conflict resolution education and positive...

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support:

A Climate of Safety for All Learners PAMELA LANE-GARON

JESSICA YERGAT CHARLES KRALOWEC

Mainstream education movements eventually provide resources for forms of education oriented toward life skills. This article examines a timely convergence: Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) and conflict resolution education (CRE). PBIS is a mainstream educational model for school climate improvement, and CRE is a proven approach to school safety. In addition to exploring the similarities of these two approaches, findings of a school-based research study are reported. Variables examined are perspective taking, empathy, and conflict strategy. The authors conclude that PBIS and CRE are making important contributions and that particular strength may be drawn from their combined implementation.

ositive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) is proliferating as a movement in education. This systems approach intends to prevent

learner problems from escalating before intervention. This is also the goal of the conflict resolution education (CRE) movement. PBIS recommends intentional social-emotional and behavioral instruction, as does CRE. The timely surge of interest in PBIS benefits social-emotional learning in our schools—specifically CRE. What follows is the emerging story of a California elementary school where both CRE and PBIS are implemented. Students at Polk Elementary were trained in conflict resolution facilitation through a public school–university project and assessed on developmental variables—before and after mediation training and service.

Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, Winter 2012 197 ˝ Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the Association for Conflict Resolution Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/crq.21059

198 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC Positive Behavior Intervention Support or PBIS is an approach to student

discipline that emphasizes (a) proactive instruction of desired behavioral expectations, reinforcement of appropriate behavior, and monitoring and correction of problem behavior; (b) data-driven decision-making; and (c) application of more intensive intervention and targeted support for students who do not respond to prevention efforts (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai & Horner, 2002).

Understandably, administrators, school psychologists, and teachers are enthusiastic about the emergence of PBIS as a movement and as a support for all learners. Also excited about the PBIS development are those practitioner-scholars working in CRE. These practitioner-scholars are interdisciplinary and work in both K–12 and higher education. They are often involved in public school–university partnerships in which conflict mediation programs, restorative discipline, and conflict resolution curriculum are developed. CRE and PBIS present frameworks for student support that are inclusive and respectful of strengths and weaknesses. Both PBIS and CRE view the school setting as one in which all can be safe—to set goals, work toward them, accomplish and, yes, even fall short of objectives, examine data, revise strategies, and attempt again.

One of the most apparent commonalities between CRE and PBIS is the intentional nature of instruction in affective as well as cognitive aspects of student development. This article describes the strategic sense that PBIS and CRE make, when implemented together, in our schools. Further, it provides an illustrative case study by data generated in the context of a university–public school partnership at James K. Polk Elementary School in central California.

Background At James K. Polk Elementary School, there was a character education program based on Character Counts (Josephson’s program brand name; Josephson, 2000) when PBIS and CRE came to the school district. Wise educational leadership felt that although character education was helpful in providing the school community with common aspirations, it was not encouraging student emotional connections to the school and to ideals. This same wise leadership recognized that the fit across programmatic foci could be enhanced with a more purposeful emphasis on the emotional development of students, in addition to the clear behavioral expectations provided by both character education and PBIS implementation. To this end, Polk CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 199 incorporated CRE in the form of Mentored Peer Mediation (Cassinerio & Lane-Garon, 2006; Lane-Garon, 2011; Lane-Garon & Richardson, 2003) with existing structures and the new PBIS model to teach what respectful interpersonal problem-solving looks like and feels like. By soliciting students who were caring and service-minded, training them as facilitators of conflict resolution for their peers, the emotional connection to school ideals and values was concretized. The Mentored Peer Mediation program engaged willing students in communication and conflict resolution skill training, followed by service to the school community. Peer mediators and the disputing students they served soon were demonstrating respect, responsibility, and resourcefulness on a daily basis—service learning at its best! Of importance is the research-based nature of the university–public school local program, Mediator Mentors, which was implemented at Polk. For example, based on 30 years of CRE and child development accumulated knowledge, the development of empathy is considered a product of the interrelationship between maturing cognitive perspective taking and socialization to care (Lickona, 1992; Sandy & Cochran, 2006; Selman, 1980). Mediator Mentors provides opportunity for guided practice in communication and conflict resolution as university students “embrace” the mediator team and provide ongoing training. Peer mediation develops the emotion vocabulary and skills essential to increasing cognitive perspective-taking ability and disposition—enabling empathy. The mentoring of Polk peer mediators by university students studying to become teachers, counselors, and psychologists strengthened the focus on providing example and support in the PBIS system introduction. Additionally, the emotional connection of students to school and service was intensified in the mentoring relationship with university students, who were also trained in conflict resolution skills and strategies and who came to care deeply about the children they were mentoring. The Polk community, by members’ anecdotal assessment, was enriched by the implementation of mentored peer mediation; however, because of the PBIS emphasis on data-based decision making, more formal assessments were also completed with respect to the targeted student development variables of interest. Assessment scores evaluating student development of empathy and perspective taking are presented in this article. In addition, the Mediator Mentors project is fully described.

