CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSLOAD FACTORVolume of traffic carried, generally expressed as a percentage (%) formAn important indicator of performanceFor passenger,Load factor (%) = No of seats sold* x 100% Total no. seat available* no of seats with revenueFor cargo,Load factor (%) = Loaded ton-miles x 100% Capacity ton-miles

The nearer the LF is to 100%, the better is the degree of utilization and returnIt should be measured over a period and compared with target load factor

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSPAYLOAD/CARRYING CAPACITYPart of the total load which earns freight or fares the revenueThe payload of a vehicle is the revenue earning potential in terms of: the weight/cubic volume of freight the seats capacity, which can be accommodatedThe payload/carrying capacity can be determined by:load bearing capacity & dimension of unit of carriage load bearing capacity of the waysize of the terminalno of hours per day system in use

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSLOADABILITYPayload or carrying capacity is related to the loadabilityIt relates to goods traffics characteristicsIt relates to the maximum utilization of vehicle capacityIt relates on how well loads can be stowed on the vehicleTraffic with good loadability has the property of being able to accommodate itself within & make maximum use of space that is available in the vehicles, vessels, aircraft, etcEg. coal, flour, cementDensity refers to the cubic capacity needed per ton weight of the freightLoadability and density are connected and important if maximum use is to be made of vehicle capacity density, loadability

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSOPERATING RATIOThis is management statistics which can give some idea of the efficiency of operationsOperating costs are expressed as a percentage of revenueOperating Ratio:Operating Cost x 100 Revenue

The closer the ratio approaches 100, the less profitable are the operationsEg Operating ratio of 80% shows that 80% of the revenue gained from the operation is use to cover its operating costs.Thus, the profit is only 20%

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSPASSENGER-MILES/KILOMETERSThe output of tpt operation must be measuredWe can count up the pax carried but this gives no indication of the distance traveled and distance covered is a major part of the output It represents the no of pax multiplied by the miles traveled.

TON-MILES/KILOMETERSThis applies to freight mvmtTo get a true measure of output, the weight of the load must be multiplied by the distance it is carriedEg 20 tons carried for 200 miles = 4,000 ton-miles

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSTHE PEAKThe time of the day, week, season or year when the demand for tpt is greatest Dd exceed the averageDemand on 3 aspectsUnit of carriage for pax and goodsThe wayterminalsThe problem is the imbalance in traffic flows. Therefore need more provision of tpt infrastructure & facilities. But at off-peak lead to under utilization of capacityEg Hours of peak- Morning & EveningWorking Hours: 7am 9am, 4pm 7pmSchool Hours: Morning, Afternoon, EveningFestive Seasons: Hari Raya, CNY, XmasWays to reduce problem of peak:Staggering of working hoursUse of more suitable/larger vehicleSpecial discounts at off-peak hours

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSLIGHT RAIL TRANSITA metropolitan electric railway system, characterized by its ability to operate single cars or short trains along exclusive rights-of-ways; at ground level, on aerial structures, in subways, or occasionally, in streets; and to board/discharge pax at track or car-floor levelLight refers to light volume, more than light weightMost effective capacity 5,000 15,000 pax/hr/directionMain features of LRT is flexibility. It is able to:Negotiate steep gradients and sharp curvesBe built at ground level or above/belowCan operate unsegregated, partially or segregated from other traffic Average speed of trains: 40km/hDesigned to operate economically in smaller cities and specialization in larger citiesEnvironmental-friendlyHave effective breaking & acceleration offer more frequent stops than heavy rail trains

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSMONORAILA metropolitan electric railway system which uses only one rail, instead of twoTwo main types:Safeg (suspended by sturdy hangers from overhead rail)Alweg (rides on top of a concrete beam and wrap around the beam; called the supported monorail/straddled type)Characterized by the use of exclusive guideways & vehicle operated without driver on boardSpeed: 20km/h t max 60km/hrAverage capacity: 2,600 p/hr/direction

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS TURNARAOUND TIMEThe time a ship spends in a port can be divided into 2 components:Waiting timeShips time at berth

Turnaround time = Waiting time + ships time at berthTime taken to load/unload vessels and send them back or get them moving again

Waiting timethe delay betw the ships arrival in port and its tying up at berthCan be quite long when no vacant berths are available:CongestionTides are against the vesselStrikes or other similar events, etcHowever, it is only a small portion of turnaround time

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS TURNARAOUND TIME (cont.)Ships time at berthThe total time a vessel spends at the berth, whether:Loading/unloading cargoJust lying idleMeasured in hours or daysImportant in terminal and interchange arrangements because mvmt under load earns revenue, while time in terminals incur costsFactors influencing ship turnaround time:Weather conditionsAdequacy/availability of cargo handling/equipment/dock labour/berth, cargo clearance and collectionType of vesselNature of the cargo & suitability of cargo handling equipmentTranshipment costDocumentationPort layout

