly explored, but it was presumed that the land would be found equal in point of fertility to other parts of the continent, and this fortunately proved to be the case as far as regarded, at least, a portion of it. An experience of nearly half a century in the neighbouring colony of New South Wales had made it evident that, even under the most favourable circumstances with regard to fertility of soil, pastoral pursuits were those best adapted to the country and climate, and that pastoral produce furnished the most readily available article of export. Other productions that the country was capable of yielding were certainly put forward as likely to become a staple export, but the results of experience in the older colonies did.not bear out the conclusion. The vine had been introduced into New South Wales at the same time with the fine-wooled sheep; and although great expense had been incurred in laying out vineyards, wine had not yet been produced in quantities or of a quality suited to the demand even of the colony itself. The manufacture, indeed, requires considerable skill, and is peculiarly adapted to older countries, where labour is cheap. Wheat of an excellent description could be produced in abundance, but here, again, no market for the produce existed nearer than England, where the corn-laws on the one hand, and the competition of cultivators in countries closer to the market on the other, forbade

H 5


all hope of a profitable exchange. I am aware that Australian corn has been introduced into England, but this has only occurred from capital and labour having been thrown into the colonies that produced it to a greater extent than the natural field of employment would bear, and it became necessary that something exportable should be cultivated. Wheat had, therefore, been grown in quantities greater than was required for the consumption of the inhabitants, and it was naturally exported to the best, indeed almost the only, market that presented itself. But, to adopt the principles of political economists, to render colonies attractive to emigrants, it is necessary that both profits and wages should be high, the former to attract the capitalist, and the latter the labourer. The most enthusiastic admirer of Australia must allow, that, whatever may be the advantages of the soil, and these are certainly undeniable, they are not sufficiently great to enable a capitalist to derive large profits by employing dear labour in growing corn to supply a market on the opposite side of the globe, and where he would have to compete with producers who enjoyed the advantages of comparatively cheap labour in countries possessing an equal abundance of waste lands, and nearer to the market by three-fourths. That corn will at some future time constitute a valuable export from the southern colonies is mote than probable, but not until a better market is found or created than that which England presents. Pastoral produce was, therefore, that on which the new settlers were to depend for an export; and as experience had proved that this could only be produced with advantage at a certain distance from a port of shipment, the


. amount the colony was capable of yielding, even under the most favourable circumstances, admitted of a ready and tolerably precise calculation.

The first party of emigrants arrived in South Australia towards the close of the year 18S7, and they immediately commenced erecting a town on the site that had been chosen for the capital; an open and fertile piece of ground, situated about seven miles inland from the coast. An uninterrupted stream of emigrants continued to flow into the colony during the three years that followed its establishment; and as the allotments rose in value to an exorbitant extent, the capitalists found it most profitable to invest their funds in land speculations. The spots most favourably situated, both in the town and country, thus fell into the hands of the earlier settlers, and those who arrived subsequently preferred repurchasing original allotments, to removing themselves further into the interior. As long as the influx of capital continued unabated, affairs progressed favourably enough. But the returns from the colony in the shape of produce were found to constitute only a very minute per eentagd on the capital that had been invested, and confidence in the infallibity of the system began to be shaken. This acted upon the stream of emigration by which the artificial prosperity of the colony bad been kept up, and a severe commercial crisis was the result. The settlers who had invested their capital in sheep and cattle (which had been brought in large numbers from the older colonies, both by sea and land), instead of employing it in land speculations, bad now reason to be satisfied with the course they had pursued; for the allotments, especially those of the town, became almost valueless from the numbers that were thrown into the


