CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICES RCC Frame, Walls(Cast in Situ)Pre-cast, Pre-Fab and Pre-Stressed Modular ConstructionBy

N.KRISHNAM RAJUADVISOR TO APHB

A :INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL ENGG. CONCEPTS AND GOOD CONSTRUCTIONS PRACTICES

Generally Building construction is classified as

Load BearingRCC FramedStructure

What is a Project ?

In simple term project is one temporary activity with a clear start and a end

The main elements are

TimeCostResourcesClear roles and responsibilityDelivery

Detailed Design :

Develop detailed design from approved scheme design.Detailed design will confirm type of construction, quality of materials and standard of workmanship.

Specifications :

Prepare detailed information including Drawing SchedulesSpecification of MaterialsWorkmanship

Design :

Evaluation of design requirementsReview of compatibility of the design with the plan and budget.Identification of design objectives, design stages, activities and elements.Regular Monitoring of the design development.Identification of proposed design changes and their resolution.Assessment of design progress related to the design schedule.Evaluation of as to the completeness of construction information.Review of sample materials and mock ups for compliance with specifications.Identification and arrangement of the final standard of acceptance of the construction..

Civil Engineering Comprises of

PlanningDesignConstructionQuality Control.

The Main components of Buildings are :

1. Earth Work : Excavation of Foundation. Filling in FoundationFilling in Basement.Open and Pile Foundation2. Section : Concrete3. Section : Brick masonry / Stone masonry 4. Section : Flooring5. Section : Roofing and Ceiling 6. Section : Plastering, Painting.7. Section : Wood Work8. Section : Structural Steel Work.9. Plumbing Services.10.Miscellanies.

CONCRETE

Grades : The Concrete shall be designated as follows :Group Grade (1) (2) Ordinary M 10 Concrete M 15 M 20 Standard Concrete M25, M 55 High Strength M60, M 65 Concrete M 70, M 75, M 80Note : In the Designation of Concrete M refer to mix and the number to specify compressive strength of 150 MM size cube at 28 days expressed as N/mm2

Workability Of concrete:

The concrete mix proportion chosen should be such that the concrete is of adequate workability for the placing condition of concrete and can be properly compacted.

Durability of Concrete :The materials and mix proportion specified and used should be such as to maintain in integrity to protect embedded steel from corrosion. One of the main characteristics Influencing the durability of concrete is the permeability to the ingress of Water, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Other Deleterious Substances. Impermeability is governed by the constituent and workability used in making the concrete.

Factors Influencing Durability :(a) Environment (b) Cover to embedded steel(c) Type and quality of material used(d) Cement content / W.C.R. of concrete(e) Workmanship to obtain full compaction and efficient curing (f) Shape and size of the member

Exposure Condition:(1) Mild(2) Moderate(3) Severe(4) Vary Severe(5) Extreme

Production of Concrete :

Quality assurance measures are both technical and organizational. The job of quality control and quality assurance would involve quality audit of both inputs as well as outputs. Inputs OutputsMaterial for Concrete Concrete in PlaceWorkmanship in allStages of Batching, Mixing,Transportation, Placing, Compaction, Curing etc.,

Batching :In Batching Concrete, quantity of both cement and aggregates shall be determined by mass.

R.M.C, :As per IS 4926Volume batching may be allowed only where weigh batching is not practical.Form Work : (1)The form work shall be designed and constructed so as to Remain sufficiently rigid during placing and compaction of Concrete and to prevent loss of slurry from the concrete.(2)For details regarding design, detailing etc., reference may be as per IS 14687(3) Cleaning and treatment of form workThe face of form work in contact with concrete shall be cleaned and treated with form release agent.(4) Stripping timeForm shall not be released until the concrete has achieved a strength of at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal form work. Details may be as per IS 456 2000.

Assembly of Reinforcement: Reinforcement shall be bent and fixed in accordance with procedure (specified in IS 2502) Bar bending schedule shall be prepared for all reinforcement work. Reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in the position shown in the drawings by providing proper cover blocks, spaces, supporting bars etc.,

Welded Joints: In reinforcement may be used in accordance with IS 2751 and IS 9417.

Placing Compaction :

The concrete shall be placed and compacted before initial setting of concrete commences and shall not be subsequently disturbed. Concrete shall be compacted using mechanical vibration complying with IS 2505, IS 2506, IS 2514 and IS 4656. Over vibration and under vibration of concrete are harmful and should be avoided.

Foundations :

Excavation of Foundations :

1Fix up centre line Plugs.2Construct centre line pillars.3Fix up the basement height 4.Depth of Foundation, Fix up the top of concrete footing5.Pedestals shall be constructed duly marking their position. 6.Excavation for foundation shall be to the exact dimensions as specified.7.Based on the soil profiles sides of excavation can be maintained.8.The bed of excavation shall be dressed level and rendered firm by watering and tamping.9.The foundation excavation shall be inspected by the competent Engineer before the concrete is laid.

Excavation in Rock :

1.Excavation in rock shall be carried by crow bars, pick exe or pneumatic drills etc., Unless permitted blasting shall not be resorted to.

Filling in Foundations :

1.Earth used for back filling shall be free from salts, organic or other deleterious matter.

2.As soon as the construction of foundation has been completed, the space : all round the foundations shall be cleared of all debris and filled with earth is layers not exceeding 150mm, laid care being taken not to disturb the constructed foundation, the back fill shall be brought to the original ground surface.

3.On completion of the structure, the ground shall be carefully dressed with a gentle outward slope for a distance of 3 meters, all-round the structure.

Filling in Basement :

1.The earth or sand for filling in basement shall be of approved quality and free organic or other deleterious matter.

2.Expansive soils shall not be used, sea sand also shall not be used unless permitted.

3.The surface to receive the filling shall be first cleared., free from all roots, Vegetation of or spoil and welted.

4.Filling shall be done in layers not exceeding 150 mm, each layer being watered and competed before the succeeding layer is laid.Care being taken not to disturb the structure. The finished level of filling shal be to the bottom of the base concrete of the flooring.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESMaterials

CementO.P.C cofrom to 33 grade IS - 269 43 grade - IS - 8112 53 grade IS - 12269P.P.C confirm to IS - 1489Unless otherwise specified cement shall mean OPCCement shall be stored in dry, weather proof godownsCement which has became caked or otherwise damaged shall on no account be used on the work.

Expansive soils shall not be used.

Filling shall be done in layers not exceeding 150 mm, each layer being watered and compacted before the next layer in laid,. The finished level of filling shall be to the bottom of base concrete of flooring

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESSand

Shall comply with the requirement of IS 383Granual material ie processing of storeNatural sand resulting from natural disintegration of rock which has been depositedCrushed stone sand (produced by crushing of hard stone)Coarse sand F.M of course sand not less than 2.5Fine sand F.M of fine sand not less than 1.0Sieve analysis to be conducted before use.Sand shall be obtained from the source specified by the engineer in charge.Sand which is chemically reacting with alkalis of cement is harmful as cracking of concrete may taken place shall be prohibited.Sand shall be screened and should be free from dirty and must be washed in cleaned water before use.The percentage of silt content to be determined as per the procedure laid down.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESCoarse aggregate

Shall comply with the requirement of IS-383Coarse aggregate should be graded sizes well distributed between the nominal size and lower limit for coarse aggregate.Aggregate shall be obtain from the quarries specified by the dept.Crushed stone shall unless otherwise specified, consists of hard, sharp, angular pieces, crushed to specified sizes. Flaky and weathered stones shall not be used..Coarse aggregate shall be free from all dust and dirt and shall not contain any harmful material such as iron, pirals, coal, mica, shale etc.Quartz which has a smooth surface that adhesion of the mortar is poor and not suitable as an aggregate unless specifically passed after laboratory test.Size and grading shall be as per the requirement.Testing shall be in accordance with IS 2386h

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESWater

Water used for mixing mortar or concrete and for curing shall be clean and free from injurials amounts of deleterials materials such as oils, acids, salts, silts and organic matter.

PH value of water shall not be less than 6 conforming to IS code 3025

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESCentering

Use rigid form work.Centering plates, planks or plywood to be properly cleaned.Shuttering to be checked in stages.Beams bottom- allignment & level and rigidity.Beam sidesSlab shuttering and levels to be ensured.Fixing of side support cross strutting etc., for rigidity.

Provide extra supports at joints at beam bottoms etc.Prove care to be taken to prevent bulging of centering.Centering to be approved by competent authority before laying concrete.Care to be taken, not to damage the concrete while removing centering.After de-shuttering, the materials are to be properly stacked and cleaned.Time of removal of centering after laying concrete.Walls, columns and vertical side of beams - 24 to 48 hrsSlabs 7 daysBeam upto 6 m spans 14 daysBeams over 6 m spans 21 days.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESReinforcementReinforcement steel to be obtained from IS standard main manufacturers only.No re-rolled steel is to be used, steel to be tested and test certificates to be obtained.Ensure reinforcement bars are clean, free from dust at the time of placing.Fabrication of bars is to be done in cold.Vertical distance between the successive layers of bars in members are to be maintained with spacers.Check reinforcement for size, spacing, location, numbers, overlaps, hooks etc., as per bending schedule.Ensure staged overlaps and anchorage, wherever needed.Ensure reinforcement is kept in position by chairs etc., during placing and compaction of concrete.Ensure proper placement of cover blocks.Ensure before placing the concrete, the reinforcement is in position, undisturbed.Ensure proper binding of reinforcementEnsure that the lap joints of bars are staggered.Ensure 20 mm cover for slabs25 mm cover for beams and columns with 12 mm dia rods.40 mm cover for beams and columns with over 12mm dia rods.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Placing of concrete (As per clause No. 13.2 of IS 456/2000)

Design mix to be obtained.

