Volume 2

AFRICA

WORLDMARKENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE NATIONS

ISSN 1531-1635

twelfth edition,

Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Twelfth EditionTimothy L. Gall and Jeneen M. Hobby, Editors

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C O N T E N T S

For Conversion Tables, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Glossaries, World Tables, notes to previous editions, and other supplementary materials, see Volume 1.

Readers Guide ............................................................ viGuide to Country Articles.......................................... xviAlgeria .........................................................................1Angola .......................................................................21Benin .........................................................................35Botswana ...................................................................49Burkina Faso ..............................................................63Burundi .....................................................................77Cameroon .................................................................91Cape Verde ..............................................................107Central African Republic...........................................117Chad .......................................................................131Comoros .................................................................145Congo, Democratic Republic of the .........................155Congo, Republic of the ............................................173Cte dIvoire ............................................................187Djibouti ...................................................................205Egypt .......................................................................215Equatorial Guinea ....................................................235Eritrea ......................................................................245Ethiopia ...................................................................257French African Dependencies ...................................273Gabon .....................................................................275Gambia, The ............................................................289Ghana .....................................................................299Guinea .....................................................................317Guinea-Bissau ..........................................................333Kenya ......................................................................343Lesotho....................................................................361Liberia .....................................................................373

Libya .......................................................................387Madagascar .............................................................401Malawi ....................................................................417Mali .........................................................................431Mauritania ...............................................................445Mauritius .................................................................459Morocco ..................................................................471Mozambique ...........................................................489Namibia ..................................................................503Niger .......................................................................517Nigeria ....................................................................531Rwanda ...................................................................551So Tom and Prncipe ............................................565Senegal....................................................................575Seychelles ................................................................591Sierra Leone .............................................................601Somalia ...................................................................615South Africa .............................................................629Sudan ......................................................................651Swaziland ................................................................667Tanzania ..................................................................679Togo ........................................................................695Tunisia .....................................................................709Uganda ...................................................................725United Kingdom African Dependencies .......................................................741Zambia ....................................................................743Zimbabwe ...............................................................759Index of Countries ...................................................777

R E A D E R S G U I D E GENERAL NOTE: Th e Twelft h Edition of Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations (WEN) is comprised of fi ve volumes. Volume 1 is dedicated to the United Nations and its related agencies. Volumes 2 through 5, Africa, Americas, Asia and Oceania, and Europe, contain entries on the countries of the world.

Refl ecting the ever-changing status of the world geopolitical situation, the Twelft h Edition includes en-tries for 194 countries, one more than the previous edition. Th is refl ects the 2006 decision of Montenegro to dissolve its relationship with Serbia to become an independent nation in its own right. Seven entries de-scribe dependencies. Th is edition no longer includes volume 6, which was entitled World Leaders.

Some notable changes in previous editions include the Eleventh Editions inclusion of an entry on East Timor, coverage of the aft ermath of the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, and the expansion of the Eu-ropean Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Changes in the Tenth Edition included recording of the change in status for Macau; as of December 1999 Macau came under Chinese authority, and thus Macau was incorporated into the China entry (previously it was described under Portuguese Asian Dependency). Similarly, the entry for United Kingdom Asian Dependency (Hong Kong) was eliminated with the Ninth Edition; as of 1997 Hong Kong came under Chinese authority and, like Macau, is described in that countrys entry. Also with the Tenth Edition, the introduction of the euro as currency in the nations of the European Union was noted. Th e Eighth Edition of this encyclopedia (1995) reported on the dramatic changes in the world in the early 1990s, including the dissolution of the USSR, Czechoslovakia, and Yugosla-via; the unifi cation of Germany; the unifi cation of Yemen; and the independence of Eritrea. Th ese changes resulted in twenty-fi ve new country articles. Whereas the First Edition of the Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, in one volume, contained 119 articles, the present Twelft h Edition now contains 201.

In compiling data for incorporation into the Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, substantial eff orts were made to enlist the assistance of the government of every nation in the world, as well as of all pertinent UN agencies, who cooperated by supplying data and by revising and updating materials relevant to their sphere of interest. Material received from offi cial sources was reviewed and critically assessed by the editors as part of the process of incorporation. Materials and publications of the UN family and of intergovernmen-tal and nongovernmental organizations throughout the world provided a major fund of geographic, demo-graphic, economic, and social data.

In compiling historical, economic, and political data, primary materials generated by governments and international agencies were supplemented by data gathered from numerous other sources including news-papers (most notably Th e European, the Financial Times, the New York Times, and the Wall Street Journal); periodicals (most notably Current History, Elections Today, Th e Economist, the Far Eastern Economic Review, Foreign Aff airs, and World Press Review); and thousands of World Wide Web sites hosted by government agencies and embassies.

Th e readers attention is directed to the Glossary of Special Terms for explanations of key terms and con-cepts essential to a fuller understanding of the text.

COUNTRY NAMES: Country names are reported (as appropriate) in three forms: the short-form name (generally conformed to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agencys World Factbook 2006), as commonly used in the text; the English version of the offi cial name (generally conformed to the United Nations list of country names); and the offi cial name in the national language(s). When necessary, textual usages of some short-form names have been rectifi ed, usually through the substitution of an acronym for the offi cial name, in order to strike a better balance between offi cial usages and universal terminology. Th us the following short-form names have been adopted throughout (except in historical context to preserve accuracy): DROC (Democratic Republic of the Congoknown as Zaire prior to the Ninth Edition); ROC (Republic of the Congo); FRG (Federal Republic of Germany); North Korea: DPRK (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea); and South Korea: ROK (Republic of Korea). In addition, Vietnam has replaced Viet Nam to refl ect common usage.

MAPS: Spellings on the individual country maps refl ect national usages and recognized transliteration practice. To clarify national boundaries and landforms, dark shading has been applied to waters, and lighter shading to lands not within that nations jurisdiction. Cross-hatching has been used to designate certain disputed areas. Rivers that run dry during certain times of the year are indicated by dashed instead of solid lines.

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FLAGS AND NATIONAL EMBLEMS: All depictions of fl ags, fl ag designations, and national emblems have been reviewed and, where necessary, corrected or changed to refl ect their offi cial usage as of 2006. In general, the term national fl ag denotes the civil fl ag of the nation.

CURRENCY: In most cases, currency conversion factors cited in the Twelft h Edition are as of the fi rst quarter of 2006.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Th e general world trend toward adoption of the metric system is acknowl-edged through the use of metric units and their nonmetric (customary or imperial) equivalents through-out the text. Th e two exceptions to this practice involve territorial sea limits, which are reported in nautical miles, and various production data, for which (unless otherwise stated) units of measure refl ect the system in use by the country in question. All tons are metric tons (again, unless otherwise indicated), refl ecting the practice of the UN in its statistical reporting.

HOLIDAYS: Except where noted, all holidays listed are offi cial public holidays, on which government of-fi ces are closed that would normally be open. Transliterations of names of Muslim holidays have been stan-dardized. For a fuller discussion on these points, and for a description of religious holidays and their origins and meanings, see the Glossary of Religious Holidays in this volume.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: To update the sections on Location, Size, and Extent; Topography, Climate, Flora and Fauna, and Environment, the following print publications (and their publishers) were used: Geo-Data: Th e World Geographical Encyclopedia (Gale Group), World Development Indicators 2005 (Th e World Bank), and World Resources (Oxford University Press). Additional data was acquired from these websites: Library of Congress, Country Studies: Country Profi les (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profi les.html); Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (http://www.ramsar.org); UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http://www.whc.unesco.org); United Nations Environment Programme (http://www.unep.org); Weather Channel: Aver-ages and Records (http://www.weather.com/common/home/climatology.html); World Conservation Union: Species Survival Commission (http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc); World Factbook 2006 (https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook).