market The buildings that had been springing up in every direction, were discontinued, and hundreds of labourers were thus thrown out of employment; many of whom must inevitably have perished, had not the governor considered himself justified by the emergency of the case in authorizing an immense expenditure in the promotion of public works, with the view of affording them the means of subsistence. The cultivation of the land had hitherto been little attended to, an abundant supply of agricultural produce having been poured in from the neighbouring colonies. The chief sources whence the capital had emanated with which this had been purchased were now cut off, and the colonists, aware that the expenditure on the part of the government could not be continued for a long period, set themselves to work upon their country lands, and were soon enabled to produce grain in quantities greater than the consump* tion of the colony required. It had now arrived at a state closely corresponding with that of old communities ; for, owing to the limited extent of the country adapted for pastoral pursuits, these did not admit of much increase. The colonists had abundance of grain, but they scarcely knew what to do with it. A portion, was exported to countries that afforded a prospect of a market, and some was sent to England, where the quality of the grain attracted a considerable degree of attention. Experiments were also made in fattening sheep with wheat, the animals being subsequently killed and melted down for their tallow: but I am not aware whether the result, which was considered favourable, has led to any extensive operations. The idea probably originated in a somewhat similar proceeding that has long been carried on in the western states of America,


only the grain there used is maize, and the animals are pigs. At this juncture, some rich veins of metallic ores were discovered in the hill-range at the back of the town, which gave rise to mining speculations. Employment was now afforded to a portion of the labouring classes, who thus abandoned the unprofitable pursuits of agriculture to create a valuable export, and at the same time became consumers of the surplus produce of the faimer and stock-holder. The beneficial effects of this change were soon felt. As other veins of metal were discovered, new enterprises were set on foot; and latterly the colony has come to be considered the most flourishing in Australia. For the sake of the energetic individuals who have cast their fortunes there, I trust that this may prove to be the case; but those who dip beyond the surface must perceive that its prosperity is dependent on the continued success of the most uncertain of all speculations in which a capitalist can engage.

While South Australia was labouring under the effects of the crisis, the supporters of the system (who had by this time founded settlements on their own account in New Zealand) accounted for its failure by attributing it to the system not having had a fair trial, one half only of the fond raised by the sales of land having latterly been devoted to carrying out labourers. The trial, certainly, had not been fair as regards the testing of the principle, since, to furnish a comparison with the Swan River settlement, (the only attempt at independent colonization that had previously been made in this part of the world,) South Australia should have been so situated that the stock from which the staple export had been produced could be obtainable only by sea from distant


countries. Now that the discovery of mines has caused a renewal of emigration to the colony, while the New Zealand settlements are in a state of ruin and confusion, South Australia is again taken into favour, and is presented as the great triumph of the system. It is in New Zealand that the system has had a fair trial; but there exists no necessity for my following it beyond the limits of Australia, nor should I have troubled the reader with any details connected with the matter, had not such a course been absolutely necessary; and the state of public opinion with regard to the question is such, that it must either be avoided altogether, or discussed at some length.

But to return to New South Wales. This colony continued to advance with its usual steady progress during many months subsequent to the occupation of South Australia; and the Port Philip district, whdre large tracts of fertile country had recently been laid open, was soon overrun by the flocks and herds of the settlers. As it was rationally supposed that the commercial activity produced there might have the effect of drawing a portion of the emigrants from South Australia, to which the district was immediately adjacent, it became an object with the supporters of the new system to place Port Philip, and indeed all the neighbouring colonies, on the same footing with regard to the price of land and the supply of labour. In carrying out this new measure they received the assistance of a few of the wealthier colonists of New South Wales, who wished to remove from the home of their adoption the taint which must always attach to a penal colony; and who, perhaps, were at the same time somewhat influenced by the spirit which induces men who have climbed to the top of an

