contents 1. overview: german teaching worldwide

11. Overview: German teaching worldwide

Contents

1. Overview: German teaching worldwide................................................................................ 1

2. Competence-oriented approach ............................................................................................. 4

2.1. Normative educational concepts.................................................................................. 5

2.2. Student competencies .................................................................................................. 7

2.3. Teacher competencies.................................................................................................. 9

3. Globally aligned approach................................................................................................... 20

3.1. German teaching and training German teachers at home......................................... 21

3.2. German teaching and training German teachers abroad........................................... 25

4. Interdisciplinary approach: forms of learning in German teaching..................................... 29

5. Summary.............................................................................................................................. 36

6. Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 36

1.7. Appendix ................................................................................................................... 45

1.7.1. Overview of teacher competencies..................................................................... 45


This presentation of a modern, global approach to teaching German is structured around threedidactic questions: WHAT?, HOW? and WHY?.

The first didactic question relates to WHAT? (i.e. the selection and explanation of the subjectmatter). The second didactic questions deals with HOW? (i.e. the methodical preparation andcommunication procedures). The third didactic question is: WHY? This question is answeredthrough the development of the potential for teaching German that arises from thepresentation of the individual areas of teaching German.

A further answer to the question as to WHY? is the internationalisation of training forGerman teachers. The answer here is twofold: on the one hand it is realised through theconsistent inclusion of first language acquisition and language of origin in the training ofGerman teachers in Germany. On the other hand, the integrative presentation of first, secondand foreign language teaching should facilitate the creation of internationally aligned Master’sprogrammes for training German teachers. The aim of this is to establish an intensive dialoguebetween German and foreign language and literature didactics, and between native andforeign language didactics.

Just like the overall views of German didactics previously published as treatises, thisoverview also represents an independent position, namely that of competence oriented,intercultural and interdisciplinary German teaching. At the same time, it follows the


objective of practically incorporating this position into numerous areas of training for Germanteachers i.e. of helping to improve the training.

The competence orientation is one of the key defining elements of this overview. It has beenselected as a main defining element as it forms the basis of institutional guidelines (includingeducational standards and key curricula). A considerable part of modern German didacticsworks in a competence and empiricism oriented manner.

This position aims to open up German didactics for many languages, literatures and culturalpractices through an intercultural alignment that is conducive to a globally aligned countryof immigration. This opening is the response of German didactics to the two highly topicalcontextual conditions for learning, namely globalisation and migration. These can bedescribed as two dynamising factors that have an impact on and alter all areas of Germandidactics and German teaching as a whole. The migration contextual condition gives Germanteaching a multilingual and intercultural orientation, and means that German is jointly taughtand learnt as both a first and second language. The incorporation of globalisation means notonly that an intercultural dialogue is initiated with students who speak German as a secondlanguage, but also that international perspectives are developed through the context ofGerman as a foreign language. As a result, international learning content, educationalapproaches and learning methods become part of the trend-setting, globally aligned approach.

The interdisciplinary foundation of German didactics addresses the optimisation of thecommunication processes, and also emphasises the empiricism orientation in cooperation withteaching and learning research and sociology. The interdisciplinary foundation has an impacton the methods and processes of teaching and on the adherence to the rules for teaching andlearning.

This position can be broken down into five structural elements that turn German didacticsinto a scientific discipline. The key first structural element lies, in relation to Germandidactics, in the four basic skills of linguistic usage (reading, writing, speaking andlistening) that characterise the basic structure of the areas of learning.1 German teaching isdefined as a place of receptive, productive, oral and written language processing. The secondstructural element denotes, together with the cognitive, emotional, social and motor formsof learning, the important connection between German didactics and the principles ofteaching and learning research and neuroscience. The manifold channels for processinglanguage and literature, which enable further mobilisation of students, are very important.2

Through this structural element with the emotional and motor forms of learning, it is alsopossible to make a connection with the area of body language in addition to linguistic speechprocessing, and establish body language as a separate area of learning. The third structuralelement highlights the learning context: the key element for establishing training processes isthe development of media for the modern age i.e. the development of orality and literacy upto audiovisuality and digitality with the creation and dissemination of the relevant media,

1 Cf. Müller-Michaels (2009), p. 43ff; Portmann-Tselikas (2001).2 Cf. Ebbens & Ettekoven (2009) and Vester (2011). Places of learning and communication fields

can furthermore be specified for the forms of learning, and these can be sub-divided into school,out-of-school, institutional and “free” communication fields. As an example for the “outdoor” out-of-school “free” place of learning cf. Rupp, Abstiens & Reinsch (2011).


particularly for the younger generation. This development increases the need for teaching tohandle not only new content to be received but also, at the same time, for new formats to beproduced.3

These three structural elements illustrate the fundamental connection between the positionpresented in this overall view and the four basic skills of language processing that will beaddressed later in a competence theoretical manner. They also illustrate the interdisciplinaryrelationships relating to forms of learning and the learning context, and the development ofmedia in the modern age. Further interdisciplinary relationships are created through the fourthstructural element of the three levels of training processes. This links to the subject-didacticmodelling of reading performed by Rosebrock & Nix (2008). The complexity of theseoperations is brought about through this fourth structural element and the modelling oflanguage processing into several levels which is based upon it. Several levels for thetheoretical foundation of a subject-didactic model for reading literacy can be identified:

– The process level of the actual act of reading;– The subject level of the respective “self-concept as (non)-reader”4 in the areas of

knowledge, involvement, motivation and reflection; and– The level of socialisation instances of “family, school, peers and cultural life”.5

The fifth structural element of educational concepts defines the objectives of educationalprocesses on two levels: normative-theoretical on the upper level and competence-theoreticalon the lower level.

The following diagram illustrates what has been explained above:

3 Cf. Rupp (1996).4 Rosebrock & Nix (2008), p. 16.5 Rosebrock & Nix (2008), p. 16. Multi-level models in sociology distinguish, in a hierarchical man-

ner, between the macro level of social structure, the meso level of social institutions and the microlevel of individual experiences and actions. Cf. Groeben (2004), p. 147ff.

42. Competence-oriented approach

Figure 1: Overview of the five structural elements and the two dynamising factors of Germandidactics

The defining elements of the central position that have so far only been mentioned –competence orientation, global orientation and interdisciplinarity – will be expanded upon inthe following sections.


Competence orientation is the core of the central position. Weinert defines competencies as

the cognitive skills and abilities of an individual, either inherent orlearnable, to solve specific problems, together with the associatedmotivational, volitional and social willingness and ability to makesuccessful and responsible use of the problem solutions invariable situations.6

The term “competence” determines an individual’s abstract abilities and the skills that theycan practically employ – namely acting socially and responsibly in practical, problem-relatedsituations. This means that it operationalises i.e. is translated into courses of action aimed at

6 Weinert (2002), p. 27ff.


solving concrete tasks. The competence orientation makes it possible to define and measurethe learning status, difficulty of tasks and quality of the learning results. This ensures thatteaching in schools is transparent and that students learn to improve their ability to study andwork. Weinert’s definition of the “motivational, volitional and social willingness and abilityto make successful and responsible use of the problem solutions in variable situations”7 takesup personal and social motives of the general educational concept and transfers them to aspecific learning context. The competence term differentiates this further, namely intodifferent areas of competence and, primarily, into different specialist domains. As such, theimplicit objective of being able to act socially is met and the concrete specialist knowledgerequired to achieve competence is specified.

The competence orientation is anchored in the leading position in the 5th structural element ofthe educational concepts of German didactics. It is positioned under the normativeeducational concepts.8 The normative educational concepts act as a global means of guidancefor the act of learning in German teaching, and provide extensive orientation for theobjectives for German teaching. As far as possible, these are converted into verifiableobjectives and transformed into competency models. The formulation of student and teachercompetencies makes it possible to plan, execute and analyse learning and teaching. Thecompetence orientation does not achieve the general importance and standards of normativeeducational concepts, but it does act as the guideline for tangible routine work in professionalinstitutional contexts such as teacher training. A general normative educational concept suchas the development of identity and all-round personality can, for example, be defined as acompetence-oriented ability to act and then further concretised and operationalised. This aimsto pragmatically define the strongly discussed “relationship between education andcompetence per PISA”9 as complementary.

2.1. Normative educational concepts

Normative educational concepts are understood to be “regulative ideas”10 which determineroutine German teaching and are part of a framework of values and standards, without beingdirectly implemented in specific teaching plans. It is rather higher level terms such asmaturity, self-determination or the ability to act which specify the purposes for whichskills should be acquired and applied. These terms also highlight the need to consistentlytransfer abstract educational content into particular, domain-specific competence models. Ifthese terms also appear to be abstract and static, this should not belie historical processes oftransformation. Anselm (2012) thus states that the concept of education “(was) increasinglyideologised and politicised and changed, to a certain extent, from something given to mankind(by God) into an indicator of mental capacity as a selection criterion within the educationsystem.”11

7 Weinert (2002), p. 27ff.8 Cf. Figure 1: Overview of the five structural elements and the two dynamising factors of German

didactics9 Grimm (2011). p. 11.10 Müller-Michaels (2009), p. 40.11 Anselm (2012), p. 19-20, with reference to Vierhaus (1972).


