Conservation of Water Resources and Management of Catchment Areas in Upland Britain

IAN DOUGLAS,* Ph.D.(A.N.U.) The University o f New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia

Formerly: Department o f Geography, University o f Hull, Hull, Yorkshire, England &

PETER CRABB, M.A.(Adelaide) School of Earth Sciences, Maequarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia

A B S T R A C T

While the over-riding need in the water-supply catchment areas o f upland Britain is the conservation of good-quality water supplies to meet the growing demand from urban areas, much more flexibility is being introduced into the use and management o f the gathering grounds of upland reservoirs. The combination of sheep-grazing, tourist facilities, and water-catchment protection, in the Trossaehs area of Scotland, provides an example o f the conservation of a clean water-supply together with controlled use o f the agricultural and scenic resources o f the area. The introduction of a more effective water-treatment plant in Longdendale, near Man- chester, has permitted greater recreational use o f the reser- voir's gathering grounds, while SheffieM Corporation's forestry policy differs from the grazing policy o f the Lower Clyde Water Board. Contrasts in management result from differing attitudes o f the water-supply authorities, who all recognize the need for greater flexibility but are dominated by the demand for high-quality water supplies.

INTRODUCTION

Nature conservation is increasingly concerned with the way in which water resource areas are exploited (Shaposhnikov, 1969). Even in an area as densely populated as Britain, access is restricted or forbidden to about 203,000 ha of water-supply catchment areas (Coppock, 1966), thus forcing seekers of outdoor recreation to look elsewhere, and, perhaps, leading to the over-use and degradation of other upland areas or water bodies. Writing on the competition for land for recreational purposes, Patmore (1970) expresses the view that the exploitation of land for reservoirs raises perhaps more passion than any other recreational issue. Such passion stems from the flooding of rural land, loss of visual amenity, and restriction of the use of gathering grounds for recreation. Biologists also recognize the many ecological problems posed by water resources development--such as the loss of part

* From before the date of publication of this paper, Professor of Geography, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.--Ed.

of the arctic-alpine flora of Widdybank Fell in the Upper Teesdale reservoir at Cow Green. However, protection of a catchment area may enable water authorities to provide high-quality water at low cost, and, in an age of mass countryside recreation, may preserve some less-disturbed sites in which forms of wildlife could survive that might be destroyed in areas of easier access.

The restriction of access to reservoir gathering- grounds is commented on in the White Paper 'Leisure in the Countryside: England and Wales', by the Minister of Land and Natural Resources (1966) saying that 'Subject to proper safety measures, there is no reason to deny public access to reservoirs used solely for river regulation or compensation. Public access to reservoirs from which water is taken directly into public supply involves greater hazards, and the first essential is the safety of the public water-supply'. The Minister also pointed out that new reservoirs should be planned to include their full recreational possibilities. The Countryside Act of 1968 has provided the means of putting these ideas into effect, giving the water-supply authorities powers to borrow money to create recreational facilities and to frame bye-laws to control their use.

Despite this recent legislation, the ways in which the water authorities manage their reservoirs and catch- ment areas vary considerably. The change from a traditional view of water-supply catchments as areas of single-purpose use, to an acceptance of multipurpose land and water use--embracing functions of water- supply, agriculture, forestry, and tourism--is being achieved in many different ways, some of which are examined in this paper.

The long saga of the closed access to the Pennine gathering-grounds between Sheffield and Manchester (Wood, 1947) contrasts with long-established, care- fully-managed multipurpose use of land in the Trossachs area (Fig. 1) by the former Glasgow Corporation Water Authority (now part of the Lower Clyde Water Board). The Trossachs development has shown that multipurpose use of land and water

109

Biological Consertration, Vol. 4, No. 2, January 1972--~) Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England--Printed in Great Britain

110 Biological Conservation

Fig. 1. The Trossachs region of south-west Perthshire, showing the catchment areas operated by Glasgow Corporation until they were incorporated in the Lower Clyde Water Board's area, and parts of the Queen Elizabeth [National] Forest

Park (which joins up as a single area to the south).

resources is possible in a public water-supply catchment area, provided careful planning ensures that the water-supply requirements are not subordinated to other land requirements (Crabb & Douglas, 1970).

