coms 1010 - august 2012
TRANSCRIPT
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COMS 1010 Aug 2012i
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COMS 1010
August 2012
Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning
UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
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COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COMS 1010
COURSE MANUAL
Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning
UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
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COMS 1010 Aug 2012iii
CONTRIBUTORS
Communication Skills, COMS 1010 was prepared for the Centre for Professional
Development & Lifelong Learning, University of Mauritius. The Pro-Vice Chancellor-
Teaching & Learning- acknowledges the contribution of the following course authors
from the Faculty of Social Studies and Humanities:
Mrs M Auleear Owodally
Mrs C Chan-Meetoo
Ms M Paroomal
The course authors are grateful for the comments provided by Assoc. Prof. D. Gokhool,
Faculty of Law and Management.
August 2012
All rights reserved. No part of the work may be reproduced in any
form, without the written permission from the University of
Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABOUT THE COURSE
Unit 1: Introducing Communication C. Chan-Meetoo
Unit 2: Effective Use of English M. Auleear Owodally
Unit 3: Writing Skills M. Auleear Owodally
Unit 4: Non-verbal Communication M. Paroomal
Unit 5: Informative Speeches;
Speeches on/for Special Occasions
M. Paroomal
Unit 6: Modes of Speech Delivery;
Presentation Aids
M. Paroomal
C. Chan-Meetoo
Unit 7: Persuasive Speeches M. Paroomal
Unit 8: Perception and Listening Skills M. Paroomal
Unit 9: Business and Technical Writing M. Auleear Owodally
REFERENCE LIST
ASSIGNMENT FILE
SAMPLE EXAMINATION PAPER
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HOW DO I USE THE COURSE MANUAL?
Take a few minutes to glance through the entire manual to get an idea of its structure.
Notice that the format of the different units is fairly consistent throughout the manual. For
example, each unit begins with an OVERVIEW, and LEARNING OUTCOMES
sections.
The OVERVIEW provides a brief introduction to the unit and provide perquisite skills
and knowledge you will have to possess to proceed successfully with the unit.
You should then read the LEARNING OUTCOMES. These objectives identify the
knowledge and skills you will have acquired once you have successfully completed the
study of a particular unit. They also show the steps that will eventually lead to the
successful completion of the course. The learning objectives also provide a useful guide
for review.
WHERE DO I BEGIN?
You should begin by taking a look at the TABLE OF CONTENTS in the MANUAL.
The table provides you with a framework for the entire course and outlines the
organisation and structure of the material you will be covering. The Course Schedule
indicates how you should allocate your workload and what you should be working on in
each week to be ready for the respective tutorial. You should stick to the Course Schedule
to ensure that you are working at a steady space and that your workload does not pile up.
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Proposed*Course Schedule (COMS 1010)
Session Student’s Workplan Tutorial
01 Read Unit 1 Introduction to module
02 Read Unit 2 Discuss Unit 1; submission of topic for
mock essay (Assignment 1)
03 Read Unit 3. Do Assignments in Unit 3,
Parts 1, 2,3
Discuss Unit 2
04 Do Assignment in Unit 3, Parts 4,5 Discuss Unit 3
05 Read Unit 4. Do Assignment in Unit 3,
Part 6Submit Assignment 1 (Portfolio)
Discuss Unit 4
06 Read Unit 5 Discuss Unit 5
07 Prepare/ Practise for Assignment 2 Assignment 2 due
08 Read Unit 6 Discuss Unit 6
09 Read Unit 7 Discuss Unit 7
10 Prepare/ Practice for Assignment 3 Assignment 3 due11 Read Unit 8 Assignment 3 due
12 Read Unit 9/ Work out Activities 1-3 Discuss Unit 8
13 Read Unit 9 work out activities 4-5 Discuss Unit 9
14 Revision Revision
15 Revision Revision
* Any change will be communicated by your respective tutor in class.
YOUR TUTOR
A one and a half hour tutorial class will be held as specified in the Course Schedule . Refer
to the course schedule to check the unit(s) you must prepare before attending your
tutorial.
Remember that a tutorial class is not a formal lecture and to make the most of tutorial
classes, it is vital that students come prepared in the way indicated below:-.
Preparation required:
studying the course notes and readings for the relevant unit.
working through the activities which are sprinkled throughout the units. Your
response to these activities will be discussed during the tutorial.
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Your tutor will keep a close watch on your progress and any difficulties you may have,
and provide you with whatever assistance you may need in the tutorial class.
Note that tutorials are also opportunities for you to discuss your views and ideas with
your fellow classmates. The feedback you get from the tutorial sessions can further enrich
your comprehension of certain concepts and you can influence the way others think about
a certain issue too. So feel free to discuss the answers to the activities with your peers and
the tutor.
NOTE:
For this module you are required to submit/present three assignments.
Refer to the Assignment File for more information.
ASSESSMENT
COURSE GRADING SCHEME:
Continuous Assessment: 50 marks
Examinations: 50 marks
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT:
Assignment 1 (Written Assignment Portfolio) - 20 marks
Assignment 2 (Speeches on/for Special Occasions) - 10 marks
Assignment 3 (Informative Speech) - 20 marks
FINAL EXAMINATIONS:
Scheduled and administered by the Registrar’s Office
A two-hour paper at the end of the Semester.
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STUDY TIPS
Much of your time in the course will be spent reading. Your comprehension and
assessment of what you read are likely to be best if you heed the following tips:
1. Organise your time. It is best to complete each assigned reading in one sitting.
The logical progression of thought in a chapter/unit can be lost if it is interrupted.
2. Be an active reader. Use question marks to flag difficult or confusing passages.
Put exclamation marks beside passages you find particularly important. Write
short comments in the margins as you go. For example, if you disagree with an
author’s argument or if you think of examples which counter the position
presented, note your opinions in the margin.
If you prefer to leave your book pages unmarked, you can make your notations on
“post-it-notes”.
3. Read critically. You must evaluate, as well as appreciate and understand, what
you read. Ask questions. Is the author’s argument logical? Are there alternatives
to the author’s explanations or to the conclusions drawn? Does the information fit
with your experience?
4. Take notes. If you make notes on an article or chapter right after finishing it, you
reap a number of benefits. First, note-taking allows you an immediate review of
what you have just read. (You will find that this review helps you recall
information). Second, it gives you an opportunity to reassess your flagged or
margin comments. Finally, it gives you a second shot at deciphering any confusing
passages.
5. Review your scribbling! Whether or not you make separate notes on your
readings, review your flags, underlining and marginalia. Study closely those
passages you considered significant or difficult.
6. Write down your ideas in a course journal. As you progress through the
course, the new information you absorb will stimulate new thoughts, questions,
ideas, and insights. These may not be directly related to the subject matter, but
may be of great interest to you. Use these ideas to focus your personal
involvement in this and other courses.
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7. Your ability to explain the subject matter to others is a good test of your true
comprehension of the material. Try explaining the material you are learning to
others, classmates or friends, without resorting to jargon. Even if some of them
are not directly involved with the techniques discussed in this course, many of the
concepts may be of interest to them.
8. Activities found in units will not be marked. We strongly recommend that you
do not skip any of them. They will help you prepare for the graded assignments.
Now, it’s time to get to work. Good luck and enjoy the course!
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UNIT 1 INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Overview
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 What is Communication?