PBIS at Polk PBIS addresses the intentional, proactive effort by schools, districts, and states. In PBIS, systems of support are interrelated and built on one

CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

200 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC another in order to prevent students from failing, either academically or behaviorally. PBIS also evokes positive student behavior with thematic statements, such as James K. Polk Elementary School’s Strive for Five.

Strive for Five (PBIS Guidelines for All Student Behavior) 1. Be Respectful 2. Be Safe 3. Work Peacefully 4. Strive for Excellence 5. Follow Directions

The children at Polk repeat this mantra on a daily basis and discuss in their five behavior expectations. For example, respect is operationalized by the cooperatively contextualized agreements describing desirable behavior that is student-to-student, student-to-teacher, student-to-adult, and student-to–physical environment. Respect for the physical environment means the student treats property well and does not destroy it unnecessarily. Classroom meetings are a staple of both PBIS and CRE. CRE is a communication-based approach to teaching, learning, and practicing social-emotional skills needed for life (Jones, 2004). For example, when problems arise in the school year, the classroom meeting provides a venue for group discussion and problem solving in which ground rules for respectful communication and reverence for persons and divergent perspectives become norms. In the field research reported on in this article, Polk’s Strive for Five messages was shared by all members of the community—expectations in PBIS approaches are clear, and language around behavioral norms becomes frequent commerce. Polk’s PBIS team is comprised of school site teachers, janitors, administrators, parents, and crossing guards. Theirs is a systemwide, team approach in which all members offer direct instruction of desired behaviors and intervention support. Polk is creating a continuum of positive behavior support for all students. The Strive for Five behavioral expectations are clearly defined in positive, simple statements. These five behavioral expectations are taught to all students for every setting or circumstance they will encounter. Learners see models of what a desired behavior is and is not. Once CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 201 appropriate behaviors have been defined and demonstrated, approximations to the goal are acknowledged on a regular basis. Behavioral errors are addressed through invitations to engage in a new, better attempt. When students are not successful in achieving behavioral expectations, it is communicated to them that their mistake has provided them with a learning opportunity. No shame or blame is associated with the process of constructing a new attempt at meeting the goal. CRE also holds as an underlying principle that students may misbehave for a variety of reasons, including that the child is having a bad day, the child has not been taught the appropriate skills, or the child may have an underlying disorder requiring another level of intervention. This kind of thinking results in professional intervention that is specific to learners’ needs and supportive of their continuing effort to achieve.

At Polk, the Strive for Five behavior team meets on a monthly basis to monitor the implementation and the effectiveness of PBIS at the school site. Two members of the PBIS team are also CRE leaders for the conflict mediation program on campus. These educators run nomination week for students interested in becoming servant leaders in conflict resolution facilitation. The teacher leaders select nominees, train candidates in mediation skills along with local university partners, schedule mediator teams for daily duty on the playground, and hold bimonthly meetings to encourage and problem-solve with the team. With CRE and PBIS team membership overlapping at Polk, a more nuanced evaluation of mistaken behavior (Nelsen, 1996) is made possible. The opportunity to resolve interpersonal conflict at school, before it escalates to a punishable offense, is an essential provision for all students. In PBIS terminology, this is an important tier 1 program support. Just as not all disruptions in the school day are conflicts, not all disruptions require discipline action. Administrators who understand this offer conflict resolution models for children that they can engage in with staff and mentor support. In the year of the data collection reported on in this writing, Polk had two CRE teacher leaders and two university Mediator Mentors working with the peer mediators on a daily basis. Small interpersonal problems were being resolved regularly with the help of the peer mediators on daily duty. And similar to PBIS, program evaluations and adaptations were being addressed by the team. Ongoing evaluation and adaptation is a principle shared by both CRE and PBIS frameworks.

