completed prch project on cement
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PROCESS CHEMISTRY REPORT ON THE
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT
GROUP MEMBERS: Dexter Bruce
Carlin Sylvester
Junior Joseph
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The Manufacture of Cement
Damian Ortega
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction.Pg. 4
What are cements.Pg. 5
The manufacturing processPg. 6
Limestone excavation
Crushing
Raw milling: Primary & Secondary
Proportioning & Blending
Slurrying
Pyro-processing
Finish grinding
Finish products: Ordinary Portland & Oil-well cements...Pg. 14
By-products and their uses...Pg. 15
Environmental concerns: Manufacture..Pg. 16
Dust & particulate emissions
CO2 emissions
Wastewater/Liquid effluents
Noise pollution
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Environmental concerns: By-productsPg. 18
Control methods: Dust & particulate emissionsPg. 19
Air filtration
Dust screens
Vegetative barriers
Control methods: Wastewater treatmentPg. 20
Future of cement industry locally and abroad..Pg. 21
Illustrations..Pg. 22
Fig. 1 Cement manufacturing process
Fig. 2 Process flow from production to consumption
Fig. 3 Flow diagram of waste recycling
ReferencesPg. 25
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The Manufacture of Cement
INTRODUCTION
Trinidad Cement Limited (TCL) was incorporated in Trinidad in 1951 and
commenced production in 1954. Through a process of diversification and
expansion, TCL has evolved from a single cement manufacturing operation into
a full-fledged group of companies with operations throughout the Caribbean.
Today, the TCL Group has become the leading producer and distributor of
cement and ready-mix products within the Caribbean. This regional
conglomerate consists of eight subsidiaries operating in Trinidad, Barbados,
Jamaica, Guyana and Anguilla. As such, we have chosen this organization as
the basis for our research and the following treatise that is based upon the
manufacture of the widespread commodity known as Ordinary Portland Cement
(Type 1) and the lesser known but equally important Oil-well Cement.
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Before we proceed any further one must gain a general concept of what are
cements. Cements are finely ground powders that, when mixed with water, set to
form a solid mass. Setting and hardening result from the hydration of the cement
compounds. By the addition of water, the submicroscopic crystals that comprise
cement agglomerate into a gel-like substance with a high surface area. By far,
the most common use of cement and its related by-products can be found within
the sphere of residential, commercial and industrial building construction.
Cements may be used alone (i.e. neat, as grouting materials), but its normal
use is in that of mortar and concrete in which the cement is mixed together with
inert materials known as aggregate.
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
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There are three processes by which Portland cement can be manufactured, and
these are known as the wet, dry and semidry processes. TCL uses what is
known in the industry as the wet process technology for the manufacture of
cement. The process derives its name from the fact that the basic raw material,
naturally occurring limestone (CaCO3), is crushed and mixed with water, clay and
other components to form that which is known as slurry. Though more modern
plants utilize dry process technology, TCL is forced to maintain a wet process
owing to the fact that limestone reserves are located in Mayo which is
approximately sixteen kilometers from the cement manufacturing facilities at
Claxton Bay. There are five main stages involved in the manufacture of Portland
cement:
Crushing and grinding of raw materials (Primary milling)
Blending of material in desired proportions (Secondary milling)
Mixing with water (Slurrying)
Pyro-processing (Burning)
Grinding of cement clinker (Finish grinding)
LIMESTONE EXCAVATION
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The quarrying of limestone, the main raw material used in the production of
cement, is the first step in the manufacturing process. TCL acquires limestone
from its very own quarry located at Mayo in Central Trinidad. This quarry is home
to one of three major deposits of yellow or impure limestone located in Trinidad
and Tobago. It has been estimated that these deposits can viably sustain TCLs
current production rates for approximately two hundred years. Traditionally, the
limestone was obtained by blasting which involved the use of explosives. Today,
a heightened degree of environmental awareness coupled with a renewed
consideration of the growing Mayo community with respect to noise pollution,
has led them to review their methods. Limestone is now excavated from the
earth via the use of one of the largest tractor rippers in the Caribbean, the
Caterpillar D11R.
CRUSHING
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After the process of excavation, the limestone in the form of large boulders is
transported from the excavation site to the Hazemag impact crusher. Located
within the quarry at Mayo, the crusher possesses the capacity to process 530
tonnes of raw material per hour. The crushing process serves to reduce the raw
limestone to an average size of 25mm in preparation for the process of primary
and secondary milling. Following this, the limestone is then separated according
to high or low carbon content and subsequently transported via conveyor to a
large storage and containment area.