1.3 Models of communication
1.3.1 Linear or Bull’s Eye Model
1.3.2 Circular Flow or Ping-pong Model
1.3.3 Harold Lasswell’s Model
1.4 Information Theory
1.4.1 Source/Encoding/Transmission
1.4.2 Receiver/Decoding/Destination
1.4.3 Message, Channel and Code
1.4.4 Sources of Noise and Interference
1.4.5 Feedback
1.5 Aspects of Communication
1.6 The Levels of Communication Process
1.6.1 Intrapersonal Level
1.6.2 Interpersonal Level
1.6.3 Intragroup and Intergroup Levels
1.6.4 Institutional Level
1.6.5 Public Communication
1.6.5.1 Mass Communication
1.7 A Few Points to Remember
1.8 Answers to Activities
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1.0 OVERVIEW
This unit focuses on the question: "What is communication?"
We consider the elements present in communication, the types of flows of communication,
functions of communication and various levels in communication.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-
1.
Define communication;
2. Describe and explain the process of communication;
3. Distinguish the elements of communication;
4. Identify the various functions of communication;
5. Isolate the various levels at which communication occurs;
6. Apply knowledge gained to analyse your interaction with others in different types of
situations;
7. Apply knowledge gained to analyse communication situations that you may witness in
your academic, professional and social lives.
1.2 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
"We cannot not communicate"
(Paul Watzlawick)
"No man is an island, entire of itself"
(John Donne)
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"Communication" is today a very fashionable term that has emerged with what we like to
call the "information society" or "knowledge-based society". It is also of common opinion
that communication is THE skill that gives people an edge. The meaning of this magic
word, communication, is hard to pin down. What is communication?
Communication is a functional prerequisite of society and culture. It is an important
determining agent for social organisation, personality building and cultural occurrences
that make up our social fabric. Communication is therefore everywhere and occurs all the
time. This is what the two authors quoted above meant. We cannot NOT communicate!
This piece of information may puzzle you if you think that communication is only about
written and spoken words. You will however learn later that communication can be non-
verbal and non-vocal. Our gestures, eyes, tone of voice, as well as our silences convey
something! Illustrations, drawings and pictures also are vectors of meaning.
Communication = sharing of meanings
Communication can be broadly defined as a "sharing of meaning". In fact, the word
"communication" is derived from the Latin verb "communicare", which means: "be in
connection with". "Communication" also belongs to the same family of words as
"community".
In communication, there is a sharing of meanings among persons or other entities. Those
meanings may be transmitted through:
a linguistic form (through a structured language)
a symbolic form (e.g. the pictogram means ‘phone number’
irrespective of the language we are using).
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Conventions to avoid confusion
Colin Cherry (1957) defines communication as “a sharing of elements of behaviour or
modes of life, by the existence of rules”. He introduces the idea of rules and social
conventions that give us a common set of signs and symbols to be used for transmitting
and assigning meanings. These rules help us ensure that we are on the same wavelength
and prevent possible misinterpretations.
All the words that exist in language are the result of a social agreement as there is no
direct connection between these words (both in their oral and written forms) and the
things or ideas they designate.
For example the word "dog" bears no resemblance whatsoever with the domestic animal!
It is a pure matter of chance that people have chosen this set of letters (D-O-G); it could
have been any other chain of characters. As a matter of fact, different languages have
different signs for the same notions. French speakers use the word "chien" for dog,
Germans use "hund " and in Creole we use "lisien"!
(Note: There are a few exceptions where the words used do have some kind of
connection with the things or concepts they designate. For example, some words are
onomatopoeic, i.e., they imitate the sound designated as in ‘the cuckoo’, the “cock-a-
doodle-do”).
Activity 1
Form groups of 5 to 6 persons. Each group will invent new words and set up their own
codes to communicate amongst themselves. The various groups may then try to
communicate.
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1.3 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Now that you have learnt that communication is a sharing of meanings made possible by
the existence of conventions, let us look at simple theoretical models of communication.
Models help us organise our knowledge and give us a more comprehensible approach to
phenomena that occur around us. However, bear in mind that each of the following
models is just an attempt to explain communication. Each model sheds light on the process
of communication from a different angle. The models that we have used are amongst the
most popular ones that are used to teach communication at this level. They are, of course,
non-exhaustive…
1.3.1 Linear or Bull's Eye Model
The Linear or Bull's Eye model is the simplest one used in Communication Studies. It
describes communication as a one-way flow between two actors (a sender and a receiver).
Below is a diagram that illustrates the Bull's Eye model.
Diagram 1.1
Messa e
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An example where communication is linear in its flow is found in the following illustration.
The writers of this manual are sending messages to you through this manual. Manual
writers are therefore acting as senders of information and you are acting as receivers.
Activity 2
Identify at least two communication occurrences that fit into the Bull's Eye model.
1.3.2 Circular Flow or Ping-pong Model
The circular flow or ping-pong model of communication describes a situation where there
are series of interactions between senders and receivers. As the ping-pong metaphor
suggests, the actors take turns to send messages to each other. The idea of feedback and
retroaction is here incorporated, as opposed to the Bull's Eye model. The initial sender of
a message becomes a receiver as soon as his/her counterpart responds.
Diagram 1.2
Sender Receiver
Course
writersStudents
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Ping-pong communication occurs everyday in conversations, meetings, brainstorming
sessions. When you communicate with your friends, the ping-pong ball keeps coming back
and forth between you and the others.
Another image that is also used to describe non-linear communication is the spiral of
communication:
Diagram 1.3
1.3.3 Harold Lasswell's Model
Harold Lasswell, an American social scientist in the 1940’s, came up with a series of 5
questions that help in identifying the major elements in communication.
"Who says What to Whom through What channel, with What effects?"
This simple easy-to-retain formula is also known as the 5W's. Each of those W's indicates
an important aspect of every communication occurrence:
Who says? the sender
What? the message /content / topics
To Whom? the receiver
Through What channel? medium /means /languages
With What effects? modification /transformation of opinions, attitudes,
behaviour, whether intended or not (effect on receiver)
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You may as well add a sixth W:
Why? functions / purposes (intentions of sender)
Note that the effects of the message on the receiver may not be identical to the effects
intended by the transmitter. For example, you will definitely not receive and interpret this
manual 100% as the course writers intend you to…
Here, the transmitters' intention is pedagogical (transmission of knowledge and therefore
incremental change in your knowledge). But, the results are not guaranteed due to
reception barriers such as lack of concentration, boredom, daydreaming ormisinterpretation (refer to section 1.4.4).
1.4 INFORMATION THEORY
During World War II, two American AT&T telecommunications engineers, Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver, worked on what became known as the Information Theory.
They used physics, mathematics and engineering concepts to develop the theory which
they explained in a paper entitled The Mathematical Theory of Communication in The
Bell System Technical Journal.
Information theory deals with the quantitative study of information in messages and the
flow of information between senders and receivers. It was initially developed to separate
noise from information-carrying signals. The objective was to measure the volume of
signals that could pass on a line during a certain amount of time. Social theorists later used
this model to develop simplified versions that describe the communication process:
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You will note that Diagram 1.5 differs from diagram 1.4 mainly in that it introduces the
element of ‘Noise Source’, which we will discuss later.
Let us now have a look at each of the elements presented in the diagrams.
Channel of information
Source encoder transmitter channel receiver dec oder
Message Message
Signal Received
Signal
Informatio
n source Transmitter Destination
Receiver
Noise
Source
Diagram 1.4
Diagram 1.5
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1.4.1 Source / Encoding / Transmission
Source, encoder and transmitter are three elements that belong to the "initialisation" stageof the communication process. They were lumped into the notion of 'sender' in section
1.3.1.