CHANGING ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF UPLAND RESERVOIRS

Upland reservoiis used to be constructed to provide a direct water-source, in which the water from the reservoir was fed directly from the storage to the water-supply distribution systems; this often involved long aqueducts such as Manchester Corporation's Thirlmere aqueduct and the aqueducts to Sheffield, Derby, and Nottingham, from the Derwent Valley Water Board's reservoirs (Fig. 2). New water-supply schemes for the cities of Britain involve the con- struction of reservoirs to regulate the flow of rivers from which water is abstracted farther downstream. The Clywedog Reservoir of the Severn Valley Joint Committee regulates the flows of the Severn, both to control flooding and to ensure sufficient water for abstraction points as far downstream as Bristol's intake on the Sharpness canal.

Liverpool Corporation's Tryweryn reservoir per- forms a similar function on the Dee, the abstraction point being near Chester, 130 km downstream of the dam. Sheffield Corporation's water-supply is now augmented by water taken from the Yorkshire Derwent

at Elvington (Fig. 2). The Yorkshire Ouse and Hull River Authority is planning to improve the reliability of the Derwent supply by the construction of a regula- tory reservoir in Farndale on the North York Moors. Although this reservoir has been projected for over 40 years, the debate as to its desirability continues,

_ ~ - Rivers from which Water i5 abstracted for city supphes

- - Aqueaucts LA

n u t t s wA re~

0 0 . ,wesw , l r cR F,IRNO,~Le

#7 ~ r~ , h,p.°po.*,. J

l ULL

MANCHESTER

LIVERPOOL ~ ® ~ ] // . . . . . . . \

. . . . . . . . .

TRYWERYN R o / e e / OERBY ~

~v ~ O" L,XE vyR#wv @

/ . . . . . . . . / ............. / . ~

Fig. 2. Central Britain, showing the location of the areas shown in Figs. 1 and 3, as well as other reservoirs, aqueducts, and towns, mentioned in the text, and the regulated rivers from which water is abstracted at downstream pumping

stations.

Douglas & Crabb : Conservation of Water Resources in Upland Britain 111

particularly in the North and East Ridings of York- shire. One of the difficulties which the River Authority has in arguing its case is overcoming the public's traditional view of reservoirs and gathering grounds as zones of limited access, possibly surrounded by monotonous pine plantations. The change from storage to regulatory reservoirs has meant that the water quality considerations which limited the use of reser- voirs have become less significant in reservoir planning than previously. This has widened the prospects for multipurpose use of reservoirs and gathering grounds.

GLASGOW'S UPLAND CATCHMENTS

Some 96 per cent of Glasgow's daily requirement of 450,000 m 3 of water is supplied by two aqueducts from the Lock Katrine, Lock Arklet, and Glen Finglas Reservoirs, all in the Trossachs (Fig. 1). The natural capacity of the two locks has been increased by the construction of dams which now provide storage capacities of 64 million m 3 in Lock Katrine and 12 million m 3 in Lock Arklet. Water f rom Glen

Finglas was first diverted to Lock Katrine in 1958, and the artificial impoundage in the former pastoral glen was opened in 1965. The Glen Finglas Reservoir stores 19 million m 3 in a reservoir 3.1 km long. The water released from the reservoir is used to generate an average of three million units of electricity a year, for sale to the Nor th of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board, before it is passed through a 3.7 km long tunnel to Lock Katrine.

Although the average annual precipitation over the three catchment areas is high, ranging from 2,215 m m over Lock Arklet to 1,980 m m over Glen Finglas, and the coefficient of variation is only 15 per cent, summer drought in the Lower Clyde Water Board's area may cause serious depletion of water stored in the Board's reservoirs. The dry years of 1968 and 1969 caused major water shortages in the Lower Clyde Water Board's area around Paisley, which had to be met in part by transfer of Lock Katrine water (Storrie, 1969).