NEW SOUTH WALES. 159

eminence to remove the means by which they have been aided in their ascent, with the view of preventing others from attaining a similar elevation. The result was the cessation of the assignment of convicts as labourers to the settlers, and the introduction of the South Australian system into all the Australian colonies, one-half only of the funds derived from the sales of waste lands being, however, devoted to carrying out labourers firom Great Britain. The New South Wales colonists had already derived great advantages from disposing of their surplus stock to the new settlers at Port Philip and South Australia, but now wealth poured in upon them in a stream that appeared to be inexhaustible. Every capitalist that arrived became a customer, and the competition that took place among intending purchasers raised the price of sheep and cattle to a sum far greater than their real value as a mere investment of capital. The older colonists, seeing the confidence placed in the infaUibility of this new system by practical men in the mother country, and finding that it had already brought them into a state of prosperity such as they had never before even contemplated, naturally entertained very favourable views with regard to its efficacy. The rapidity with which the value of land increased tempted many to invest in its purchase not only the funds they had derived from the sale of their surplus stock, but also to borrow money at a high rate of interest, this being opportunely supplied by the people of Great Britain, who, ever ready to pour their capital into any country that affords a prospect of profitable investment, had established banks in the colony to lend money to the settlers. Others of the colonists, tempted by the high rate of interest obtained by the English capitalists, invested their newly acquired

ICO PROGRESS OF COLONIZATION.

funds in establishing opposition banks, and consequently capital became so readily attainable on the slightest possible security as to lead to the most extravagant speculations. Public companies were formed to carry out all sorts of objects, and the shares soon arrived at a large premium. Private townships were marked out in various parts of the country, and the allotments were readily disposed of for sums that would have purchased a small estate a few years previously. The state of affairs more immediately commercial corresponded with the general excitement. Ships arrived almost daily at Sydney from all parts of the world, bringing emigrants and merchandise from Great Britain, corn and horses from South America, teas from China, and tropical produce from India and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Manufactured goods were poured into the colony from the mother country in quantities far greater than were required for the consumption of the inhabitants; and as it became necessary to force sales, these were disposed of for bills, at long dates, to speculators who purchased vessels at exorbitant rates to carry them to all the neighbouring countries that afforded the slightest prospect of a market. But the manufacturer who had exported these goods, and the capitalists who had deluged the colony with their cash, looked in vain for commensurate returns. The exportable productions of the colony increased only in the same ratio with that which existed previous to the excitement, nor did they admit of a more rapid extension. The greater portion of the imported capital and labour was therefore employed in carrying out objects that afforded no exportable return: in building and fitting-up elegant houses; in producing articles of luxury; and in the purchase of waste lands; the ca-

THE COMMERCIAL CRISIS. 161

p talist thus contributing to a fund for importing more labour. Agriculture, too, had been neglected for more profitable pursuits, so that corn was imported from other countries to such an extent that during one year, when the excitement was at its height, the quantity introduced nearly equalled in value the entire amount of the exports from the colony. The English capitalist, therefore, looked in vain for his returns. He might hear that his money was invested in highly valuable property or concerns, but something more tangible was required. At length, tired of waiting, he pressed for the realization of his capital at any loss, and now commenced the crisis. Property of great value was forced into the market, and sacrificed for a mere trifle, and bankruptcy became all but general. Hundreds of labourers thrown out of employment flocked to the metropolis, where other hundreds were found in like circumstances. Those who had saved money drew their little capital from the Savings9

Banks, and expended a portion of it in transporting themselves to countries, no matter how distant, that afforded a prospect of employment, and every ship that sailed from the port was crowded with passengers. Chili, in South America, from its being occupied exclusively by an European race, became the favourite resort of the lower classes, and ship after ship was laid on the berth expressly for the purpose of affording them accommodation. These emigrants were not mere restless characters, but the most industrious and saving of their class, and who, seeing no prospect of a favourable change in the state of affairs, preferred embarking for a country distant half the circumference of the globe, and where they would be thrown among a strange people, and subjected to strange laws, to remaining where they could

16*2 PROGRESS OP COLONIZATION.

only hope to live in idleness and penury.* Every ship that returned to the mother country was crowded with emigrants, chiefly of the upper class; nor does it appear

1 that this re-migration has yet ceased, for I perceive that ] the unfortunate ship Mary, lately lost on her return to : this country, had on board upwards of forty passengers.