Currently at Polk, individual student support systems are integrated with schoolwide conflict resolution and discipline systems. According to


202 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC

Sugai and Horner (2002), the effective implementation of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports results in:

• Increased attendance • Student self-reports of a more positive and calm environment • Teacher reports of a more positive and calm environment • Reduction in the number of students who engage in behavioral

disruptions • Reduction in the number of behavioral disruptions overall

Importantly, CRE research has yielded similar findings with respect to positive learning climate and reduction of disruptions (Jones, 2004; Lane- Garon et al., 2005; Uline, Tschannen-Moran, & Perez, 2003). These results include:

• Increased attendance • Student, teacher, and parent reports of a more positive and calm

learning environment • Increase in the number of peacefully resolved disputes • Decrease in the number of serious behavioral disruptions overall

The common goals and outcomes of PBIS and CRE are strengthening Polk support of positive student development on campus in a variety of ways.

Being responsive to student needs is a principle of both CRE and PBIS. Sometimes this means listening (as when a student is having a bad day), sometimes it means more teaching (as when a student lacks skills), and sometimes it means assessment and intervention at a higher level (e.g., a psychologist referral for bully behavior).

Who Are Polk Students? The student population at Polk Elementary School (approximately 700 students) is highly multicultural. In grades 4, 5, and 6, where students serve as peer mediators, there are approximately 50 Hispanic, 1 Native American, 16 Asian, 12 African American, 17 White, and 2 students of mixed race. Half of these students are English learners. Of the CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 203

student population, 484 are eligible to receive free or reduced lunch. The school territory is large, inside an urbanized area surrounded by vineyards and other agriculture. Table 1 and Figure 1 further describe the Polk Elementary School population.

In Polk’s opening year (2004), the school community members met, developed a mission statement, and established professional learning communities (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Karhanek, 2004; Uline & Berkowitz, 2000). Full inclusion for children with special needs was developed. Polk’s core ethical values are clearly articulated and aligned with district values. In the first week of school, each class meets to discuss behavior expectations


204 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC in the positive discipline system. During these assemblies, the student peer mediators also present a role-play demonstrating how to access the peer mediators and making it clear to students that skilled facilitation is available as a positive choice for all in cases of interpersonal conflict. Behavioral expectations are made clear to students and parents. This discipline policy, as well as information about the peer mediation program, is published in the parent–student handbook and in the staff handbook. In 2010, 92% of Polk parents responded to a survey indicating that Polk was the best school for students and parents in the district.

At Polk, students have the opportunity for service learning. The Children’s Hospital of Central California and military service personnel overseas have benefited from Polk student service and fundraising. Peer mediation is one form of student service that Polk Elementary School children may select. Peer mediation, as previously defined, is a mode of CRE that has been an important component of school learning climate improvement in our nation for over three decades. The Mediator Mentors project is a university–public school partnership in which students selfselect to serve their school as conflict resolution facilitators. Professors, classroom teachers, and university students teach and mentor these peer mediators as they resolve disputes on a daily basis. It is in this context that children practice respectful communication, impulse control, and appreciation of diverse persons and ideas. Mentored peer mediation at Polk serves as a laboratory in which the positive behaviors exhorted by PBIS are practiced and recognized with adult and peer feedback on a daily basis.

Conflict Resolution Education CRE curriculum for learners in grades kindergarten through graduate school can be found in school systems nationwide. CRE programs include a variety of strategies that share various emphases on:

• An understanding of conflict • Social, emotional, and cognitive processes related to constructive

conflict management • Principles of conflict resolution • Skills required to enact constructive conflict management