The Source
The source is the initiator of the process: he or she wants to transmit thoughts, ideas and
feelings to his or her counterpart who thus becomes the receiver.
Encoding
Encoding refers to the activities that a source goes through to translate thoughts, ideas
and feelings into a form that may be perceived by the senses. For example, before
speaking, an individual has to use his/her brain to select words and sentence structures
from his/her personal database to carry the message. Naturally, different encoders have
different skills in choosing the most appropriate codes for communicating. This accounts
for differences in people's communication skills!
Transmission
Transmission refers to the action of using physical channels to get the message across to
the receiver. In the above-mentioned example, after having encoded the message, the
speaker will have to use his vocal organs to emit sound signals and thus pronounce the
words and sentences of the message. The encoding / transmission process might also take
place over various stages. For telephone conversations, the speaker encodes thoughts into
words and the telephone mechanism transforms the sound waves into electrical variations
along the line to the receiving telephone.
If we try to isolate the notions of source / encoder / transmitter in the process of
writing up for this manual, we can say that the message contained in this manual
originates from various sources: numerous readings done by the manual writers,
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their previous experience in teaching Communication Skills, their own reflections
and original ideas.
Encoding is done in the writers' brains as they try to select the most appropriate
vocabulary, sentences and format to impart their knowledge to you.
Finally, transmission of the message is ensured by the physical action of drawing
symbols from the Roman alphabet on paper with the help of ink, i.e., typing out the
words, sentences and paragraphs on the pages of this manual so that you can read
them.
Activity 3
Look for advertising inserts in newspapers and try to identify the source, the encoder and
the transmitter of these commercial messages.
1.4.2 Receiver / Decoding / Destination
Just like Source / Encoding / Transmission were lumped into the idea of 'sender', the items
Receiver / Decoding / Destination were broadly categorised under the heading of 'receiver'
in section 1.3.1.
The Receiver
The receiver is the target of the message. It might be a specific individual or multiple
receivers. The receivers can be specifically targeted by the source as in one-to-one
communication or they might choose willingly to act as receivers in the case of a message
addressed to a large anonymous crowd (e.g. an audience for a TV show). Note that the
source and the receiver(s) may be in each other's immediate presence or may be separated
both in space and time (e.g. a book written last century, a pre-recorded TV programme).
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Decoding
Decoding is the reverse of encoding and refers to the activities that translate or interpret
physical messages into a form that has eventual meaning for a receiver.
The Destination
The destination is the ultimate entity that receives and stores the message sent.
To carry on with the applied example used in section 1.4.1, your eyes are acting as
receivers for the visual information sent to you in this manual. Your eyes detect
forms that have been drawn with ink on paper to represent signs of the Roman
alphabet. Therefore, your eyes are acting as the receiving device in this
communication event.
When these visual messages (sequences of signs on paper) have reached your
brain, you now have to decipher or decode the message and come up with the
meanings of the succession of English words, sentences and paragraphs. You thus
go through different stages: identify the code used (which language?), and grasp
the meaning of the message (What are we 'talking' about? What are the main ideas
being conveyed?).
Finally, you store the data that you have decoded in a section of your brain for
further use. That section of your brain that specialises in memorisation is therefore
the physical destination of the message.
1.4.3 Message, Channel and Code
The Message
The message is the actual physical product that the source encodes. In oral
communication, our speech is the message. In written communication, the words and
sentences that are put on paper are the message. The message can be addressed to one
specific individual ('one-to-one' or 'many-to-one' communication) or to multiple receivers
('one-to-many' or 'many-to-many' communication).
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The Channel
The channel refers to the physical way the message travels to the receiver. For example,
sound waves carry words that are spoken and light waves carry visual messages such as
written text, illustrations, pictures. Some messages use only one channel of
communication (e.g. written text). Others may cumulate various channels. For instance,
movies use both visual (moving images on screen, titles) and oral channels (soundtracks
transmitted by the movie theatre's speaker systems).
The Code
The code refers to the systems of signs (available language or symbolic forms and
associated rules governing their use) that are used to transmit the message. In language,
the vocabulary level and the sentence structures chosen make up the code. A sign can be
defined as the minimal unit of meaning in a code (a word, a pictogram, an element of body
language).
In fact, there are different levels of code. Before trying to convey ideas to our counterpart,
we have multiple possibilities in terms of codes. To impart communication skills to you,
we might have decided to make a film instead of a manual! We would then be using the
cinematographic code that combines multiple codes (body code, oral codes, written
codes).
You will find that it is difficult to isolate the code from the channel. To be clearer, let us
say that the channel is a physical medium whereas the code is a set of signs that is used
within the channel to convey meaning.
1.4.4 Sources of Noise and Interference
Noise is an item that interferes with the delivery of the message and that can impede the
communication process. Because of noise and interference, the message that is decoded
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by the receiver will not be an exact replicate of the original message that was encoded or
the signal carrying the message will not even reach the receiver altogether!
We can categorise noise under four broad headings:
1.
Mechanical noise
Mechanical noise usually occurs when a physical device is used either to encode or
decode the message or both. In this case, there is a problem with the physical medium
itself. For instance, in a telephone conversation, the apparatus or the physical lines of
communication may be faulty. As a result, the sound waves being transmitted over
the telephone line may be unclear so that the message is distorted.
2. Semantic noise
Semantic noise occurs when different people have different meanings for the same
words and phrases. Misunderstandings thus arise because of multiple meanings
assigned to the same words and phrases. This kind of situation (called "quiproquo" in
French) is often exploited in theatre plays and movies for comic or tragic purposes.
3. Environmental noise
Sources of noise may be completely external to the communication process. For
example, in a public place like a restaurant, the other people surrounding you and
your counterpart may be so noisy that you cannot even hear each other. This is
known as environmental noise.
4. Internal noise
Internal noise occurs inside the mind of the receiver. The latter may not properly
receive, decode and store the data sent because of a number of internal barriers such
as selective attention, selective distortion and selective recall.
Selective attention refers to the fact that the receiver cannot pay attention to all the
stimuli or the receiver focuses on something other than the communication at hand.
You have certainly experienced this situation in class during a lecture or a talk. In this
case, your daydreaming interferes with the proper reception and decoding of
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messages sent to you by your lecturer. Of course, you would have to make sure this
happens as rarely as possible!
Selective distortion occurs when receivers twist the message to hear what they want
to hear. People often have set attitudes and expectations about what they will hear orsee due to stereotyping, prejudices and bias. They will thus distort the message
received so that it fits into their belief system.
Selective recall happens because people will retain in permanent memory only a small
fraction of the messages that reach them.
1.4.5 Feedback
Feedback refers to those responses of the receiver that may alter and shape the subsequent
messages of the source. The receiver becomes the new source and vice versa. This
explains the communication spiral as discussed in section 1.3.2.
Feedback is important as it allows the source to adjust and attempt a change in some
elements of the communication process to satisfy the demands of his addressee. Feedback
also acts as a regulator in the case of sources of noise that interfere with the transmission
of the message.
For instance, in the case of semantic noise, the receiver's reactions, which make up the
feedback, will give an important hint to the initial sender. Thanks to the receiver's
feedback (e.g. raised eyebrows, puzzled reply), the sender may understand that the
message did not get across properly. As a result, he/she may reformulate the initial
message to discard misunderstandings.