The concrete to be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final position.

Avoid lengthy handling and segregation of mix.

The concrete shall be placed and compacted before initial setting of concrete.

Avoid segregation or displacement of reinforcement form work.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Compaction (As per clause No. 13.2 of IS.456/2000)

Concrete to be compacted with pan vibrators for slabs and pin vibrators for beams/columns

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Slump Test (As per clause No. 13.2 of IS 456/2000)

For concreting of lightly reinforced sections, mass concreting with very low and low degree of workability, the slump is to be between 25 to 75 mm.

For concreting with heavily reinforced sections with medium degree of workability the slump is to be between 50 to 100 or 75 to 100 as directed by Engineer-in-charge.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESStone masonry

Coursed rubble stone masonryThe face stones shall be squared on all joints with beds horizontal.They shall be set in regular courses of uniform thickness fom bottom to top throughout.No face stone shall be less width in plan than 150 mm for walls of 400 mm thick 200 mm for walls of 450 mm thick and 250 mm for walls of 600 mm thick and above.The face stones shall be laid headers and stretchers alternatively so as to break joints.The stones shall be solidly bedded, set in full mortar with joints not exceeding 12mm and extend back into the hearting.The height of the stone shall not exceed breadth at face nor the length inwards.

Through stones and HeadersIn all the works up to a width of 600mm, bond stones running though the wall to be provided at an intervals of 2 m in each course.For walls thicker than 600mm, a line of headers each headers each header overlapping by 150mm minimum shall be provided from front to back at 2 m intervals in each course.The position of the stones shall be marked on both the faces.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESBrick work

The thickness of joints in case of masonry with first class brigcks shall not be more than 10mm.In case of masonry with second class bricks joints shall not be more than 12 mm.The bricks shall be thoroughly soaked in clean water.The cessation of bubbles when the bricks are immersed in water is an indication of thorough soaking of bricks.The bricks shall be laid with joints full of mortar.The face joints shall be racked by jacking tool when the mortar is green.The wall construction shall be taken up truly plumb.All courses shall be laid truly horizontal.All vertical joints shall be truly vertical.The thickness of brick course shall be kept uniform and with their frogs kept upward.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICESPlastering

Water the brick wall before start of plastering.Chicken mesh at joints of brick wall and R.C.C member to be provided. Dry mixing of cement and sand is to be done on impervious platform.Holes provided for scaffolding are to be closed along with plastering.Level marking must be done in advance form time to time.Chip off concrete surface before starting plastering.Gaps around door window frames to be filled.Base coat of plaster to be checked before application of finishing coat.

SUMMARY OF QUALITY CHECKS TO BE DONE ON BULLDINGS WORKS.

Bearing capacity of soil to be checked in advance.Material to be approved in advance.Quality of materials to be checked periodically.Steel to be obtained from main manufacturers only.Size of footings, pedestals, columns, beams are to be checked.Design mixes to be obtained in advance.Cover to the reinforcement as per structural requirement to be checked. Thickness of plastering to wall be checked.Proportion, workability and vibration of CC mix and cement mortar proportion be checked.Cube samples be collected for testing in lab.

DETAILING OF FOOTINGS

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGESA.Bridge is a structure having a total length above 6 M for carrying traffic or other loads over a channel, road or railoroy (IRC 5-8988)Minor Bridge : Length up to 60 MMajor Bridge : Length above 60 M.

B.Selection of SiteNarrow width of channel Cross section having large average depth Straight reach of the channel. Advance of curves in approaches.

C.Hydraulic Data Size, shape and surface characteristics of catchment Storage areas in catchment. Hydrographs. HFC, LWL, Period of HFL observed Max, Depth of Scour. Type of river i.e., seasonal or perennial.

d)Sub Surface dataThe economical design of a bridge depends mainly on subsurface profile. Properties of soil/rock Type of rock, structure of rock Ground water level Scour, quality of water in contact with Suitable foundation level, S.B.C. Possible settlements.

e)Design discharge and linear water way (LWW) to be worked out as per codal practices.

f)Scour depth and afflux

g)Width of carriage way, footpath and median

IISubstructure and foundationsTypes of foundation are 1) Shallow 2) Deep TypeFoundation depends upon soil strata met with and SBC.

IIICaissons / Well Foundations.The caissons are advantages when1) Substrata contains large boulders.2) Foundation is subjected to large lateral forces.3) Massive substructure is required to extend to well below the river bed against over turning, scour etc.,The main components of caisson (well) are

1) Cutting edge 2) Well curb 3) Staining. 4) Bottom Plug 5) Top Plug 6) Well cap 7) Filling the wells.The wells can be singular circular / Two circular or double D Rectangular.

IV Pile Foundations Bridge on Land River BridgeDriven Cast in situ piles 0.5 M 1.20 MPre-cast Piles 0.35 M 1.00 MBored Piles 1.00 M 1.20 MSpacing of Piles not less then 3 times dia of pile capacity of pile may be arrived from the soil properties and formula as per IS 2911.

V. Dept of Foundation :Foundation shall be taken to such depth that they are safe against scour or protection from it.

Sub Structure /Supporting Structures.

Abutments : To withstand earth pressure may be solid wall type or spill through type. Abutment Plier : May be provided at location where there may be need for increasing water way subsequently.Pliers : Pliers may be PSC / RCC / PCC.Dirt walls, Wing Walls, Return Walls.

Bearings :

1.Bearing is a point of connection between structure and the support designed to transmit vertical and horizontal loads and allow for rotation and horizontal loads and allow for rotation and horizontal movement.

2.Bearings may be fixed type, sliding, rolling type, also may be metallic, rubber (Neoprene ) or synthetic rubber.

3.Bearings rests on bearing pedestal over pier

Super Structure :May be : RCCPre-stressed ConcreteSteelMasonryComposite Construction using steel and RCC/PSE

The Super Structures :Is to be designed for 70 R Loading and other cross loads as per IRC 6-2000.

Segmental Deck Construction : Cantilever construction is a method of progress the construction of Cantilever in segment and stitching them to the segments already completed by pre-stressing the segments, size normally is 2.5 M to 3.0M and they can be either pre-cast or cast in situ on traveling gantries.

The pre-cast units are erected by launching truss or floating crane.

Parapet & Railing Crash barrier.

Guide Lines for Road ConstructionRoad Features1. Alignment : Topographical and Geological features.2. Environmental factors:Air pollution to life system, stream pollutions, drainage pattern, land scoping etc.,3. Proposal of right way acquisition of structures.4. Traffic:Present and projected for a period of ten years for up gradation of work estimated traffic for new construction.5. Road design and Specification.:Geometric design of road, pavement design, retaing works, specifications.6. Cross drainage Structures:Investigation, details of design proposal, drawings of C.D. Works.7. Material Labour are Equipment:Availability, suitability, lead distance mobilization of resources.

8.Rates : Schedule of rates adopted analyses price escalation etc., 9.Construction Programme:Likely period of execution, constraints on the works. 10. Miscellaneous :Diversion of traffic arrangement of water supply and other site amenities etc.,11. Lard acquisition etc.

Classification of Roads :1. National High Ways2. State High Ways (SH) Major district Roads (MDR) Other District Roads (ODR)3. Rural Roads & Village Roads.4. Internal Roads in Village & Towns.

Roads density is 0.7 Km / One Sq. Km. 28.8 K.m / One Million People.

CHOICE OF MANDREL FORBAR BENDING

MIX UP OF BARSELEVATIONPLANELEVATIONPLAN

STAGGERING BARS FOR CONTINUITYIN COLUMNSNOTE:ALTERNATIVELY IF STAGGERING IS NOT DONE, SPACING OF TIES SHALL BE REDUCED TO HALF THE NORMAL SPACING IN THE LAPPING REGION.