POPULATION DATA: Data for the four rubrics describing population (Population, Migration, Ethnic Groups, Languages) were compiled from numerous publications of the U.S. Department of State, the World Bank, the United Nations, and the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), specifi cally its publication Trends in International Migration. Also consulted were Th e State of the Worlds Refugees (Oxford University Press) and International Committee of the Red Cross Annual Report (Interna-tional Committee of the Red Cross)

RELIGIONS: Data for this section were compiled in large part from the 2005 International Religious Freedom Report released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. Th is is an annual report to Congress compiled in compliance with Section 102(b) of the International Reli-gious Freedom Act (IRFA) of 1998. Th e 2005 Report covers the period from 1 July 2004 to 30 June 2005 and includes the work of hundreds of State Department, Foreign Service, and other U.S. government employ-ees. Th e authors gathered information throughout this period from a variety of sources, including govern-ment and religious offi cials, nongovernmental organizations, journalists, human rights monitors, religious groups, and academics.

TRANSPORTATION: Sources consulted for updated information on transportation include publica-tions of the American Automobile Manufacturers Association, the International Road Transport Union, specifi cally its publication World Transport Data, and the World Factbook 2006.

HISTORY: In writing the History rubric, a variety of news and background information sources on each country were used. Full country profi lesincluding information on the history, economy, political institu-tions, and foreign relations on most nations of the worldare provided by the U.S. Library of Congress and by the U.S. Department of State; similar formats are published by the BBC News International version and Th e Economists Country Briefi ngs feature. In consulting news sources for up-to-date information on events, only reported facts (not editorials) were used. Th e New York Times and the Washington Post are more com-prehensive than the Wall Street Journal, whose focus is placed on fi nancial and business news. While the website of the United Nations was used extensively in compiling Volume 1 United Nations, of the World-mark Encyclopedia of the Nations, its coverage of such problems as politics in the Middle East and global ter-rorism pertained to and supported the updating of history rubrics of a number of countries. Other organi-zations that publish journals or studies on global current events, foreign policy, international relations, and human rights include Amnesty International; Human Rights Watch; Foreign Aff airs, published by the Coun-cil on Foreign Relations; and Great Decisions, published by the Foreign Policy Association. In addition, the

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offi cial websites of each nation were consulted critically for information that could be gleaned from a states view of its own history and place in the world.

GOVERNMENT: Th e Government rubric is constructed by outlining the institutions of government as they were formed throughout a nations modern history, up to those existing under the present constitution. Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006 (Th omson Gale) outlines the form of government and provides information on political conditions.

Th e U.S. Library of Congress and the U.S. Department of State chronicle constitutional changes and also provide information on the form of government. Electionworld and the World Factbook 2006 provide infor-mation on offi ceholders in place at the time of publication. Th e BBC News International Country Profi les cover current leaders and their political parties, and Th e Economist is comprehensive in its coverage of po-litical structures and political forces in place and at work in the nations it profi les. Th e offi cial government websites of individual nations were also consulted.

POLITICAL PARTIES: Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006 not only lists the politi-cal parties present in each nation, but provides additional information on the political parties in its History and Government and Political Conditions sections. Th e Economist also has sections in its country brief-ings labeled political structure and political forces, which describe the political climate of each nation the magazine profi les. In addition, Th e Economist provides a brief history of the nation, which oft en includes the history of political parties. Editors reviewed the profi les of selected nations prepared by the U.S. Library of Congress, which include comprehensive coverage of politics and political parties. Th e World Factbook 2006 was consulted for a list of political parties, and oft en, their leaders. Th e website, Electionworld.org, describes the major political parties and their leaders, and also lists minor and defunct parties. Political Resources on the Net, a website, compiles links to a variety of sites useful to the researcher with a critical eye.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006 lists the administra-tive subdivisions in each nation of the world; as does the U.S. State Department in its Background Notes, and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency in its World Factbook 2006. Th e Economist was consulted for a descrip-tion of regional legislatures. Th e U.S. Library of Congress Country Profi les briefi ngs describe administra-tive divisions and provincial and local government.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM: Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006, Background Notes, and the World Factbook 2006 all provided basic information on each nations judicial system. Th e Economist was consulted for a description of the legal systems of each nation it profi les. Th e U.S. Library of Congress Country Profi les briefi ngs provided more in-depth detail about judicial power and structure in the nations it profi les. Jurist, a web-based legal news and real-time legal research service based out of the University of Pittsburgh School of Law in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was consulted as well for concise information on each nation it profi les.

ARMED FORCES: Statistical data on armed forces was compiled from the World Factbook 2006, Th e Military Balance (Th e International Institute for Strategic Studies), the SIPRI Yearbook (Stockholm Interna-tional Peace Research Institute), and other print and online sources including Current World Nuclear Arse-nals maintained by the Center for Defense Information.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION: Th is section was updated using data provided by news agencies and the following websites: World Factbook 2006 (https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook) and Back-ground Notes (http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn).

ECONOMY: In addition to numerous offi cial online sources, data on the economies of the world were compiled from the most recent editions of the following U.S. government publications: National Trade Esti-mate on Foreign Trade Barriers, Country Commercial Guides, and Economic Policy and Trade Practices. Th e Economist was consulted for detailed information on economic structures and select indicators in its Coun-try Profi les archive; it also included economic and political forecasts for the nations it profi led. Th e U.S. Library of Congress Country Profi les provided a brief historical overview of the economies of the coun-tries it profi led, in addition to detailing the current state of various sectors of those economies. Th e Index of Economic Freedom (Heritage Foundation) was also consulted for its measurement of independent variables into broad factors of economic freedom.

INCOME: Statistics on national income were obtained from sources published by the United Nations, Th e World Bank, and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). CIA fi gures are for gross domestic product (GDP), defi ned as the value of all fi nal goods and services produced within a nation in a given year. In most cases, CIA fi gures are given in purchasing power parity terms.

viii

LABOR: Labor statistics were compiled from World Employment and Yearbook of Labour Statistics (In-ternational Labour Offi ceILO) and the ILOs website Child Labor Statistics by Country (http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/simpoc/countries.htm); the World Bank publication World Development Indicators 2004; and the U.S. State Departments Human Rights Reports 2005.

AGRICULTURE, FISHING AND FORESTRY: In addition to government sources, statistical data for these sections was compiled from the following yearbooks published by the Food and Agriculture Organi-zation of the United Nations: Trade; Fishery Statistics: Commodities; Fisheries; Production; Agriculture; and Forest Products.

MINING: Data on mining and minerals production came from various online sources and from statistics compiled by the Minerals Information offi ce of the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, including Volume III of the Minerals Yearbook. Th is volume of the Minerals Yearbook is published both elec-tronically on the Internet and in various print formats available from the U.S. Government Printing Offi ce Superintendent of Documents. Th e Yearbook provides an annual review of mineral production and trade and of mineral-related government and industry developments in more than 175 countries.

ENERGY AND POWER: Key sources consulted include Country Analysis Briefs (U.S. Energy Informa-tion Administration, U.S. Department of Energy), Key World Energy Statistics (International Energy Agen-cy), and World Development Indicators (Th e World Bank).

INDUSTRY : Th e primary source material for the Industry rubric was the U.S. State Departments Coun-try Commercial Guides, which provide a comprehensive look at countries commercial environments, using economic, political, and market analysis. Background Notes were consulted for the information on the in-dustrial history and climate of each country profi led. Also useful was information contained in the Country Profi les published by the U.S. Library of Congress. Th e World Factbook 2006 provides a list of key economic indicators. Th e Economist and, to a lesser extent, BBC News were useful in providing background material for the Industry rubric.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: Th e following print sources were consulted: Th e Nature Yearbook of Science and Technology (Palgrave Macmillan Publishers Ltd.); NIRAs World Directory of Th ink Tanks (Na-tional Institute for Research Advancement); in addition, the following websites were accessed: International Science and Technology Activity (maintained by Industry Canada, Government of Canada); Economics De-partments, Institutes, and Research Centers in the World (maintained by the Department of Economics, Uni-versity of Connecticut); Science and Technology Statistics (maintained by UNESCO Institute for Statistics); World Development Indicators (maintained by Th e World Bank); and Annual Statistics (patent and trade-mark information, maintained by the World Intellectual Property Organization).