The natural flow of rivers in Perthshire varies greatly, for example from 0-017 to 45.2m3/see in Finglas Water before the dam was constructed, the maximum flow anticipated in the dam design being 99 m3/sec.

TABLE I

Quality o f River and Reservoir Waters from Catchments in Upland Britain (Long-term average values expressed in ppm)

Redmires Rivelin Yorks Derwent Don at Thames at Location Lock Katrine

Reservoir Reservoir at Elvington Doncaster Staines

Source of data A B B B C D

Ammoniacal nitrogen 0.003 0"09 0"06 0.12 10"1 0"33 Albuminoid nitrogen 0.026 0.04 0.04 0.18 n.d. 0-275 Oxygen absorbed* 1.36 0.6 1.8 2.25 10.2 2.88 Total solids 32.0 74.0 74.0 290.0 917.0 368.0 Total

hardness 10.0 37.0 32.0 222.0 338"0 267.0 chloride 7'0 10'0 11 "0 24"0 190.0 n.d.

pH 6'3 6"7 5"9 7'9 7-3 8"0

Sources of data: A The former Glasgow Corporation Water Department. B Sheffield Corporation Waterworks. C Yorkshire Ouse and Hull River Authority (1969). D Skeat (1961).

Notes: n.d. denotes no data available. * The amount of oxygen taken from potassium permanganate in 4 hours at 27°C. This reaction gives some indication of the amount of organic matter present; it has been found to be a useful test in practice, though little is known about what exactly takes place.

Ammoniacal nitrogen is often present in water from natural causes as part of the nitrogen cycle, but amounts greater than 0.1 ppm usually indicate organic pollution.

Albuminoid nitrogen represents the nitrogen associated with protein and protein degradation products as estimated by means of hydrolysis with alkaline permanganate. It is of value in classifying the sanitary status of water.

High levels of chloride are normally associated with pollution, the chloride content of an average domestic sewage being approximately 100 ppm greater than that of the local water-supply.

Total hardness includes both permanent (non-carbonate) hardness and temporary (carbonate) hardness. It is determined by complexometric titration with the chelating agent EDTA (the di-sodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid), which forms 1:1 complexes with most cations, giving sharp, easily detected end-points.

112

With this natural trend to low summer flows, Glasgow Corporation had to ensure that sufficient water was available to maintain minimum acceptable flows in the River Teith and thus to the River Forth. Lochs Venacher and Drunkie are thus controlled together with the outflow from Loch Katrine, to maintain a statutory minimum flow of 222,000 m3/day irt the River Teith (Fig. 1). The headworks, or regulatory weirs, on Lochs Venacher and Drunkie, also act as flood-control devices, enabling flood-waters from the upland tributaries to fill up any vacant storage in the lochs before spilling over into the Teith.

Water from the Trossachs is of good natural quality, containing between 25 and 36 parts per million (ppm) total dissolved solids (Table I), and the only treatment necessary (other than straining to remove small fragments of debris) is chlorination at the Milngavie works on the outskirts of Glasgow. Biologically, these lochs would be termed 'primitive', with a low level of productivity associated with the high-quality water. The prime aim of the management of the Loch Katrine and Glen Finglas catchment areas has thus to be the maintenance of the naturally high quality of the water; indeed Loch Katrine has been described as an outstanding example of successful catchment management to maintain water purity (Skeat, 1961). Sewage disposal facilities are supplied to all human settlements within the Loch Katrine and Loch Arklet catchments, with a complete sewage works at the hamlet of Stronachlochar to prevent impurities from entering Loch Katrine.