BAR LAPPING ATCOLUMN BEAM JUNCTION

ABRUPT KINKING OF BARSIN COLUMNS

ABRUPT KINKING OF BARSOUTSIDE THE COLUMNS

DEFECTIVE PROVISION OFTIES IN COLUMN

DISCONTINUITY OF BARSIN COLUMNS

LEAVING THE BARS FORFUTURE EXPANSION

LAPPING OF BARS INTENSION MEMBERS

CURTAILMENT OF BARSIN BEAMS

LAPPING / PLACEMENT OFBARS IN BEAMS

LAPPING OF BARS INCANTILEVER BEAMS

DEFECTIVE POSITION OFBARS IN BEAMS

UNEQUAL COVERS IN BEAMS

PLACEMENT OF BARS ATSLAB SUPPORT

BAR PLACEMENT INCANTILEVERED SLAB

MIXING UP OF BARS INTWO-WAY SLABS

ARRANGEMENT OF BARS IN ONE-WAY SLAB

REINFORCEMENT DETAILING IN GABLES

REINFORCEMENT AT WALLINTERSECTIONS

PLACEMENT OF BARS INWAIST SLAB

REINFORCEMENT IN FOLDED STAIRCASE

REINFORCEMENT DETAILING IN LARGE DOMES

ONE-WAY SLABS PLACEMENT OF REINFORCEMENTSIMPLY SUPPORTED SLAB :CONTINUOUS SLAB :CANTILEVER SLAB :

DETAILING ASPECTS IN SLABS SPANNING IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS

DETAILING ASPECTS IN SLABS SPANNING IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS

CURTAILMENT OF BARS CURTAILMENT IN SLABCURTAILMENT IN CANTILEVER BEAM

BENDS, HOOKS AND LINKSVARIOUS FORMS OF LINKSSTANDARD BENDS AND HOOKS

BEAM STIRRUPSSINGLE LEGDOUBLE LEGOPEN TYPEDOUBLE LEG PARTIALLY OPEN TYPEDOUBLE LEGCLOSED TYPEDOUBLE LEGWELDED TYPEMULTIPLE TYPE

ANCHORAGE FOR BEAM BARS Contd

ANCHORAGE LENGTHM 15M 20M 25TENSION50 x d45 x d40 x dCOMPRESSION45 x d40 x d35 x d

ANCHORAGE FOR BEAM BARS l t = ANCHORAGE LENGTHContd

REINFORCEMENT AT BEAM TO BEAM SUPPORTHORIZONTAL LOOPSEXTRA DIAGONAL OPEN STIRRUPS

TYPICAL DETAILS OF BEAM INTERSECTIONS1. SECONDARY BEAM SHALLOWER THAN MAIN BEAM2. BOTH MAIN AND SECONDARY BEAMS OF SAME DEPTH3. BOTH MAIN AND SECONDARY BEAMS OF SAME DEPTH4. SECONDARY BEEM DEEPER THAN MAIN BEAM

CURTAILMENT OF BARSCURTAILMENT IN CONTINUOUS BEAM

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TIESSINGLE TIEDOUBLE TIEDIAMOND TIE + SINGLE LINKDOUBLE TIESSINGLE TIE + DOUBLE LINKSSINGLE TIE + DOUBLE LINKSSINGLE TIE + DOUBLE LINKSSINGLE TIE + SINGLE LINKNOTE:1. TIE DIA : BAR DIA

2. TIE SPACING :16 x BAR DIA

48 x TIE DIA

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TIES

COLUMN TRANSITIONS ts = SPACING OF COLUMN TIES

ld = DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

DETAILING AT JUNCTIONCOLUMN TIES CONTINUED AT JUNCTIONPLANSEC. 1-1SEC. 2-2

DETAILING AT JUNCTIONCOLUMN TIES CONTINUED AT JUNCTIONPLANSEC. 1-1SEC. 2-2

DETAILING AT JUNCTIONBEAM STIRRUPS CONTINUED AT JUNCTIONPLANSEC. 1-1SEC. 2-2

DETAILING AT JUNCTIONBEAM STIRRUPS CONTINUED AT JUNCTIONPLANSEC. 1-1SEC. 2-2

DETAILING AT OPENING AND CLOSING CORNERSOPENINGCORNERPLANNOTE: STRRIUPS & OTHER REINFORCEMENT NOT SHOWNCLOSINGCORNER

DETAILING IN STAIRCASE

DETAILING IN BRACKETSHORIZONTAL LOOPSINCLINED LOOPSVERTICAL LOOPSNOTE : HORIZONTAL LOOPS PREFERRED

TYPICAL LAP WELD IN REBAR

TYPICAL BUTT WELD JOINT IN REBAR

BAR KINKSBAR KINK IN COLUMNBAR KINK IN BEAM

TYPICAL SPLICE DETAILSBONDED TYPEPRESSED TYPECOUPLER TYPE

BUNDLING OF BARSTWIN BUNDLE(Vertical)ELL BUNDLETWIN BUNDLE(Horizontal)TRIANGULAR BUNDLESQUARE BUNDLE

CURTAILMENT OF BARS IN BUNDLESNOTE : ONLY BUNDLED BARS SHOWN

TYPICAL SUPPORTS TO REINFORCEMENTMORTAR REINFORCEMENT SUPPORTSTEEL REINFORCEMENT SUPPORTSPLASTIC REINFORCEMENT SUPPORT

CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN FOOTING- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETINGPROVISION OF KICKER IS OPTIONAL

CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN COLUMN- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETINGContd

CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN COLUMN- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETINGContd

CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN SLAB- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETING

CONSTRUCTION JOINT AT BEAM - COLUMN JUNCTION- PERMITTED ONLY WHEN CONCRETING OF TAKEN UP IMMEDIATELY AFTER CONCRETING- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETINGAB

CONSTRUCTION JOINT AT BEAM - COLUMN JUNCTION- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETING

PERMITTED ONLY WHENSHEAR RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE IS NEGLECTED.INTERFACE TREATED AS HIGH IN THE DESIGNS ANDADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF PROTRUDING REINFORCING BARS ENSURED.- INDICATES DIRECTION OF CONCRETINGCONSTRUCTION JOINT AT BEAM - COLUMN JUNCTION

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN ONE-WAY SLABPLANContd

CROSS SECTION - TYPICALContdTYPICAL CONSTRUCTION JOINT IN ONE-WAY SLAB

TYPICAL EXPANSION JOINT(REINFORCEMENT DISCONTINUOUS AT JOINT)25mm WIDE EXPANSION JOINTContd

FOOTINGContdTYPICAL EXPANSION JOINTFILLED WITH SEALENT25mm WIDE EXPANSION JOINT(REINFORCEMENT DISCONTINUOUS AT JOINT)

R. C. HINGESTYPE - 1TYPE - 2TYPE - 3

PILE CAPPLANSTARTER BARSTOP BARSHORIZONTAL BARSPILECLEAR OVERHANG100 TO 150STIRRUPSSECTION 1-1BOTTOM BARS

CIRCULAR FLOORS

DETAILING AT SHRINKAGE STRIPS IN THIN WALLS & LARGE SLABSPLAN TYPE 1PLAN TYPE 2

GCPGOOD CONSTRUCTION PRACTICEEXPERIENCEENVIRONMENTOBJECTIVEKNOWLEDGDERESOURCES

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURECONCEPTUAL STAGE DESIGNS & PLANS

FORMULATION STAGE ESTIMATES & AGREEMENTS

REALISATION STAGE - EXECUTIONGCP

P.W.D. SYSTEM of Execution of WorksNECESSITYSITE EXPLORATIONPLANS & STRUCTURAL DESIGNSESTIMATESADMINISTRATIVE SANCTIONTECHNICAL SANCTIONTENDERAGREEMENTEXECUTION COMPLETIONHANDING OVER

CONTRACT AGREEMENTPLANSPECIFICATIONQUANTITIESRATEMILESTONESPERIOD OF COMPLETIONCONDITIONS OF CONTRACT

MANUALSAPDSSIS CODESD-CODEPWD ACCOUNTS CODE

L.S. AGREEMENT

PLANSPECIFICATIONSQUANTITIESRATE

TIME IS THE ESSENCE OF CONTRACT

SPECIFICATIONDescription of item of Work Importance of drafting Specifications

APDSSIS CODES

WORKING WITH REINFORCED CONCRETEFORM WORKI.S. Code I.S. 456 2000

REINFORCEMENTCONCRETE

FORMWORKI.S. Codes I.S. 3696 (Part I & II)- 1987

Efficiency of the formwork is the efficiency of the concrete structure

Scaffolding & ShutteringSCAFFOLDINGVertical support system SHUTTERINGForm rendering systemFORM WORK CONSISTS OF SCAFFOLDING & SHUTTERING

Conventional Wooden BalliesSCAFFOLDING with CASHEWRINA TREE STEMS used as props

Mild Steel Props with JackSCAFFOLDING with MILD STEEL JACKSused as props

Mild Steel Frame SupportsSCAFFOLDING with MILD STEEL FRAMES Prop support system

DOKA FRAMESDoka Frame work system with HD Towers

Each HD Tower with Four vertical props and cross bracings designed to carry 25 Tons vertical Loads

SHUTTERING

Types of shutteringWooden PlanksMild Steel PlatesPlywood Sheets

Plywood shuttering

Shuttering supports

Dome ShutteringWORKING WITH RCC

REINFORCEMENTMATERIAL STANDARDSConformance with relevant IS CodesEx: I.S. 1786 1985 - High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) Bars of Fe 415 GradeTESTING for 0.2% PROOFSTRESS, ELONGATION, TENSILE STRENGTH, BEND & REBEND WORKMANSHIPConformance with relevant IS Codes and PracticeEx: SP 34 for Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing

BAR BENDING DETAILINGBAR BENDING SCHEDULESCOVERDEVELOPMENT LENGTH COMPRESSION & TENSIONANCHORING BARS BENDS & HOOKSLAP SPLICNG COMPRESSION & TENSIONCURTAILMENTSPACING OF REINFORCEMENTBUNDLING OF BARSPLACING & TYING

WORKING WITH RCC

Nominal COVER BAR BENDING DETAIL

EXPOSURENOMINAL CONCRETE COVER in mm not less thanMild 20Moderate 30Severe 45Very severe50Extreme75