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS TURNARAOUND TIME (cont.)Importance of quick turnaround time:Profitability of port authority and shipownerMinimum fleet size realised through the aid of quick port turnaroundMaximum utilization of resourcesDevelopment of international tradeEncourage quick transitOptimal number of berth, minimum capital investment

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSDEMURRAGEA penalty payment made on buyers of tpt services or consignee, charged by the operators (eg port authority) over and above the charges for mvmt when vehicles are out of revenue service due to slow unloading/loading by buyerCharges of use of vehicles beyond given timeAim/purposeTo speed up terminal work and reduce turnaround timeReduction in turnaround time allow more ships to berth at port and better utilisation of terminal and wagons

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPSS SIZE MEASUREMENTVarious measurement are used in maritime tpt for the size of vessels:Volume (Isipadu)Gross Registered TonnageNet Registered TonnageTonnage (Berat)Deadweight TonnageLightweight TonnageDisplacement Tonnage

Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT)Measure of total internal capacity/enclosed volume of a shipExpresses in Total Internal Capacity of the ship in tonnage units of 100 cubic feet

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS SIZE MEASUREMENT (cont.)

Net Registered Tonnage (NRT)Measure the total enclosed volume available for cargo and passengersEarning capacity of ship, usually 60% - 65% of GRTCalculated by deducting from gross tonnage, those spaces which are necessary for operating a vesselNRT = GRT (master and crew spaces + water ballast spaces + machinery)

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS MEASUREMENT SIZE (cont.)

Deadweight TonnageMeasure of the total carrying capacity of a ship with all its contents when loaded down to her loadlineWeight of cargo + weight of fuel, stored water ballast, fresh water, crews, pax and baggageCan also be known from the total weight of water displaced by ship when loaded to the maximum draught permitted

Lightweight TonnageWeight of the ship as built + boiler water, lubricating oil and cooling water system (in unit of tonnes) Weight of ship alone without cargoes or passengersImportance when considering the value of a vessel which is to be broken up for scrap

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSSHIPS MEASUREMENT SIZE (cont.)

Displacement TonnageMeasure of the actual weight of ship plus all of the content Lightweight + Deadweight TonnageThe displacement represents the amount of water displaced by the ship, expressed in tonsWeight of water displaced = weight of the ship

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSLINER CONFERENCE/SHIPPING CONFERENCEA form of association of liner companies operating in the same tradeBasically a conference is simply a meeting of all lines, serving any particular routes for the purpose of evolving any regular pattern of sailing to give the max service to shippers and to reach common agreements on routesCan be national and international levelTwo types of conference:Close conferencemembers can only join with the consent of existing member and the shipowner must have a permanent interest in the shipping tradeApplicants must also have sufficient financial b/grdOpen conferenceNo restriction but they must have agreement from the majority of the membersApplicants must also agree to the common tarif rates and other conditions set by the conference

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSLINER SHIPPING

Refers to the operation of a fleet of vessels which provides a fixed services at regular advertised intervals between named portsThe owners offer space to cargo or accommodation to passengersMust seek its own cargo, which originates mainly in relatively small consignments from a multitude of shippersThis involves an expensive organisation ashore at all ports which its sailing schedule coversUsually carry general cargo

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSTRAMP SHIPPING

Does not operate in a fixed sailing scheduleMerely trades in all parts of the world in search of cargo, primarily bulk cargoesEg coal, timber, grain, sugar, fertilizersSeasonal Much smaller organisation than liner cargoes counterpartsTramp owners sell their services by means of an agreement known as charter partyThe contract may be:For single voyage at so much per ton of the commodity carried, orIt may be for a period at a stipulated rate of hire

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSVOYAGE AND CHARTER PARTY

Voyage charter is a contract for a specific voyageTime charter is a contract for a specified period of time which may cover several voyagesTwo types of time charterThe charterer hires the vessel all foundBareboat or demise charter charterer supply fuel, crew and paying all operating costs, etc for an agreed rate of hire

Voyage charter is a short term while time charter is often a long term

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONSPIGGY BACK

Although technically there are differences, most logistics people refer to Trailer on Flat Car (TOFC) and Container on Flatcar (COFC) as piggy back serviceThis form of tptn involves the use of a motor carrier trailer or a container that is placed on a rail flatcar and transported between two or more terminalsTemporary axles can be placed under the containers so that they can be delivered by truckAt the terminal, a truck/prime mover performs the pickup and delivery functionsPiggy back services thus combine the low cost of long haul rail mvmt with the flexibility and convenience of short haul truck tptn