Some states (e.g., Ohio, Oregon, New Mexico, and Indiana) have wisely integrated this content with language arts, health, and social studies curriculum. Teachers teach and children learn that conflict is a natural part of life and that learning constructive conflict-related skills is as important to becoming an educated person as is knowing the order of operations in math. An underlying principle of CRE is that conflict resolution skills are essential for life and should be embraced at all educational levels (Jones, 2004). Said another way, this aspect of human development, like all effective education, requires direct instruction, guidance, and practice, too. To be prepared for life is to develop knowledge about conflict, confidence in dealing with it, and values around the importance of considering the welfare of all in the conflict-related processes. CRE programs typically fit one of three delivery formats: direct skills instruction, peer mediation, and embedded curriculum (Garrard & Lipsey, 2007). Peer mediation (third party facilitated conflict resolution) is seen as a form of CRE in that it teaches and offers learners practice in an approach to conflict resolution useful for life. With CRE, schoolchildren at varying grade levels can be seen mediating disputes between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton or Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln as well as in situ disputes that arise naturally on the playground (Jones & Sanford, 2003). Along with K–12 curriculum, teacher education programs in states where CRE has been implemented prepare educators to create learning environments where constructive approaches to conflict represent classroom management competencies that must be mastered in order to earn a credential (Jones, 2003). For example, key elements in the California Standards for the Teaching Profession include promoting social development and establishing and maintaining standards for student behavior (www.btsa.ca.gov/ba/pubs/pdf/cstpreport.pdf). CRE is directly facilitative of the specific goals associated with these key elements:

• Antibias and acceptance of differences that are cultural, linguistic, ethnic, intellectual, physical, and social

• Knowledge about and skill development around interpersonal conflict • Values expressive of maintaining the self-esteem and human dignity of

all • Authentic opportunities for all students to communicate and

collaborate CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

206 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC • Leadership skills and opportunities to use them • Responsive classrooms where teachers facilitate and strengthen student

voice and agency • High expectations for behavior standards, reflective of student

developmental and personal needs • Effective intervention when student behavior does not meet agreed on

classroom standards

In addition to specifying what teachers need to learn in order to teach and nurture conflict resolution skills in their learners, the CRETE Curriculum (Conflict Resolution Education in Teacher Education) is available through a grant from Judges’ Arbitration and Mediation Service via Temple University and 10 partner universities throughout the nation. For example, the teacher candidate mediator mentors at Polk Elementary School attended four days of CRETE training at California State University–Fresno and became well prepared to support the peer mediators on their school conflict resolution service team.

Critical concepts and skills listed in the CRETE Facilitator’s Guide (Jones, 2008) are:

• Understanding Conflict—What Causes It, What to Do About It • Conflict Styles—How to Manage Conflict • Emotions and Conflict—Handling Anger and Understanding Triggers • De-escalating Angry Students • Positive Discipline and Dealing with Disruptive Students • Using Classroom Meetings to Establish Classroom Management • Bullying Prevention—What Can Teachers Do? • Building Collaborative Negotiation Skills Among Your Students • Using Peer Mediation to Your Advantage • Dialogue and Diversity Conflict • Restorative Practices in Schools

Many studies have demonstrated that CRE programs create a positive classroom climate, enhance academic learning, and encourage supportive CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 207 and nurturing relationships between teachers and students (Aber, Brown, & Jones, 2003). There is now solid data supporting the link between CRE (and social-emotional learning in general) and academic achievement (Durlak, Weisberg, & Pachan, 2010). An important resource entitled Building School Success through Social and Emotional Learning reports that when students become more socially emotionally aware and competent, academic performance improves. In addition, when students are emotionally invested in one another’s welfare, it becomes easier for them to achieve academic success in the resulting supportive environment (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).

PBIS: The Movement and the Design PBIS represents a systems change process for an entire school or district. The underlying theme is teaching behavioral expectations in the same manner as any core curriculum subject. According to the School-wide Positive Behavior Support Implementers’ Blueprint and Self-Assessment (Lewis, Barrett, Sugai, & Horner, 2010), a PBIS systems approach also yields safer schools. In the PBIS research literature, a 90% reduction in problem behavior in over half of the studies reviewed was reported. Further, in 26% of these studies, behavior problems were completely eradicated. Generally, office discipline referrals were reduced by 20% to 60%. In addition, because of the PBIS emphasis on data collection and analysis, evaluation at a variety of levels is facilitated.

As demonstrated by Polk Elementary, the PBIS framework is designed to unify all school staff, parents, students, and community members by common expectations that are taught and reinforced at school, at home, and in the community. In fact, school PBIS leadership teams are encouraged to have members from all of the above.

Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the interconnectedness of the components and the different levels of interventions based on the needs of the school and the student in different intensity levels.

CRE and Its Place in PBIS As noted, mentored peer mediation, a form of CRE, was originally selected for implementation at Polk Elementary School because, according to findings from the initial stages of the school’s PBIS implementation, the



school’s assessed needs were consistent with CRE goals, which include enhancing students’ social and emotional development, creating a safe environment, creating a constructive learning environment, and creating a constructive conflict community. Mentored peer mediation is effective in the bottom tier of Figure 1 as a support for all students and in tier 2 as an intervention for some.