A large portion of the more improvident among the labouring classes was thrown upon the hands of the government; and to afford them the means of subsistence, it became necessary to give them employment upon the public works. It was now that the advantage of the South Australian system having been only partially adopted, was fully experienced; for had the case been otherwise, the amount of distress and confusion must have been considerably more than doubled.

Such is an outline of the causes and effects of the late crisis in New South Wales, and from which the colony can scarcely yet be said to have recovered. It will have

* The amount of this re-migration may be learned from the " shipping reports" in the leading colonial journals, where the number of passengers arriving at and departing from the colony by each vessel will be found. In this particular case the proprietors of these journals were at the trouble of ascertaining the especial occupation of each individual emigrant. I have neither time nor inclination to collect an abstract of the amount, otherwise I would have inserted it as an interesting document. As I happened to be in Sydney upon public service when this migration was at its height, I took the trouble one morning of visiting two of the vessels that were about to sail on the same day for Valparaiso, Thirty-five emigrants were on board one, and between sixty and seventy in the other. They were chiefly single men. Possibly, should the colony become better circumstanced, many of them may return; for they left reluctantly, and only under the impulse of a feeling that forms the leading characteristic of the nation to which they belong,—a determination not to go back in the world without a struggle to prevent it.

THE COMMERCIAL CRISIS. 163

heen perceived that it originated in one of those periodical attacks of over-speculation to which Great Britain, like all old established communities that possess a superabundance of capital, ever has been, and ever will be subjected; that is to say, as long as the pressure of numbers, and the competition that necessarily takes place in all fields of employment, obliges every individual to devote his attention almost exclusively to his own particular occupation, and to borrow his views in matters of general importance from some idol that public opinion has set up as a duly qualified authority. The object of these speculations may be the working of mines, schemes for internal improvements, or for peopling waste lands in colonies, but still the result is the same.

The derangement to which our Australian colonies have been subjected is only of a temporary nature, for young communities recover themselves much more rapidly than older ones. It was felt in the first instance with crushing force, for even the few colonists who had not been seized with the mania for speculation were in some measure injured. A market no longer existed for the surplus stock, and this soon accumulated to such a degree that the pastures, notwithstanding their enormous extent, proved insufficient to afford them subsistence. At this juncture a colonist hit upon the happy expedient of boiling down a portion of his sheep and cattle for the sake of their tallow, and the result proved tnat the produce was worth a sum very far above the market price of stock. This was no sooner generally known than every boiler in the colony was put into requisition, and the iron-founders were set to work at constructing others on an enormous scale. In the course of a few weeks

164 HOME MANUFACTURE.

a general slaughter of the surplus stock commenced throughout the colony, and tallow became, and still continues to be, a most important article of export.* Hides and horns, which had formerly been thrown aside as valueless, were now collected and sent home to England; indeed the attention of the community was exclusively directed towards the production and improvement of articles of export, and in promoting home manufactures, with the view of rendering the colony as independent as possible of foreign supplies. The coarser descriptions of wool, and that portion of the clip which, from being stained or otherwise injured, was not well suited for the home markets* were converted into " tweeds," a description of cloth exceedingly well adapted for colonial use; the nature of the climate rendering the heavier productions of the looms of the mother country oppressive and uncomfortable. It was adopted for general wear by some from patriotic motives, by others on account of its cheapness, convenience, and durability; and in the course of a very short space of time the country population, both rich and poor, were rarely to be seen in any other description of woollen clothing. Samples of the cloth were also sent to China and India, with the view of ascertaining whether it could be made to constitute a profitable article of export. I am not aware of the result of the experiment, nor is the point of very great consequence, but it is rather a singular circumstance that our children in the east should already have made

1843. 1844. * Value of exports of wool and tallow from

New South Wales. . . . Wool £686,647 £645,344 . Tallow 9,639 83,511

Entire value of articles exported . 1,172,320 1,128,115

THE MORETON BAY DISTRICT. 165

an attempt at rivalling us in one of our markets for woollens. Efforts to manufacture for export are only likely to last until the colony is better circumstanced for producing a raw material, the natural export of a new country; but the people themselves have become attached to their home manufacture, and would not now dispense with it on any consideration, so that a portion of our market for woollens in the Australian colonies is irretrievably lost.