Feedback is very important to communication because it lets the
participants in the communication setting see whether ideas and feelings
have been shared in the way they were intended.
(Weaver, 1949)
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Note that feedback can be negative (e.g. raised eyebrows showing disagreement or
confusion, strong reply, or even wearing a completely bored expression on the face!) or
positive (e.g. smiles, nods, assents).
Feedback can also be immediate (on the spot) or delayed (due to time or spaceconstraints).
1.5 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
Murielle Saville-Troike is a researcher whose theories are also helpful in understanding
communication. In her book The Ethnography of Communication published in 1982, she
identified the following as being ten aspects that are interesting to analyse in
communication events:
1. The genre or type of event (e.g. joke, story, lecture, greeting, conversation).
2. The topic or referential focus (what is the overarching theme?).
3. The purpose or function, both of the event in general (e.g. sensitisation of the
public on a specific issue) and in terms of the interaction goals of individual
participants (e.g. your goals in the tutorial sessions may be to learn a few tips from
your tutor to improve your communication skills).4. The setting, including location, time of day, season of year and physical aspects of
the situation (e.g. size of the room, arrangement of furniture). The setting may
have a bearing on the communication style that you adopt. For instance, lecturers
might not communicate in a Lecture Theatre in the same way that they
communicate in a small classroom.
5. The participants, including their age, sex, ethnicity, social status, or other relevant
categories and their relationship to one another.
6. The message form, including both vocal and non-vocal channels and the nature of
the code which is used (e.g. which language and which variety?).
7. The message content, or surface level denotative references (what are the ideas
being communicated?).
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8. The act sequence, or ordering of communicative speech acts, including turn taking
and overlap phenomena.
9. The rules of interaction, or what properties should be observed (e.g. students, as
a rule, will not interrupt lecturers in a whimsical fashion!).
10. The norms of interpretation, including common knowledge, the relevant cultural
presuppositions, or shared understandings which allow particular inferences to be
drawn about what is to be taken literally.
1.6 THE LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Levels of communication process refer to the level of complexity on which communication
occurs, mainly in terms of number of people involved. Channels used, message structures
and opportunity for feedback vary according to the number of people involved, the degree
of formality, the setting, the goals pursued.
1.6.1 Intrapersonal Level
Intrapersonal communication occurs within a single person. It is an internal process of
‘self-communication’ and processing of information within one’s brain. This level of
communication involves the encoding and formulating of a message and the thinking
process. Before communicating with others, intrapersonal communication is vital.
Examples are thought processes, diary entries, and notes to oneself that help personal
reflection and organisation.
The intrapersonal level refers to the processing of information on an
individual basis (for instance, attention, perception, comprehension, recall
and learning). The possible effects are on knowledge, opinion and attitude.
(McQuail, 1987)
Intrapersonal communication also integrates things that make up our self, our feelings and
the way we perceive our individual selves. The individual here is the sender and the
receiver. Messages circulate inside our brain with instant feedback. In fact, we can say that
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individuals hold private conversations within their own mind. The content of the messages
may be positive (self-congratulation) or negative (remorse). The outcome of intrapersonal
communication may, as well, have an impact on interaction with others.
1.6.2 Interpersonal Level
Interpersonal communication refers to communication occurring between and amongst
persons. It is often one-to-one but it may include more than two persons. Interpersonal
communication is characterised by immediate feedback. It is often based on some shared
feature of daily life: something we have in common such as our environment, interests,
needs, activities, beliefs. Communication between and communication within a happy
couple are examples of interpersonal communication on a very intimate basis. Some people are endowed with very good interpersonal skills, meaning that they can easily
interact with other people.
Good interpersonal skills require a high level of self-awareness. Understanding your
personal style of communicating will help you create and maintain good relations with
others.
There are three basic communication styles:
1. Aggressive Style: The communicator constantly interrupts, exaggerates, blames,
makes demands or uses sarcasm. Voice volume can be very high and thus difficult
to bear for the counterparts. Other people's feelings are not rated very high with
the aggressive person.
2. Passive Style: The person is constantly hesitating or apologising and usually says
nothing or easily gives in. Often, the person avoids eye contact and speaks in a shy
or timid voice, or mumbles.
3. Assertive Style: The individual speaks clearly and firmly, using "I" statements, and
shows respect for self and for others. He or she uses an upright confident body
posture and a pleasant, firm voice for communicating with others.
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The assertive style is the one to strive for. However, very few people are all one or
another style. In fact, the aggressive style is vital in some cases, for example, during
emergencies (for rapid decision-making). Passiveness can also help, for example, when an
issue is minor or when there are highly emotional situations demanding that we stay calm
and take the time to regain perspective.
Activity 4
Identify your interpersonal styles with the help of the checklist on the following page. Be
honest with yourself!
CHECKLIST OF COMMUNICATION STYLES
1. Mottos and Beliefs
I have rights and so do others." Believes self and others are valuable.
"Don't make waves" and "Don't disagree"
"I'm always right and others are just fools."
2. Communication Style
Interrupts and monopolises attention, poor listener.
Active listener, expresses self directly, honestly and checks on others feelings. Indirect, always seems to agree, doesn't speak up.
3. Characteristics
Apologetic, self-conscious, doesn't express own feelings, allows others to make
decisions for self.
Domineering, bullying and patronizing.
Confident, trusts self and others, non-judgmental, sense of humour.
4.
Behaviour Bossy and puts others down - know-it-all attitude.
Self-effacing, complains without taking action, never takes sides in conflicts.
Consistent, fair, just, operates from choice.
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5. Non-verbal Cues
Direct eye contact, open and natural gestures, varied rate of speech, interested
facial expression.
Critical, loud, yelling tone of voice with fast, clipped speech.
Nods head often as if pleading, downcast eyes, low voice volume, rapid pace
when anxious; slow and hesitant when doubtful.
6. Verbal Cues
"What are my options?" "What alternatives do we have?"
"You must (should, ought better)."
"I can't..." "You have more experience than I do."
7. Confrontation and Problem-Solving
Operates from win/lose position, Must win arguments.
Sullen, withdrawn and silent, agrees externally, while disagreeing internally.
Negotiates and compromises.
8. Feelings Felt
Enthusiasm, even tempered, sense of well-being.
Anger, hostility and frustration. Powerlessness, wonders why doesn't receive credit for good work.
9. Effects
Forces compliance with resentment and provokes alienation from others or
counter-aggression.
Others know where they stand, increased self-esteem and self-confidence.
Slowly loses self-esteem and builds dependency relationships.
- Aggressive Style
- Passive Style
- Assertive Style
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1.6.3 Intragroup and Intergroup Levels
Intragroup level refers to communication occurring amongst members of a group of
persons. Inside a group, there may be various flows of communication on a 'one-to-one'
basis or 'one-to-many' basis, depending on the size of the group and on the implicit rulesthat are followed.
Within a small-group communication uses the same channels as for interpersonal
communication are used with almost immediate feedback. However, as there may be
multiple receivers, messages need to be more structured, especially when specific goals are
targeted. Settings also tend to be more formal. Intragroup communication occurs within
family circles, clubs and associations. Facilitating factors for fruitful interaction are: similar
backgrounds, similar levels of skill in writing / speaking / reading.
Intergroup communication refers to communication amongst different groups, i.e. when a
group communicates with another one.
For example, an association writes to another one to ask for their collaboration as a
charity initiative.
1.6.4 Institutional Level
Institutional or organisational communication refers to the sets of communication flows
occurring within an organisation or institution (including firms, non-profit organisations
and governmental bodies).