DOMESTIC TRADE: Source material for the Domestic Trade rubric came from the U.S. State Depart-ments Country Commercial Guides, Background Notes, and the United Nations publication, International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Also used was information contained in the Country Profi les published by the U.S. Library of Congress. Th e Economist and, to a lesser extent, the BBC were consulted in providing back-ground material for the Domestic Trade rubric. Th e World Banks service Doing Business database and the U.S. Commercial Services Buy USA website were consulted for information on conducting business in a nation, which included business hours and business regulations. Finally, most nations government websites provided information on domestic trade.

FOREIGN TRADE: Sources consulted included 2005 International Trade Statistics Yearbook (Depart-ment of Economic and Social Aff airs, Statistics Division, United Nations) and Direction of Trade Statistics (Real Sector Division, IMF Statistics Department, International Monetary Fund). Th e U.S. Department of States Country Commercial Guides and Background Notes were also used. Th e Economist and the World Fact-book 2006 were consulted in listing import and export partners and key products traded. Various UN bod-iessuch as UNCTAD and UNESCOprovided up-to-date trade statistics.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS: Balance of payments tables were computed from the International Mon-etary Funds Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook. In some cases, totals are provided even though not all components of those totals have been reported by the government of the country. Accordingly, in some in-stances numbers in the columns may not add to the total. Supplementing the IMFs Balance of Payments Sta-tistics Yearbook were Th e Economists Country Briefi ngs, the World Factbook 2006, and information taken from the U.S. State Department, in particular, the Country Commercial Guides. Country Profi les from the U.S. Library of Congress were also used. Also consulted was the United Nations publication National Ac-counts Statistics: Main Aggregates and Detailed Tables.

BANKING AND SECURITIES: Statistical data on securities listings and market activity was compiled in part from Emerging Stock Markets Factbook, 2005 (Standard and Poors) as well as from the websites Country

ix

Forecasts (www.countrywatch.com) and International Banking Statistics (www.bis.org/statistics/bankstats.htm). Various websites specifi c to the individual countries of the world were also consulted.

INSURANCE: Primary sources for information on insurance include the online resources of the Insur-ance Information Institute, Rowbotham and Co. LLP., PricewaterhouseCoopers, the Swiss Reinsurance-Company, and J. Zakhour & Co., as well as numerous national websites dealing with insurance.

PUBLIC FINANCE: In addition to offi cial government websites, analytical reports from the U.S. Depart-ment of Commerce, and news reports, the following publications were consulted for standardized statistical data: World Factbook 2006, International Financial Statistics Yearbook, 2002 (International Monetary Fund), and Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, 2002 (International Monetary Fund).

TAXATION: Information on Taxation was compiled from country data sheets published by international accounting fi rms (Deloitte and Ernst & Young). Addition information was obtained from the U.S. Com-merce Department and the government websites of the countries of the world.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES: Information on Customs and Duties was compiled from country data sheets published by the accounting fi rms of Deloitte and Ernst & Young. Additional information was obtained from the U.S. Commerce Department, the World Trade Organization and the government website of the countries of the world.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT: Source material for the Foreign Investment rubric included the U.S. State Departments Country Commercial Guides, which provided a comprehensive analysis of the foreign direct investment environments of the countries of the world, as did the World Bank publication, A Better Invest-ment Climate for Everyone. Th e International Monetary Funds publications International Financial Statistics Yearbook and Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook, and the U.S. State Departments Background Notes were consulted for the information on foreign direct investment. Also used was information contained in the Country Profi les published by the U.S. Library of Congress. Th e Economist was consulted in providing basic FDI fi gures and other relevant data.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: Source material for the Economic Development rubric included the U.S. State Departments Country Commercial Guides and Background Notes. Th e Economist was consulted for economic and political forecasts for selected nations. Th e U.S. Library of Congress Country Profi les provided a brief historical overview of the economies of the countries profi led, in addition to detailing the current state of various sectors of those economies. Th e Index of Economic Freedom was also consulted for its broad description of economic freedom and development. Information on foreign aid was taken from the print publications and websites of the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: Publications consulted in the preparation of this rubric include 2005 Coun-try Reports on Human Rights Practice (http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/index.htm), International Save the Children Alliance Annual Report 2004 (Cambridge House), Th e State of the Worlds Children (Oxford University Press), and the World Development Report (Oxford University Press). Additional information was obtained from country-specifi c websites and general news publications.

HEALTH: Statistical sources consulted include Country Health Briefi ng Papers (a series of reports pro-duced by IHSD Limited and DFID Health Systems Resource Centre for the United Kingdom Department for International Development); Health Care Systems in Transition (European Observatory on Health Care Systems, World Health Organization Regional Offi ce for Europe); Health in the Americas, Volume II (Pan American Health Organization, World Health Organization) as well as numerous websites on the individual nations of the world. In addition, country-specifi c health profi les published by the World Health Organiza-tion and the World Bank were consulted.

HOUSING: Th e latest government population and housing census information available was used for each country through access of offi cial government websites. Also of use was the World Bank publication World Development Indicators 2005. Topics accessed on the World Banks website included Countries and Regions, Urban Development, and Housing and Land. Other websites consulted included Habitat for Hu-manity (http://www.habitat.org), United Nations Human Settlements Programme (http://unhabitat.org) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAIDhttp://www.usaid.gov). USAID topics ac-cessed included Locations and Urban Programs).

EDUCATION: Data on Education was obtained from various UNESCO publications including World Education Report, Global Education Digest, Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2005, and the UNES-CO Statistical Yearbook. Also consulted was EdStats compiled by the World Bank (http://devdata.world-bank.org/edstats/), the World Factbook 2006 (https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook), the UNESCO

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websites Country and Regional Profi les (http://www.uis.unesco.org/profi les/), and World Data on Education (International Bureau of Education).

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS: Some information concerning libraries and museums was accessed through offi cial government websites of various countries when links were available to tourism, education, and/or cultural ministries or departments. In addition, the following websites were consulted: American Library Association (http://www.ala.org); International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (http://www.ifl a.org); Museums of the World (http://www.museum.com); and United Nations Educational, Scientifi c, and Cultural Organization (http://www.unesco.org).

MEDIA: Primary sources for this section include the annual Editor & Publisher publication International Year Book, online data provided by UNESCO, and the media sections of the Country Profi les featured on the website of BBC News. Th e UNESCO profi les provide key statistics and indicators on education, science and technology, and culture and communication. In addition, government and other websites related to the countries of the world were consulted. Additional sources consulted include the publications World Devel-opment Indicators 2005 (World Bank), World Media Handbook (United Nations), World Factbook 2006, and 2005 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.

ORGANIZATIONS: Lists of member countries were obtained through the offi cial websites of a vari-ety of prominent international organizations and associations, such as the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Amnesty International, Kiwanis International, the World Alliance of YMCAs, the World Organization of the Scout Movement, etc. Associations Unlimited (Th omson Gale) was also consulted.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION: Statistical sources consulted include Yearbook of Tour-ism Statistics and Compendium of Tourism Statistics, both published by the World Tourism Organization. Tourism websites of the individual countries were also consulted, as well as the United Nations publication Schedule of Daily Substinence Allowance Rates and the U.S. Department of State per diem travel allowances published online at www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn.

FAMOUS PERSONS: Entries are based on information available through March 2006. Where a person noted in one country is known to have been born in another, the country (or, in some cases, city) of birth follows the personal name in parentheses.

DEPENDENCIES: Source material for the Dependencies rubric was taken from Background Notes and from the website of the United Nations. Th e Library of Congresss Country Profi les archive provided up-to-date information on dependencies. Th e Economist and the website of BBC News were also consulted, as was Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bibliographical listings at the end of country articles are provided as a guide to further reading on the country in question and are not intended as a comprehensive listing of references used in re-search for the article. Eff ort was made to provide a broad sampling of works on major subjects and topics as covered by the article; the bibliographies provide, wherever possible, introductory and general works for use by students and general readers, as well as classical studies, recent contributions, and other works regarded as seminal by area specialists. Th e country article bibliographies were supplemented with information ob-tained from a search conducted in July 2006. An extensive bibliography listing key references related to the facts in this encyclopedia follows. However, it is not a complete listing since many fact sheets, brochures, World Wide Websites, and other informational materials were not included due to space limitations.