These and other objects served to amuse the attention of thfe colonists for a time, but only for a time. The destruction of hundreds of thousands of sheep had reduced considerably the amount of 'the staple product, nor was there any prospect of the growth of wool being ever again increased sufficiently even to afford employment for the natural augmentation of the capital of the colony; since the country to the north, in which direction alone the " sheeprruns " admitted of extension, was found to be for the most part ill adapted for pastoral pursuits, owing to the dense scrubs which overspread the surface of the land. Moreton Bay, this northern district, had been for many years a penal settlement, and had only lately been thrown open to individuals. The portions of country adapted for grazing became occupied almost immediately; and Brisbane,the capital, was now one of the few, if not, indeed, the only township in the colony in which newly-apportioned allotments were saleable. This settlement being situated only a few degrees beyond the tropic, experiments had been made on the government farms in the culture of sugar and cotton, which proved very successful, and the attention of the colonists had been from time to time called to the subject of growing these products, but no attempts

166 PETITION TO IMPORT

had yet been made (with the exception of some isolated efforts in the culture of cotton) to lay out plantation*] The subject was now again revived, but a difficulty w » found to exist with regard to labour; for although emigrants were still leaving the colony in large numbers, these were chiefly mechanics and artisans, men of a superior class to the mere field labourer, and who objected to engage in lower occupations than those to which they had been accustomed, preferring to seek elsewhere employment in arts to acquire which had cost them so much labour. Even in the districts that had been long located, the price of labour had not become sufficiently low to satisfy the colonists, and the idea suggested itself of importing coolie labourers from India; indeed, several parties of these people had already been introduced into the colony under engagements to serve a certain number of years, at a rate of wages far below those paid to Europeans, even upon the most reduced scale; and these had given very great and general satisfaction to their employers. The advantages that would result from the employment of coolies, both as cultivators of tropical produce in the north, and as shepherds and herdsmen in the south, became so self-evident, that a petition numerously signed was fowarded to the home government for permission to import labour from India. But one important point had not been taken into consideration by the petitioners, namely, the effect that this system would produce upon the emigration of labourers from the mother country, to which, indeed, it would have put an effectual check. This tendency of the measure had been perceived by many of the colonists soon after the petition had been forwarded, and the intelligence of its failure, which arrived in due

INDIAN LABOURERS. 167

course, scarcely excited a feeling of disappointment. Indeed, had the application proved successful, it is more than probable that the coolies would have been removed at once to some spot on the north-east coast, and there employed in the cultivation of tropical produce, thus commencing a system similar to that existing in the United States, and doubtless to the great advantage of the colonists. Even here, however, the coolies would have been in the way; for, as I have glrjeady stated, this part of the continent is adapted for the occupation of an European people, and it will be an important object to keep the two races as far separated as possible. The Indian labourers have so few wants that they can save a large portion of wages, the entire amount of which would not furnish an European with even common necessaries. The introduction of coolies into any colony must, therefore, have the effect of rendering it unfit for labourers of a superior description. And the evils that result from an admixture of races in a white colony are by no means inconsiderable. They are severely felt even iu the free states of North America; and the new settlers in Oregon, fully impressed with this view of the case, have prohibited negroes and f mulattoesfrom residing among them—a violent measure certainly, but still they must consider it to be necessary, or they would scarcely have adopted it of their own free will.