Formal vs. Informal communication
In the internal communication flow of organisations and firms, there are at least two types
of communication:
Formal communication
This communication follows the lines of the firm's chart. The communication flows
downwards (from managers to subordinates) and seldom upwards (from employees to
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employers). Formal downward communication leaves little room for feedback from
employees.
Informal communication
Informal communication entails no written documents. However rigid the structure,
there will always be an informal network of information and communication inside an
organisation. The main characteristic of informal communication is that there are no
traces for record; the communication somehow has no permanent character, except in
the minds of people. In fact, the more rigid an organisation is, the more chances there
are that informal communication will develop with the rapid circulation of rumour and
hearsay. This type of communication is essentially horizontal as compared to the
vertical flow of communication imposed by hierarchical status.
1.6.5 Public Communication
Public communication refers to very formal communication, usually on a 'one-to-many'
basis. It may be face-to-face (e.g. a public talk in a specific location) or transmitted
through a mass medium (e.g. a minister's speech covered by the television news bulletin).
This type of communication usually entails a highly structured message in a formal setting.
There is limited opportunity for feedback as audiences are bigger and individuals become
anonymous listeners / viewers / readers. Delivery also tends to be very formal (e.g. louder
voice for oral communication).
However, the communicator may sometimes decide to change the above parameters for
public communication. For instance, a public speaker in a room may encourage listeners to
become more active in order to obtain immediate feedback and inject more dynamism in
the interaction. In this case, the communicator needs to have the following qualities: good
coordination skills, excellent ability to manage crowds, capacity to process and adjust to
feedback information very rapidly.
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1.6.5.1 Mass Communication
The expression Mass Communication was coined around the 1930's. ‘Mass’ denotes great
volume, range or extent. Here, the mass refers to large numbers that are scattered
(geographically), anonymous (unknown to one another and to the communicator) andheterogeneous (variety of persons). Mass communication therefore differs very much from
the interpersonal level of communication in that it occurs at national or societal level.
"Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which
specialised groups employ technological devices (press, radio, films, etc.) to
disseminate symbolic content to large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed
audiences".
(Janowitz, 1968)
The ‘technological devices’ referred to here are commonly known as mass media and they
comprise the press, television, radio, billboards, cinema and increasingly, the Internet.
Those media nowadays form part of all industrialised and developing societies.
Activity 5
Under what category of level of communication would you place the following examples
of communication?
i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of
Independence and Republic Day.
ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends.
iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce
wastage of stationery.
iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule.
v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio.
vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a project
competition.
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vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates
whom in the office” news.
1.7 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER
Communication is a complex ongoing phenomenon, which can be analysed from
multiple points of view (e.g., type of flow, categories of elements involved, number
of actors, level of complexity, etc.). These points of view are not mutually
exclusive.
Communication is a process rather than a series of steps, implying that there is no
clear beginning or end.
We cannot NOT communicate.
1.8 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 2
Examples of Bull’s Eye Communication:
Anonymous letters.
A director who is on the move (no fixed address or telephone number) and sends
instructions to be carried out.
Activity 3
Source / Encoder / Transmitter in adverts:
Source The commercial firm is initiating the communication process to
advertise its products or services.
Encoder Often, a communications or advertising agency is paid for encoding
the message, i.e. formulating the textual and the graphic aspects of the message.
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Examples of advertising agencies in Mauritius include Cread, Circus, Maurice
Publicité, Impressions, etc. In many cases, they put a small signature in a corner of
the insert.
Transmitter The newspaper’s advertising department acts as transmitter of the
message as it is paid for placing the insert inside the pages of the newspaper.
Activity 4
- Aggressive Style
- Passive Style
- Assertive Style
Activity 5
Levels of Communication Process:
i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of
Independence and Republic Day. Mass Communication. Public Communication
on Mass Media. Formal Speech.
ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends. Interpersonal
Communication (intimate nature).
iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce
wastage of stationery. Institutional Communication. Formal & downward (top
to bottom).
iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule.
Intrapersonal Communication. Thought processes.
v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio. Mass Communication. Use of
Mass Medium (TV).
vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a
project competition. Intragroup Communication.
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vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates
whom in the office” news. Interpersonal Communication. Institutional but
Informal (rumour & hearsay).
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UNIT 2 EFFECTIVE USE OF ENGLISH
Unit Structure
2.0 Overview
2.1 Learning Outcomes
2.2 World Englishes
2.3 Registers
2.4 Style
2.4.1 Written/Spoken Style
2.4.2 Writing Styles
2.5 Vocabulary
2.5.1 Tools Needed
2.5.2 Choosing the Right Word
2.6 Grammar
2.6.1 Verb Tenses
2.6.2 Concord
2.6.3 Active/Passive Voice
2.6.4 Punctuation
2.7 Sentence Structure and Synthesis
2.8 English Usage and Academic Writing
2.8.1 Writing Impersonally
2.8.2 Make Tentative Statements
2.8.3 Adopt the Appropriate Attitude
2.9 A Few Points to Remember
2.10 Answers to Activities
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2.0 OVERVIEW
This Unit will encourage you to see English as a versatile language which is used around
the world and which has various functions and various domains of use. Moreover, the Unitwill consider the areas of grammar that are problematic and suggest ways to improve your
style – both written and spoken. This Unit will focus on the style required for written
assignments, dissertations, and why not, academic papers!
Note that some materials have been borrowed from the COMS 1010- DE manual
developed in January 1997 by the following persons:
Mr K J Bheenick
Ms R Kasenally
Mrs P Hookoomsingh
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-
1. Be sensitive to different varieties of Englishes;
2. Analyse the flexibility of the English language;
3. Use the relevant tools to better your English;
4. Avoid the common pitfalls of grammar;
5. Use vocabulary judiciously;
6. Develop skills to express yourself suitably in English.
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2.2 WORLD ENGLISHES
“Whan that Aprill with his shoures sote
The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote,
And bathed in every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour.”
G. Chaucer “The General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”
“I want one of my sons to join these people and be my eyes there. If there
is nothing in it you will come back. But if there is something there you will
bring home my share. The world is like a Mask, dancing. If you want to
see it well you do not stand in one place. My spirit tells me that those who
do not befriend the white man today will be saying had we known
tomorrow.” [my underlining]
Achebe “Arrow of God”
‘ English’: does that not sound grand? Do you not feel that it is something stable and
unchanging? a complete entity?
But anyone who compares a text written in English in Medieval England to a text written
in English in contemporary Africa, or compares a legal document to a poem realises that
‘ English’ is a vague, but convenient term, which we use to refer to a language that has
been spoken and written over the past 14 centuries by people in different parts of the
world for different purposes .
English was born in England in the 6 th century when invaders from Germania came to
England speaking their own dialects. These dialects were influenced by Scandinavian
languages, French, Latin, Greek, amongst others, and developed into what has become
today, an international language.
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The British empire and consequently, the English language spread with colonisation.
English became the official language in many of the colonies, this often at the expense of
the indigenous languages.
Despite the gradual disappearance of the British empire, English did not lose its status. It
remained the main language in ex-colonies like America, Canada and Australia as those
who spoke English had social, economic and cultural power, thus ensuring the survival of
the language. In other ex-colonies, like India for instance, English was retained as an
official language because of its neutrality vis-à-vis the other indigenous languages which
have ethnic affiliations.
As English was developing simultaneously in different geographical locations and as
English was in contact with different languages and cultures, different Englishes emerged.