Examples of normative educational concepts are the neo-humanistic educational ideals ofholistic, all-round education and maturity. These apply for school education as a whole.However, there are also normative educational concepts for individual subjects. Such subject-specific educational concepts were developed as general objectives of German teaching in theaforementioned treatises as an overall view of German didactics since 1949. They werederived from general educational beliefs e.g. Ulshöfer’s idea of chivalrous education (1953).Following the educational reforms of the 1960s/70s, such terms were replaced, for example,by critical didactics with the objective of maturity and self-determination.12 Since theemergence of divisional didactics within German didactics (primarily language, literature andmedia didactics) there are now area-specific objectives. From an empirical perspective,subject-specific cultural provisions for German teaching have been compiled throughinterviews with teachers.13 Such findings are important for comparing one’s own view andconvictions with available opinions. Groeben & Hurrelmann (2002) recently recognised theability to act socially as a general aim of the development and promotion of reading ability.This aim can be transferred from the area of reading ability to that of German teaching as awhole. The ability to act socially combines personal and social aspects and focuses them onan active image of mankind that meets the current requirements of society. This active imageof mankind also forms the basis of Guidelines for German in secondary schools II which,alongside scientific propaedeutics, also identify cultural participation as a generalobjective of German teaching.

When considering the ability to act socially, the focus is on the visible manifestation i.e. onthe direct output of the German lesson. However, German teaching is characterised by anemphasis on indirect and long-term developments, i.e. dispositions and latent skills in the areaof comprehension, attitude and emotional experiences are also targeted. As such, specialisteducational concepts (e.g. memory building, developing empathy and solidarity) are relevantfor German teaching as they are triggered by literary understanding.14 Nowadays it isimperative to remember that, alongside the competence theory parts of German teaching thatcan be described, there are also dimensions of human education which go beyond these parts.They cannot be recorded with the visible and usable instruments of concrete modelling andmeasuring, but these dimensions should nevertheless also be developed as part of Germanteaching.

During German lessons, students learn and practise systematicreading strategies to develop their reading competence, whichwill enable them to discover different types of texts. Underlyingthese efforts to develop competencies are higher objectives: theacquisition of worldly education in the area of factual texts andliterary education in the area of literary texts, which ischaracterised by aesthetic sensitivity and the ability to

12 Cf. Müller-Michaels (1980).13 Cf. Kunze (2004).14 With regard to these “follow-up functions of reading” cf. Rupp, Heyer & Bonholt (2004).


understand fully complex texts.

In summary, the German teaching described is committed to general educational conceptssuch as the ability to act and also linguistic, literary and, in particular, interculturalunderstanding. These largely reflexive concepts which focus on direct, but more on indirectand longer term, learning and behavioural results are operationalised as far as possible from acompetence theory perspective. This is done in the next section, where the relevant studentcompetencies are outlined in order to describe the individual, domain-specific areas oflearning.

2.2. Student competencies

As already outlined, competencies form the lower level in the area of educational concepts,which is offset from the normative educational concepts level above it.15 This positioningapplies for student and teacher competencies. The competencies thus create a working levelwhich the educational concepts influence and on which they are elaborated and substantiated.This is done in this overview through expressly naming the knowledge not considered byWeinert as specialist or declarative knowledge, and differentiating it for the different areasof learning. It is also linked to further types of knowledge that actually represent an ability orfirst display themselves in ability. The first of these is problem solving knowledge which isused when reverting to methods and procedures to solve tasks that typically arise in a field ofwork e.g. the task of determining sentence components in language analysis. The next type isprocedural knowledge which means the command of skills that are used when tackling suchtasks e.g. underlining sentence components, looking them up in dictionaries etc. And finallythe specialist knowledge is linked with (self-) awareness i.e. with the meta-cognitiveknowledge “that reflection controls our own knowledge and our own actions”.16 The tablebelow summarises the four types of knowledge that define competence and indicates the areasto which they relate.

The pattern can be summarised as follows:

Declarativeknowledge

Problem solvingknowledge

Proceduralknowledge

Meta-cognitiveknowledge

Knowledge of facts Methodical

knowledge for

knowledge acquisition

Condensed knowledge

of procedures and

routines

(Self-) awareness of

acting in a subject

area

15 Cf. Figure 1: Overview of the five structural elements and the two dynamising factors of Germandidactics.

16 Ossner (2008), p. 32.


What is a

substantive?

How are sentence

components

determined?

How do you start a

poetry comparison?

When can which

methods be

meaningfully used?

Knowledge Ability Ability Awareness

Table 1: Names, explanation and examples of the four types of knowledge17

This differentiation of competence dimensions acts as the basic structure for the precisedescription of the content of the 6 areas of learning described here. For the subjects oflanguage, literature, media and body language it is not just about content and issues, but ratherpractical knowledge, automated routines and awareness:

Competencedimensions

Areas of learning and competence content

Readingcompreh

ension

Writtencommunication ofthought

Lan-guage ofthought

Reflec-tions onlanguage

Dealingwith

media

Dealingwithbody

language

Declarativeknowledge

Types of

text,

history of

literature

Writing

styles,

formats,

phases

Ways of

talking

and

speaking

Language

forms and

terminolo

gy

Accessori

es,

content,

communi

cation

forms

Elements,

forms,

areas of

body

language

Problem solvingknowledge

Phases of

text

interpretat

ion

Writing as

problem

solving

Formulati

ng as an

aid to

thinking

Grammati

cal speech

analysis

Analysis

and

criticism

Allocatio

n,

meaning

Proceduralknowledge

Marking Fine

writing

skills,

editing

Speech

preparatio

n with

mental

techni-

Command

of

language

and rules

Handling

and

appropriat

e use

Feedback,

control,

reaction

17 As per Ossner ((2006), p. 10) with reference to Mandl et al. (1986, 2006).


ques

Meta-cognitiveknowledge

Recourse

to reading

strategies

Control of

own

writing

Self-

observatio

n through

video

analysis

Re-

flexive(s)

linguistic

know-

ledge/

language

productio

n

Self-

obser-

vation

during

active/pas

sive use

Self-

obser-

vation

through

video

analysis

Table 2: Competence dimensions in the areas of learning18

The table shows that the specialist content of the areas of learning can be concretised in theareas of knowledge, ability and awareness. This has a heuristic benefit for the specialistcontent and also for competence determination as a whole. It thus becomes clear that, throughcompetence modelling, the learning process is designed and presented in a more exact,transparent and comprehensive way.

Student competencies in German teaching consist of thepossession of linguistic and literary knowledge and the associatedtypes of knowledge. It means using and applying this knowledgeand ability in daily and working life, and reflecting upon thisknowledge and its use. Student competencies are limited in termsof their scope and complexity, and are laid down in standards andcurricula. The scope of teacher competencies is more extensiveand complex, and includes the abilities and skills to developstudent competencies. We will now address the area of teachercompetencies.

2.3. Teacher competencies

The earlier observations target specialist and multi-disciplinary competencies from theperspective of German didactics and pedagogics. If the teachers and their ability to act are totake centre stage, profession-related educational research must also be included. In thisregard, competence is defined with the professional field in mind as “the disposition towardsself-organisation of specific individuals”.19 This disposition is directed towards the individual

18 The table follows the breakdown into learning areas used by Ossner (2006).19 Erpenbeck (1999), p. 25. He further states: “In contrast with other constructs such as ability, skills,

accomplishments, qualifications etc., competencies pinpoint the disposition of the potential for self-organisation: here – within the specific individual.”


person and the fields of action, communication partners and subject areas in which, and withwhom, the person acts.

Teacher competencies are the personal skills which enable teachersto use their specialist skills and abilities in their daily work toachieve optimal learning results in students.

On the one hand, this professional aspect can be seen in the modelling of the teachercompetencies, as not only cognitive, emotional and social, but also personality-relatedcharacteristics play a role. On the other hand, it is also evidenced by the fact that teachercompetencies can be described as general and multi-disciplinary (i.e. related to knowledgeand particularly personality characteristics) and subject-specific (i.e. related to knowledgecharacteristics of the relevant subject). Teacher competencies are key competencies with aspecialist foundation that manifest themselves in a specific specialist area of action and can betransferred to other areas of action.20

The factual and didactic competence of going back to the basicelements (“Elementarisieren”) requires sufficient expert knowledgeas a specialist foundation. If this knowledge is there, the process willbe successful not just in one, but rather in several areas of learning.