When all students are taught to resolve conflict respectfully and encouraged to do so within a prescribed framework, interpersonal disputes are resolved at a lower level—before discipline is necessary. Students make positive choices, and relationships are repaired before physical altercation becomes an issue, often even before adult intervention is necessary.

Mentored peer mediation can also be an effective tier 2 intervention in which students with repetitive minor behavioral themes around conflict and anger management can become trained as mediators and receive the mentoring of the university intern and teacher leader, in addition to pairing with a peer mediator of greater communication and self-regulatory ability. The data presented in this article indicate that Mediator Mentors has added particular strength to Polk’s PBIS design, especially with respect to the development of students who consider the thoughts and feelings of others. This alone prevents destructive conflict and facilitates psychological and physical safety.

Mediator Mentors Mentored peer mediation at Polk was implemented with the assistance of the Mediator Mentors Project at California State University (http://www.fresnostate.edu/kremen/special_projects/mediator.html). In this program, students in grades 4 to 6 nominate themselves to become conflict managers for their peers. They are then endorsed by peers and staff and receive two days of standards-based mediation training at the university. Following this preparation, a university student mentor embraces the team and works together with the peer mediator teacher leader to provide ongoing training and on-site consultation as the children mediate naturally occurring conflicts. Although peer mediation is a familiar model of CRE, mentored peer mediation provides interaction with the more capable peer in the context of ongoing relationship (Lane-Garon, 2000; Vygotsky, 1978). The mission of the Mediator Mentors Project is to teach and nurture respectful conflict resolution skills in youth and in future helping professionals through direct instruction, guided practice, and cross-age mentoring relationships. The project vision is focused on supporting CRE at all levels for the CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq


purpose of affecting peaceful and productive problem-solving in our communities and world. The Mediator Mentors Project at Fresno State, begun in 1998 and housed in the Kremen School of Education and Human Development, offers a stipend-supported opportunity for future helping professionals (teachers, counselors, social workers, school psychologists, etc.) to nurture the development of respectful communication and conflict resolution skills among schoolchildren in the community. Mediation is voluntary, facilitated problem solving in which two student conflict managers (peer mediators) help disputing peers come to a mutually satisfactory solution to their problem. The university students (mediator mentors) all are headed for the helping professions and elect to commit to this additional, focused experience with schoolchildren and teachers. In the process, mentors learn what dispute issues children of various ages face. From site teacher modeling, they learn how to navigate public school culture to create effective programmatic student supports and interventions. To date, more than 7,000 children, teachers, and administrators in over 60 schools have participated. The sitebased programs are located in five school districts. Central Unified is among these and is the district home of Polk Elementary School. The CRE programs at all schools are developed in accordance with the National Standards for Peer Mediation (Association for Conflict Resolution, Education Section) and are available at http://www.mediate.com/acreducation/pg18.cfm.

Assessment and Analysis The interrelationships between Mediator Mentors, Polk’s chosen form of CRE, and PBIS are also examined. Fifty-four Polk Elementary students in grades 4, 5, and 6 participated. Twenty-seven of these were mediators. All 27 had received two days of peer mediation in accordance with the national standards for school-based peer mediation programs (Association for Conflict Resolution, 2007). The ratio of mediators to nonmediators at the school is 1 mediator for every 28 students. The younger children on campus received no formal mediation training but learned how to access the mediators through presentations made by the mediators at assemblies and in class. The work of improving Polk’s school climate was informed by Lane-Garon (1998).

For example, a goal related to both PBIS and CRE was to engage the students emotionally around behavior goals that were respectful of and sensitive to the diversity present in the student enrollment at Polk. Helping others with daily problems on campus is of primary importance to students. CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq

Conflict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 211 Emotional engagement is promoted by the nature of the peer mediation process. What children care about is revealed in the process of conflict resolution. An emotion vocabulary develops as children work together to resolve interpersonal problems. Emotion awareness of self and other increases as children articulate divergent perspectives. The disposition to consider the thoughts and feelings of others has been found to be critically important to both psychological and physical safety in schools (Lantieri & Patti, 1996). In addition, effective interpersonal problem-solving skills contribute to violence prevention and encourage acceptance of difference and resiliency (Benard, 2004). Therefore, cognitive perspective taking and empathy subscales of the Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (1983; revised with stories for students) became selected variables for assessment. The Davis measures are comprised of 14 simple statements on which students are asked to reflect regarding their “typical” or “usual” way of thinking and behaving. Example stories are provided, and students circle a value on a Likert scale to indicate their response to each of the statements.