Some of those Englishes, like American English, are standardised. American English has
its own spelling system, which is different from British English, and it has its own
dictionary. Other Englishes, like Indian English, have their specificity and have become
popular via the media. Each variety differs in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary and
more rarely, in terms of grammar.
The ‘English’ which is popular in Mauritius is British English because we were a British
colony and we still sit for British exams. But with the world becoming a global village due
to developments in the media, those differences are becoming less and less apparent for us
and we tend to mix British and American English. This tendency should be avoided
especially when writing in a formal style as we need to be consistent.
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Some obvious differences between American and British English are shown as follows:
British spelling American spelling British word American word
Colour Color Got Gotten
Honour Honor Lorry Truck
Programme program Nappy Diaper
analyse analyze lift Elevator
centre center disc Record
defence defense petrol gas
paediatrician pediatrician coach bus
Although we should not mix varieties when writing a text, we should be true to the
original texts when quoting materials. For instance, if we are quoting from an American
author, we should be careful to spell as he/she does in his/her text.
2.2 REGISTERS
Registers are a special case of a particular kind of language being produced by a social
situation. For instance, the kind of language used in a medical pamphlet is different from
the kind of language used in a legal document. The two differ in terms of
vocabulary – a specialised jargon for medicine and law
grammar – the grammatical structures of a legal document will be more complex
than in the pamphlet
structure of text – each paragraph in the legal document will contain a central
idea that will have been unambiguously phrased, even though the meaning
might appear obscure to the common reader
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The two texts are different because each has its own communicative purpose. The first
aims to inform a general audience, while the second one is geared towards a more
restricted audience in a very specific setting – a court room for example.
Activity 1
Consider the two texts below and analyse the ways in which they differ in terms of
vocabulary and grammar, and structure of text. Bear in mind the communicative purpose
of each text.
I. INCOME TAX ACT 1995
19. Expenditure incurred on interest in the production of income
(3) The Commissioner may refuse to allow a deduction on expenditure
incurred as interest where he is satisfied that –
a. The interest is payable to a non-resident who is not
chargeable to tax on the amount of the interest; or
b. The interest is not likely to be paid in cash within a
reasonable time.
II. LETTER TO MY GIRLFRIEND
Dearest Sweetie,
Just a short message to say: I U
Waiting 4 the minute when I’ll see U
and ,
Sunil
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You will realise that your field has its own ‘register’ and you will learn to use the language
appropriate to your subject – technical vocabulary, grammatical constructions, text
structures – by observing what is being used in books and articles from your own field.
2.3 STYLE
Style is the way in which something is said, done, expressed or performed . Everyone has
his own particular style, but one’s style often has to be bent to suit the topic, the purpose
and the audience. We communicate in totally different manners when we are at home,
speaking to our parents and when we are at the office, writing a report for the bank
manager.
In the following subsections, we will consider some elements of style. These may help
you when you communicate.
2.3.1 Written/Spoken Style
Spoken style and written style differ in that the former involves at least two people
exchanging discourse at one point in time while written discourse allows time for thinking
and rewriting. This fundamental difference affects and determines the form of both styles.
As far as sentence structures are concerned, spoken style favours short sentences while
written style longer sentences. Furthermore, spoken style allows for omissions like
pronouns and auxiliary verbs at the beginning of sentences, while written style does not.
Finally, spoken style tends to accept contractions and colloquialisms like don’t, a lot,
mate which written style is more cautious in using. Because the spatio temporal context
of both styles are different, spoken style differs significantly from written style.
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2.3.2 Writing Styles
Writing styles vary significantly depending on the context of the writing process as well as
the aims and objectives of the writing activity. We will now consider four writing styles
that are often used in communication:
Narrative style is used when writing fiction, biographies, autobiographies, history
books, travel books and television documentaries, to mention but a few.
It was a calm night and I was studying in my room. I smelt something
burning and heard some noise. Looking out of my window, I was shocked
at the sight. A house nearby had caught fire, the flames were leaping out of
the windows, screams could be heard in the darkness of the night. I ran out
of my room to wake up my parents. I telephoned the fire brigade before we
all rushed out of the house.
Narrative paragraphs may also appear in analytical essays to illustrate an idea. However,
it is fairly rare to use a narrative style in academic writing. Descriptive, analytic and
argumentative styles are used more, often within the same piece of writing. That is why
we have chosen three extracts from the same research article which exemplify the 3 styles
mentioned above.
Descriptive style – descriptions represent in words our sensory impressions
caught in a moment of time. In much descriptive writing, visual imagery
predominates. Descriptive passages are commonly used in essays to support
analysis.
In the following example, a descriptive style is used for the methodology part of the
research article.
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Seventy-three adult subjects (aged 17 to 55) were tested. The subjects were
members of the eight classes in ESL (the first four levels of each of two
programs) at Queens College, New York. One Program, the English
Language Institute program, is an intensive all day program for foreign
students preparing to study in American colleges, and the other, the
Continuing Education Program, is a four hour per week adult education
course. Generally, the adult education subjects had more exposure to
English outside the classroom. The subjects were also classified as Spanish
or non-Spanish speaking.
Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D., 1974,
“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language learning?”,
Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.
Analytic style: analysis (literally separating into parts) is not only the source of
writing that seeks to explain, it is also a way of thinking, a way of arriving at
conclusions (generalisations), or of discovering how conclusions are reached.
Analytic writing presupposes detective work: the writer, like the detective, looks
at evidence, finds clues, pursues the trail from one place to the next to find out
something.
There was a significant correlation between relative accuracies of function
words for Spanish and non-Spanish speakers (r=.926, p
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“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language
learning?”,
Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.
Argumentative style - This style of writing usually requires you to give your ideas
on a certain topic by discussing a certain point of view. Once you have analysed
data, or a problem, you need to give your conclusion. One cannot be too definite
in a conclusion as someone is always there to challenge what has been said. That
is why one needs to argue before giving one’s conclusion.
Despite the differences in adult learners in amount of instruction, exposure to
English, and mother tongue, there is a high degree of agreement as to the
relative difficulty of the set of grammatical morphemes examined here,
supporting Hypothesis 1. This result, in conjunction with error analysis
research, indicates that adults use common strategies for second language
learning. In addition, if relative difficulty corresponds to order of
acquisition as implied by de Villiers and de Villers’ (1973) results with
children, this result also suggests a common order of acquisition for functors
in adults.
Comparison with Dulay and Burt’s data reveals that relative accuracy in
adults is quite similar to the relative accuracies shown by children learning
English as a second language for the same functors, supporting Hypothesis
2.
Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D., 1974,
“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language
learning?”,
Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.
Activity 2
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Refer to the article given to you by your tutor at the beginning of the semester. Analyse
how the different writing styles have been used.
2.4 VOCABULARY
2.4.1 Tools Needed
Whenever you are writing English, you need:
(i) A good dictionary: it provides information about thousands of words and helps
you understand them and use them correctly.
Suitable dictionaries for native speakers of English are, among others: Shorter
Oxford Dictionary, Concise Oxford Dictionary, Chambers, Collins English
Dictionary, Penguin English Dictionary, Webster International Dictionary
(American English).
Dictionaries which are aimed at second language learners of English are: The
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English and The Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English
(ii) A good translating dictionary (English/French): for instance, The
Robert/Collins or Harraps. Sometimes you have to use a translating dictionary if
you know a word in French but not its equivalent in English. Note, however, that
it is advisable to check the English word in the English dictionary as some words
can be used in specific contexts and some words have connotations. Think of the
French word ‘aimer’ - the translating dictionary gives us two English words: ‘like’
and ‘love’ and you will agree that they have quite different connotations.