DEVELOPMENT LENGTHTypical Reinforcement details of Mat, Column BarsDevelopment Criteria for column bars in footing

BAR BENDING DETAIL

Development LENGTH in stirrupsReinforcement details of STIRRUP hooks

BAR BENDING DETAIL

ANCHORING BARSReinforcement details of Beam Bars

Anchoring the top of bar of the BeamsBAR BENDING DETAIL

CURTAILMENTCurtailment of Reinforcement in Beam

BAR BENDING DETAIL

LAP SPLICINGSplicing of Reinforcement

BAR BENDING DETAIL

PLACING & TYINGSpacing & Placing of Reinforcement

BAR BENDING DETAIL

SPACERSUsage of Spacers in Reinforcement

BAR BENDING DETAIL

CONCRETEMATERIAL STANDARDSConformance with relevant IS CodesWORKMANSHIPConformance with relevant IS Codes and Practice

CONCRETE MATERIALS CEMENTCOARSE AGGREGATEFINE AGGREGATEWATERADMIXTURES

CEMENT33/ 43/ 53 GRADE O.P.C.RAPID HARDENING PORTLANDPORTLAND SLAGPORTLAND POZZOLANA

COARSE AGGREGATE Conformance with IS 383Size and GradationFlakiness IndexAggregate Impact valueWater Absorption

FINE AGGREGATE

COARSE AGGREGATE GRADATIONIS 2386 Part IIS 383 - 1970Particles retained on 4.75 mm IS SieveSieve Analysis for Single sized & Graded

COARSE AGGREGATE

FLAKINESS INDEXCOARSE AGGREGATEIS 2386 Part I% by weight of Particles whose least dimension is less than 3/5th of their mean dimension. Flakiness Metal Gauge

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUEIS 2386 Part IVRelative Measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact.

(Weight of fraction passing 2.36 mm IS sieve/ weight of sample) * 100

COARSE AGGREGATE

FINE AGGREGATEConformance with IS 383GradationBulking Fineness ModulusClay Content

WATER

FINE AGGREGATE GRADATIONIS 2386 Part IIS 383 - 1970FINE AGGREGATE: Particles passing through 4.75 mm IS Sieve and retained on 150 microns IS SieveSILT: Particles passing through 150 microns IS Sieve and retained on 75 microns IS SieveCLAY: Particles less than 75 microns

FINE AGGREGATE

BULKINGFINE AGGREGATEDampness causes increase in the volume of Sand known as BULKINGIS 2386 Part III

FINENESS MODULUSIS 2386 Part I

FINENESS MODULUS: Numerical index of sum of percentage of weight/ volume of particles retained from 40 mm to 150 micron IS Sieve and divided by 100

FINE AGGREGATE

WATERPotable water Conformance with IS Code IS 3025 (Part 22 & 23)

PROPERTIES of CONCRETEGrades of CONCRETEWorkability - SlumpMinimum/ Maximum Cement content Water/Cement RatioDesign Mix/ Nominal MixProduction, Compaction, Placing & CuringSampling & Acceptance Criteria

PROBLEMS

Grades of ConcretePROPERTIES

Group Grade DesignationCharacteristic Compressive strengthORDINARY CONCRETEM 1010 N/ mm2M 1515 N/ mm2M 2O20 N/ mm2

STANDARD COCNRETE M 2525 N/ mm2M 3030 N/ mm2 M 3535 N/ mm2M 4040 N/ mm2M 4545 N/ mm2M 5050 N/ mm2M 5555 N/ mm2

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETEM 6060 N/ mm2M 6565 N/ mm2M 7070 N/ mm2M 7575 N/ mm2M 8080 N/ mm2

Slump of ConcretePROPERTIES

DEGREE OF WORKABILITYSLUMP IN mmVery lowDetermination of Compaction factorLow 25 75Medium 50 10075 100 High100 150 Very high Determination of flow

Minimum Cement ContentPROPERTIES

ExposureGrade of Reinforced ConcreteMinimum Cement ContentWater/ Cement RatioMild M 20300 Kg/m30.55Moderate M 25 300 Kg/m30.50SevereM 30320 Kg/m30.45Very severeM 35340 Kg/m30.45Extreme M 40360 Kg/m30.40

Maximum Cement ContentCement content in excess of 450 Kg/m3 should not be used unless specially designedPROPERTIES

SAMPLING Three test specimens shall make one sample for testing at 28 days. Test results shall be average of three Specimens.Individual variation shall not be more than +15 % of the average.PROPERTIES

Quantity of Concrete in work in m3Number of samples1 5 16 15 216 30331 50 450 and above4 + one additional sample for each additional 50 m3 concrete

Target StrengthMean of 4 consecutive test results Characteristic compressive strength + 0.825 * Standard deviationFor M 15 = fck + 3 N/mm2For M 20 and above= fck + 4 N/mm2Target strength or Mean strength = Characteristic compressive strength + 1.65 * Standard deviationft = fck + 1.65 x Acceptance criteria

Flexural StrengthMean of 4 consecutive test results Characteristic compressive strength + 0.3 N/mm2Individual Test result Characteristic compressive strength - 0.3 N/mm2

PROPERTIESFlexural strength, fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2Acceptance criteria

SOME COMMON PROBLEMSUSAGE OF NON-SPECIFIED MATERIALSFRAGILE SCAFFOLDINGFORMWORK DISTORTIONIMPROPER MIXINGDISTURBED REINFORCEMENTIMPROPER COMPACTIONCONSTRUCTION JOINTSINSUFFICIENT CURING

CONSTRUCTION JOINTSCONSTRUCTION JOINTS shall be discouraged unless essential

CONSTRUCTION JOINTS Should comply with IS - 11817

DESIGNSTANDARD DESIGN PRACTICEPRACTICAL ORIENTATIONARCHITECTURAL DESIGNSTRUCTURAL DESIGN

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGYRCC Frame Structures :Generally buildings are constructed in two categories.Framed Structure usually built with column and beam and in filled brick walls.Load bearing structure is usually built with 1 brick thick both for external and internal walls.The Design of a structure presents two told problems :If has to be so constructed that it serves the need efficiently for which it was intended (Functional design)It has to be strong enough to resist the loads and forces to which it is subjected during its service (Structure design)

The important aspects in the structural design are To determine the loads / forces which the frame work will be required to support.Selection of a suitable structural arrangement and materials of construction.Analyzing the internal stresses in the frame work. Proportioning the members of the frame work.General Design Consideration :1. Aim Design : To provide a safe and economic structure complying to the users requirement.2. Method of Design :Structure and structural elements shall normally be designed by limit state method.

Mix design with suitable materials, quality control, adequate detailing and good super vision are equally important. 3. Durability, Workmanship and Materials :Quality of concrete, steel, other materials, workmanship, should be adequate for safety, serviceability and durability.Type of construction Load bearing (up to 1 or 2 floor)Reinforced frame (RCC)Composite construction For High rise structuresSteel framed constructionConcrete walls (shear walls) structures.

Code of good practice for low rise simple load bearing masonry structures.

In order to counter horizontal acceleration of earthquake ties have to be introduced at sill, lintel and roof level.Roofs of such masonry buildings shall be kept as light as possible.Roofing of such buildings shall be designed and constructed as single diaphragmIn Earthquake prone areas 50% of the walls shall be designed as shear walls minimizing openings.

Framed Structures :In the case of framed structures the members of the structural system shall be designed so as to form a unitary moment resisting frame to counter earthquake load and to suitably accommodate deflections.In the case of stilt floor with free standing columns which do not have any other structural members such as shear walls etc., they shall be designed according to loads and moments.The structural system should be simple and shall have symmetry as far as possible with the following .Design of corner members of the building to resist the concentration of seismic forces.The joints between various structural members shall be suitably strengthened.The structure shall offer balanced resistance. This should be achieved by keeping the center of resistance close to the center of mass of the building as far as possible.

In the case of unsymmetry where the centers do not coincide, the members shall be suitably designed for the torsion generated by earthquake forces.In the case of certain class of buildings having higher safety requirement suitable measures like the frames shall be suitably braced on the periphery and shear wall shall be introduced.Symmetry of the structural system may be maintained as far as possible even in the case of buildings where geometric symmetry is not there. All non structural members like plumbing, false ceiling, air conditioning ducts etc of the building shall be suitably anchored in the position so as to resist earthquake forces.Structural glazing / curtain wall shall be designed and constructed on the faade of the building so as to accommodate deflection in the structural members safely. Suitable glass like tempered glass laminated glass shall only be used in the panels.In the case of piped gas supply, the pipes shall be embedded and passed through walls with adequate sleeves to avoid any ruptures.External cladding on the walls with heavy material like granite, marble etc shall be suitably anchored with pins etc and their load shall be accommodated for.

Sub Soil Exploration and SamplingAdequate knowledge of the sub soil characteristics for safe and efficient design of foundation.The basic aim of a sub soil exploration is to obtain the strata grapy and physical properties of the soils underlying the site. Location of ground water level.

Methods of Tests :Open Test : Suitable for shallow depth.Boring : Suitable for deep exploration (like tube, Augur borings) Sub surface sounding.Geophysical Methods.The samples collected should represent the nature of subsoil.S.B.C. of soils shall be arrived based on shear parameters as per the relevant IS Code 6403 1981.Also necessary to conduct standard penetration test (or) plate bearing test to assess the safe pressure with regard to settlement.3)The settlement aspect is to be examined carefully in the case of clayey soils.