The intelligence respecting the failure of the petition to import coolie labourers reached New South Wales in the latter part of 1843; and about the same time, I believe by the same mail, a collection of papers relating to Port Essington, which had been printed by the House of Commons, also arrived in the colony. Among

168 OVERLAND EXPEDITION.

these were several reports of officers attached to the settlement, which gave a considerable amount of information concerning the capabilities of the country, together with extracts from the correspondence that had taken place between some of the departments of the home government, and which made it evident that no intention existed of opening the settlement for occupation ; indeed, the results of applications that had been made to the mercantile community of London proved that they cared little if it were abandoned altogether. The colonists now perceived, that whatever might be done with regard to the extension of the colony to the tropical regions must depend entirely upon their own exertion. The Legislative Council of the colony had just been assembled for the first time, and a committee was formed to collect evidence bearing upon the subject. The result was a Report strongly recommending that an expedition should be dispatched to trace a route overland to Port Essing-ton. It was considered that, under any circumstances, such an expedition must produce considerable advantage to the colony; since, if it only succeeded in establishing a practicable route to the head of the Golf of Carpentaria, new lands would be thrown open for pasturage, and a favourable position secured, by which horses, now an importaut export, might be shipped for India, the chief and almost the only market that existed, at a much less expense and risk of loss than from the southern parts of the colony. But the great object was to open a communication with the coasts of the continent which were visited by Indian navigators, and where a spontaneous immigration of natives of the East might take place; a far better mode of obtaining labourers, from the circumstance of its being self-

TO PORT ESSINGTON. 169

regulating, than that of importing them under engagements, which, after all, is scarcely more than a modified description of slavery. It was thought also from the deep interest with which the colonists viewed the undertaking, that it would tend to draw their attention from the deplorable state of their affairs, and contribute to allay the confusion and impatience which form the leading characteristics of a ruined community, but which only exist until some object, sufficiently great and promising, is raised up before them. And circumstances trended to render this period a favourable one for such an undertaking. The establishments of the district surveyors were about to be broken up, the cessation of the land sales having rendered them no longer necessary, and all the materiel of an organized expedition was disposable for the service; while Sir Thomas Mitchell, the Cook of Australian inland discovery, had volunteered to head the party. The Legislative Council voted the necessary funds without a division, but the vote did not receive the sanction of the chief authority, and the project fell to the ground for a time; for, although the sum required could have been raised by subscription, and volunteers were not wanting who were willing to assist in the service without pay, still a private expedition, from its not admitting of the best organization, was but ill adapted for so great an undertaking. When, however, any particular object becomes generally popular in a community, some individuals are sure to stand forth whose enterprising spirit prompts them to face dangers, privations, and, indeed, almost certain destruction, in endeavours to carry it out Thus, before many months had elapsed, a small party of six or seven individuals,

i

170 OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS

headed by Dr. Leichardt, a German naturalist, started for Port Essington, from the northern boundary of the colony,—a forlorn hope in every sense of the word, and it is to be feared that they have fallen victims to their ardour and enthusiasm. Rumours have from time to time reached the colony that a little party of white people had been cut off by the aborigines far away to the north-west; and when the latest intelligence arrived from New South Wales, another and a larger party, aided by subscriptions raised among the inhabitants, was about to penetrate from Moreton Bay to ascertain if there were truth in the rumour.

The mode adopted by the colonists for attaining their ends, may not, at first sight, appear the best calculated for the purpose; but when we examine the matte* closely, the conclusions they have come to seem to be sound and judicious. The northern coasts can be easily reached by sea (the voyage from Sydney to Port Essington usually occupies from fifteen to twenty-five days), yet, until a spot had been thrown open to individual enterprise, it was a sealed country to them as far as cultivation was concerned. On the other hand, by tracing a route by which stock could be driven there overland, they might commence operations with pastoral pursuits, which could be carried on advantageously under any circumstances with regard to the disposal of lands, since no necessity would exist for effecting improvements of a nature that would render ejectment a matter of pecuniary loss. Nor would external disturbances materially affect the communication, which might possibly be the case at some future time with regard to the sea-route. In fact, one mode of attaining

TO PORT ESSINGTON. 171

their object was practicable to them by means of their own unaided exertions, and the other was not.