PRINT PUBLICATIONS CONSULTEDAfrican Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: Th e World Bank, 1996.Asia and the Pacifi c...A Tax Tour, Chicago: Arthur Anderson & Co., 1986.Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2004.A Better Investment Climate for Everyone. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2005.BP Statistical Review of World Energy. London: BP Exploration Operating Company Ltd, June 2005.Caribbean Basin...a Tax Tour, Chicago: Arthur Anderson & Co., 1985.Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2006. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce,

2006.Compendium of Tourism Statistics (19992003), Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 2005.Direction of Trade Statistics. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, quarterly.Editor & Publisher International Yearbook, New York: Editor & Publisher, 2005.Ellicott, Karen. Countries of the World and Th eir Leaders Yearbook 2006. Farmington Hills: Th omson Gale,

2005.

Emerging Stock Markets Factbook 2000. Washington, D.C.: International Finance Corporation, 2002.Entering the 21st Century: World Development Report 1999/2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO Statistical Yearbook. New York: United Na-

tions, 2004.. FAO Yearbook: Fishery Statistics. New York: United Nations, 2002.. FAO Yearbook: Forest Products. New York: United Nations, 1999.. FAO Yearbook: Production. New York: United Nations, 1995.. FAO Yearbook: Trade. New York: United Nations, 1999.Global Development Finance. Washington, D.C.: Th e World Bank, 2005.Global Education Digest. Montreal: UNESCO Publishing, 2005.Government Finance Statistics Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2002.Handbook of International Trade and Developmental Statistics. New York: United Nations, 1995.Handbook of Statistics. New York: United Nations, 2005.Health in the Americas. Washington, D.C.: World Health Organization, 2002. Historical Statistics 1960-1993. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 1995.Insurance in the Arab World: Facts and Figures. Beirut: J. Zakhour & Co., undated.International Committee of the Red Cross. ICRC Annual Report 2005. Geneva: ICRC Publications, 2006.International Financial Statistics Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2004.International Institute for Strategic Studies. Th e Military Balance 2003/2004. London: Oxford University

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Group, 2003.McDevitt, Th omas M. World Population Profi le. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 1996.National Accounts for OECD Countries, Main Aggregates, Volume I, 19932004. Paris: Organization for Eco-

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ternational Security. London: Oxford University Press, 2005.Supplement to the 2002 Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, Washington, D.C.: International Monetary

Fund, 2002.Tax Guide to the Americas, Chicago: Arthur Anderson & Co., 1991.Tourism Market Trends: Africa, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.Tourism Market Trends: Americas, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.Tourism Market Trends: East Asia & the Pacifi c, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.Tourism Market Trends: Europe, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.Tourism Market Trends: Middle East, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.Tourism Market Trends: South Asia, Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 1999.

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Trends in International Migration 2004. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2005.

UNESCO. Statistical Yearbook. Lanham, Md.: UNESCO Publishing and Bernan Press, 1999.U.S. Agency for International Development, Bureau for Management, Offi ce of Budget. U.S. Overseas Loans

and Grants and Assistance from International Organizations (Th e Greenbook). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 2004.

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Industries of Africa and the Middle East. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 2003.

. Mineral Industries of Asia and the Pacifi c. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 2002.

. Mineral Industries of Europe and Central Eurasia. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Of-fi ce, 2002.

. Mineral Industries of Latin America and Canada. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Of-fi ce, 2003.

. Minerals Yearbook, Vol. III, International. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 2003.

Working Time Laws: A Global Perspective. Geneva: International Labour Offi ce, 2005.World Bank Atlas. Washington, D.C.: Th e World Bank, 2004.World Data on Education. Paris: International Bureau of Education, 2000. World Development Indicators 2005. Washington D.C.: Th e World Bank, 2005.World Development Report 1990: Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.World Development Report 1995: Workers in an Integrating World. New York: Oxford University Press,

1995.World Development Report 1996: From Plan to Market. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.World Development Report 2003: Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World. Washington, D.C.: World

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2002.World Media Handbook. New York: United Nations, 199294.World Migration Report. New York: United Nations, 2000.World Motor Vehicle Data. Washington, D.C.: American Automobile Manufacturers Association, 1997.World Population Projections to 2150. New York: United Nations, 1998.World Population Prospects: 2004. New York: United Nations, 2005.World Resources Institute; United Nations Environment Programme; United Nations Development Pro-

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WEBSITES CONSULTEDIn the course of preparing this twelft h edition hundreds of websites were consulted including the offi cial website of each country of the world and those of various non-governmental organizations worldwide. Of special signifi cance are the websites listed below. Th ese sites were accessed in 2005 and 2006 for information relevant to the rubrics listed above.

American Library Association. http://www.ala.orgAmnesty International. http://www.amnesty.org/.Asia Insurance Review. http://www.asiainsurancereview.com/home.aspBBC News. Country Profi les. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profi les/default.stm

Central Intelligence Agency. Th e World Factbook, 2006. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/in-dex.html

Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.foreignaff airs.org/.Country Forecasts. http://www.countrywatch.comCountry Overviews. http://www.developmentgateway.org.Th e Economist. http://www.economist.com/countries/index.cfm.Electionworld. http://www.electionworld.org.Energy Information Administration. Country Analysis Briefs, 2005. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Foreign Policy Association. http://www.fpa.org/.Growth Competitiveness Index Rankings. http://www.weforum.org.Habitat for Humanity. http://www.habitat.orgHuman Rights Library. http:// www1.umn.eduHuman Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/.Index of Economic Freedom. http://www.heritage.org.Insurance Information Institute. International Insurance Factbook 2005. http://www.internationalinsurance.

org/international/toc/ International Banking Statistics. http://www.bis.org/statistics/bankstats.htm International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. http://www.ifl a.orgInternational Labour Organization, Bureau of Statistics. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/in-

dex.htmInternational Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/.International Research Services. Insurance Services Network, Inc. Country Profi les. http://www.isn-inc.

com/countries/Jurist World Law. http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/index.htm.Latin Business Chronicle. http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com.Minerals Information Offi ce, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. http://minerals.usgs.

gov/minerals/pubs/country/Museums of the World. http://www.museum.comNew York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/pages/world/index.html.Patent Applications by Country. http://www.wipo.int/ipstats/en/statistics/patents/.Permanent Missions to the United Nations. http://www.asiasource.org.Political Resources on the Net. http://www.politicalresources.net.PricewaterhouseCoopers. European Insurance Digest March 2005. http://www.pwc.com/extweb/pwcpubli-

cations.nsf/docid/e48ebe381887a5c885256fac004d16b5Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. http://www.ramsar.org.Rowbotham and Co. LLP. Country Profi les. http://www.rowbotham.com/countrypage.htmTradePort. http://www.tradeport.org.United Nations. http://www.un.org/.United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). UNCTAD Global Surveys: Foreign Di-

rect Investment Prospects Promising for 2005-2008. http://www.unctad.org.United Nations Educational, Scientifi c, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). http://www.unesco.org.. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2005. http://www.efareport.unesco.org/. Statistics on Research and Development. http://www.uis.unesco.org.. World Heritage Centre. http://www.whc.unesco.org.United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization. Country Profl ies. http://www.fao.org/countryprofi les/

inventory.asp?lang=en.United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT). http://unhabitat.org.United Nations Statistics Division. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/default.htm.U.S. Agency for International Development. http://www.usaid.gov.U.S. Commercial Service. http://www.buyusa.gov/home/.U.S. Department of State. Background Notes. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn.. Country Commercial Guides. http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/rpts/ccg/.. International Religious Freedom Report 2005. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/index.htm.. Human Rights Reports, 2005. http//www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005. Refugee Magazine 2004 Year in Review. http://www.unhcr.ch.

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. 2005 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/index.htm.