An important aspect for modelling teacher competencies is the bottom up perspective, asincluded in descriptive approaches of profession-related educational research and subjectdidactics.21 That means: profession-related, personal-individual competencies lay thecornerstone for developing specialist, action and methodical competencies. Spinner (1998)cites as examples of such competencies “interpretative skills”, “meta-cognition”, “personalskills” and “networking” (e.g. with other subject areas).22 In the most recent systematisationof the competencies of German teachers, Anselm (2012) starts from a cognitive, professional-ethical and pragmatic dimension of teacher competence.23 As part of a further, more dynamicapproach, the teacher competencies are selected during a process type conceptualisation.Personal and social competencies are perceived as aspects of a competent teacher

20 Cf. Groeben & Hurrelmann (2004), Roth (1997).21 Cf. Frey (2005) and Terhart (2007) and also Ossner (2006) and Beisbart (2008). With regard to the

common systematisations in the 2nd phase of institutional teacher training: cf. Dohnke (2002).22 Spinner (1998), p. 41ff.23 Cf. Anselm (2012), p. 62 and 64. The cognitive dimension includes knowledge of language and

literature plus knowledge of communicating and acquiring them; the professional-ethics dimensionincludes affective learning; the pragmatic dimension includes the skills of perception, comprehen-sion, interpretation and evaluation and, above all, the underlying linguistic skills and abilities of theteacher and their critical reflections.


personality as a starting point for developing further competencies24. As indicated above,expertise is a central anchor competence for acting professionally with the teachers’ mostimportant communication partners i.e. the students. Due to the current competence-orientedlesson concept, two competencies are expressly highlighted in the area of subordinated(methodical) competencies: diagnostic expertise (overlooked for a long time and often rarelydeveloped) as a test and support competence and, as a methodical competence (rarelyconsidered or taught), classroom and lesson management. Underlying competencies such asthe teacher personality and expertise determine, according to the governing model, areas ofaction such as diagnosis and classroom management. The table below illustrates a process-type conceptualisation of teacher competencies:

Personality ofteacher

Expertise / professionalknowledge

Diagnosticexpertise

Methodicalcompetence

Personal and social

competencies

Specialist and subject

didactical competence

Test and support

competence

Classroom and

lesson

management

Intercultural competence

Ability to adopt other perspectives, knowledge of the idiosyncrasies

of intercultural situations of interaction

Table 3: Procedural alignment of teacher competencies

In accordance with the worldwide alignment of the position represented here, an additionalintercultural teacher competence also lies horizontally to all four dimensions of teachercompetence. This intercultural teacher competence is integrated into the four aspects aboveand denoted as an additional facet in each case.

1. Teacher personality

The teacher personality is the starting point for all further dimensionsof teacher competencies and the most important dimension for actingsuccessfully during lessons.

Abstract knowledge and ability alone do not guarantee that teachers will perform their rolesuccessfully; what is critical is the personally managed recourse to this knowledge and ability

24 Expertise, diagnostic expertise and classroom management (methodical competence) naturally alsoform part of the teacher personality; in the process model represented here they are subordinate tothe personal competence dimensions.


in specific professionally demanding situations. In the world of research, various areas andcharacteristics are subsumed under the concept of teacher personality. The following sectionsdeal with the profession-related, role-specific parts of the teacher personality. This coincideswith the concept of the professional self developed by K.O. Bauer (2005). The professionalself

is created by academic education, training and practical experience and continues todevelop through processes of reflection. According to Bauer, pedagogical ability arisesfrom ‘exercise, reflection and intensive examination of one’s own daily work’. Theprofessional self also covers those aspects of personality that can be changed andoptimised.25

The personal competencies collected together in this sense as the “self” are hierarchicallygrouped in the process-oriented conception represented here. At the top of this hierarchy aremental orientations such as a positive sense of self and positive action-guiding theories. Thismeans that a good teacher should go into learning situations with a positive humanistic imageof mankind. Willingness to learn and self-reflection are control functions that guarantee thefurther development of the own personality. The teacher is thus a role model for the students’willingness to learn and their actual learning. It is possible to derive from these personalcompetencies action-supporting personal characteristics (commitment, humour, resilienceetc.) that are essential for teaching.26

Alongside these personal competencies are social competencies that teachers demonstratewhen dealing with their communication partners such as students, colleagues, superiors,parents and the general public. The range of individual teaching actions is limited by theinstitutional guidelines of the school and its administrative bodies, and by the imponderabilityof communicative interactions with students etc. – this can either be seen as balanced orcomplex and “risky”.27 The importance of the own person as location and place ofdevelopment of one’s own (positive) sense of self does not lose relevance in any way.

A further sub-area of the professional self is that of profession-specific body competenciesthat teachers should possess. According to Košinár (2009), the basis for acquiring these bodycompetencies is “a trained sense of self to understand one’s own body tension, breathing andposture and change these if necessary”.28 Košinár divides the body competencies into bodybehaviour and body feedback. Aspects and dimensions of body behaviour include facialexpressions, gestures, eyes, posture, body movements, physical behaviour and status.29 It isconcerned with kinesic actions in these areas. Body feedback relates to the (reflection of)“impact of posture (incl. breathing, body energy and tension) on one’s emotions”.30 However,the examples of body feedback cited by Košinár (“expanded posture creates joy, self-assurance, arrogance, confidence, openness and solidarity with others”)31 also illustrate thesocial-interactive area of body feedback. Body feedback thus also deals with the reflection of

25 Forell (2012), p. 14. The quotation from Bauer (2005), p. 9.26 Cf. summary in an overview table in Appendix 1.7.4. Sub-areas of lesson relevant teacher compe-

tencies.27 Combe & Kolbe (2008), p. 858.28 Košinár (2009), p. 16.29 Cf. Košinár (2009), p. 34.30 Košinár (2009), p. 51.31 Košinár (2009), p. 51.


the impact of one’s own body language on others. Taken together, body competencies consistof “presentation and action competencies”32 along with self-regulation and external regulationcompetencies.

Through a persuasive appearance in front of the class, teachersconvey their attitudes and positions to the subject, the lesson and thestudents. A large part of this is conveyed through body language.

2. Expertise and professional knowledge

Expertise and professional knowledge are specialist and subjectdidactical sub-dimensions of teacher competence. They are essential,pivotal requirements for successful acting during lessons.

Initially, expertise mainly relates to specialist knowledge in the subject to be taught. Therelevance of specialist knowledge for efficient lesson management was primarily proven bythe COACTIV study.33 The DESI study also unearthed enlightening findings in the area ofreading competence. Willenberg (2007) refers to the process of thinking aloud, whereby theteacher shows the students how he “solves specific text problems step by step”34 and involvesstudents in the teaching process through incomplete suggested solutions. Gailberger (2007)recommends that teachers should be able to formulate questions that will also help weakerstudents to improve their reading comprehension.35 Wieser (2008) and Winkler (2011)recently investigated the professional daily routines of German teachers through qualitativeinterviews and surveys, in order to get closer to the actual act of teaching and the underlyingconvictions from an empirical perspective.36

The issue of teacher competence has also been addressed at the educational administrationlevel. In relation to the subject of German, the Conference for Education Ministers (2008)outlined the specialist knowledge of teachers through, amongst other things, the coursecontent for the teaching degrees for the individual school years. However, by embedding thespecialist knowledge into further competence connections it was made clear that teachersshould independently possess the specialist knowledge and process it for didacticcommunication. Specialist knowledge only becomes a competence when it is used to solveproblems in specific situations and is combined with ability. With the help of relevant subjectdidactical approaches and positions, teachers select learning examples from the areas oflanguage and literature, organise and reduce them, determine their relevance and legitimisethe learning projects developed using them in front of students, colleagues, parents and public

32 Košinár (2009), p. 51.33 Cf. Baumert & Kunter (2006).34 Willenberg (2007), p. 181.35 Cf. Gailberger (2007), p. 36.36 Cf. Wiese (2008); Winkler (2011), p. 195ff.


representatives (reasoning and discourse competence). Through this didactic reduction ofspecialist knowledge, they make it responsive to the following methodical handling37.

Expertise thus also contains an element of (subject) didactical competence. The subjectdidactical knowledge that is relevant here relates to the learning and acquisition process:teachers should know, for example, that children can become literate (attain literarycompetence) much earlier than they learn to put things in alphabetical order in situationswhere they listen to things being read aloud to them. Teachers also require a knowledge of thecognitive and emotional stages of development and maturity in adolescents (e.g. theacquisition of empathy) and suitable methodical communication concepts.38 This knowledgeto be activated systematically and according to the situation should then finally be comparedwith (normative) requirements from the teaching plan or standards. From an interculturalperspective, knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of culture-bound interaction situations should bementioned here; i.e. a “knowledge of, and sensitivity for, power asymmetries, the collectiveexperiences of migrants, their own images of others and possible cultural differences”39.

Professional competence is added to this subject didactic knowledge in real situations. Thisis based, amongst other things, on experience-based knowledge.40 This experience-basedknowledge comes for the individual’s learning and professional biography. It is formed inspecific communication situations in which the teacher acquires this specialist knowledge incommunication processes and changes it according to the learning process. As such, teachersare not only bound by the systematic structure of specialist knowledge but, during the actuallesson, they also stand under pressure in a pre-reflective process of combining “perception,interpretation and action into behavioural models”41. When they succeed in not always justfalling back on these models and formulae but also in independently developing their ownsolutions, experience-based knowledge becomes professional (expert) knowledge and ability.However, this institutionally typical professional (expert) knowledge is not systematic, butrather ordered (casuistically) on a case by case basis and should also be tested (in teacherassessment tests).42 It is shown in the ability to flexibly apply specialist knowledge and abilityin specific situations.

37 This is connected to the central process of didactical assessment as a precursor to the actual lessonplanning, the didactic competence of going back to the basic elements (“Elementarisierung”) andreduction as part of the technical analysis.