In order to determine the effects of mentored peer mediation on student development, three assessments in all were conducted. Two were the Davis scales just mentioned, and the third was a conflict strategy scenario in which students indicated how they would solve a problem of competing for limited resources (Jones, 2003). The first assessment compared mediators before and after mediator training and service; the second compared mediators before training with the general population; and the final assessment compared mediators after training and service with the general population along two subscales: Cognitive Perspective Taking (the dispositional tendency to consider the perspectives of others) and Affective Perspective Taking (dispositional empathy). These are subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Inventory (Davis, 1983) and have been used repeatedly for assessing the impact of interventions on key measures related to conflict resolution abilities in multiple school settings (Cassinerio & Lane-Garon, 2006; Lane-Garon, 1998; Lane-Garon & Richardson, 2003). The scales have consistently been sensitive to change on perspective-taking and empathy dimensions with respect to training and service in mediation. Questions on the survey include: “Before criticizing someone, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place” and “I try to look at everybody’s side of a disagreement before I make a decision.” With mediators and nonmediators, the reliability of the subscales, when combined, was good (α = 0.89), meaning that not only did the students understand the questions in relation to the constructs, but responses to the scales have high internal reliability.



In the third assessment, students were asked how they would handle the problem created when two students wished to use the only computer available for an assignment. These short-answer essays were scored with a 1, 2, or 3, with a score of 3 indicating interest-based thinking (When is your assignment due and how long is it?) and a score of 1 indicating positional thinking (I got here first). A score of 2 was generated when the student response was I’ll get a teacher.

Findings Analysis was completed with the open source statistical package PSPP version 0.7.6 for Macintosh. Differences between students were found in each relevant category. It was found that students after training on the Cognitive Perspective Taking subscale and service as mediators were significantly more likely to consider the thoughts and feelings of others (M = 6.49, standard deviation [SD] = 0.41) than they were before (M = 5.24, SD = 0.88), t(26) = 9.71, p < 0.01, d = 1.87. It is important to note that no significant difference was found on the Cognitive Perspective Taking subscale before mediation training and service. This result means that mediators were taken from the same statistical population as nonmediators, and no preexisting differences were evident that might explain differences and/or confound results of before and after comparisons.

After training, significant differences were found using a 1-tailed paired t-test, with mediators being more inclined to take the perspective of others (M = 6.49, SD = 0.41) than they were beforehand (M = 5.15, SD = 0.66), t(52) = 8.92, p < 0.01, d = 1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] [−1.51, −0.98]. As for empathy or affective perspective, mediators significantly improved their empathetic dispositional tendencies after training and service (M = 6.50, SD = 0.33) compared to before (M = 5.27, SD = 0.77), t(29) = 10.34, p < 0.01, d = 1.99, 95% CI [−1.47, −0.98].

Two independent 2-tailed t-tests showed that there were no significant differences between mediators and nonmediators on the two subscales before mediator training and service. Between mediators after training and the general population, however, significant differences were found on both scales, with mediators being dispositionally more likely to take the perspective of others (M = 6.49, SD = 0.41) than the general population (M = 5.15, SD = 0.66), t(52) = 8.92, p < 0.01, d = 1.23, 95% CI [−1.03, 1.63]. Mediators were also more likely to consider and feel with the circumstance of another (M = 6.50, SD = 0.33) than CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq


than nonmediators (M = 5.63, SD = 0.79), t(34.83) = 5.24, p < 0.01, d = 0.88, 95% CI [−1.03, 1.63].

With respect to the computer scenario, Chi-square analysis indicated that the most consequential differences in conflict resolution strategy were found between nonmediator before and after assessments. Students who were designated as peer mediators who had a positional strategy at pretest (I got here first) generally moved to asking a teacher for help (score of 2) by posttest. However, nonmediators in this sample actually scored less well at posttest than at pretest (score of 2 to score of 1). After training, the mediators moved completely from positional to a teacher-based strategy choice. It appears that when CRE training is implemented, conflict strategy choice is more likely to move in productive directions. Without training, the outcome is indeed less favorable. It is anticipated that with continued participation in mediation, mediators with a score of 2 will increase to a 3, indicating more student self-reliance and skill development. Nonetheless, the movement of the mediators in conflict strategy choice on this measure is encouraging.