U.S. Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profi les.htmlTh e Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/public/us.Th e Washington Post. http://www.washpost.com/index.shtml.Th e Weather Channel. Averages and Records. http://www.weather.com/common/home/climatology.htmlTh e World Bank. http://worldbank.org. . Doing Business database. http://www.doingbusiness.org. . EdStats. http://devdata.worldbank.org/edstats/td61pop.asp?defi ne=preTh e World Conservation Union: Species Survival Commission. http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc.World Development Indicators, Country Overviews. http://www.developmentgateway.org World Health Organization. Country Immunization Profi le. http://www.nt.who.int/immunization_moni-

toring/en/globalsummary/countryprofi leselect.cfm.World Population Prospects (by country). http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp.World Investment Report (UN). www.unctad.org.

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SECTION HEADINGS IN NUMERICAL ORDER SECTION HEADINGS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

1 Location, size, and extent 27 Energy and power Agriculture 22 Income 20 2 Topography 28 Industry Animal husbandry 23 Industry 28 3 Climate 29 Science and technology Armed forces 17 Insurance 34 4 Flora and fauna 30 Domestic trade Balance of payments 32 International cooperation 18 5 Environment 31 Foreign trade Banking and securities 33 Judical system 16 6 Population 32 Balance of payments Bibliography 50 Labor 21 7 Migration 33 Banking and securities Climate 3 Languages 9 8 Ethnic groups 34 Insurance Customs and duties 37 Libraries and museums 44 9 Languages 35 Public fi nance Dependencies 49 Local government 15 10 Religions 36 Taxation Domestic trade 30 Location, size, and extent 1 11 Transportation 37 Customs and duties Economic development 39 Media 45 12 History 38 Foreign investment Economy 19 Migration 7 13 Government 39 Economic development Education 43 Mining 26 14 Political parties 40 Social development Energy and power 27 Organizations 46 15 Local government 41 Health Environment 5 Political parties 14 16 Judicial system 42 Housing Ethnic groups 8 Population 6 17 Armed forces 43 Education Famous persons 48 Public fi nance 35 18 International cooperation 44 Libraries and museums Fishing 24 Religions 10 19 Economy 45 Media Flora and fauna 4 Science and technology 29 20 Income 46 Organizations Foreign investment 38 Social development 40 21 Labor 47 Tourism, travel, and Foreign trade 31 Taxation 36 22 Agriculture recreation Forestry 25 Topography 2 23 Animal husbandry 48 Famous persons Government 13 Tourism, travel, and 24 Fishing 49 Dependencies Health 41 recreation 47 25 Forestry 50 Bibliography History 12 Transportation 11 26 Mining Housing 42

FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

All information contained within a country article is uniformly keyed by means of small superior numerals to the left of the subject headings. A heading such as Population, for example, carries the same key numeral (6) in every article. Th us, to fi nd information about the population of Albania, consult the table of contents for the page number where the Albania article begins and look for sec-tion 6 thereunder. Introductory matter for each nation includes coat of arms, capital, fl ag (descrip-tions given from hoist to fl y or from top to bottom), anthem, monetary unit, weights and measures, holidays, and time zone.

G U I D E T O C O U N T RY A R T I C L E S

xvi

adAnno Dominiambefore noonb.bornbcBefore ChristcCelsiusc.circa (about)cmcentimeter(s)Co.companyCorp.corporationcu ft cubic foot, feetcu mcubic meter(s)d.diedeeasteeveninge.g.exempli gratia

(for example)ed.edition, editorest.estimatedet al.et alii (and others)etc.et cetera (and so on)fFahrenheit

fl .fl ourishedFRGFederal Republic of Germanyft foot, feet ft 3cubic foot, feet GATTGeneral Agreement on

Tariff s and TradeGDPgross domestic products gmgramGMTGreenwich Mean TimeGNPgross national product GRTgross registered tons hahectaresi.e.id est (that is) ininch(es)kgkilogram(s) kmkilometer(s) kwkilowatt(s) kwhkilowatt-hour(s) lbpound(s) mmeter(s); morning

m3cubic meter(s)mimile(s)Mt.mountMwmegawatt(s) nnorth n.d.no dateNAnot available ozounce(s) pmaft er noon r.reigned

rev. ed.revised edition ssouth sqsquare St.saint UKUnited Kingdom UNUnited Nations USUnited States USSRUnion of Soviet

Socialist Republicswwest

A fi scal split year is indicated by a stroke (e.g. 1998/99). For acronyms of UN agencies and their intergovernmental organizations, as well as other abbreviations used in text, see the United Nations volume.A dollar sign ($) stands for us$ unless otherwise indicated. Note that 1 billion = 1,000 million.

A L G E R I ADemocratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Al-Jumhuriyah al-Jazairiyah ad-Dimuqratiyah ash-Shabiyah

CAPITAL: Algiers (Alger)FLAG: Th e national fl ag consists of two equal vertical stripes, one green and one white, with a red crescent enclosing a fi ve-pointed red star in the center.ANTHEM: Kassaman (We Pledge).MONETARY UNIT: Th e Algerian dinar (da) is a paper currency of 100 centimes. Th ere are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 50 centimes and 1, 5 and 10 dinars, and notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 dinars. da1 = $0.01395 (or $1 = da71.67) as of 2005.WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Th e metric system is the legal standard.HOLIDAYS: New Years Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Overthrow of Ben Bella, 19 June; Independence Day, 5 July; Revolution Day, 1 November. Muslim religious holidays include Id al-Fitr, Id al-Adha, 1st of Mu-harram (Muslim New Year), and Milad an-Nabi. Christians observe their own religious holidays.TIME: GMT.

1LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENTSituated in northwestern Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, Al-geria is the second-largest country on the continent. Comparative-ly, it is slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas, with a total area of 2,381,740 sq km (919,595 sq mi). Extending about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) ew and 2,100 km (1,300 mi) ns, Algeria is bounded on the n by the Mediterranean Sea, on the e by Tunisia and Libya, on the se by Niger, on the sw by Mali, on the w by Mauritania, and on the w and nw by the Western Sahara and Morocco; the total boundary length is 6,343 km (3,933 mi). Land boundary and claims disputes with Libya were unresolved as of late 2002.

Algerias capital city, Algiers, is located on the northern bound-ary of the country on the Mediterranean Sea.

2TOPOGRAPHYTh e parallel mountain ranges of the Tell or Maritime Atlas, com-prising coastal massifs and northern inland ranges, and the Saha-ran Atlas divide Algeria into three basic longitudinal zones run-ning generally eastwest: the Mediterranean zone or Tell; the High Plateaus, including the regions of Great and Small Kabilia; and the Sahara Desert, accounting for at least 80% of Algerias total land area. About half of Algeria is 900 m (3,000 ft ) or more above sea level, and about 70% of the area is from 760 to 1,680 m (2,500 to 5,500 ft ) in elevation. Th e highest point is Mount Tahat (3,003 m/9,852 ft ), in the Ahaggar Range of the Sahara.

Only the main rivers of the Tell have water all year round, and even then the summer fl ow is small. None of the rivers are nav-igable. Th e mountainous areas of the High Plateaus are poorly watered; most of the rivers and streams (oueds) fl ow irregularly, since they depend for water upon an erratic rainfall. In the High Plateaus are many salt marshes and dry or shallow salt lakes (seb-

khas or shotts). Farther south, the land becomes increasingly arid, merging into the completely dry desert.

Algeria lies on the African Tectonic Plate. Northwestern Alge-ria is a seismically active area. Earthquakes on 10 October 1980 in a rural area southwest of Algiers left over 2,500 persons dead and almost 100,000 homeless.

3CLIMATENorthern Algeria lies within the temperate zone, and its climate is similar to that of other Mediterranean countries, although the diversity of the relief provides sharp contrasts in temperature. Th e coastal region has a pleasant climate, with winter temperatures av-eraging from 10 to 12c (50 to 54f) and average summer tem-peratures ranging from 24 to 26c (75 to 79f). Rainfall in this region is abundant38 to 69 cm (15 to 27 in) per year, and up to 100 cm (40 in) in the eastern partexcept in the area around Oran (Ouahran), where mountains form a barrier against rain-carrying winds. When heavy rains fall (oft en more than 3.8 cm/1.5 in with-in 24 hours), they fl ood large areas and then evaporate so quickly that they are of little help in cultivation.