Biological Conservation

used to be given to the water from Manchester's Longdendale reservoirs (Fig. 3), but a new treatment plant in Longdendale now provides more elaborate treatment facilities which consequently enable water purity demands to be relaxed somewhat in planning the use of the catchment areas. Haweswater has been managed in much the same way as Thirlmere, but the

B R ~ M ~ E A ~

\

Fig. 3. Reservoirs in the upland area between Manchester and SheffieM, showing partial boundaries of the Peak District National Park. Reservoirs whose names are

underlined are compensation reservoirs.

new Watchgate treatment plant that is planned in conjunction with the possible future development of supplies from Ullswater and Windermere will follow the Longdendale pattern and permit greater access to, and more varied use of, the catchment area.

SUPPLIES TO MANCHESTER A N D SHEFFIELD

Both Manchester and Sheffield draw a portion of their water from upland reservoirs yielding water of good natural quality (for example the Sheffield reser- voirs at Redmires and Rivelin, el. Table I). Some 56 per cent of the Sheffield Corporation's supply of 255,000 ma/day comes from either the Corporation's own Pennine moorland reservoirs or from the Derwent Valley Water Board's Reservoirs (Fig. 3). The bulk of Manchester's water comes from the Thirlmere and Haweswater reservoirs in the English Lake District and from smaller reservoirs in the Longdendale and Glossop areas of the Pennines. Treatment of water from the Thirlmere Reservoir, described by Macan & Worthington (1951) as a 'primitive' lake, and yielding almost pure water, is similar to that given to Loch Katrine water, involving only straining and the addition of lime, chlorine, and ammonia (Anon., 1968). Water from Sheffield's Pennine moorland reservoirs receives pressure filtration and chlorination (Water Committee, 1969). Similar simple treatment

ATTITUDES A N D POLICIES IN C A T C H M E N T

MANAGEMENT

The pattern of catchment management for Sheffield's moorland reservoirs illustrates the over-riding impor- tance of maintaining a low-cost, naturally high-quality source of water. The Corporation's 1939 Act gave 'Zone of Protection' powers over the catchment areas which prevented any new development within the entire catchment areas without the approval of the Corporation. 'Development' includes any building or rebuilding operations, or the use of the land for a purpose different from that obtaining at the date of the Act. With such powers the Sheffield water under- taking has been able to maintain and improve sanitary control over the whole of the gathering grounds. As in the Loch Katrine area, sewage disposal facilities are provided by the undertaking. Public access to catch- ment areas is unrestricted except in close proximity to the reservoirs, and walking, picnicking, and rock climbing, are allowed without permit. Farming

Douglas & Crabb : Conservation o f

and sheep-grazing take place on the gathering grounds under agreements made between farmers and the water undertaking. However, it is the undertaking's policy to continue to develop its afforestation pro- gramme in suitable locations--partly as an anti- pollution measure and to preserve and improve amenities. Already 640 ha of the 2,800 ha owned by Sheffield Corporation is covered by woodland that is either established or in the process of development. Seedlings--mainly of pine, spruce, and larch--are cultivated in the Corporation Water Department's own nurseries.

With the same general aims and management problems, Glasgow Corporation has adopted a different solution. Maximization of water purity and of output present conflicting objectives, for purity may be increased if access to the catchment is restricted and the soil is protected against erosion and flood hazard by a forest cover. Water production is, how- ever, reduced by the establishment of a forest cover, as this involves increased water consumption by plants and higher rates of transpiration than obtain under a less dense plant cover. Within the Loch Katrine catchment, forestry is limited to 272 ha of the 9,850 ha owned by the Water Board. An extension of the forested area is not favoured, because of the dis- turbance and erosion hazard during the planting period and the difficulties of controlling disturbance by contractors' workers during the logging stage.

The remainder of the catchment draining to Lochs Katrine and Arklet is divided into a series of farms and hirsels (hill sheep-runs) for sheep-grazing. For example, in November 1967 there were about 8,500 ewes in the area, with, in addition, 2,300 young ewes that were due to return in the spring of 1968 after wintering in the lowlands. The sheep-farming, with the support of hill farming and other Government subsidies, provides the Board with a small profit (about £4,000 in 1967).