Limitations As is the case with all educational research, there are study limitations. First, this investigation lacks the ability to draw causal conclusions due to the voluntary nature of mediation participation. Those students who became mediators were certainly not selected randomly. They wanted the job and wrote essays to describe their aptitude for the work. Still, there were no preexisting differences between mediators and nonmediators, which gave us confidence that the mediators were not different in some way from nonmediators before training and service began.

Second, while there was a pre- and posttest for the mediators, there was only a pretest for the nonmediator group, making it impossible to say that differences found between the groups were not due to mere passage of time. Nonetheless, the pre- to postassessment interval was only one academic year. In this short period, differences between groups are more likely attributable to training and service than to maturation.

Third, the sample was comprised of students from a single school, limiting the generalizability of findings. However, it must be noted that the model of implementation and assessment has been replicated in several similar inquiries yielding similar results.



Conclusion Despite limitations, the significant differences found on perspective-taking and empathy scores of the student mediators versus nonmediators are supportive of character development, CRE, and positive behavior support at Polk Elementary School. The CRE program is barely 2 years old, and the school is doing a fi ne job of raising the visibility of respectful conflict resolution program expectations with posted duty schedules and Strive for Five posters (CRE and PBIS) in all classrooms and common areas. The peer mediators are keeping data on number and type of problems peacefully resolved and making referrals to staff for chronic bullying (operationally defined as 3 times or more). The tier 1 PBIS goal of early identification of students at risk in the whole school population is being addressed, as is the tier 2 goal of teaching and supporting communication and skill development for specific students who demonstrate patterns of difficulty with conflict and impulsive behavior. When teachers cull the nomination essays of the students wanting to become mediators, they try to create a representative sample of the larger student community, and children who need to learn the skills are included along with those who already have them.

The mentored peer mediation form of CRE serves PBIS goals of direct instruction, guided practice, and naturally occurring opportunities to learn while serving. A good place to begin measuring program effects is cognitive and affective perspective taking, which demonstrated positive growth among mediators in this sample. The Mediator Mentors university–public school partnership provides mentoring and modeling for mediators and disputants alike. Polk teachers work with teacher candidates building effective response systems to student needs and creating programs that are engaging and encourage student sense of belonging and significance. Mediator Mentors is emerging as a meaningful component of Polk Elementary’s thoughtfully constructed schoolwide PBIS program. With the prevalent emphasis on academic performance and zero tolerance for behavioral disruption, it is possible that some schools might omit CRE. However, as this examination of CRE effects at Polk Elementary School demonstrates, this omission may constitute a lost opportunity to enhance both social-emotional and academic development. CONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/crq


References Aber, J. L., Brown, J. I., and Jones, S. M. (2003). “Developmental

Trajectories Toward Violence in Middle Childhood: Course Demographic Differences, and Response to School-Based Intervention.” Developmental Psychology, 2003, 39, 324–348.

Association for Conflict Resolution, Education Section. Recommended Standards for School-Based Peer Mediation Programs 2007. Washington, DC: Association for Conflict Resolution, 2007. www.acrnet.org.

Benard, B. Resiliency: What We Have Learned. San Francisco: West Ed, 2004.

Batsche, G., Elliott, J., Graden, J., Grimes, J., Kovaleski, J., Prasse, D., Reschly, D., Schrag, J., and Tilly, W. Response to Intervention: Policy Considerations and Implementation. Alexandria: National Association of State Board of Directors, Special Education, 2005.

California Department of Education. California Standards for the Teaching Profession, 2009. http://www.ctc.ca.gov/educator-prep/standards/CSTP-2009.pdf.

Cassinerio, C., and Lane-Garon, P. S. “Changing School Climate One Mediator at a Time: Year-One Analysis of a School-Based Mediation Program.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 2006, 23(4), 447–460.

Davis, M. H. “Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 44, 113–126.

DuFour, R., Eaker, R., and Karhanek, G. Whatever It Takes: How Professional Learning Communities Respond When Kids Don’t Learn. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree (formerly National Educational Service), 2004.