Farther inland, the climate changes; winters average 4 to 6c (39 to 43f), with considerable frost and occasional snow on the massifs; summers average 26 to 28c (79 to 82f). In this region, prevailing winds are westerly and northerly in winter and east-erly and northeasterly in summer, resulting in a general increase in precipitation from September to December and a decrease from January to August; there is little or no rainfall in the sum-mer months.

In the Sahara Desert, temperatures range from -10 to 34c (14 to 93f), with extreme highs of 49c (120f). Th ere are daily varia-tions of more than 44c (80 f). Winds are frequent and violent. Rainfall is irregular and unevenly distributed.

1

Algeria2

4 FLORA AND FAUNACharacteristic trees of northern Algeria are the olive and the cork oak. Th e mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees; the forests are inhabited by boars and jackals, about all that remain of the many wild animals once common. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. Esparto grass, alfa, and drinn are common in the semiarid regions. On the coastal plain, the grape vine is indigenous.

Vegetation in the Sahara is sparse and widely scattered. Animal life is varied but scarce. Camels are used extensively. Other mam-mals are jackals, jerboas, and rabbits. Th e desert also abounds with poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes, scorpions, and numer-ous insects.

5ENVIRONMENTAlgerias principal environmental problem is encroachment of the desert onto the fertile northern section of the country. Soil erosion from overgrazing adds to the eff ect. To impede desertifi -cation, the government in 1975 began a project to erect a green wall of trees and vegetation 1,500 km (930 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide along the northern fringes of the Sahara. Th e annual cost of this 20-year aff orestation project was about $100 million. In 2000, about 0.9% of the land was forested. As of 2003, about 5% of the total land area was protected. Th e country has two Ramsar sites: Karavasta Lagoon and Butrint.

Other signifi cant environmental problems include water short-ages and pollution. Th e small amount of water available in Algeria is threatened by regular droughts. Th e problem is further compli-cated by lack of sewage control and pollutants from the oil indus-try, as well as other industrial effl uents. Th e Mediterranean Sea has also been contaminated by the oil industry, fertilizer runoff , and soil erosion.

As of 2002, there were at least 92 species of mammals, 183 spe-cies of birds, and over 3,000 species of higher plants. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threat-ened species included 12 types of mammals, 11 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 10 species of fi sh, and 2 species of plants. Endangered species include the Barbary hy-ena, Barbary leopard, Barbary macaque, the Algerian nuthatch, the North African fi re salamander, the African lion, the common otter, and the Mediterranean monk seal. Th e red gazelle and the Sahara oryx were listed as extinct as of 1994.

6 POPULATIONTh e population of Algeria in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 32,814,000, which placed it at number 35 in pop-ulation among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximate-ly 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 31% of the population under 15 years of age. Th ere were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the an-nual population rate of change for 20052010 was expected to be 1.5%. which the government feels is too high. Th e government has placed emphasis on reproductive health, with a resulting decline in fertility rates from 4.7 births per woman in 1990 to 3.6 in 2005, due in part to increased use of contraceptives. Th e projected pop-

ulation for the year 2025 was 40,604,000. Th e population density was 14 per sq km (36 per sq mi).

Th e UN estimated that 49% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.45%. Th e capital city, Algiers (Alger), had a population of 3,060,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated popu-lations include Batna, 948,000; Oran, 794,200; and Constantine (Qacentina), 688,100.

Th e population is concentrated in the cultivated areas of the northern Tell region near the Mediterranean coast. More than 90% of the populace lives in approximately one-eighth of the country. Th e plateau and desert regions are sparsely populated.

7MIGRATIONIn 1962, some 180,000 Algerian refugees were repatriated from Tunisia and Morocco; aft er independence was declared in July 1962, about 650,000 French Algerians and more than 200,000 har-kis (Algerian Muslims who fought on the French side during the war of independence and chose to retain French citizenship) emi-grated to France. Th e exodus reduced the French population from about 10% of the total in 1961 to less than 1% in 1981. Th ere were around 24,000 displaced persons from Mali and Niger located in the southern Algerian region of Tamanrasset, Adrar, and Illizi. In 1995, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UN-HCR) started the repatriation of the Tuareg refugees back to Mali and Niger. Repatriation was complete as of June 1998, benefi ting some 6,302 Malians and 3,259 Nigerians. At the closing of the ref-ugee camps, some 200 residual refugees remained. As of May 1997, there were an estimated 4,000 Palestinians that were well integrat-ed in Algerian society. As a result of the war between the Polisario guerrillas and Morocco over the Western Sahara, about 150,000 Sahrawi refugees fl ed to Algeria. In November 2005, the UN Of-fi ce for the Coordination of Human Aff airs reported that 165,000 refugees from Western Sahara have remained in the region of Tin-douf in southwestern Algeria since 1999. In 2003, there were ap-proximately one million internally displaced persons (IDP) within the country. As of 2004, there were 169,500 refugees remaining in Algeria. In 2004, the main countries in which over 9,700 Algerians sought asylum were France, Spain, the United Kingdom, Switzer-land, Belgium and Germany.

Th e estimated net migration rate for Algeria for 2005 was -0.37 migrants per 1,000 population. Th e government views the migra-tion levels as satisfactory.

8 ETHNIC GROUPSTh e population consists almost entirely of Arabs. Th ey are primar-ily of Berber origin, particularly in the Kabilia and Aurs areas and in the Sahara oases, or admixtures of Berbers with invaders from earlier periods. Th e Berbers, who resemble the Mediterra-nean subrace of Southern Europe, are descendants of the original inhabitants of Algeria and are divided into many subgroups. Th ey account for 99% of the population. Th e Kabyles (Kabail), mostly farmers, live in the compact mountainous section in the north-ern part of the country between Algiers and Constantine. Th e Chaouia (Shawiyyah) live in the Aurs Mountains of the north-east. Th e Mzab, or Mozabites, include sedentary date growers in

3Algeria

the Ued Mzab oases. Desert groups include the Tuareg, Tuat, and Wargla (Ouargla).

Europeans are of French, Corsican, Spanish, Italian, and Mal-tese ancestry. Algerias European population was estimated at less than 1% of the population in 2005. About half the Jews in Algeria were descended from converted Berbers, and the remainder were mainly descendants of Spanish Jews. Within a month aft er Algeria became independent, about 70,000 Jews emigrated to France and

10,000 to Israel. Almost all the rest left Algeria during the next seven years; fewer than 100 Jews remained as of 1998, and virtu-ally all synagogues had been converted to mosques.

9 LANGUAGESTh e offi cial and majority language is Arabic, with many variations and dialects, but many Algerians also speak French; Arabization has been encouraged by the government. About one-fi ft h of the

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4 Algeria

population speaks a wide variety of Berber dialects, particularly in Kabilia, in the Aurs, and in smaller, relatively protected areas in the mountains and the Sahara. Berber is a distinct branch of the Hamitic language group; dialects vary from district to district. In antiquity, the Numidians wrote Berber in script form.

10 RELIGIONSAbout 99% of the population adheres to the practice of Islam, which is named in the constitution as the state religion. Except for a small minority of Kharijites (Ibadhis) in the Mzab region, most Muslims are adherents of the Maliki rite of the Sunni sect, with a few Hanafi adherents. Th e law prohibits assembling for purposes of practicing any faith other than Islam. However, there are Ro-man Catholic churches that conduct services without government interference. Non-Muslims usually congregate in private homes for worship services. Proselytizing of non-Muslim faiths is and the importation of non-Muslim religious materials are legally prohib-ited. In practice, however, the government does not actively inter-fere in religious conversions. Foreigners who practice non-Mus-lim faiths are generally shown a greater degree of social tolerance than non-Muslim citizens.