Foundations :Depth of foundation is to be decided based on the soil strata from the trial pits / explorations conducted.Foundation are normally placed below the ground surface.The purpose of providing a foundation is to distribute the load over a layer area at a uniform rate so that the pressure does not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of soil below :

Objects of Foundations :Foundations are provided for the following purposes.To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a large area so as to bring down the intensity of load at its base below the safe bearing capacity of the sub soil.To support the structure.To give enough lateral stability to the structures against wind, rain, earthquake, etc.To prepare a level and hard surface for concreting and masonry work.

V.To transmit the superimposed loads through side friction and end bearing in case of deep foundation ViTo distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub-soil.ViiTo provide structural safety against undermining or scouring due to animals, flood water etc.,ViiiTo prevent or minimize cracks due to movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils.

Foundation :

Engineers need to know the character and magnitude of forces in order to design and contact structures.One has to study the system of soil below the earth surface at various levels under ground depending upon the past experience.Repairs to foundations are expensive. Structures should be founded an stable soils.Certain soil deposits wherein wetting of the soil beyond a stress level causes steep reduction in stiffness resulting from disruption of soil structure.

Subject to rate of loading, disruption in soil structure takes place at a faster pace than the development of new structural bonds which Leeds to vertical deformation at locations of high stress due to disturbance of soil structures.Problems associated with foundation in clay soils are well known. 7.Swelling clays create large uplift forces on the peripheral walls during rainy season. A reverse situation may arise at region of moderate rainfall when the central region of a building founded on clay soil is prone to swelling during dry spells.

Differential settlement due to unconsolidated fill.

Differential settlement due to uplift of shrinkage soil, shrink and expand with changes in moisture content.Vertical and diagonal cracker are noticed on external walls.8.The problem of dampness in buildings requires a systematic approach to determine the causes of leakage, the source from which the moisture is derived and measured which are likely to prove effect ion.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Settlement of Structures :Principal causes of occurrence of cracks :Moisture changesThermal variations Elastic deformation CreepChemical reactionsFoundation movement and settlement of soilVegetation

B. Principal causes of settlement : To design the foundation to minimum settlement and as uniform as possible.

C. By Static Loads1. Elastic deformation. 2. Plastic flow.3. Consolidation of saturated clay beds.

b) By Dynamic Loads :Settlement from this cause can occur in all kinds of soilsSettlements are due to action of stress waves from inertia forces.

c)By Lowering ground water.

1.In some cases, the settlements due to this cause are brought about by changes in the stress conditions in underlying soil. 2.In other cases the lowering of the ground water table brings about settlement due to soil shrinkage.

Composite Construction :A composite column consists of steel or cast Iron care with reinforcement placed around it and put together in concrete.Maximum area of core must be limited to 20% of gross area of the construction.Minimum of 75 mm clearances between core and helical reinforcement (or) 50 mm clearance between core and ties to be maintained.Composite columns are normally provided in case of long loads and where the size restriction is severe. IS 456 has the recommendations :The allowable axial load P on a Composite column consisting of structural steel or a cast Iron column increase in concrete with both longitudinal and spiral reinforcement.

Introduction :Over the last five years there has been a massive world wide tall building construction boom.Many innovations in design and construction and the tallest building in the world has became 50% taller than previous record.Man is a gregarious being It has always been a human aspiration to create taller and taller structure.Improvements in concrete mixes have made high rise construction more attractive, pre-cast concrete member are also used.HIGH RISE STRUCTURES

Several technological advances occurred in the late 19th century that combined to make sky scraper design and construction possible.

Mainly ability to mass produce steel , the safe and efficient elevators, development of improved techniques, for measuring and analyzing structural loads and stress.The following recommendations may be treated as code of god practice as regards seismic design of the structural system of the building.

1. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE a.Prestressing is a technique of introducing forces in a structural member so as to produce stresses.b.Generally the force is applied by means of high tensile bars, which are stretched and anchored by suitable means.c.Prestressed concrete members have many advantages over members of reinforced concrete. In RCC, the concrete in tension zone is inactive, in prestressed the whole section can be arranged too be in active compression. Tensile cracks can be completely eliminated in prestressed concrete and more durable also the effect of dead loads and shear forces can be reduced by proper prestressing. d.The principal materials used in prestressed concrete work are high tensile steel and high strength concrete.INNOVATIVE DESIGNS

e.Pre tensioning - A method of prestressing concrete in which prestressing steel is tensioned before the concrete is placed.f.Post Tensioning : - A method of prestressing concrete in which prestress steel is tensioned against the hardened concrete.g. The prestressing steel should conform to IS 1785 and IS 2090 duly testing for ultimate tensile strength and proof stress.h.Post tensioned works are generally grouted to protect the steel from corrosion. The grout is injected after washing the hole with water under pressure, by means of grout pump. Pressure of 3.5 to 7.5 Kg/sq km are used at in practice.i.The permissible stresses are based on IS 1343 code of practice for prestressed concrete duly adopting prestressing procedure.

2.Post Tensioned Slab.a. In this case, the pre stressing steel is stressed after the concrete is cast. In practical buildings, constructions, post tensioned slab systems are used.b. Post tensioned system can be either bonded or un bonded. The choice of bonded or un bonded post tensioning system involves the technical characteristics and differences inherent in each type of tendon and the economics related to those differences. The important technical considerations are strength and corrosion protection.

c.The main advantages of P.T. slabs over conventional R.C. in situ floors are due to increased clear spans thinner slabs, lighter structures, reduced cracking reduced storage height, rapid construction etc.

2Tall concrete Apartment Buildings and composite office Buildings.Tall residential towers have given rise to the need for new structural systems. Many tall office towers around the world use composite steel/concrete system.Structural Systems.The advantages of concrete of lower cost, speed of construction, ease of finishing, fire proof characteristics and structural stiffness are well known.

d. Composite structural system.Using both steel and concrete for columns.Steel structure could be built at its normal speed .Concrete encasement of the exterior column provided structural rigidity and fire proofing.Composite structure was economical 75 storey; 300 meters tall chase plaza in Houston (N.A.)Steel has the beneficial material property like durability, flexibility and high strength to weight ratio.Steel is reusable, recyclable and consumes less energy.

High Rise Building Boom in INDIA.

Wind Engineering is emerging in India ever since the need for taller and slender buildings came into picture.Wind Loads on the structural frames are required for the design of beams; columns lateral bracing and foundations.

Earth Quake :Earth Quake loads are another type of lateral load which is considered for design as well.However, considering the rare chance of simul tanuous occurrence of both earth quake and high wind, both wont be combined together in any structural design.

Conclusion :

Construction of high rise buildings involves a number of disciplines besides civil Engg. Structural engineering, Plumbing, fire protection etc., close and continuous coordination between all the concerned.

Advanced Construction Techniquesin High rise structures.Seismic Design :1.Seismic design and their application in construction practice have contributed a positive sense of confidence with which to face the problem. 2.A structure is designed to resist the vertical acceleration 1g by virtue of its weight only.

3. As such most of the seismic designs take into consideration only the Horizontal component of ground acceleration due to an earth quake.4.Codes use the lateral stress formula for arriving addl. Stresses, that are likely to disturbs the structure during a shock.5. Magnitude of lateral stresses would be a function of a number of factors.

a.The ground acceleration due to an expected shock during the design life of the project. b.The weight of the structure. c.Type of construction.6. During an Earth quake, when the ground tends to move in one direction, the lateral force exerts a shearing effect on the building above and hence referred as base shear

Base Shear face = F = a/g W

Where a = (ground acceleration) Values (0.15&0.02)

g = acceleration due to gravity

w = Weight of the structure.

General guidelines to minimize the risk of building. Foundation :Structures built on loose soil/weak rocks will hare to withstand grater risk compared to founded on solid bed rock.This is due to that soil particles undergo a lot of compaction during seismic shocks there by causing settlement.

2. Foundation should be excavated to same level as far as possible of continuous type.

3.Super structure should be thoroughly tied up with the foundation by introducing keys/or reinforcement to offer max. resistance against sliding at that level.

Roof : 1.Minimize the lateral shapes.2.Projection beyond the roof level should be altogether avoided or kept minimum. General :1.All the parts of same building the foundation superstructure and the roof, should be firmly find together so that entire structure act as a unit during a shock.

2.Uniform height should be given to structure. Architectural fancies like parapets, cantilevers, arches and domes etc., should be avoided. Behavior of concrete structures :Ability of the structure to sustain large deformation.Rigid structure attracts higher loads than a flexible structure under seismic condition.Concrete being brittle is in capable of sustaining large deformation without correctly detailed steel reinforcements

4. Basic principle of earth quake resistant design in to ensure ductility (ability to deform without rupture) of structure to absorb large deformation without damage.Ductility of concrete structures can be ensured by proper detailing the reinforcement as per the relevant cods, IS 4326 1993 and 13920.Structure should be constructed to the standard specification.Trained persons to be preferred for construction.

Strong column and weak beam conceptsWhen a structure a subjected to Lateral roads as in case of wind or earth quake forces its behavior is governed not only by strength of beam & column, but also by capacity of beam column joints to sustain large lateral deformation.