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(iii) A thesaurus – it is important to vary your vocabulary as it makes a text less
boring to read and it allows you to find the precise word needed. As in the case of
the translating dictionary, if you decide to use a word which you are not familiar
with, it is better to check the word in a dictionary - there are words which will fit a
context but not another one. For instance freedom and liberty are synonyms but
you can say “I am at liberty to say what I want’ but not “I am at freedom to say
what I want”. A thesaurus that you might want to use is: Roget’s Thesaurus of
English Words and Phrases.
(iv) Grammar books - for you to verify grammatical rules. Cassell’s Students’
English Grammar and A University Grammar of English are interesting works to
consult in case of doubt.
Activity 3
Consider the following words and see whether the individual words have the same
connotations:
1.
friend, boyfriend, young man, lover
2. dine, eat
3. upbringing, conditioning, brainwashing
4. antiabortion, pro-life, pro-abortion, pro-choice
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2.4.2 Choosing the Right Word
Words are like clothes. Clothes serve a function: covering the body; words have a
function: communicating a message. But clothes are also cultural symbols, so are words.
Lorry and truck mean the same thing, but the recipient knows that the former is a British
speaker while the latter is an American speaker. The social aura accompanying a word
contributes to its connotations. The choice of words is thus central in the image that one
wants to project of oneself.
Precision
We all understand thousands of words, but the never-ending challenge is to use those
words with precision. For communication to be effective, it is crucial to choose the
word which best suits the purpose, and that has the desired influence / the required
impact on the reader. If we take the word ‘nice’ for example, it is one of those words that
can fit in, in many contexts. But it is a vague word and it could be replaced by more
precise words depending on the situation. That is where a thesaurus comes in handy.
Consider these two sentences:
-
He feels uncomfortable at the whole situation.
- He feels guilty for having disturbed his father.
The former is vague and the latter specific.
Avoid bombastic words
Although one should aim at being as precise as possible when choosing words, one should
be careful about falling into the trap of using big, bombastic words which you think will
impress. Simplicity is often clarity. Where you can, use everyday words as you want to
express ideas clearly rather than impress your readers, with the risk of antagonising them.
Writers who rely on inflated language are usually trying to dress up ordinary ideas to make
them look more important than they really are, so that the reader will be impressed. Most
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readers, however, recognise the trick and regard writers using such a language with
suspicion.
Words to be avoided
Regionalisms are words that are associated with certain regions of Britain or America.
For instance, the expression “a bony lass” is an expression used in the north of England
meaning “a pretty girl”. But the expression would be quite unfamiliar to anyone who has
not been to the north of England.
Colloquialisms are words and expressions that tend to be used in spoken English only:
ain’t, gonna, cos, folks are acceptable in spoken English but not in formal writing.
Slang words are words that have originated in a given cultural group or subgroup. They
are often short lived and carry a strong connotation on group membership. Examples of
slang of college or university students are pro, econ, cram, poly, the pits.
Clichés are trite expressions mechanically reproduced, like for instance, first and
foremost, slowly but surely, short but sweet, D-day arrived.
Think of your target audience when using specialised jargon. Will your audience
understand the technical terms you are using or are you obscuring your message by
overloading your assignment with technical terms?
When you are writing the first draft of an assignment, write freely, follow your
flow of ideas
When you are rewriting your assignment, take the time to use the most appropriate
word!
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Activity 4
Fill in the right hand column of this table with simpler, more direct words. Possible
answers are found at the end of the Unit.
Abatement/abate
Absence of
Accede to
accelerate
acknowledge
aforesaid
ascertain
cognisant
comprises
Due to the fact that
henceforth
hereunder
In lieu of
notify
Subsequent to
2.5 GRAMMAR
2.5.1 Verb Tenses
Early in your writing/speaking process, establish a ‘base’ tense and shift away from it only
for a good reason. Keep to the same tense. You should choose one of the columns in the
table below and stick to it.
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ACTIVE VOICE
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
SIMPLE Wrote Write/writes Will write
PROGRESSIVE Was/were writing Am/are writing Will be writing
PERFECT Had written Have/has written Will have written
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Had been writing Have/has been
writing
Will have been
writing
PASSIVE VOICE
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
SIMPLE Was/were written Is/are written Will be written
PROGRESSIVE Was/were being
written
Is/are being written
PERFECT Had been written Has/have been
written
Will have been
written
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Note: the cells that have been left empty indicate that those forms are very rarely
used although you can form the passive.
When you speak, you will usually use the active voice. It is when you write academic
papers that you use the passive voice.
When you speak, you can use contracted forms like don’t, won’t, shan’t , but when
you write you should avoid using the contracted forms and use do not, will not, shall
not.
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2.5.2 Concord
Agreement verb/subject is an area full of traps. The following exercise will help you
remember some of the exceptional rules about concord.
Activity 5
Do the following exercise. Discuss your answers with your friends and find the
grammatical rule governing each case. Your tutor will then give you the correct answers
and the grammatical rules.
1. The conditions of service (is, are) desirable.
2. Father, as well as mother (is, are) at home.
3. Do you think that Rs 5 million (is, are) a large sum?
4. Either you or I (are, am) lucky.
5. Three quarters of
the marbles (is, are) lost.
the sugar (is, are) finished.
6. His advice (is, are) always good.
7. The public (is, are) wild with the Prime Minister.
8. Beans and peas are good value. The former (is, are) cheap and the latter (is, are)
expensive.
9. It (is, are) time to go home.
10. There (is, are) a cat in the kitchen, there (is, are) sugar in the pot, there (is, are) a lot
of apples in the fridge and there (is, are) some flour in the jar.
11. Each child in the school (is, are) questioned. Every child (is, are) scared.
12. Billiards (is, are) becoming more popular.
13. Brussels (is, are) a great place to visit. (Athens, Naples)
14. The man, who is walking down the road, (is, are) my teacher.
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2.5.3 Active/Passive Voice
Passive Voice is used when one wants to emphasise the act rather than the doer, or when
one does not want to disclose the identity of the doer. The Passive is a useful voice to use
especially in academic writing which requires writing to be as objective and detached as
possible. Different ways of forming the Passive are:
1. Passive without agent: in this case, the agent is vague or unknown, the main
interest is on the action and not on the doer, you want to state facts:
Active- They speak English all over the world.
Passive - English is spoken all over the world.
Active- Someone can easily collect quantitative data
Passive- Quantitative data can be collected easily.
2. Passive with agent: if you want to emphasise the act/product rather than the doer.
Active- Keats wrote a poem
Passive- A poem was written by Keats
Ask yourself whether you can use the active voice in this case.
3. Passive with ‘to-infinitive’- verbs like ‘claim, understand, think, believe’ are
followed by the infinitive when in the passive voice:
Active- People say that cats have seven lives.
Passive- Cats are said to have seven lives
Active- They assumed that the questionnaires had been filled in.
Passive- The questionnaires were assumed to having been filled in.
4. The passive using the ‘it is’ form – statements in the active voice that contain
‘there is’ are introduced in the passive by ‘It is’
Active- People fear that there will be another world war.
Passive- It is feared that there will be another world war.
When writing for academic purposes, you are generally required to be as objective as
possible. You can use the above grammatical constructions to achieve this goal.