38 As such it is no longer about scientific knowledge; in other words, to use the terminology of Shul-man (2004), we are no longer dealing with content knowledge but rather with pedagogical contentknowledge i.e. with subject didactical knowledge or communication knowledge.

39 Auernheimer (2008), p. 472.40 We cannot address the multitude of other aspects here such as they are investigated in relevant

educational scientific research. Cf. the contributions in Lüders & Wissinger (2007).41 Combe & Kolbe (2008), p. 86.42 That means that it is not used up in cognitively available subject didactical knowledge, but rather

that it also includes expertise in relation to comments on case studies.


When teaching, teachers with factual didactical and professionalcompetence observe their own planning and the reactions of thestudents. They spontaneously switch to an alternative plan if thestudents’ learning route doesn’t run as planned.43

3. Diagnostic expertise

Diagnostic expertise involves the detailed observation, analysis andevaluation of students’ learning behaviour, and the selection ofteaching plans and supportive measures that result from thisevaluation.

This expertise involves deploying diagnosis procedures such as tests or lesson observation.These procedures should be deployed punctually and continually alongside the lessons. Thisstarts with informal observation of student reactions during lessons and goes up to formaltests to diagnose language level. Such forms of diagnostic accompaniment of behaviour inlessons are, alongside the requirements of the learning content, the second fundamentalguideline for planning decisions. The accentuation on diagnosis instead of selection placesGerman teaching under the current support perspective, which results in a diagnosis of thelearning status of individual students and their development perspectives.

Expertise as a widespread concept denotes both the “methodical and procedural knowledge”recorded here as individual diagnostic skills and “conceptual knowledge”.44 Nowadays,diagnostic expertise is considered to be a key element of teacher competencies that hadpreviously been somewhat neglected and not sufficiently communicated, leading tosignificant shortfalls in learning.

Planning lessons with diagnostic expertise means: starting from the concrete learningprogress of the students. It further means: adapting the language used by the teacher, theformulation of work tasks and the measurement of the difficulty of the relevant tasks to thislearning progress.45

Diagnostic expertise ends in a diagnostic verdict. The teacher’s diagnostic verdict should betransparent, plausible and evident in its reference standards i.e. it should relate to clearlydefined standards. Furthermore, it should initially relate to the learning status and notimmediately (and finally) to the standard of performance that is relevant for the performance

43 Cf. Kämper-van den Boogaardt (2006).44 Helmke (2010), p. 122.45 Here we can add an interpretation of the didactical triangle per Jank & Meyer (2011): diagnostic

expertise deals with expert knowledge in relation to students‘ learning as one corner of the triangle,whereas the focus used to be on the teacher and the material as the other two corners of the triangle.


appraisal and marking.46 The diagnosis process ends with feedback being given to thestudents. As “everything hangs” on the recording and implementation of diagnosed findings,this feedback is a key element of the process of diagnosis. It is essential to involve thestudents in all phases of the diagnosis and also when discussing the results. As with all formsof feedback, there is a (psychologically grounded) rule of stating the “positives first” andending the critique with “and”, not with “but” etc.

Teachers with diagnostic expertise are able to observe precisely theirstudents as they learn. They are also able to separate the specialistand non-specialist elements of successful learning. The teacher mustdetermine, for example, if poor writing or reading skills are due togaps in knowledge or a lack of perseverance, in order to identifysupport perspectives.47

4. Methodical competence

Methodical competence relates to classroom and lesson managementi.e. to the core area of guiding, accompanying and supporting thelearning group as a whole and individual students/groups in particular.

Methodical competence, particularly classroom management, received too little attention fora long period of time and was hardly addressed in teacher training. It is, however, a keyindicator of teaching quality. The more it is combined with specialist content, the longer itwill remain anchored in the teacher’s repertoire of actions.

Classroom management can be viewed as the external area of teachers’ methodicalcompetence that relates to the parameters of teaching and learning, and lesson management asthe inner area that directly concerns teaching and learning. Classroom management isgenerally understood to mean efficient classroom management i.e. the principle of having anoverall view of how a lesson is developing and achieving this in a targeted manner in relationto the results (e.g. increase in the effective lesson time and opportunities for learning) withoutany loss of impetus. The most important characteristics of the desired behaviour of teachershere are as follows:

– Withitness: omnipresence (having a good view of everything; being aware ofeverything; keeping an eye on the whole group to avoid disturbances, prevent unjustreactions etc.);

46 Teachers must comply with both requirements and allocate proportionate time to them; they mustalways be communicated to the students. All diagnoses based on encouragement always lead to aperformance assessment.

47 Reciprocal relationships between attention/concentration etc. on the one hand and writing/readingon the other are a classic example of this.


– Overlapping: multitasking; and– Momentum: quickness, smoothness, flexibility.48

One of the main areas of classroom management is rules and routines that areinstitutionalised. Teachers should monitor compliance with these rules and routines and theirrecurrence. They relate to social cooperation in the classroom (compulsory attendance, rule ofsilence, greetings, food and drink, cleanliness, work discipline etc.). The acceptance andobservation of these rules and routines largely depends on the manner in which the teacherscarry out their role. First and foremost, this requires the teachers to exhibit model behaviourby following the rules and routines themselves.

Other areas of classroom management are the effective use of time for student learning andpreventing and handling disturbances. It is possible to prevent disturbances by anticipatingpossible sources of disturbance and simulating appropriate teaching situations (e.g. by roleplay in German lessons). When handling disturbances, teachers generally resort to existingrules (and should call these to mind); when handling disturbances they must deploy theirteacher personality to advocate and enforce rules when cooperating socially with students. Afurther didactical and methodical possibility involves the teacher developing the necessaryclassroom rules together with the students. Students are more likely to follow rules that theythemselves created.49

Efficient classroom management requires strong resilience that is displayed, amongst otherthings, in successful multitasking. Multitasking is meant in both a receptive and productivesense: in a receptive sense, multitasking aims to tackle several things at the same time (e.g.observation of the group of students as a whole and several individual students, while at thesame time continuing to lead the lesson); in a productive sense multitasking is aimed athaving several courses of action available i.e. demonstrating a high degree of flexibility.These courses of action should not be followed on the basis of an automatic plan, but ratherspecific competence profiles should be used based on a precise observation of the situation.50

Teachers should be quickly able to analyse lesson situations (student behaviour, studentcomments) and draw conclusions with regard to courses of action.

At the heart of lesson management, and under the sign of competence orientation, is thesupport for information processing by the students. The overall behaviour of the teacher interms of giving instruction should be targeted towards this goal of optimal communication:this initially requires clarity and structure in the lesson plan.

Structure and clarity relate to the mental and linguistically defined preparation of the lessonmaterial for students at the beginning of the lesson as an announcement of the lesson plan, itsobjectives and its phases;51 they also relate to communicating the learning content using ageappropriate words and forms of speech, and to clear articulation and intonation.

48 Cf. Helmke (2010), p. 178ff.49 Cf. Brüning & Saum (2009).50 Oser (2007) p. 112. Oser considers competence profiles to be different actions by the teacher that

are summarised in a situation (cf. ebd. p. 106). Diagnosing/supporting is also one of the seven nor-mative teacher competencies explained above. From a dynamic accentuated viewpoint, it is func-tionally integrated into a hierarchical model in a situational action context.

51 Cf. Appendix 1.7.1. Steps of lesson preparation.


The second area of support for information processing is mobilising the students.52 Thismeans offering students an incentive to learn (“hook”) in addition to the actual lesson subject.The possibilities range from a talk by the teacher to self-mobilisation. Here the teacher mustask: what is the best way to introduce the subject from the students‘ perspective? The teachercan use a literary tale or a story of their own to awaken the students‘ motivation andwillingness to learn.53 It is just important that such a transition into the actual process oflearning actually forms part of the plan.

Alongside clarity and structure, consolidation and retention are also important whencommunicating material. This means that lessons are not just aligned towards acquiring newresults and findings, but also towards practice, repetition, consolidation, reinforcement andtransfer (i.e. application to another example).

The previously discussed measures for supporting information processing by the studentsrelate to the start or repetition of the learning process i.e. the actual lesson. This first requiressecuring the willingness to learn through the student or competence orientation of the lessonas a basis of the type of lesson management represented here; ensuring that the environment isconducive to learning through the orientation towards values and attitudes such as solidarity,cooperation etc.; and through the psychological and authentic motivation of the students.Teachers should thus have ready general rewards for the students and directly refer to thepersonality-related benefits that will arise from the learning project, in order to achieveoptimal willingness to learn among their students.

Furthermore, efficient lesson management also entails responding to the heterogeneous groupof students and the associated need to vary the offering. Nowadays, teachers come acrosslearning groups that differ significantly in terms of almost all thinkable characteristics, andthis requires the skills of inner differentiation and also integration in relation to the students.The varying language level in the area of German as a second language is a particularly largefield.

The need to vary the offering has already been discussed in relation to flexibility and multiplecourses of action. It relates not only to the fundamental alternative options, but also to thelevel, differentiation etc. of the teaching material for different prerequisites in the cognitive,emotional and socio-cultural area.