I should not, however, neglect to mention the efforts of the colonists of South Australia, wha were the first to make the attempt to reach the shores of the Indian Seas, the limited extent of habitable country within their boundary rendering it an object of even greater importance to them than to the people of New South Wales. The colony had scarcely been in existence three years, when a well organized expedition was sent out to the north under Mr. Eyre, an experienced colonist, to cross the continent to Port Essington. At a distance of a few hundred miles in the interior the country was found to be of so impracticable a nature that the party was forced to return, and the colonists suffered their attention to be drawn off for a time to the country lying between their boundary and Western Australia. The original project was, however, soon revived, and Capt. Sturt, the officer who originally traced the great Murray River from its sources in the Blue Mountains to its embouchure in South Australia, started for the north with a large party towards the close of last year, following up the basin of the Darling, until it turned off to the west; and news of his success or failure may be expected daily.

That the Australian colonists will persevere until they have attained their object can scarcely be a matter of doubt, since the necessity for the step becomes every day more apparent to them. In the southern parts of the continent pastoral pursuits scarcely admit of extension, while formidable rivals have appeared in 4#e t field who -will soon compete with them in the

172 ENGLAND, AMERICA,

home-market as producers of their staple export. The migration of the Anglo-Americans to the shores of the Pacific is watched far more anxiously in Australia than in England. They are now acquiring a territory which, unlike the western parts of the American continent, presents large tracts of open country with abundant pasturage. Wool has already been produced there, and from the profitable returns that this article affords, it is likely to become their staple product. The Australian colonist will therefore have to contend with the American back-woodsman, for the state of the manufacturing interests in Great Britain forbids the hope that protective duties will be established in favour of the Australian grower. The projected opening of the British ports to foreign corn may tend to reduce the migration for a time by affording employment to the people bordering on the Mississippi and its tributaries, but an influx of people from Europe will soon force them again to the west. Recent events have tended to prove that roots of the earth, the natural food of savages and the lower animals, and which can only be preserved from year to year, are not designed to constitute the staff of life for civilized man. Confidence in the infallibility of the crop is destroyed, and the infliction will be looked upon as a signal to spread; so that we may expect the ensuing year will witness a migration from the old world to the new, such as never before existed. Australia is not yet prepared to receive what would otherwise have been her portion, and the entire number will go to swell a population already so numerous and energetic as to render the balance of power in Europe, so long the great object of politicians, a point of minor consideration. War, the

AND AUSTRALIA. 173

general remedy in such cases, will here prove of no avail; iadeed, it must tend to throw additional weight into the transatlantic scale. An interruption of maritime commerce must force the Americans to become the manufacturers of their own produce. Internal communication, by river and railroad, already brings the staple from the producing to the manufacturing districts, while the artisans of Europe, who would be thrown out of employment by the stoppage of the supplies of the raw material, must of necessity flock to the only country that would afford them the means of subsistence. The old world presents no territory that can be brought forward as a counterpoise to this new and rapidly-increasing power. We may therefore conclude that the progress of the Australian colonists, who will soon commence the course that in so short,a period has raised a mere dependency of Great Britain to be a rival power, will be anxiously watched. All the elements of the system that has produced this singular, progression exist, to the Australians in a far greater degree than to the Americans. The great source of capital and European labour is the same to both; but, on the other hand, Australia has vast tracts of waste lands, under tropical climates, which can be acquired without tfie necessity of conquering or purchasing them fr6m a foreign state; a body of experienced colonists equal in energy and enterprise to their brethren in the west; and inexhaustible sources of cheap and effective labour. If affairs progress smoothly, a contest will commence between free labour in the East and slavery in the West, and we may even discover in it a more effectual mode of extinguishing this nefarious } traffic than the expensive and unphilosophical mode at present adopted.

I 3

174 CONCLUDING NOTE.

The prospect is flattering, indeed almost too much so ; and I would not have indulged in it, had not the details previously given been sufficient to prevent an active interference on the part of inexperienced individuals, from which, alone, mischief could ensue. The colonists of Australia are already upon the scent, although they have not yet the game fully in view, and the best thing we can do is to sit down quietly and watch the progress of events.