The Glen Finglas catchment is also devoted to hill sheep-farming. Though it is not owned by the Board, similar access restrictions to those around Loch Katrine are in force. As the purpose of Lochs Venacher and Drunkie is to regulate the flow to the River Forth, restrictions as to access and land-use do not have to be imposed. Similar policies of catchment area manage- ment, with emphasis on hill sheep-farming and controlled access, are followed in Central Wales by Liverpool Corporation around its Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir (Scott, 1968) and by Birmingham Corpora- tion in the Elan valley (Fig. 2).

These sheep-raising policies for catchment areas do not appear to have acknowledged the good biological reasons for harvesting animal products from gathering grounds and reservoirs that were put forward by Pearsall (1947). In small reservoirs, particularly, the

Water Resources in Upland Britain 113

accumulation of nutrients, especially nitrogenous materials, has become a problem over the decades-- leading to enrichment of the waters and even to algal blooms. Pearsall argues that the nutrients consumed by fish or by sheep, in reservoirs or their catchment areas, are part of the nutrients which would otherwise add to the enrichment of tile lake, and that the crop- ping of such production through controlled sheep- farming or angling is a biologically effective means of maintaining good water-supplies. Indeed, Skeat (1961) points out to water engineers that a controlled fishery cart make an appreciable contribution to the removal of organic matter accumulating in a reservoir.

Manchester Corporation has long had to suffer criticism of its catchment area protection policies in the English Lake District. Its plans to extend Manchester's supplies by drawing water from Windermere and Ullswater, put forward in 1961, were at first rejected by the House of Lords which put pressure on the Corporation to provide access to all new gathering- grounds (Gregory, 1969). The latest proposals envisage the purchase of freehold land only for treatment plants and related works, the closure of no footpaths, and no restrictions on the use of Ullswater, Windermere, or their catchment areas. Purity of the water-supply will be ensured by comprehensive treatment at the Watchgate Plant (Anon., 1965). However, for Thirl- mere, a more restrictive policy prevails: the lower part of the catchment and the lake-edge are closed to the public, but the upper parts, 3,150 ha out of the 4,850 ha owned by the Corporation, are open to the public, and there is some access to a further 1,370 ha used for agriculture and forestry (Anon., 1968). In Longdendale the catchment areas are now generally open to the public, following the completion of the new treatment plant, but cultivated farmland, afforested areas, reservoir enclosures, and water surfaces (except those used by special arrangement), are closed to the general public.

Thus where the natural quality of the water is high, catchments are thinly populated, and treatment of the water is simple, water-quality considerations restrict the choice in catchment management. Yet even within this narrow choice, the differing attitudes of these three British authorities demonstrate the variety of ways of conserving sources of pure water. The differing policies offer contrasting ecological situations which have implications for the conservation of flora and fauna that are beyond the scope of this article. How- ever, as demands for more access to upland areas increase concurrently with demands for more water per caput for rising urban and rural populations, catchment management policies have begun to shift-- partly as a result of the greater flexibility permitted by new technologies of water resource exploitation, and

114

partly in response to changing patterns of leisure and recreation.

RECREATIONAL IMPACTS O N U P L A N D RESERVOIRS

Water-supply undertakings have long recognized the recreational value of their reservoirs. The Institution of Water Engineers has put forward a set of 'guiding principles' for planning the multipurpose use of reservoirs:

(1) The prime object is a pure water-supply; (2) New recreational demands are recognized; (3) Water authorities have to decide on the use of

reservoirs; (4) Reasons for such decisions must be publicized; (5) Knowledge of the effects of recreation is

needed; (6) Many authorities have this knowledge.