Teachers primarily deploy their methodical competence by varyingthe offering. This means following a factually and didacticallygrounded lesson objective, and offering this in a flexible andsituation-oriented manner: specifying learning objectives in differentlevels as achievable, and offering students several learning pathwaysor material and objects to achieve them. Lesson practitioners shouldthus be able to achieve their learning objectives through, for example,

52 The mobilisation belongs to the complex of motivation and promotion of interests. Cf. Ferdinand(2010).

53 Cf. Meyer (1994), p. 129, and Tulodziecki, Herzig & Blömeke (2009).


instruction and the construction of learning environments.

These demonstrations of classroom and lesson management have highlighted the areas ofteacher competencies that relate through the teacher personality to the teachers themselves,through expertise to the subject matter, through diagnostic expertise to the students andthrough classroom management to one of the main tasks of good teachers. So far, the teachercompetence perspective has been general and interdisciplinary. Teacher competencies wereunfolded from a nominative and descriptive viewpoint. However, that is not all there is to sayabout teacher competencies: a subject-specific perspective enables us to name concreteindividual competencies that represent an important guide for how teachers act on a dailybasis.

Modern German didactics is symbolised by the characteristics ofcompetence-orientation, and intercultural and interdisciplinaryorientation.

Learning-teaching processes can be precisely planned and evaluatedthrough the competence orientation, and subsequent support measuresproposed. The competence orientation also makes it possible to modeland describe exactly student and teacher competencies in differentdimensions. Whereas specialist knowledge, problem solvingknowledge, procedural knowledge and meta-cognition are relevant inthe learning areas for student competencies, teacher competencies arecomposed of the teacher personality, expertise, diagnostic expertiseand methodical competence.

Through the intercultural orientation, German didactics responds tothe two important contextual elements of globalisation and migration.German teaching becomes a place of learning where students fromnumerous nations and cultures can develop their linguistic, literary andcommunicative skills. The interdisciplinary orientation of Germandidactics is expressed in the cooperation with neighbouring subjects(e.g. teaching and learning research) from which, for example,concepts for diagnosing student performance and classroom and lessonmanagement can be taken and applied to linguistic and literarylearning processes.

German didactics can be divided into 5 structural elements: forms oflanguage processing, media development, forms of learning, levelswithin the education process and educational concepts. Thesestructural elements are also ordering principles and classificationelements: the forms of language processing structure 4 of the 6 areas

203. Globally aligned approach

of learning described here; the forms of learning describe the relevantspecialist dimensions; media development consolidates the areas oflearning from another perspective and creates a further area oflearning; the levels within the educational process and the educationalconcepts situate academic learning from a theoretical perspective, andalso define the complex relationship between education andcompetence.


The provisions and characteristics of modern German didactics identified so far can bederived from the competence orientation. We will now return to the title of this work –German teaching worldwide – which means a European, and even worldwide representationof teaching German as a first, second and foreign language. This account thus responds to thecurrent central contextual elements of German teaching i.e. migration and globalisation. Bothof these aspects move away from the concentration on content and goals defined from anational, mono-lingual or mono-cultural perspective. Instead, the function and direction ofGerman teaching is becoming a place of intercultural dialogue. The training of Germanteachers in German-speaking countries should also be brought into a reciprocal dialogue withother languages, cultures, literatures and nations and the training of teachers of German as aforeign language. This should contribute towards a rich exchange from many aspects andmore comparability, transparency and international validity.54

German teacher training reformed in this way will contribute towards linguistically andculturally integrated, bi- and multilingual German teaching. The creation of such languageintegrated and intercultural German teaching will incorporate approaches that were triedand tested in the context of early foreign language teaching, bi-lingual subject teaching,language integrated grammar teaching or tandem projects investigating language learning.

The objectives of language integrated and intercultural German teaching at home and abroaddo not underestimate the fact that, in view of the very different tasks of first, second andforeign language teaching, special support approaches should be selected. However, it isassumed that all students can be supported together once they have achieved a sufficient andnot too heterogeneous level of language proficiency.55 German teaching can then be used as ameeting point for intercultural encounters and the exchange of perspectives for those speakingGerman as a first, second or foreign language, and can lead to an enduring understanding ofone’s own culture and other cultures.

54 In particular, the aspect of exchange and dialogue is at the heart of German teaching as peace edu-cation that was developed by Oomen-Welke (1994) and Wintersteiner (2010) amongst others.

55 With regard to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, this means themiddle B1 area of simple independent language fluency.


In summary, these objectives of language integrated and intercultural German teachingdescribe a principle that impacts upon the actions of teachers in two ways, namely:

1. In the selection of content for the areas of learning:

The German teaching devised in this work is aligned towards other languages, culturesand literatures i.e. it is conceived as multilingual teaching right down to the individualconcepts; in other words, it addresses foreign and first languages and examples are takenfrom foreign literature and from the daily routines of other cultures;

2. In the selection of the methodical communication concepts and processes:

Communication forms and concepts from other cultures and countries are included whenmodelling the teacher competencies and in the learning areas of speaking, listening,writing, media and body.

Examples of the incorporation of such communication forms and concepts are:

– The American debate in oral communication;– Creative writing in written communication; and– The reading literacy concept when reading and writing.

From an international perspective, the focus is on preparing and implementing joint Master’sdegree courses for training German teachers. This consists of suggestions for bilateralcooperations that can be transferred to larger contexts. The realisation of this objective has agreat deal of significance in view of the student mobility that is promoted in a Europeancontext. This relates, amongst other things, to the Common European Framework ofReference for Languages in Schools 56 that has been under discussion since 2006. This can beconsidered as a benchmark for the synchronisation of national Master’s programmes,specifically at the level of individual degree modules that are partly identical with theassociated learning and study areas (e.g. reading – dealing with texts and media).

From the demonstrations of the intercultural alignment of German didactics so far, thereemerge consequences for the design of German teaching and the training of German teachersthat differ according to whether the location is at home or abroad. The view from an overseasperspective is focused on the communication of German as a foreign language, its position asa language taught in schools, the deployment of new communication methods and theinternationalisation of teacher training. From a national perspective, the focus is on thecontinuation of language integrated and intercultural German teaching that systematicallyintegrates the perspectives of German as a second language. This will first be explained in thefollowing sub-chapter.

3.1. German teaching and training German teachers at home

The starting point for the systematic changes to German teaching in Germany is migration.As a result of migration, German classes are being attended by more and more children forwhom German is the second language. Previously self-evident terms are changing, and there

56 With regard to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages in Schools cf.Martyniuk (2007).


is also a change in the significance of the underlying concepts such as “German”, “Germanteaching” and “mother tongue” and their relevance for lesson structure. Thus, when namingthe languages used for teaching German at home, instead of “mother tongue” the terms of firstand second language are used, which come from the realms of linguistics and languageacquisition research. It is assumed that there is a co-existence between the terms:

The terminology of “first language”, “second language” etc. [is] used if reference should bemade to the order in which the languages were acquired. The term “mother tongue” is usedif the “language of cultural heritage” of a language group is being described.57

The co-existence of those who speak German as a first and second language in Germanlessons leads to a necessary inner differentiation to cope with the different learning, languageand culture groups. Language didactics and support for language acquisition are necessary inthe same classroom but in different learning contexts. The aim for the future is to combine thedifferent stages of language learning that currently show a great disparity This requires theteacher to develop an “ability to deal with diversity” (Siebert-Ott 2003, p. 31).58 However, weare not just talking about requirements of the individual and his individual-personalcompetence, but rather about a structural demand. This targets the realisation of academicmultilingualism in the area of German as a second language and in German teaching ingeneral i.e. in the specific language teaching and in the areas of German teaching aimed at theremaining fields of learning.59 There are the following requirements in the area of teaching inGerman as a second language (German: Deutsch als Zweitsprache =DaZ):

1. Change in the largely predominant DaZ teaching from submersion to immersion.Current DaZ teaching can be described using the words of Wintersteiner and Belke:

DaZ teaching mainly takes place in the form of submersion, which Belke defines as: “Aprogramme with the aim of monolingualism in the second language = majority language,through which the “minority children” whose mother tongue has a lower status are forcedto accept school teaching in a foreign majority language (with a higher status) […].Submersion is still [...] the most common practice in schools for minority children whosemother tongue has a lower status” 60

There are a number of worthwhile measures available for changing this type ofsubmersive language learning and improving the status of migrant first languages:

– The recognition of the first languages and their incorporation into the teaching(this implies a rudimentary knowledge of part of the first languages, the correctspelling of names etc.; anchoring of the educational objective of multilingualisminto the school profile);

– The deployment of second language speakers as experts for questions related tolanguage learning in reciprocal language experience teaching and in the context ofsituational and exploratory learning;

57 Siebert-Ott (2003), p.31.58 Diversity relates to both the varying stages of learning and the linguistic and cultural differences

between the students.59 Cf. here and below Wintersteiner (2003).60 Belke (2008), p. 10. Zitat nach Wintersteiner (2003), S. 607.


– The internal differentiation in the learning groups between first and secondlanguage speakers in the context of open learning, acceptance of the mother tongueas a working language e.g. during group work, bi-lingual DaZ teaching.