Durlak, J., Weisberg, R., and Pachan, M. “A Meta-Analysis of After-School Programs That Seek to Promote Personal and Social Skills in Children and Adolescents.” American Journal of Community Psychology, 2010, 45, 294–309.

Garrard, W. M., and Lipsey, M. W. “Conflict Resolution Education and Antisocial Behavior in U.S. Schools: A Meta-Analysis.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 2007, 25(1), 9–38.


216 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC Jones, T., and Sanford, R. “Building the Container: Curriculum Infusion and

Classroom Climate.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 2003, 21(1), 115–131.

Jones, T. S. Ohio and Pennsylvania’s Conflict Resolution Education in Teacher Education Project. Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management, 2003. www.disputeresolution.ohio.gov/crete.htm.

Jones, T. S. “Conflict Resolution Education: The Field, the Findings, and the Future.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 2004, 22(1–2), 233–267.

Jones, T. S. Conflict Resolution Education in Teacher Education. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008.

Jones, T. S., and Kmitta, D. (eds.). Does It Work? The Case for Conflict Education in Our Nation’s Schools. Washington, DC: Conflict Resolution Education Network, 2000. www.acresolution.org.

Josephson, M. The Ethics of American Youth: 2000 Report Card. Los Angeles: Josephson Institute, 2000.

Lane-Garon, P. “Developmental Considerations: Encouraging Perspective Taking in Student Mediators.” Mediation Quarterly, 1998, 16(2), 201–215.

Lane-Garon, P. “Practicing Peace: The Impact of a School-Based Conflict Resolution Program on Elementary Students.” Peace and Change, 2000, 25, 467–483.

Lane-Garon, P. “Lowell Revitalization: One Student Conflict Manager at a Time.” Metropolitan Universities Journal, 2011, 21(3), 67–79.

Lane-Garon, P., Ibarra-Merlo, M., Zajac, J., and Vierra, T. “Mediators and Mentors: Partners in Conflict Resolution.” Journal of Peace Education, 2005, 2(2), 183–193.

Lane-Garon, P., and Richardson, T. “Mediator Mentors: Improving School Climate, Nurturing Student Disposition.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 2003, 21(1), 47–66.

Lantieri, L., and Patti, J. Waging Peace in Our Schools. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996.

Lewis, T. J., Barrett, S., Sugai, G., and Horner, R. H. Blueprint for School-Wide Positive Behavior Support Training and Professional Development. Eugene, OR: National Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior Interventions and Support, 2010. www.pbis.org.


217 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC Lewis, T. J., and Sugai, G. “Effective Behavior Support: A Systems

Approach to Proactive School-Wide Management.” Focus on Exceptional Children, 1999, 31(6), 1–24.

Lickona, T. Educating for Character: How Our Schools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.

Nelsen, J. Positive Discipline (revised ed.). New York: Random House, 1996.

Sandy, S., and Cochran, K. “The Development of Conflict Resolution Skills in Children: Preschool to Adulthood.” In M. Deutsch and P. T. Coleman (eds.), The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2006.

Selman, R. L. The Growth of Interpersonal Understanding: Development and Clinical Analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1980.

Sugai, G., and Horner, R. H. “The Evolution of Discipline Practices: School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports.” Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 2002, 24(1/2), 23–50.

Uline, C., and Berkowitz, J. “Transforming School Culture Through Teaching Teams.” The Journal of Social Leadership, 2000, 10, 416–443.

Uline, C., Tschannen-Moran, M., and Perez, L. “Constructive Conflict: How Controversy Can Contribute to School Improvement.” Teachers’ College Record, 2003, 105(5), 782–816. http://www.tcrecord.org. ID Number: 11137.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., and Walberg, H. J. (eds.). Building School Success Through Social and Emotional Learning. New York: Teachers College Press, 2004.

Pamela Lane-Garon is a professor at California State University–Fresno. She directs the Mediator Mentors Project, which partners public school and university students in conflict resolution education.

Jessica Yergat is an administrator in the Central Unified School District in California. She designed her district’s PBIS protocol and continues to be a conflict resolution education champion at Polk Elementary.

Charles Kralowec is a graduate student in experimental psychology at California State University–Fresno. Among his interests is the interconnectedness of social-emotional and academic learning.


conflict resolution education and positive...

Documents