I have now completed a task, commenced with reluctance, and continued amid doubts and anxiety. On the one hand, circumstances rendered it necessary that a full exposition should be given of measures that have already entailed a considerable amount of public expenditure ; and, on the other, great care and caution became requisite to avoid giving rise to an active interference on the part of private individuals that must ultimately produce evil consequences. However, if I have furnished the bane, I liave also presented the antidote. It only now remains for me to fulfil a promise made several months ago to certain parties desirous of (promoting the objects of the late expedition, and the information may be useful to others. Experience has tended to prove that Joint Stock Companies, however useful they may be in carrying out measures for internal improvement, produce the greatest mischief and confusion when applied to colonization. The interests of the -company, and those of the settlers are not identical. The object of the one is to force out to the colony in

CONCLUDING NOTE. 175

which its interests lie as many people as possible, that they may become purchasers of waste lands, on the sale of which the prosperity of the company depends; while the settlers, although they may, in the first instance, be gratified by the arrival of others, a portion of whose capital they may expect to obtain, still the pressure on the field of employment induced by the application of an " engine behind" to the system of emigration, must, sooner or later, be severely felt Then, again, it becomes an object with the company to obtain the waste lands on the most reasonable terms, with a view to a larger amount of profit on the resale to immigrants. If the scene of the company's labours be a crown colony, affairs progress smpothly enough as far as regards this particular point; but where the authority of the company is paramount, and it happens also that the Aborigines have some knowledge of their rights to the soil, collisions occur which render the colony a scene of bloodshed, as well as of commercial confusion. So far with regard to the colony itself; now let us view the effects of the system on the mother country. Joint Stock Companies, tinder ordinary circumstances, have no other mode of advertising their projects than by the issue of prospectuses, and by paragraphs in the public prints; but where colonization is the object, its acknowledged national importance enables the company to enlist in its service advocates of a superior description,—popular orators who can influence the councils of the nation, and talented writers in journals commanding an extensive circulation, whose combined efforts serve to draw a disproportionate amount of attention to the particular colony or colonies in which the interests of the company lie, to the mani-

176 CONCLUDING NOTE.

fest neglect of others. So powerful does this body necessarily become, that an opponent of their undertaking, or of the particular principles they choose to espouse, is crushed with an extraordinary degree of facility. If a humble and obscure individual, his voice is soon smothered; but if he be one whose opinions may carry weight, the matter is transferred to a higher quarter. He is denounced in long and eloquent harangues ; hundreds of pens ore soon at work to point out the enormity of which he has been guilty, and the public, glad of a victim, condemns him at once, unheard, and almost undefended. The unhappy delinquent may have devoted years to the public service; he may have spent that portion of his life which most men similarly situated would pass amid the pleasures of society, in smoothing the path of the navigator in the most boisterous regions of the globe, by exploring hidden dangers, and seeking out harbours of refuge; yet these services count as nothing in the balance. They are acknowledged, certainly, but then he has dared to oppose the views of a powerful body that possesses a strong interest in the colony he is sent out to govern, and his character must perish;—that is to say, as. far as the public can aid in destroying it.

This picture may be a frightful one, but I leave it to the reader himself to judge whether it is not also true. Whilst this reign of terror exists, it cannot be expected that the subject of colonization will be fully and fairly discussed. A bonajide colonist is at once put down as being interested in some particular settlement, and therefore incapable of taking enlarged views with regard to " systematic colonization;" while an observer who may

CONCLUDING NOTE. 177

have had opportunities of forming an unbiassed opinion, is not likely, from the very circumstance of his having no personal interest in the matter, to set himself up as a target for the arrows of the press, unless he be the fortunate possessor of a spirit of philosophy that enables him to regard with indifference the approbation of a public that can be so easily misled.

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