Foundation :Shallow footings weaken their seismic resistance.Un even settlement of footings due to ground movement, especially at shallow depth, may lead to premature structural failure.Multi storages structure with cellars (Under Ground) may survive Earth quake better than those on shallow isolated footings.Best way of building earth quake resistant structure is proper supervising at every stage of planning, design and construction.

1.Foundation (Isolated footing, Rafts)2. Detailing (Beam column Joints, Stress Reversal, ductility)3. Planning (Floating and staggered column, location of lift walls & Cellar)4. Restrictions on structural Heights.5. Spaces around structures to avoid sequential collapses.6. Building MaterialsCertain Aspects to be appraised for construction practices.

7. Stilt floors 8. Water Tanks on roof top.9. Masonry structures (Load bearing walls / infield)Structural System under lateral Loads for high rise structures.Lateral Loads 1. Wind Loads2. Earth Quake Loading.

2. Serviceability :Lateral deflection of structure is lateral drift. Which is the relative magnitude of lateral displacement at the top of building with respect to the height.Relative Vertical defection :In tall buildings relative vertical movement between exterior and interior columns or between column and shear or core walls which may occur due to a.Thermal expansion/contraction of exterior columns

b.Different axial load stresses in column and shear cores leading to creep deformation of members. c. Differential settlement of foundation for shear core and adjacent column.Structural Systems Frame Buildings.Shear Wall buildingsStaggered wall Beam System

4. Shear wall acting with frames.5. Single framed tube.6. Tube in tube.

Frame In a framed type structure the lateral displacements (Drift) may be true parts.Due to Bending in the column and beams.Due to axial deformation of columns.

Shear WallsShear walls are plane elements made up of reinforced concrete thin walls having length and thickness providing lateral stiffness.Concrete shear walls may be cast in situ or pre-cast.pre-cast panel walls are also used within a concrete or steel frame to provide lateral resistances.The ductile shear walls used in Earth quake resistant design have to be detailed carefully.Coupling beams should have diagonal reinforcement to develop shear resistance.

To design shear walls for the lateral load resistance and also satisfy the ductility demand during cyclic loading.

Behavior of Low Rise Shear Wall.

Since the Bending moments are not large the steel may be evenly distributed across the length with marginal increase near the edges, to such walls the steel requirement for flexure may be satisfied by providing the minimum steel moreover, in such walls the elastic deformation can be made to absorb major portion of seismic energy.

Shear Walls with Openings

Windows, doors and service ducts require openings to be provided in shear walls. Irrational shear walls warrant finite element studies for evaluating internal forces. An example of irrational shear wall is shown in Fig (a). The staggered arrangement of openings may seriously limit the shear transfer between the openings Fig (b) shows a shear wall supported on sloping legs. Such irregularity may lead to deflection opposite to the direction of motion. Such structures -------- disaster.

Coupled Shear WallsMany shear walls contain one or more rows of openings. Examples are shear cores, lift wells, stair wells etc. The walls are connected by beams which are short and deep. An realized shear wall structure and its deformations due to lateral loading is shown.

The overturning moment Mo, is resisted by a moment induced in wall1 A moment induced in wall 2 and Equal and opposite axial forces T generated in both walls (One in compression and the other in tension). The corresponding equilibrium equation is

Over view of Foundation for TALL Buildings.A structural Engineer has a variety of choices for the material to build on top;The geotechnical engineer has to deal with the material that lies below the structure.Generally structures built on soft ground soil suffered damage many times more than similar structures on hard rocky foundation. Structures standing on alluvial soil received greater shaking due to lower elastic modulus of soil than rock. Also structures standing on soft soil has dynamic interaction with soil.It is a fact that short buildings on rock, tall buildings on deep alluvial soil may exhibit a very large amplification of the ground motion in the structure causing its damage or even collapse.

Types of Foundation.Choice for the type of foundation to be adopted depends on both the structure and the ground.

Choice of Foundation Type

TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS

Raft verses pile raftProvision of deep foundation is no guaranty for tall structures founded in seismic areas.The soil beneath may get liquefied resulting in lateral instability by shearing of the piles in the liquefied zone or by overhearing at the pile cap structure interface.

Pre-Cast ConstructionWide spread utilization of new materials, construction methods and equipment.Flat slab / Hallow concrete core slab construction enhanced the speed and economy.Modern elevators with latest facility.Panel to panel connection of framing members shall be ensured so as to enable the structure to resist earthquake load as a single unit.Suitable jointing procedure and workmanship shall be adopted between various interlocking prefab panels to avoid weak connections.Suitable anchoring systems like dowel bars, hooks etc shall be used to prevent dislocation of panels under the action of seismic loads in the quake prone areas.

Isolation of the structure from its foundation may be achieved by using suitable rubber bearings so as to cut transmission of seismic forces to the structure from the ground. This method shall be employed for buildings of 3 to 15 storeyes to dampen earthquake loads. In such systems the frames shall be suitable braced.

Structural SystemsSteel is now giving way to composite steel concrete mega column.The mass and the rigidity of concrete provides twice the dampening effects compared to steel, reducing forces due to wind and the cost of construction.Improvement in concrete mixes have made high rise construction more attractive.Self compacting concrete is increasingly used.Structural concrete has better resistances to fire.Flat Slab construction reduces the distance between floors, increase the number of floors for a particular height.Modern forming system greatly increase construction productivity.Advances in concrete pumping, self climbing placer booms help in fast delivery of concrete.

Pre-cast concrete The use of pre-cast concrete results in significant cost savings along with speed of construction, durability, versatility and ease of maintenance.Comparative Costs In situ and Pre-cast

Pre-cast hollow core slabs

Reinforced / Prestressed Hallow core slabs are the most widely use pre-cast flooring in the develop world.Manufactured in a factory by long line slip-forming.The depth of hollow core slabs range between 150 mm to 500mm, used for spans ranging from 3mm to 20 meters.

They are primarily used as a floor or roof deck systems, economical and efficient. The top surface can be prepared for the required floor finish.The under side can be used as a finished ceiling as installed, by painting or by applying acoustical spray.For a given loading and fire endurance rating, span length and slab thickness may be optimized.Span-depth ratio of 45 is common for floor & 4 roofs. Hollow cores are also used as air heating ducts or for air conditioning system.Hollow core slabs have been used in the advanced countries.Hollow core units have been used in only one project in India IT Park building at Bangalore. Where the units are prefabricated at the site

The weight of the Hollow core slabs is reduced as compared to solid slabs, reducing size of columns and foundation, making more economical.

Double Tee Sections :

Pre-cast double tee Sections are used for simply supported spans up to 25mtrs as floor / roof element.The slabs consisting of this section are manufactured in steel moulds with high degree of dimensional stability and surface finish.Double tees are also used as wall panels.These are extensively used in the U.S for parking garages.Pre-cast concrete panel 50mm thick with integrated structural reinforcement and special lattice girders are used as permanent formwork. Double pre-cast concrete panels for walls.After erection of Pre cast plank , slab top reinforcement is placed and concreted in situ. Plank and the in situ concrete jointly act as monolithic slab.

Pre-cast stair cases :Pre-cast stair cases are viable for high rise buildings.Fixing may be in corporate but may also be drilled and fixed on site.Typically, the two halves of the concrete stair are jointed with a proprietary high strength mortar material in corpora ting a large percentage of steel fibers . The monolith unit formed with the in-situ joint has no inter mediate support between floor levels, results in very elegant method of constructions.

Pre-CastConstruction with pre-cast Joists and filler blocks should confirm to IS 6061 Part I and II.Cast is situ construction as per IS 456 1978 in composite construction with steel Joists, R.C. slabs and shear connectors.Ribbed slabs spanning in two directions at right angler may also be treated as solid slabs provided that spacing of Ribs is not more than 12 times Flange thickness.Size and Position of Ribs.In situ ribs should not be less than 6.5cm wide. Spacing at centre not greater than 1.5 meters apart, depth excluding topping should not be more than four times their width.Hollow Blocks :Can be of any suitable material as per IS code 3951-1975.

High Performance Concrete (HPC)Strength of concrete 40 MP a to 85 MP aAdvantages :Long term economy, durability and service life.Low maintenance and repair cost.Small cross section, reduction in number, size of element.Reduced formwork area, cost.Reduced cover to reinforcement.Slender members, ease in construction and transport.HPC is denser than that of a standard concrete thus increasing the corrosion resistance and durability.

Mix Proportioning for HPC :Optimum cement and admixture quantities involving more trial batches.Admixture cement compatibility to be scrutinized for high strength and durability.Water cement Ratio is usually limited to 0.35.Cement quantity ranging 300 to 400 kg / cumHPC must be cured as soon as possible on initial setting of concrete.

Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)Self Compacting concrete is a mix that can be compacted into every corner of a formwork, purely by means of its own weight and without vibration.SCC is produced from normal concreting materials and complies with the strength grades in the Code.The mix may incorporate steel and/or polypropylene fibers. Coarse aggregate may be up to 40 mm. Sand can be finer than normal as the material less than 150 microns may help increase cohesion, thereby resisting segregation.