Loch Katrine and the surrounding area provide an excellent example of carefully planned recreational use (Fig. 1). The Trossachs, within easy reach of the Clydeside conurbation, is a tourist area attracting many thousands of visitors each summer. Apart from the tourist facilities which have developed at Callander and Aberfoyle, and the Trossachs Hotel, the Lower Clyde Water Board has encouraged tourism by establishing a steamer service on Loch Katrine, a tea- room, a car-park, and footpath access to the catch- ment. In the 1967 tourist season the steamer carried nearly 49,000 passengers. Tourists also use the Queen Elizabeth [National] Forest Park, developed by the Forestry Commission adjacent to the water catchment area. Here tourism and forestry are successfully combined by allocating special areas for tourist facilities and concentrating tourist movement in a relatively small proportion of the total forested area.

The Pennine reservoirs between Manchester and Sheffield lie within the Peak District National Park which has 9.3 million people living within one hour's driving time and 26.1 million within three hours' driving time (Jackson, 1970). With such accessibility, the pressure on recreational facilities in the Peak District is far greater than in most British upland areas--the Lake District National Park, for example, having only 0.8 million people within one hour's driving time.

In many ways, the high demand for recreational facilities has led the Peak District National Park to become a pioneering authority in granting access and experimenting with the control of tourism. As the Peak Park has its own planning officer, granting of access to open country has proceeded more rapidly there than in other national parks in England and

Biological Conservation

Wales, over 75 per cent of the 24,000 ha of country affected by access agreements made between 1949 and 1966 being in the Peak Park (Coppock, 1968). Most of the recreational demand in the Peak Park arises from day or weekend visitors from the adjacent urban areas. Providing for the motor-car is a problem for the whole Park, but was highlighted when the Stockport and District Water Board established a perimeter road with picnic sites and lookout points around their new Errwood reservoir in the Goyt Valley in 1968. So great was the weekend traffic on this road that in 1969 it had to be made a one-way road and in the summer of 1970 it was closed to private motor vehicles, visitors being taken into the valley by minibuses operating from peripheral car-parks (Patmore, 1970).

Manchester and Sheffield Corporations permit the use of compensation reservoirs, which supply water to maintain river flows rather than for domestic use. They are also employed by sailing clubs and for fishing from the banks, and produce some income from the sale of fishing and sailing rights.

It is only where the water quality is likely to deterio- rate naturally before abstraction, as it would with the planned Farndale reservoir, that wider use may be made of the reservoirs themselves and of the areas immediately adjacent to them. When the water dis- charged from the reservoir is going to be mixed with water from other areas and be carried along a natural open channel, there is little value in maintaining strict precautions around the reservoir. However, perhaps more attention should be paid to the different types of recreational demand in these reservoir areas. As Darby (1967) has pointed out, the conflict about the use of catchment areas often is not between recreation and no recreation but between different forms of recreation. The needs of the person interested in observing wildlife may not coincide with those of the angler, sailing enthusiast, or rock-climber. The existing diversity of catchment management, although developed through local concerns for maintaining water purity, may thus have much to recommend it from the general conservation viewpoint, in that recreational activity has had to be directed and controlled, leaving some areas relatively free from human activity.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF M U L T I P U R P O S E USE OF

C A T C H M E N T AREAS

The Countryside Act of 1968 has given the Water Boards of England and Wales powers to spend money on the provision of recreational facilities. Advantage has already been taken of this by the Rugby Joint and South Warwickshire Water Boards in their Draycote

Douglas & Crabb : Conservation o f

Water project (Anon., 1970). This new reservoir in the Midlands of England has provided sailing facilities from its inception. The value of a new recreational area such as this one for the surrounding communities is something which economists should endeavour to assess in the planning of watei resources development. Evaluation of choice in water-use, or of the best means of managing water resources to meet the often con- flicting demands upon them, is usually achieved by one of two main technical approaches--benefit-cost analysis or systems analysis--the latter being in some respects a more sophisticated and dynamic develop- ment of the former (O'Riordan & More, 1969). These techniques are widely used in North America, and British writers often draw on American case-studies, such as those described by Hamilton (1971).