2. Cooperation between mother tongue teaching and second language or Germanteaching.

Support measures for cooperation between mother tongue and DaZ teaching can bedefined. German teachers can learn from mother tongue teachers the important facts oflinguistic contrastivity and the necessary basic understanding of the first language, andcan communicate with their colleagues in the first and second languages about thelanguage level of those speaking the second language.

3. Cooperation between German and foreign language teaching

This cooperation ensures that there is agreement between German and foreignlanguage teachers; in particular, the aim is to reach agreement on a grammar modelthat is as homogeneous as possible and generally binding terminology, to the extentthat this is possible within the context of the linguistic contrastivity. It is necessary toexplicate the meta-linguistic knowledge of the German teachers in advance. Indiscussions with foreign language teachers, German teachers learn the basic forms oflanguage communication and become familiar with linguistic structures and elements.

4. Linguistic foundation of the subject teaching in all school subjects: cooperationbetween all subject teachers

DaZ is not just about language learning and does not just take place during Germanlessons, but rather in all learning situations in all subjects. The main difficulty facedby those speaking German as a second language is also accentuated as they have tolearn the academic school language. The dual nature of learning problems as both alinguistic and a factual problem is thus apparent in subject teaching.61

The focus here is on highlighting the overall situation of German teaching “in a culture ofmultilingualism”62 and indicating the consequences for the direction of German didactics.This initially consists of seeing, in the multilingualism in the cultural environment and themultilingualism within German (i.e. the wealth of variety that every language displays), the“normal case in many German-speaking and European countries”63 and also the critical factsfor newly aligning German didactics. The incorporation of intercultural elements into thesubject teaching is thus not a temporary side effect but rather the bridge that can incorporateGerman teaching into international and worldwide relationships.64 That is why Germanteaching at home is referred to as intercultural German teaching– this is not a satisfactorysolution for the problems with terminology but the essential orientation can be summarised inthe following words:

In a culture of multilingualism, German teaching has the task of communicating the general

61 Cf. Rösch (1993), p.12.62 Wintersteiner (2003), p.609.63 Wintersteiner (2003), p.604.64 The position of Oomen-Welkes (1997a,b) is set against that of Reich, Holzbrecher & Roth (2000).


linguistic education through the medium of the “Lingua franca”65 of the German-speakingregion. It can only fulfil this task if it sufficiently considers and uses the different (heritageand social) linguistic requirements of the students and German is taught in the context ofother languages (i.e. interculturally). Multilingualism should also be communicated as avalue and reflection on linguistic fluency as a skill.66

Since the 1990s, the new design of German teacher studies has been discussed andimplemented in relation to interculturalisation or internationalisation. In Europe there arenumerous examples of European teachers who conduct bilingual lessons. Furthermore, thereare numerous regional projects for reforming (basic) teacher training, particularly in theSouthern countries, from which general guidelines for general academic reform in this areacan be derived.67

A central issue is the extension of German teachers‘ own repertoire of foreign languages. Intheir capacity as role models, German teachers should, in addition to English, also speak or belearning a further world language, a neighbouring language and a first language. They shouldalso have a basic knowledge of migrant languages so that they can put themselves in thelanguage learning situation of their students and turn their attention to their language; thechoice of language should be based on the migrant languages that are particularly relevant forthe learning group in question.68 Moreover, in order to better understand the languageacquisition process of their students, they should also have or acquire a knowledge oflanguage acquisition theories and of types and processes of language comparison.69 Forpractical exercises, they should prepare translations from the dominant migrant languages intoGerman and visualise the internal varieties within the German language.

Furthermore, they should spend a profession-related semester abroad as part of their studies,or at the very least undertake practical training abroad, to gather their own experience offoreignness and be able to empathise with the foreign situations which their students face.From a professional perspective, budding German teachers gain an insight into how othercountries deal with problems associated with language diversity and how language learning isorganised.

From a technical perspective, there is a discussion of separate DaZ modules or integrativemodels. The advantage of DaZ modules is that they explicitly and compactly group togetherthe learning requirements. Integrative models are used to emphasise the fact that interculturalelements should be applied not just selectively but also systematically and continually in allareas of learning and not just the specific language area.

65 “Lingua franca” (e.g. English or Spanish) is a language used to make communication possible in aspecific context (e.g. trade, diplomatic matters, daily life).

66 Wintersteiner (2003), p. 609. Luchtenberg (1995) specifies the sub-text more precisely with theconcept of intercultural, linguistic education; Linke & Oomen-Welke (1995) talk about “diversityas a concept of differential German teaching”. For the purposes of ease of understanding and ac-ceptance, we will refer here to the established term of intercultural German teaching.

67 Cf. Denk (2005), Lütke (2010).68 These migrant languages are determined, for example, on the basis of the current number of people

with a migration background according to the 2010 micro census. As per the information in Table 5“Population based on detailed migration status” (cf. Federal Statistics Office (2010), p. 108),Greek, Turkish and Russian are particularly relevant for Europe based on the numbers of migrants.

69 Cf. Baur et al. 1999, Grucza (2001), Katny (2001); Luchtenberg 1999, Wieland & Huneke (1998).


These requirements are targeted towards (future) German teachers; however, they can only bemet if the structural prerequisites are created through appropriate educational and furthereducational reforms. For example, DaZ courses should not be abolished but rather maintainedand developed. The reforms to be introduced here also have the task not to add additionaldemands to the new required areas of study that arise, but to integrate them in such a way thatexpendable areas cease to exist.70

3.2. German teaching and training German teachers abroad

Globally aligned German teaching

When considering globally aligned German teaching, the external view of German languageand culture (as an element of regional studies) is just as relevant as the understanding of thesignificance of the German language abroad. The number of people learning German issubject to constant change. Overall, there has been a loss in the significance of German and adecline in the number of German speakers worldwide compared with the 19th century andstart of the 20th century. German currently occupies 10th position on the list of most spokenlanguages and, in terms of the indicated dimensions for comparative purposes (people whospeak it as a first language; function as an official language; number of people learning thelanguage), it lies behind English, Spanish and French:71

Figure 2: Position of German compared with other world languages72

70 When teaching literature, such integration would involve, for example, introducing genres not justfrom German literature but also from other literatures.

71 German is the (only) state language in Germany; in Austria, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Liechten-stein, South Tyrol and Belgium it is an official language. All information as per Giersberg (2004),p. 10ff.

72 Figures as per http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/155012/umfrage/deutsch-als-fremdsprache-2010/ (17.04.2012).

573

352

131101

4820 27 7

120

5920 20

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

English Spanish French German

First language speakers (mllion)

Number of peaople learning thelanguage (million)

Presence in countries as officiallanguage


To realise the desired worldwide aspect of the German teaching concept represented here, theconcrete country-specific situation, motivation for learning languages and the relevantsignificance of German should be determined more precisely. It is therefore not just aquestion of following the current demand for German, but also including other areas ofmotivation for learning languages to introduce other language relationships for the future. Thecultural significance of German can thus prove to be a relevant motivation for languagelearning. It is based on the academic and cultural significance of Germany, with its roots inthe past, which gave rise to politically or historically grounded exchange relationships: this isthe case, for example, for countries such as Poland, Russia or Japan. The current relevantmotivation for language learning results, for example, from the so-called “economicstrengths” of German i.e. from the appeal of the economic region of Germany and its tradingrelationships. The current statistics below reflect the distribution of those learning German,and there is a clear concentration in Eastern Europe:73

Figure 3: Number of people learning German abroad 74

The differing number of those learning German in the above chart signifies differences in thenational and regional teaching and studying situations in the individual countries that are

73 http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/155012/umfrage/deutsch-als-fremdsprache-2010/(17.04.2012).

74 http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/155012/umfrage/deutsch-als-fremdsprache-2010/ Statis-ta GmbH (18.04.2012).

249,9

278,2

292

316,8

344,9

366,1

431,6

440,1

442,3

494,3

640,7

689,4

1037,9

2312,5

2345,5

14042,8

Romania

Slovakia

Japan

Turkey

Great Britain

Netherlands

Italy

Czech Republic

Hungary

USA

Uzbekistan

Ukraine

France

Russia

Poland

Globally

Number of people learning German (thousand)


addressed in relevant overviews.75 These findings can give rise to bilateral cooperations andprojects through which language teaching processes can be developed and tested that will leadto an increase in the number of those learning German.