5. Cement and fillers (GGBS of Fly ash) are required for cohesion and stability in larger proportions.6.Super plasticizers are essential to ensure flow characteristics and workability retention.7.Properties of SCC (flowability, workability etc) are determined by special test methods.8.SCC can be effectively used in heavily reinforced elements, underwater structures etc.9.SCC is now being used in many high rise buildings particularly for the components with high density reinforcement such as raft foundations columns etc.,

PRE FAB STRUCTURESIntroduction :Prefabricated construction being a new technique some of the essential requirement of prefabricated components and elements are discussed.Since the aim of prefabrication is to effect economy improvement in quality and speed in construction, the selection of proper materials for prefabrication is an important factor. Prefab structures like Project House, Farm Tanks, Resorts, School Buildings, Store Shed, Industrial Shed, Ware Houses, and many more are under construction using prefab system.

Prefab shelters are constructed in track and panel system with advantages of simplicity in construction.Requires very light foundation.Durable, comfortable and affordable.Light weight, High strength, Earth quake safe.Easy to transport; easy to eruct.Can be dismantled and reassembled at any other location.Basic Materials used for the wall panels and roof are 10, 12, and 16 mm panel (Cement Bonded partial board)The particle boards are weather fire and termite resistant. Best suited for exterior application due to their strength and durability.Assembly of panel walls and the roofs are done with cold roll formed anticorrosive G.I. profiles specially designed to give adequate strength to the structures.

Design Criteria :Structure with wind condition of 55m/sec, seismic zone V and temperature 0 to 500 C.Material of double skin insulated wall panels and single skin insulated false ceiling.Corrugated GI sheets have a minimum galvanizing loading of 220gsmAll other GI profiles shall have minimum galvanizing of 120 gsm conforming. IS 277 2003.Wall shall be made in sandwich panel system using 2 nos. 10 mm thick cement Flat sheets / boards (As-best-as free) conforming to IS 14276 1995 & 14862.Roof shall be with galvanized corrugated sheet of 0.63mm thick conforming to IS 277 2003, having minimum 220gsm galvanizing laid over a frame work of trusses, columns, and purlins (rectangular Hallow steel section) fixed using suitable fasteners like J hooks.

Trusses made of Rectangular Hollow section 66 x 33 x 2.9 mmTrusses supported on column using section 96 x 48 x 3.2 mm conforming to IS 4923 1977.Purlins made of sections 66 x 33 x 2.9 mmDoors :Frame shall be made from pressed steel fore sided frame using CR steel of size 75 x 45 x 1.5 mm thick conforming to IS 513 1994.Shutter made out of 32 mm thick flush door as for IS 2202 1999 and steel rectangular hallow box profile of 1.25 mm thick as per IS Windows and VentilatorsShall be made from pressed steel using CR Steel of 1.5 mm thickness of size 75 x 45 mm profile conforming to IS 513 1004.

Partial Prefab & Cast in situ R.C Walls Structures Where RC Walls are intended to carry vertical loads, they should be generally designed in accordance with columns.The minimum thickness of wall should not be less than 100mm.The load carrying capacity of the walls should be calculated as for columns.When the effective height of wall exceeds 12 times wall thickness slenderness effects should be considered as in columns.The minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement to gross concrete area should be 0.0012 for Hysd bars

Spacing should be three times walls thickness nor 450 mm for both vertical and horizontal.Minimum ratio of Horizontal reinforcement to gross concreted area should be 0.0020 for Hysd bass. Buildings shall be designed and constructed to resist the effects of design lateral forces.The design lateral force shall be disturbed to the various floor levels.The design base shear VB as computed shall be distributed along the height of the building

SCS SYSTEMThe Evolution of Building Technology Unique pre-engineered custom-made lost-in-place formwork system consisting of Modular Wall Formwork Panels.Components of SCS SystemFiber Cement BoardLight Gauge Galvanized Steel StudsReinforced ConcreteExpanded Polystyrene

Target market segments advantages for specific applications ApartmentsVillasHotelsCommercial BuildingsMalls High rise buildingAPPLICATIONS

USPWhat are our USPs..?PROVEN SYSTEM : Tried and tested, established in several countries SPEED : Walls erected in at least 1/3 rd less the time compared to conventional constructionQUALITY : Plumb, line and level, proper edges, no cracks or defectsDURABILITY : Earthquake resistantNO BRICKWORK : No worry about brickwork quality, soaking in water, mortar, shortage of good masonsNO PLASTERING : No messy mixing at site, workmanship issues, curing, repairing cracksTECHNICAL SUPPORT : Full back-up engineering and structural design support

A proven system Tried & Tested in several countries

PRECAST SLABS

Elevation features incorporated during panel manufacturing

SCS MODULAR Systems Cost Effective, Relocatable, Flat-Pack System

Manufacturing Facility in India

Advantages & Benefits:

Speedier Design Execution phase in project execution

Elimination of tedious, time-consuming manpower intensive processes

High quality James Hardie fibre cement boards guarantee long life of the structure

Faster return on capital invested

Lower dependency on unorganized labor & increased reliability on completion schedules

Reduced maintenance / repairs

Advantages & Benefits:

4.Inlaid plumbing & electrical lines, superior quality finish surface eliminates plastering

5.Bill of quantities defined before start of work

6.Thinner walls but as strong as those made from conventional methods

Faster availability of super structure for finishing & other value addition works

Better predictability of costs & hence better control

Increased floor area

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

(A) CRITERIA

1.Concrete Mix design relevant IS code 10262 1982.2.Rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the essence of concrete mix design shall be as follows Design Mix concrete -- By designing the concrete mix . Nominal mix concrete -- By adopting nominal concrete mix. Design Mix concrete is preferred to nominal Mix.3.The purpose of concrete mix design is to ensure the most optimum proportions of the constituent materials to meet the requirements of the structure in terms of workability durability and strength and knowing the source and properties of aggregates and type of cement to be used.4.The age old method of specifying concrete by volume is being rapidly replaced by specifying concrete in terms of grades ie. M15 ,M20 etc.5.Needless to say , a properly designed concrete mix for the specified strength requirements should have the minimum cement content to make the mix economical.

(B) Principles of Mix Design Design Requirements :

(1) Grade of concrete -- The grade M15,M20 indicates characteristic strength , fck of 15 N/mm2 , 20N/mm2 respectively, and standard deviation based on degree of control to be exercised on site. (2) Type of Cement such-- The grade of Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) such as 33,43, 53 grade .PPC ,PSC to relevant IS specification.(3) Type and size of -- Natural sand , crushed stone ,confirming to IS 383. Aggregates (4) Nominal Mixing -- 40mm/ 20mm/10mm as per IS 383.

(5) Max /Minimum -- Required for durability consideration ,kg/m3 . cement content

(6) Type of Mixing and -- Fresh potable water , ground water to be used. Curing Water

(7) Max Free water cement - Required for consideration of strength and /

(8)Ratio by weight -durability for different exposures , and to meet the requirement.

(9) Degree of workability -This is dependent on placing and compacting Of concrete conditions.

(10) Air content - By the use of suitable air entering admixtures durability can be enhanced. Generally 4 to 5 % based on Max size of aggregate.(11) Type of admixture used.

(12) Maximum /minimum Density of concrete. Max /Min temperature of fresh concrete.

(C) Properties related to Mix Design .

1.Workability of concrete mainly depends upon a)Type of aggregate, such as rounded ,angular , flaky etc. b)Grading of course fine aggregates. c)Quality of cement paste in the mix. d)Consistency of the paste. e)Max size of aggregate also influences workability. f )Strength of concrete depends on many parameters , such as quality and quantity of cement & water grading of aggregates Mixing ,Placing , and compacting ,curing etc. How ever W.C.R. is the key parameter which affects strength of concrete. g)The cement content per m3 of concrete is calculated from free water cement ratio and the quantity of water required per m3 of concrete (IS 10262 ) For Max size of aggregate of 40mm; Quantity of water will be -- 165litres (kg) Sand content 30% of absolute Volume of total aggregates . The cement content will be = Quantity of water W.C.R. = 165 = 367 kg . 0.45

B. Fine and Course Aggregate Cement After obtaining cement content , water content the percentage of fine aggregate to total aggregate in terms of absolute volume , are calculated. Fine Aggregate V = { W+ C + 1 fa } X 1 . Sc p sfa 1000 Course Aggregate V = { W+ C + 1 Ca } X 1 . Sc 1-p Sca 1000 Where , V = Absolute volume of fresh concrete . W = Mass of water per m3 of concrete . C = Mass of cement per m3 of concrete . Sc = Specific gravity of cement , say 3.15. P = Ratio of Fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume. fa,ca = Total Quantity of Fine &course aggregate per m3 of concrete. Sfa, Sca = Specific gravity standard surface dry fine &course aggregate is and 2.6 respectively.

C. DATA FOR MIX DESIGN/DESIGNS:

1. Mix to be designedM20 :with aggregates of maximum size 20mm2.2. Characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days(fck).:For M20, it is 20N/sqmm.3. Desired degree of workability:Corresponding to a compaction factor of 0.90.4. Type and maximum size of aggregate supplied :Granite, angular 20mm and down.5. Expected degree of quality control in the field.:Good.6.Target mean compressive strength of concrete at 28 days.:For M20 it is 27.6N/sqmm7.Type of exposure.:Moderate.

* The classification of degree of quality control a per IS10262-1982 (Reaffirmed 1999), provides for good as carefully stored cement and periodic tests, weigh batching of all materials, controlled water, graded aggregate supplied, occasional grading and moisture tests, periodic Check of workability and strength, intermittent supervision, and experienced workers.