Th e number of non-Muslim residents has been estimated as be-ing less than 5,000. Many non-Muslims have fl ed the country be-cause of the civil war and acts of terrorism by Islamic extremists. Th e number of Christians and Jews is thus signifi cantly lower than in the early 1990s. Th e largest non-Muslim groups are Methodists and Evangelists, followed by Roman Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists.

11TRANSPORTATIONIn 2004, Algerias nationally owned railroad had about 3,973 km (2,471 mi) of track, which consisted of 2,888 km (1,796 mi) of standard gauge right of way (283 km electrifi ed), and 1,085 km (675 mi) of narrow gauge track. Th e system consists principally of a main eastwest line linked with the railways of Tunisia and Mo-rocco and of lines serving the mining regions of Bchar (formerly Colomb Bchar); the esparto grass country on the High Plateaus; the date-producing areas of Biskra, Touggourt, and Tebessa; and the main port cities.

Roads are most adequate in the Tell zone, but in the moun-tainous and rural areas, they are relatively poor. In 2002 there were 104,000 km (64,625 mi) of roads, of which about 71,656 km (44,527 mi) were paved, including 640 km (398 mi) of express-ways. In 2003, there were 372,300 passenger cars and 528,000 commercial vehicles. Th e French colonial administration built a good road system, partly for military purposes, which aft er inde-pendence was allowed to deteriorate to some extent; however, new roads have been built linking the Sahara oil fi elds with the coast. Algerias portion of the trans-Saharan highway, formally known as the Road of African Unity, stretching about 420 km (260 mi) from Hassi Marroket to the Niger border south of Tamanrasset, was completed in 1985.

Algiers is the principal seaport. Other signifi cant ports are Ar-zew, Bejaa (Bougie), Skikda (a large gas-exporting center also known as Philippeville), Oran, Annaba, Ghazaouet, and Mosta-ganem. Algerias merchant fl eet numbered 56 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 837,676 GRT as of 2005

An extensive air service used an estimated 137 airports and air-strips in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 52 had paved runways, and there was one heliport. Th e main international airport, H. Bou-mediene Airport, is about 20 km (12 mi) from Algiers. Constan-tine, Annaba, Tilimsen (Tlemcen), and Oran have smaller mod-ern airports that can accommodate jet aircraft . Air Algrie, the national airline, provides international service. In 2003, a total of about 3.293 million passengers were carried on domestic and in-ternational fl ights.

12 HISTORYBefore the period of recorded history, the North African coast-al area now known as Algeria was inhabited by Berber tribal groups, from whom many present-day Algerians are descended. Phoenician sailors established coastal settlements, and aft er the 8th century bc, the territory was controlled by Carthage. Roman dominance dates from the fall of Carthage in 146 bc. Completely annexed in ad 40, the region, known as Numidia, became a center of Roman culture. Christianity fl ourished, as did agriculture and commerce; Numidian wheat and olives were shipped to Rome. By the mid-3rd century there were some 20 Numidian bishops. Despite the prosperity of the Roman cities and the cereal-grow-ing countryside, there were frequent Berber revolts. Th e Roman infl uence gradually declined, especially aft er the Vandal invasion of 43031. Th e Byzantine conquered eastern Numidia in the 6th century.

Aft er the Arab conquest began in 637, the area was known as Al-Maghrib al-Awsat, or the Middle West and continued for a century. Th e Berbers accepted Islam but preserved their own tra-ditional political and social institutions, in eff ect absorbing the in-vaders. Arabs from the east attacked in the 11th century. Th ese newcomers, unlike their predecessors, were nomadic herders rather than farmers; they destroyed many of the towns and farms and reinforced a more pastoral type of economy. Almoravids from Morocco also took possession of part of the region in the 11th century, and they were succeeded by Almohads a century later. Al-though these and other dynasties and individuals united the ter-ritory and consolidated it with Morocco and Spain, local rulers retained considerable autonomy. Meanwhile, seafaring and piracy became important.

Spain conquered part of the coast in the early 16th century, and Algerians asked the aid of Aruj, known as Barbarossa, a Turk-ish pirate. He expelled the Spaniards from some of their coastal footholds, made himself sultan, and conquered additional terri-tory. Th e area of Barbarossas control was extended by his brother, Khayr ad-Din, also called Barbarossa, who placed his territory un-der the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. Until 1587, Algiers was governed by beylerbeys; from 1587 to 1659, by pashas, who were appointed for three-year terms; and aft er 1659, by aghas and fi nally by deys (28 deys in all, 14 of whom were as-sassinated). Other parts of what is now called Algeria were ruled either by Turkish offi cials or by local chieft ains. Spain held a small area around Oran until 1708 and controlled it again from 1732 to 1791.

Algiers became increasingly independent of Constantinople and, joining with other states of the Barbary Coast, thrived on piracy. At this time, it had diplomatic and trade relations with

5Algeria

many European countries, including France. But with the defeat (though not suppression) of the Barbary pirates by US and Euro-pean fl eets during 181516, and with the growing European inter-est in acquiring overseas colonies, Algiers was seen as a possible addition to either the British or the French empire. In 1830, the French took over the principal ports; they gradually subjugated the Berbers, annexed the northern regions, and set up a system of fortifi ed posts. Th ereaft er, sporadic revolts broke out, notably the guerrilla war from 1830 to 1847, led by the legendary hero, Abd al-Qadir, and the Kabyle rebellion in 1871. Other sections, how-ever, remained independent of France until the fi rst decade of the 20th century.

Al-Jazair, as it was called in Arabic, became, in French, Alg-rie, a name that France applied to the territory for the fi rst time in 1839. In 1848, northern Algeria was proclaimed an integral part of France and was organized into three provinces. Following the Franco-Prussian War of 187071, large numbers of Alsatians and other French colonizers settled the most fertile confi scated lands, as did other Europeans at the invitation of France. Muslims had no political rights except for limited participation in local fi nan-cial delegations.

Following World War I, France took the fi rst steps toward mak-ing all Algeria an integral part of France. In 1919, voting rights were given to a few Muslims, based on education and military ser-vice qualifi cations. French citizenship had previously been open to Muslims who renounced their Koranic status.

During World War II, in exchange for loyalty to France, many Muslims hoped for political concessions, and moderates believed that France might be persuaded to grant Algeria a separate status while retaining close diplomatic, economic, and defense ties. In 1957, all Muslims became French subjects, but about nine million Muslims and 500,000 Europeans voted on separate electoral rolls for a joint assembly. Unsuccessful in obtaining further reforms and faring poorly in several apparently rigged elections, the mod-erate Muslim nationalist group led by Ferhat Abbas was greatly weakened.

Th e war in Algeria toppled several French governments be-fore causing the demise of the Fourth Republic in May 1958. Gen. Charles de Gaulle was then brought to power by French right-ists and military groups in Algeria. To their surprise, however, he pursued a policy of preparing for Algerian independence. He of-fered self-determination to Algeria in September 1958. Referen-dums in France and Algeria on 8 April and 1 July 1962 approved a settlement, and independence was formally proclaimed on 3 July, despite a program of counterterrorism by the French Secret Army Organization in Algeria. Meanwhile, younger nationalists had formed what would become known as the National Libera-tion Front (Front de Libration NationaleFLN), and a guerrilla war was launched on 1 November 1954. Th e FLNs National Lib-eration Army (Arme de Libration NationaleALN) perpetrat-ed acts of terrorism and sabotage throughout Algeria and gained increasing mass support. Eventually, France was forced to main-tain at least 450,000 troops in Algeria. During the hostilities, the French army completely cleared many rural areas of their civilian populations and evacuated some two million Muslims to army-controlled regroupment centers or new large villages. Although the army gradually eliminated the power of the FLN to carry out

large-scale attacks, the latter continued its terrorist acts against the French army, French settlers, and pro-French Muslims. Terrorist activities, mainly as a result of factional disputes, also were carried on by Algerian Muslims in France. During more than seven years of civil war, well over one million Muslim guerrillas and civilians and 10,000 French soldiers lost their lives.