In order to assess the significance of individual bilateral cooperations and projects, somegeneral principles of modern teaching of German as a foreign language (German: Deutsch alsFremdsprache =DaF) are initially specified. The language communication methods deployedin the area of DaF can be characterised as a “pragmatic-cognitive process”76 that is based ongrammatical theories such as dependency grammar and speech act theory. Language learningis conceived as a cultural encounter, particularly when it is extended to include culturalstudies, that is not unilaterally focused on Germany, but rather stands in the context of“integrative, interdisciplinary anchored regional studies”77. The acceptance of Germanteaching in a specific country or region can be increased by linking language communicationto teaching methods that are already known and practiced in these places; for example, thepreference in (Far) Eastern countries for rote learning. Generally speaking, we can recall theprinciple of independent learning and involving the students as far as possible in the selectionand determination of the language communication methods. Further measures include thedevelopment of audience specific, differentiated special courses for language communicationin standard foreign language lessons in schools. It is also helpful for Germany to serve as agood example by supporting foreign language learning and, for example, increasing instead ofreducing the number of foreign languages taught. In Germany this concerns, for example, thenumber of foreign languages that are compulsory at A-level (“Abitur”) that at times is one andnever more than two. Finally, firm support for foreign students in Germany also forms part ofthis complex; for these German-speaking foreigners will help to spread the German languagein their home countries. They can be supported with grants and bilateral universitypartnerships. A further important point is the integration of students with a migrantbackground into German teacher training and their involvement as teachers in the Germanschool system; initiatives launched by the Bosch, Mercator and Volkswagen foundations havemade helpful contributions in this area.

Many of the outlined principles of modern DaF teaching have already been implemented inover 65 countries through German schools abroad, schools that offer language certificates,Goethe-Institute courses and university language courses that the DAAD and PAD78 helped toorganise.79 This applies for institutional reforms such as the German International A-Level,which has been held since 2009, the profiling of schools abroad as bilingual schools and thePASCH initiative “Schools: Partners of the future” launched by the German Foreign Office.80

On the way to European teacher training

75 Cf. the relevant articles in Helbig et al. (2001).76 Götze, Grub & Pommerin (2003), p. 523.77 Lüsebrink (2003), p. 63.78 The abbreviations stand for Deutscher Akademischen Austauschdienst (German Academic Ex-

change Service; responsible for scientists) and Pädagogischen Austauschdienst (Pedagogic Ex-change Service; responsible for teachers).

79 The figures are taken from Giersberg (2004), p. 38.80 Cf. here http://www.kmk.org/bildung-schule/auslandsschulwesen.html, http://www.pasch-

net.de/udi/deindex.htm (18.04.2012).


The global, abstract figures presented above become more concrete and comprehensible whenmaking a direct comparison with specific countries to concretise language integrated Germanteaching on the basis of these examples and the related German teacher training. Theobjective of linking first, second and foreign language teaching is also to correlate morestrongly the training of native-speaking and foreign-speaking German teachers. Frameworkplans and basic models should thus be developed at a European level which can act as generalstandards for organisation at the individual country level.

The reciprocal recognition of course achievements as part of EU programmes such asErasmus and Socrates can act as an example here. The aim is to extend such reciprocalrecognition between two countries throughout the entire EU region. This would create theinstitutional requirements for supporting teacher mobility across Europe within manyprogrammes. However, it is also about defining the content of these requirements, which isdone by Europe either instead of, or in cooperation with, the separate country; in other wordsit is about the “definition of Europeanness”81. This design would give rise to teachercharacteristics such as multilingualism, professional, physical and virtual mobility, aEuropean specialist concept, nurturing of communication relationships abroad etc. These canbe, and should be, supported by accompanying institutional measures such as the Europeanprogrammes (e.g. ERASMUS and SOKRATES), the European framework for qualifications,the reciprocal recognition of course achievements and joint university programmes (Masters,doctorates).82

One of the pre-requisites for common, European-wide training for German teachers is thedevelopment of common teaching material. The development of such common teachingmaterial starts from a comparison with the teaching material used in other countries, in orderto learn something from such material or to incorporate suggestions for improvements into it.A bilateral comparison of this nature can be made, for example, with England. First of all: if itcan be determined above that, in Germany, there are currently hardly any overallintroductions to German didactics or studies for German teachers, this observation alsoapplies to England. There are introductory works in England that contain the importantmethodical repertoires and accentuations, but these could be extended to include furtherstructural elements and newer concepts.83 On the other hand, collected editions such as thatby Pachler, Evans & Lawes (2007) contain numerous teaching concepts that are not widelyenough known in Germany e.g. classroom management.84 The conceptual elements of Anglo-Saxon foreign language didactics, compiled in an essay type format, which target a strongerconsideration of intercultural education and which are advocated by Byram (2008), alsocontain important suggestions that have already been used for the foundation of this essay.

81 Schratz (2009), p. 111.82 As per Schratz (2009), p. 117-118.83 Cf. Pachler & Field (2002).84 Cf. Sub-chapter 1.2.3. Teacher competencies.

294. Interdisciplinary approach: forms of learning in German teaching

The global alignment of the approach described here is a consequenceof migration and globalisation and is reflected in the interculturalorientation of German didactics that is taken up here. It implies a formof multilingual German teaching that is integrated from a linguisticand cultural perspective, and should become the place for encounterand dialogue between literature and languages. This should not justapply to the lesson content as outlined here but also for the procedures.The scope of application for this approach initially relates to Germanteaching at home: the intercultural alignment gives rise to a change inDaZ teaching, better acceptance, greater inclusion of students, andbetter cooperation and agreement between all teachers. Furtherrequirements are targeted towards improved training of Germanteachers: students will be required to learn foreign languages andacquire a basic knowledge of migrant languages; universities shouldoffer sufficient courses and course structures to enable this. In terms ofGerman teaching abroad and the position of German as a foreignlanguage, the reasons for the choice of language should be made clear.With regards to German teaching abroad, the intercultural directionrealised here gives rise to reformed, inclusive cultural studies in termsof content and recourse to known, regionally anchored methods oflearning. One of the focuses here is on teacher training and structuralimprovements e.g. collaboration at a European level up to the design(and realisation) of a joint European Master’s programme. This essay,which has partly been developed on the basis of a bilateral comparisonwith England, is itself an example for the requirements ofinternationally agreed German teacher training that has been changedin this way.

4. Interdisciplinary approach: forms of learning in Germanteaching

As well as the intercultural orientation explained above, this essay entitled German teachingworldwide is based on a wide interdisciplinary approach. Due to the complex teachingsituation that is determined, for example, by the learning behaviour of the students and otherfactors, interdisciplinary working is necessary for German subject didactics, which is itself aninterdisciplinary connection between the scientific discipline and communication science.There are close inter-subject connections with linguistics and literary studies and these arealso extended to media studies. German subject didactics has the closest interdisciplinaryconnections with the newest developments from teaching and learning research andneuropsychology. Teaching and learning research deals with the empirical review of all


normative assumptions, also in the area of central teacher competencies that are central to thiswork. In the social area this also applies to sociology, from which the so-called multi-levelmodel for better understanding social processes is derived. According to the positionrepresented here, a distinction is made at the 4th structural element of German didactics, theeducational processes level, between the process, subject and social level. Neuropsychologyserves as a reference for designing and optimising the teaching and learning process in all ofits phases.

It continues with the exchange with historical science through delving deeper into referencesfrom linguistics and literary studies, and the development of individual concepts such ascultural memory. German didactics remains dependent on philosophy, (general) psychologyand educational science for determining and situating educational concepts, particularly whendeveloping overall educational objectives for German teaching such as cultural participationof scientific propaedeutics. The interdisciplinary connections of German didactics can bedisplayed as follows:

Figure 4: Interdisciplinary connections of German didactics

Whereas the previously outlined terms of competence orientation and interculturality relatedto didactics in German teaching and its internal structure, the notion of interdisciplinarity inrelation to effective lesson design mainly relates to the processing paths used through specificmethods and processes. Teachers require appropriate knowledge and ability (expertise andmethodical competence) in this area to apply the model ideas and findings from teaching andlearning research related to the relevance of specific methods and procedures in a productiveway.85

A distinction is currently made between three teaching and learning theories for modelling aspart of teaching and learning research: behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.Behaviourism arose in the 1960s and viewed learning as shaping behaviour through stimulusand reaction chains, as conditioning through reward or punishment. Cognitivism, which arosein the 1970s / 80s, saw learning as information processing and the acquisition, developmentand application of cognitive structures. Constructivism then emerged in the 1990s whichperceived learning as independent knowledge building, and the reconstruction andconstruction of knowledge. An increasing degree of autonomisation in the subjects studiedcan be seen in this progression. At the same time, the role of the teacher also changed: fromteaching as drills and training to teaching as instruction and information communication. The

85 Cf. overviews in Lefrançois (2006) and Schröder (2006).


movement towards constructivism, where teaching was about assisting, advising and shapinglearning environments, was particularly radical.86

The development outlined here can be summarised as a cognitivist-constructivist learningterm as per which learning is seen as a form of information processing (i.e. the developmentof cognitions) and autonomous knowledge building (i.e. the development of constructions).87

From this twofold determination of learning as processing and construction, it is possible toderive the balanced consideration of receptive and productive processes of learning. Theconstructivist and cognitivist dimensions of the learning term are addressed below.88

With regard to the constructivist components of the learning term, the uppermost factor thatdetermines academic learning is self-control and the independent activity of the learningprocess, which is an autonomous and lifelong process with its own development logic.According to this characterisation of learning, self-observation and observation by others ofthose learning are important forms of the conflict between oneself and the environment. Self-observation is defined as meta-cognition, awareness and monitoring of one’s own learningprocess for control and surveillance purposes. In relation to German teaching, the observationby others is expressed as a form of world processing that consists in disregarding oneself,decentring the self and placing oneself in the position of others i.e. adopting otherperspectives.89 The requirement to take the perspective and position of the counterpart inGerman teaching is established in oral and written communication and text comprehension, inparticular the understanding of literary figures.90

The constructivist components of the learning term initially have consequences for students‘self-monitoring – the teacher accompanies, observes, comments upon and possibly correctsthe students‘ learning. The teacher can also act as a creator of learning environments. Thistype of learning promotion and support requires role extension and role flexibility on the partof the teacher.