** IS456-2000 describes moderate as concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain of freezing whilst wet. Concrete exposed to condensation and rain. Concrete continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried under non-aggressive soil/ground water. Concrete surfaces sheltered from saturated salt air in coastalarea.

D. DESIGN MIX:To satisfy the requirements mentioned in the data for mix design the proportion by weight listed in Table-6 has been arrived at, with marginal adjustment of trial mix for M20 grade of concrete using aggregates of 20mm down. A number of trial castings have been made and the best suitable proportion based on reproducibility of 28-day compressive strength has been furnished.

E. RECOMMENDATIONS:Compressive strength test results of the trial specimens cast in our laboratory are furnished in Table-6.It can be seen that 28 day strength is greater than the target mean compressive strength indicated in item C. As such, it is recommended that the concrete mix proportions indicated in Table-6 be adopted at site.

F. REMARKS:The design mixes are applicable only for those ordinary Portland cements whose properties are similar to the one supplied to us for conducting the mix designAll the materials shall be weigh batched. Suitable corrections are to be applied for weight of aggregates, is they are not saturated and surface dry.The bulk density and specific gravity of materials to be used shall be conformed by testing of such materials from time to time. If any deviations in the above parameters are observed, suitable corrections for proportions shall be applied at site.Suitable correction is to be applied to water cement ratio, if the aggregates are not saturated and surface dry.Minor adjustments in water cement ratio (on the lower side)may be carried about in actual work to get the desired slump, if necessary.The sand to be used shall be free from all deleterious materials like silt, clay, mica and other organic impurities. the gradiation shall be same as that used in the design mix.The coarse aggregates used shall conform to the graded aggregate requirements as given in IS383-1970(Reaffirmed-2002).At site, it is suggested to use suitable vibrators for compaction.The quality of water to be used for concreting shall conform to IS456-2000.In the design calculations, the degree of quality control considered is good. Hence, it is mandatory to exercise at least the same degree of quality control in the actual work.

G.REFERENCES:

1.IS10262-1982 (Reaffirmed 1999)Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design2.SP23(S&T)-1982Handbook on concrete mixes3.IS456-2000Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete.4.IS516-1959(Reaffirmed 1999) Method of test for strength of concrete5.IS383-1970(Reaffirmed 2002)Indian standard specifications for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete.6.IS1199-1959(Reaffirmed 1991)Indian standard specifications for method of sampling and analysis of concrete.7.IS269-1989(Reaffirmed 2000)Indian standard specifications for 33grade ordinary Portland cement.8.IS8112-1989(Reaffirmed 2000)Indian standard specifications for 43 grade ordinary Portland cement.9.IS 12269-1987(Reaffirmed 1999)Indian standard specifications for 53 grade ordinary Portland cement.10.Krishna Raju. N.Design of concrete mixes, M/s. CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.11.Neville, A.MProperties of concrete.

READY MIX CONCRETE 1) BATCHING : In batching concrete , quantity of both cementand aggregate shall be determined by mass . Admixture if solid by mass , liquid admixture involume , water shall be weighed or measured byvolumein calibrated tank (IS 4925). This batching is used for small project sites. 2)R.M.C. : Ready mix concrete shall be sourced from readymixed concrete plants as per (IS 4926) forlarge and medium project sites. Concrete is produced from a centralizedmonitors weigh batching , water cement ratio ,dosage of admixture , moisture cementetc. with precision.

FLOW CHART FOR CONCRETE MAKING BATCHING PLANT.

20mm aggregate I10mm aggregate IIC.Sand aggregate IIIR.Sand aggregate IVCEMENTWATERADMIXTUREAggregate WeighingHopperCement WeighingHopperAdmixtureWeighingConcrete Mixing UnitTransit MixreDelivery Chute

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE

INTRODUCTION :

1.NBC of India Provides guidelines for regulating the building constructions activities across the country. A building code or building control is a set of rules that specifies the minimum acceptable level of safety for building .2.Revised NBC of India 2005 was formerly released on 16th September,2005.3.NBC serves as a model code, in building construction works, for adoption by all agencies like PWD, CPWD etc.4.Building codes are generally intended to be used by architects and engineers and other agencies.5.The code mainly contains administration regulations development control rules and general building requirements, fire safety requirements. 6.St. design and constructions, building services and plumbing services.7.The main purpose of the building codes is to protect public interest, safety and general welfare.

National building code consists of 10 partseach part representing one unit as follows.

1.Definitions:2.Administration3.Development control rules and generalbuilding requirements.4.Fire protection 5.Building materials6.Structural designs7.Constructional practices and safety8.Building services9.Plumbing services10.Science and outdoor display structures

UNIT - I Definitions : of all the terms, the section of NBC.

The various terms are 1.Absorption co-efficient.2.Air conditioning 3.Bearing 4.Cable5.Cavity, wall, column.6.Depth of manhole, dead load, diameter.7.Factor of safety, fire resistance.

UNIT II .

Administration: Covers applicability of code , organization of building Department etc.

APPLICABILITY OF CODE:

where a building is erected , the code applies to the design andconstruction of building.Where the whole are any part of the building is removed, thecode applies to all parts of the building whether removed or not.Use of any material are method of design or constructions shallbe approved by the authority.

ORGANISATION AND ENFORCEMENT:

(1) The building official, shall be appointed by the authority.

(2) The building official shall appoint, number of offices, technical assistants, inspectors etc. for administration of the code.

UNIT III.

Development control rules and building RequirementsIt covers rules proper planning and design ,as the lay out and building level ,to ensure health ,safety ,quality of life.

It provides provision for covered area ,plinth area , amenities land use classification , FAR , height / size of rooms , kitchens etc parking etc. Floor area ratio (FAR) limitations ie. floor area of single storey of building is limited , by the type of construction and occupancy class . Limitations of areas and heights of buildings.

Floor Area Ratio = Total area covered of all floors (FAR) Plot area.

LAND CLASSIFICATION

(a) Residential Zone : Purely residential . Residential with stop lines at ground floor.

(b) Commercial Zone : Local commercial area.

(c) Industrial Zone : Service Industry .General Industry.Special Industry.

(d) Green Zone : The various building uses and occupation permitted as given in master plan.

(e) Means of access :Every building /plot shall a but on a public / private means of access like streets /roads duly formed.

UNIT IV.

FIRE PROTECTION :It covers the requirements of fire prevention and fire protection of buildings.The code specifies planning and construction features and fire protection ,features for all occupancies , that are necessary to minimize the danger to life and property.

FIRE ZONE :Based on the fire hazard inherent in the building and structures according to occupancy called as Fire Zones --Designated as follows .(a) Fire Zone No.1 -- Comprise areas having, residential ,educational Industrial ,and assembly.(b) Fire Zone No.2 -- Business. Industrial.(c) Fire Zone No.3 -- Comprise area having high hazard industrial buildings , storage buildings and building for hazardous uses.

A high rise building construction shall be provided withfire protection, measures.

(a) Drums filled with water of 2000 Ltrs of capacity with two fire buckets in each floor.(b) A water storage tank of 2000 Ltrs capacity which may be used for other construction purposes also.(c) Maximum height related to width of street facing the building and the local fire fighting facilities available.(d) Fire detection / extinguishing system automatic fire detection and alarm facilities to be provided.(e) Static water storage tanks exclusively for fire fighting to be made available.(f) The code gives the minimum requirements for fire fighting installation depending upon the type of building of occupancy.

UNIT V.

BUILDING METERIALS :

1.Cement.2.Aggregates.3.Stones.4.Bricks, Blocks.5.Timber.6.Precast concrete products.7.Bitumen & Tar products.Code list out different IS codes for the materials.

UNIT VI.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN:

1.Basic design loads for different occupations.2.Foundations: Building foundation such as raft, pile and other foundation systems to ensure safety and serviceably without exceeding permissible stresses of materials of foundation and SBC of supporting soil.3.Wood : use of structural timbering structures 4.Masonry: Covers the structural design aspect of un reinforced load bearing and non load bearing walls.5.Concrete: Plain and reinforced concrete. Code gives different grades used in concrete with fck at 28 days. M10 -- fck -- 10 N/ mm2 M15 -- fck -- 15N/mm2 Properties of concrete like workability of concrete, durability, mix proportion, form work, considering certain parameters. 6.Steel:It covers the use of structural steel in general building construction including use of hot rolled steel sections, steel tubes.

UNIT VII.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AND SAFETY This covers constructional practices in building ,handling materials and safety personal during construction operations for all elements of building.This code covers the construction practices to be adopted like Planning ,storage , stacking and handling practices. Common hazards during walling.

UNIT VIII.

BUILDING SERVICES .Lighting and ventilation.Electrical installation.Air conditioning and heating.Acoustics ,sound insulation and noise control.Installation of lifts and escalators.

UNIT IX.

PLUMBING SERVICES

Water supply. Drainage & sanitation.

BUILDING RULES Govt. from time to time prescribed rules for the construction of building to protect the interest of public.Rules vary from place to place and from state to state.Restriction on minimum building plot size.Permissible heights and set backs of non high rise building.

REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS . (1) Minimum size of plot for high rise building --- 2000sqm. (2) Minimum abutting road widths and alround open space for high rise building shall be followed.