With independence achieved, a seven-man Political Bureau, set up as the policy-making body of the FLN, took over eff ective control of the country on 5 August 1962. Ahmed Ben Bella be-came the fi rst premier, and Ferhat Abbas was chosen speaker of the Assembly. Th e Assembly adopted a constitution, which was endorsed by referendum in September 1963.

Elected president in October, Ben Bella began to nationalize foreign-owned land and industry. Opposition to his authoritarian regime led to an outbreak of armed revolts in the Kabilia and Bisk-ra areas in July 1964 and to open attacks on the regime by lead-ing political fi gures. On 19 June 1965, the Ben Bella government was overthrown in a bloodless coup directed by Col. Houari Bou-medienne, fi rst deputy premier and defense minister. Th e 1963 constitution was suspended, and a revolutionary council headed by Boumedienne took power. Th e new government shift ed to a gradualist approach to national development, with deliberate economic planning and an emphasis on fi nancial stability. Dur-ing the 1970s, the council nationalized the oil industry and initi-ated agrarian reforms. Boumedienne ruled by decree until June 1976, when a national referendum approved a Socialist constitu-tion providing for a one-party state with a strong presidential sys-tem and an elected National Assembly. Boumedienne was elected president in December 1976 but died two years later.

Th e FLN Central Committee, with strong army backing, chose Col. Chadli Bendjedid as the partys leader, and his presidential candidacy was ratifi ed by the electorate on 7 February 1979. He was reelected without opposition in January 1984 for a second fi ve-year term. Aft er a period of maintaining continuity with the previous regime, the Bendjedid government moved toward more moderate policies, expanding powers for the provinces and state enterprises and attempting to revitalize the FLN and government agencies. In foreign aff airs, Algeria reduced its earlier support for liberation groups around the globe and for hard-line nonaligned positions. It patched up its dispute with Morocco over the Western Sahara and sharply reduced its aid to the Polisario. Algeria played a key role in helping the United States resolve the hostage crisis in 1981 and worked hard for the Arab Maghreb Union, a planned EC for North Africa. Serious internal trouble developed in 1988 when young Algerians rioted over high prices, unemployment, and the dictatorship of an aging, inept, and corrupt revolutionary regime. Shocked by the 500 deaths in the streets, Bendjedid moved to lib-eralize his government. Political parties were allowed to form out-side the FLN and the prime minister and cabinet were made re-sponsible to the National Assembly. He won a third term in 1989, supported by 81% of the electorate.

Burdened by heavy debts and low oil prices, Bendjedid was obliged to pursue austere economic policies and to abandon so-cialism for the free marketactions which further infl amed his opposition, now led by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS). In 1989, the party won 55% of urban election seats while the FLN main-tained power in the countryside. Elections to the National Assem-

6 Algeria

bly, postponed six months, were held in December 1991 under relatively free conditions. FIS candidates won 188 out of 231 con-tested seats, needing only 28 more places in a second vote to con-trol the 430-member Assembly. Th e FLN won only 16 seats.

Th e army intervened, arresting FIS leaders and postponing in-defi nitely the second stage vote. Bendjedid resigned under pres-sure from the army and Mohammed Boudiaf, a hero of the revolu-tion, returned from exile to lead the High State Council which the army established. A harsh crackdown on Islamists began; the FIS was banned and its local councils were closed. As acts of terror-ism continued by both sides in 1992 and 1993, the regime declared a state of emergency, set up special security courts and arrested more than 5,000 persons. Boudiaf was assassinated in June 1992 to be replaced by Ali Kafi with Redha Malek as prime minister in August 1993. In January 1994, Defense Minister Liamine Zeroual was named president and the fi ve-man presidential council was abolished.

Zeroual released two top FIS leaders in September 1994 and began a dialogue with the FIS. Aft er six weeks of apparently half-hearted talks, Zeroual ended the dialogue and called for new presi-dential elections. Opposition partiesincluding the FLN, the FIS, and other Islamist groupsmet in late 1994 and early 1995 under the auspices of the Sant Egidio Roman Catholic community in Italy to produce a national contract to end the violence through a transitional government that would include all parties. Zeroual rejected the meeting as foreign interference in Algerias internal aff airs and condemned the contract that it produced. He contin-ued to attempt dialogue with the legalized opposition parties with no results.

While parties accounting for nearly 80% of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections were excluded from participating, Zer-oual did have three opponents for the presidency in the Novem-ber 1995 elections. Th e elections went ahead as scheduled. Despite widespread calls for boycotts and threats of violence, the govern-ment claimed 75% of registered voters participated in the election, which gave Zeroual the offi ce of presidency with 61% of the votes. Opposition groups disputed the turnout fi gures.

Zerouals fi rst objective aft er election was the passing of a new constitution greatly expanding presidential powers. Th e referen-dum approving the new constitution was passed with nearly 80% of the registered voters participating and 86% approving the new constitution. While there were widespread electoral irregularities, the vote was generally viewed as refl ecting Algerias weariness with civil war (which, as of 2003, had claimed approximately 100,000120,000 lives since 1992) and a willingness to give the government the power to end it. At the very least, the elections showed that few of Algerias registered voters respected the boycott calls made by opposition parties, even when those calls were backed up with threats of violence.

However, the elections did not stop the cycles of violence. When the government thought it had eff ectively stopped the terror cam-paign, the Ramadan of 1997 (the traditional high point of terror-ist activity) was the bloodiest ever, with daily reports of bombings and massacres.

Despite the violence and instability, Zeroual continued to hold elections as he reshaped Algerias government. In June 1997, par-liamentary elections were held. Th irty-nine political parties reg-istered for the elections with over 7,000 candidates contesting for

the 280 seats in the National Peoples Assembly. Violence contin-ued throughout the campaigning. Th e result of the election was a victory for pro-government parties. However, though the FIS and other religious parties were barred from participating, two other more moderate Islamist parties won more than 100 seats and re-ceived over 20% of the votes cast. Regional and municipal council elections were held in October 1997, with the RND (Rassemble-ment national pour la dmocratie or National Democratic Rally) winning more than half of the seats.

In September 1998 President Zeroual gave a surprise address announcing that he would step down from power in February 1999, two years before his term was to expire. Th e decision was most likely due to infi ghting in the regime, which had become increasingly public. Forty-seven candidates presented themselves for election, but only seven made it to the fi nal list, with Abdelaziz Boutefl ika quickly emerging as the leading candidate. Tarnishing the results of the election, four of the candidates offi cially with-drew from the contest two days before the 15 April election day claiming massive fraud in favor of Boutefl ika in the forming of election lists. Th ey were joined the following day by the other two candidates. Th e fraud claims were rejected by the minister of the interior and the election went ahead with Boutefl ika as the single candidate.

Following his election victory, Boutefl ika instituted dialogue with opposition groups and at the end of 1999 moved against cor-ruption. Within weeks of his election, Boutefl ika announced a Civil Concord Plan based upon a 1997 truce between the mil-itary and the FISs Islamic Salvation Army (AIS). In September 1999, a referendum was held on the plan, which was approved by more than 98% of the voters; voter turnout was over 85% nation-wide, but was below 50% in eastern regions of the country, which are dominated by the opposition. Th e plan included an amnes-ty for those Islamists who renounced violence; up to 5,500 rebels participated in the amnesty, and the AIS formally disbanded in 2000. Th ose guilty of murder, rape, or the placing of bombs were to be prosecuted; however, the death penalty would not be used, and no prison sentence would be longer than 20 years. Th e plan was supported by the FIS; however, violence continued, and was still ongoing as of March 2003.

In April 2001, a Berber youth taken into custody by the police was killed, sparking months of demonstrations and rioting in the northeastern region of Kabylie. More than 90 people died in the unrest, which also spread beyond Kabylie. Th e Berber protesters complaints went beyond the act of police brutality, addressing concerns of ethnic discrimination, corruption, housing shortag-es, unemployment, repression, and violence. In May, the main-ly Berber party, the Rally for Culture and Democracy, withdrew from the government in protest against the governments handling of the unrest. In October, Boutefl ika agreed to a constitutional amendment granting national reco