In terms of the cognitivist components of the learning term, learning is considered to be the“development and change of cognitive structures and processes”91, which includes processesof understanding and the retention of information. These processes are analysed andindividual learning strategies (cognitive-mental performance) and concrete learningtechniques are assigned.92 Examples of such learning strategies are the selection andprocessing of specific aspects of the lesson content (selection) via consolidation (retention),enrichment (integration) and internal connections (construction). The progression shows an

86 Further learning ideas from other interdisciplinary connections are: learning as social interaction(orientation towards model people), learning as a holistic process (Pestalozzi trilogy of head, heart,hand), e.g. development of an (initially latent) disposition or habit (e.g. cultural participation, life-long learning, learning as a process).

87 Cf. Rosemann & Bielski (2001).88 This is done to clarify the terms; the separation cannot logically be maintained as information pro-

cessing procedures pass into those relating to autonomous knowledge building. There may be asmooth transition between the two terms that is determined by the degree of information processingprior to the autonomous knowledge building.

89 Cf. Spinner (1995).90 Writing, speaking/listening and reading.91 Leutner (2001) based on Schröder (2006), p. 209-210.92 Cf. Wild (2001).


increasing hierarchy in the acquisition intensity. The left-hand column in the table belowcontains examples of teaching-relevant techniques listed according to the sub-processes,mental performance and strategies:

Sub-process Mental performance Strategy Technique

Selection Attention Repetition strategy:

primarily preservative

List, learn by rote

Retention Transfer from working

memory into long-term

memory

Repetition strategy:

secondary further

processing

Compare, classify

Integration Connection between existing

and newly acquired

knowledge

Elaboration strategies:

internal-external

connection

Create mental

images,

mnemonic

techniques, Loci

technique, key word

method, association

creation

Construction Development of connections

between units of meaning

Organisational

strategies: creation of

internal structure

Mind mapping

Table 4: Overview of sub-processes of knowledge acquisition and the allocated mental performance,strategies and techniques

According to this modelling of the learning process, the teacher is in a position to prepareappropriate knowledge content for comprehension and retention and, in particular, to initiateprocesses for further processing, enrichment, consolidation and linking. This relates to allforms of linguistic activity. Following Ausubel’s approach (1967), the following five teachingstrategies are well suited to this:93

Teaching strategy Explanation

Advance Organiser Prefacing important anchoring ideas, pre-structuring94

Progressive Step sequence from the general to the specific

93 Cf. presentation and table in Schröder (2006), p. 213.94 Concepts and terms per Groeben (1982).


differentiation

Integral connection Emphasis on cross-connections and differences

Sequential

organisation

Emphasis on chronological and causal dependencies

Consolidation Reinforcement through repetition and practice

Table 5: Overview of suitable teaching strategies for knowledge communication

These teaching strategies can be used when planning and executing lessons. As the teachershould start each lesson by stating the topics and aims of that lesson, the advance organiser isrelevant from the outset, whereas the integral connection and sequential organisation aredeployed for final summaries (also by the students).

The considerations to date will now be further concretised and applied to the level of lessonmethodology. This will be presented as a conceptual systematisation of the terms for themethods from the perspective of educational science and a self-created systematisation fromthe perspective of German didactics. From an educational science perspective, Meyerdistinguishes between major methodical forms at the macro-methodology level, dimensions ofmethodical actions at the meso-methodology level and so-called staging techniques at themicro-methodology level. Meyer understands major methodical forms to be the basic forms ofteaching from shared lessons (as the normal case) to open learning and various, less oftenused forms such as seminars and project work. More relevant for the choice of method are thedimensions of methodical actions which include

– The four social forms from the commonly used teacher-centred approach via groupteaching and working in pairs to working individually;

– Numerous highly relevant models for action for the teacher from teacher presentationsvia discussions and blackboard work to text work and experiments; and

– Progress of the lesson (introduction – development – achievement of results).


Figure 5: Three level model for methodology95

95 Meyer (2002), p. 113.


Meyer understands staging techniques to be techniques such as “slowing down”, “speedingup”, “showing” etc. The teaching techniques and strategies that are relevant for the specificlesson behaviour are specified more concretely below.96 They belong in the well packed so-called German “suitcase of methods” that enables teachers to survive in some situations.97

From the perspective of German didactics, methods are understood to be the “objective-related and condition-appropriate sequence of steps for specific actions”.98 The definition ofobjectives and analysis of conditions are carried out within the context of superior Germandidactical positions. Steps and processes operationalise and concretise the methods. The stepsand procedures also have a technical level of realisation. The following table shows this inoverview:

Level Example

Position Critique of ideology

Method Analysis of (primary) text and (secondary texts from the) context;

relationship between the text and the social environment; identification of its

function as justification

Procedure Implementation of the text analysis in different phases

Strategies,

techniques

Devise questions about the text, formulate tasks, monitor the learning process

from gathering materials to written continuous text

Table 6: Terminologies, levels and examples of teachers‘ actions during lessons

All of the terms in both columns apply to both the meso and micro-methodology in theteacher’s actual field of activity i.e. teaching. To use Meyer’s terminology, we can nowallocate learning methods in the sense of patterns for action or learning strategies to theteaching and learning concepts. These include the concretisation of teaching strategies forcommunicating knowledge that had previously been treated at a very abstract level.

96 Meyer did not consistently attach the models for action to the staging techniques. Furthermore, themethods are spread out as if in a shop (“approx. 250 items“) and not allocated to specific didacticalobjectives or the mental operations that they trigger in students. This can be done from a Germandidactics perspective.

97 Cf. Beste (2007).98 Jonas & Zech (2006), p. 509.

365. Summary

The interdisciplinary approach for German didactics ispredetermined as a connection between the scientific discipline andcommunication science by the sphere of German teaching which isshaped by many factors researched by the neighbouring disciplines ofGerman didactics. The sociological model of multi-level theory isparticularly relevant for German didactics because of the theoreticalreflection; the relevance of teaching and learning research lies in itsempirical foundation and the setting of objectives in the area ofefficient learning. The constructivist components of the acceptedlearning terms give rise to the new design of autonomous learning inschool and the new teacher role of accompanying, advising andsupporting. The cognitivist components of this learning term enablethe learning process to be divided into individual sub-processes andthe associated mental performance, strategies and techniques that canbe concretised from a subject didactical perspective.

5. Summary

In order to achieve the objectives constructed here, all parties involved with German didacticsand German teacher training at home and abroad should cooperate with one another.Furthermore, they should also make use of the expertise of other disciplines, in particularteaching and learning research, educational science and sociology, without the fear of beingdriven out from the traditional “home of German teaching”. On the contrary, efforts topromote German teaching successfully in the 21st century will depend on exploiting potentialcooperations to connect, in a productive manner, one’s own views with those of others, and tocombine subject-specific and interdisciplinary aspects. This can be achieved throughintelligent changes of viewpoint and the creation of language bridges.

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1.7. Appendix

1.7.1. Overview of teacher competencies

Teacherpersonality

Expertise, didacticaland professional

competence

Diagnostic expertise Methodicalcompetence

Personalcompetencies

Mental orientations:positive self-concept, positiveaction-guidingtheories, willingnessto learn, self-reflection

Personalcharacteristics:commitment,enthusiasm,humour, resilience,role distance

Social competencies

Ability tocommunicate withcolleagues,superiors, parents,general public:ability to cooperate,ability to deal withconflicts

Ability tocommunicate withstudents: empathy,patience, interest

Body competencies:body behaviour andbody feedback

Expertise

Specialist knowledgeof the subject

Skills of going backto the basic elements,reducing andlegitimising actionsduring lessons:communication,reasoning anddiscourse competence

Didacticalcompetence

Subject didacticaland pedagogicknowledge: learning,development,communication

Curricularknowledge:syllabuses, standards

Experience-basedand professionalknowledge

Assessment ofknowledge andlearning progress,assessment of taskdifficulty

Development,selection andimplementation ofdiagnosisprocedures: thirdparty and self-diagnosis, writtenand oral information

Recognition ofdifferences betweensubject-specific andnon subject-specificperformance features

Identification ofreference standardsfor diagnosticverdicts, avoidanceof typical sources oferror, performancevs. learning progressassessment

Constructivefeedback of results tostudents

Principles ofclassroommanagement:withitness,overlapping andmomentum

Areas of classroommanagement:roles and routines,communication ofrole modelbehaviour, advanceplanning, use of time,disturbanceprevention andhandling

Elements of lessonmanagement: supportfor informationprocessing, securingwillingness to learn,facilitation of thelearning process,advance planning

Intercultural competence

Table 11: Overview of teacher competencies

contents 1. overview: german teaching worldwide

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