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Activity 6
Put the following sentences in the Passive voice.
1. People will forget the scandal in time.
2. Beethoven composed this piece of music after he had become deaf.
3. The natives believe that evil spirits cause illnesses.
4. They say that there is a lot of food in the oceans.
5. In some countries they deny women the right to vote.
6. They fear that all the passengers in the ship drowned.
7. Circumstances forced him to act that way.
8. They know that drastic changes have been made in the Police.
Note that
we usually use the active voice in oral communication;
we tend to use the passive voice in written assignments, including academic writing.
2.5.4 Punctuation
In brief, here are cases where the different punctuation marks should be used.
CAPITALISATION:
- The first word of a sentence/phrase or a direct quotation
- Statements after a colon if it is a formal rule, a direct quotation or it is introduced
by a single word.
-
Names and adjectives derived from them (where appropriate): people, places,
organisations, subjects, brand and trade, months and days of the week:
Linguistics
- Title of people, acronyms: Mrs, UNICEF
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- To introduce an explanation of previous statement: He could not contact them:
his phone was out of order.
THE DASH:
- To indicate a break in the flow of a sentence: It was reported that forty people-
maybe more – died in the plane crash.
- Emphasis: I heard a mournful sound – a sound that sent shivers down my spine.
- To replace a colon when introducing a list of things or to explain a previous
statement.
Activity 7
Punctuate the following text:
the abstract should be written concisely in normal rather than highly abbreviated english
the author should assume that the reader has some knowledge of the subject but has not
read the paper thus the abstract should be intelligible and complete in itself particularly it
should not cite figures tables or sections of the paper the opening sentence or two should
state the objectives of the investigation it is also desirable to describe the treatment by one
or more such terms as brief exhaustive theoretical experimental and so forth the body of
the abstract should indicate newly observed facts and the conclusions of the experiment or
argument discussed in the paper it should contain new numerical data presented in the
paper if space permits otherwise attention should be drawn to the nature of the data in the
case of experimental results the abstract should indicate methods used in obtaining them
for new methods the basic principle range of operation and degree of accuracy should be
given the abstract should be typed as one paragraph its optimum length will vary with the
nature and extent of the paper but it should not exceed 200 words
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2.6 SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND SYNTHESIS
The basic and most common sentence structure in English is subject+ verb/complement
pattern. But this is by no means the only way of building sentences . There are othergrammatical constructions which, when used, add to the richness of your style. Here are a
few examples:
1. Examples of inverted sentences:
By the tree stood my bicycle.
By the tree my bicycle stood.
2. Elimination of the relative pronoun:
The thieves took the bags which contained the money.
The thieves took the bag containing the money.
This is a point which we should bear in mind.
This is a point to bear in mind.
3. Combination of sentences
We stood on the balcony. We could see the whole park.
Standing on the balcony, we could see the whole park.
4. Look for words that are irrelevant and superficial:
There’s a light on the scoreboard that flashes on and off.
The scoreboard light flashes on and off.
5. Use strong verbs:
In a cautious manner the car went round the corner.
The car negotiated the corner.
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Activity 8
The following exercise aims at making you conscious that there are different ways of
writing the same sentence. Try rewriting the sentences by using the word suggested in
(b). An example has been worked out for you.
a. She is not old enough to enter the contest.
b. (young)
She is too young to enter the contest.
1a. It is likely that the experiment will fail.
1b. (May)
2a. He became manager after a year at the firm.
2b. (promoted)
3a. He fired when he saw the signal.
3b. (seeing)
4a. Although his mother disapproved of it, he became a singer.
4b. (Despite)
5a. Both experiments failed.
5b. (Neither)
Your ability to join sentences and paragraphs also helps in making your assignment
interesting! There should be a flow within your paragraphs as well as between
paragraphs. Your ideas should not appear disjointed. Choppiness in your way of writing
will act as a barrier to understanding.
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Example:
1a. No one was watching. The thief first made sure of this. He climbed up a drainpipe.
He climbed up to a window on the first floor. He succeeded in entering the house through
the window. He was not observed.
1b. Having first made sure that no one was watching, the thief climbed up the drainpipe to
a first floor window, through which he succeeded in entering the house unobserved.
Activity 9
Do the same thing as in 1b above for the following examples:-
2a. The bubonic plague raged in England during the Middle Ages. The name given to it
was “The Black Death’. It carried off thousands of the population. In some cases, it
exterminated whole towns and villages.
2b. ‘The Black Death’…, carrying…and …exterminating…
3a. Fleet Street was once famous for its coffee houses. Men used to meet there. They
were prominent in the literary world. It is now synonymous with journalism and English
national newspapers. It takes its name from the Fleet Stream. This used to run from
Hampstead. It ran down into the Thames at Blackfriars.
3b. Fleet Street, once…where men… and now… , takes…
To help you in your task of joining sentences, here are a few link words/phrases that you
may find handy when writing:
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Adding points:
Another possibility is that…
In other words,…
It should be emphasised/noted that…
And, and so, furthermore, further along, in addition, besides, incidentally, by the way, also,
again, above all, too, as well as…
Alternative:
Alternatively, apart from this, conversely, so far as…
Comparing:
In sharp contrast to x, y is not…
Likewise, similarly, in the same way, in like manner, as, just as…
Concluding:
All things considered then…
Events show us that…
In general/short…
It seems clear that…
To put it crudely/simply…
To sum up…
Contrast:
Aside from this, or, or else, otherwise, yet, though, however, nevertheless, despite this, on
the other hand, in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, instead, rather, on the contrary…
Enumeration:
First, furthermore, finally, first…second…third, to begin/start with…in the second
place…moreover,
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Exemplifying;
Another example of this may be that…
More detailed studies show that…
This was typified by…
For example, for instance, in particular, specifically, that is, to illustrate…
Explaining:
A general explanation remains difficult to find
As a result
Partly for this reason,
The tendency for x…
This applies especially to…
This in turn means that…
Place:
Nearby, here, there, next to, opposite to, under, beyond…
Result:
So, therefore, as a result of, consequently, accordingly, because of…
Summary:
To sum up, in short, briefly, in brief, on the whole, as has been said, in sum, indeed…
Time:
Then, next, after, just then, at the same time, previously, before that, finally, at last…
When you are writing, make sure to vary the length of your sentences. If all your
sentences are short, it gives the impression that you have not fully mastered the art
of writing. If all your sentences are long, then it becomes difficult to read you.
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Short sentences are usually very effective when you have written several long
sentences. Short sentences can be used to emphasise on a point.
2.8 ENGLISH USAGE AND ACADEMIC WRITING
When you write an academic paper, there are certain conventions that you are expected to
follow. Some of them are closely linked with the way in which language works.
2.8.1 Writing Impersonally
When you are writing for academic purposes, an objective or neutral tone is
expected from you. You want to avoid using the pronoun ‘I’ and the phrase ‘In
my opinion’ as far as possible. There are different ways in which you can achieve
a sense of objectivity when writing:
Using the pronoun ‘one’ is an option when writing impersonally. Examples of
common phrases with ‘one’ are:
One could envisage
One could argue
One might expect
One could seriously question….
‘One’ is a third person singular pronoun like ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’ therefore it will call
for a final ‘s’ for the present tense.
Another way would be to use the pronoun ‘we’. “We’ is more effectively used if
you wish your reader to identify with your viewpoint. It has the effect of carrying
your reader with you as you develop your argument, it may also have as effect to
convince your reader of your view poi