In comparisons between British and American water-resources management policies it is often suggested that British undertakings have been slow to learn new management techniques. Such a view was expressed by K. S. Brown at a meeting of the British Waterworks Association in 1970, when he said, 'I believe that the pressures in our own country for extended, multiple use of reservoirs are rapidly building up, but I question if the Water Supply Industry in the United Kingdom as a whole has yet geared itself for this inevitable course of development' (Johnstone et al., 1970). Yet, even the apparently highly recreation-conscious Los Angeles water authority in the USA considers the preservation of good water-supplies to be its prime concern, stating that while the authority encourages recreational use of city-owned land and water facilities, 'At locations where the recreational use of reservoir or other water facilities could cause pollution or contamination of Los Angeles' drinking-water supply, such use is not permitted' (Los Angeles City Department of Water and Power, 1970).

The recognition of the importance of water quality maintenance and recreational facilities by water authorities in North America is illustrated by the partition of a proposed $US 1,000 million expenditure on water resources in Illinois. The plan envisages allocating $200 million to water-related recreation, $400 million to water pollution, and $250 million to water-supply developments (Harmeson, 1968). In the benefit-cost or systems analyses used in preparing such plans, estimates of the value of recreational uses and of conservation of flora and fauna are included. Yet, in art article based largely on American studies illu- strating the economies of the recreational uses of reservoirs, the only quantitative data on recreation employed by Kavanagh (1968) relate to fishing, which is surely only a small proportion of the potential use of reservoirs and catchment areas for recreation. An

Water Resources in Upland Britain 115

American study on the optimal use of reservoirs assesses recreational benefits from estimates of numbers of visitors, season of the year, level of water in the reservoir, and an assumed value of $US 1.60 per visitor-day (Fitch et al., 1970). The error that is possible in assigning such a specific monetary value for visitor expenditure must be great. Measurement of the economic value of tourism and recreation is extremely difficult.

For the upland reservoirs and catchment areas of Britain, it is not yet possible to assess the benefits to the community as a whole of the multipurpose use of water-gathering grounds and impoundments; the best that can be done is to examine the proportion of the total income of the water-supply undertakings which is derived from activities that are not connected with water-supply. In the Sheffield Corporation's area, receipts from fishing permits are almost £7,000 and rents contribute £ 1 4 , 5 0 ~ o m p a r e d with a total income of £2,600,000 from charges for water-supplies (Sheffield Corporation, 1970). Similarly in the Trossachs, where the Glen Finglas dam and intake schemes cost £1,290,000 and there was a revenue for the Glasgow Corporation Water Department of £1,610,000 in 1966, the profits from sheep-farming and tourism are but small. Thus in strictly monetary terms, multipurpose catchment use may mean little to water undertakings and to city dwellers as a whole. It is only when the intangible benefits of balanced management of land resources are assessed, that the value of more varied use of the upland catchment areas becomes apparent. On the one hand, a conservative conser- vationist may in the future see these water-gathering grounds of limited access as some of the last refuges of certain plant and animal species, while on the other hand the progressive conservationist, concerned with the rational use of biotic and other resources, may find the differing attitudes of the managing authorities and the changing balance between water quality and recreational demands, a field for experimentation and cooperation with members of other disciplines concerned with the planning of land and water use.

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116

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Biological Conservation

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Pope Paul Donates 1,000 Dollars to the World Wildlife Fund

His Holiness Pope Paul has made a symbolic contribution of 1,000 dollars to the World Wildlife Fund. A statement read: 'Through this gesture the Holy See has intended to express its appreciation of the activities of the Fund in defence of one of the most precious treasures that the Creator has entrusted to Man's wise administration on this planet.'

Apart from this gesture in the World Wildlife Fund's tenth anniversary year, Pope Paul had earlier shown his interest in wildlife conservation when he received the Board of Trustees and committees of the Fund at a

private audience in 1969. In his address on that occasion the Pope recalled that, in the Book of Genesis, Man was told to 'Have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves upon the Earth', but, Pope Paul added: 'Nevertheless, though he is the master of creation, Man must not destroy it. He must admire it, he must explore and know it.'

WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, 1110 Morges, Switzerland.