RAW MILLING: Primary & Secondary
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In the next stage of cement production, the crushed limestone particles are
extracted from storage and transported by conveyor to the Primary Grinding Mill.
At this point the particles undergo a drastic reduction in size. The material is
ground upon a rotating table via the use of heavy, wheel-type rollers from its
previous size of 25mm to approximately 90m (micron).
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There are additional raw materials which are used in the production of Portland
cements to impart various physical and chemical characteristics, these include:
Lime (CaO)
Silica (SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
They are obtained from naturally occurring materials as well other industrial by-
products. These components after being analysed in the laboratory are blended
together in the correct proportions and added to the limestone. Following this,
the mixture undergoes what is known as Secondary Milling in which it is ground
even further into a powder-like form. Based on the silica content of the raw
material, it is sometimes necessary to add sand in the grinding process; the sand
used being acquired from TCLs own quarry.
SLURRYING
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After secondary milling of the components to acquire the powdered form, water
is added. The resulting mixture, a viscous mass of limestone, water, sand and
other components is known as slurry. The slurry is stored in one of two tanks at
the Mayo quarry, from which it is pumped via pipeline from Mayo to TCLs
processing plant located at Claxton Bay, into large concrete storage tanks
commonly known as slurry basins. At this juncture, it is constantly agitated by
compressed air and revolving mechanical paddles to prevent sedimentation.
The slurry is transported to Claxton Bay through a continuous pipeline measuring
10-inches in diameter and approximately 9 miles in length. The slurry leaving
Mayo for Claxton Bay must be of a high and consistent quality. Any slurry that
does not meet the stringent quality requirements is adjusted and recycled until
the correct composition and consistency has been achieved. The slurry, which
contains 35 to 45 percent water is sometimes filtered, reducing the water content
to 20 to 30 percent as this has the effect of reducing the fuel consumption in the
subsequent step of production known as pyro-processing or burning.
PYRO-PROCESSING
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In this stage of cement production, the slurry is pumped from the basins and into
rotary kilns which are basically long, revolving, steel cylinders lined with
refractory bricks. Refractory bricks form an insulative barrier around the kiln shell
and serve to protect the kiln against relatively high temperatures. The kilns
themselves may measure up to 200m in length as well as 7m in diameter. In TCL
the largest of the kilns is 145m long and 5m in diameter. The company has two
kilns with a combined production capacity of 2160 tonnes per day. TCLs kilns
are fueled by natural gas supplied by the National Gas Company (NGC).The kiln rotates slowly on an axis that is inclined at a few degrees to the
horizontal. As this occurs, the raw feed is introduced at the upper end and moves
slowly down the kiln to the lower or firing end. In the early stage of burning, the
slurry is dried off at a temperature of approximately 230 0C while at the burning
end, the temperature ranges from 1300 0C to 1500 0C. The burned product,
known as clinker emerges from the kiln as small nodules that pass into coolers
where the incoming air is heated and the product cooled. The chemical
equations for the production of clinker are of the following forms:
3CaCO3 +SiO2 + Heat---- Ca3SiO5 + 3CO2
9CaCO3 + Al2SiO5 (OH) 4 + Heat ---- Ca3Al2O6 + 2Ca3SiO5 + 9CO2 + 2H2O
FINISH GRINDING
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In the final stage of production, the clinker nodules along with the required
amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder in a horizontal mill similar to the
one used for grinding of the raw materials. Gypsum is added in order to delay the
setting and hardening time of the cement. The clinker may pass straight through
the mill (open-circuit grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the
ground product and recycled to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit
grinding). The finished product is pumped pneumatically into large storage silos
from which it can be withdrawn for packaging or for dispatch in bulk containers .
FINISHED PRODUCTS
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Ordinary Portland Cement (Type 1)
Since concrete is the most widely used of all construction materials, the
production of Ordinary Portland cement is widespread with current global
production being within the vicinity of 2000 million metric tonnes annually. The
second main product derived from this type of cement is known as mortar. These
two names are used interchangeably by many even though the structural
makeup of each is very much different to the other. Mortar is cement that has
been mixed with sand or crushed stone (gravel) that must be less than 3/16
(5mm) in size, whereas concrete is a mixture of cement and crushed stone up to
1 (2.5cm) in size. Mortars are used for the binding of bricks, blocks and stone in
walls, while concrete is mainly used as a base construction product, such as in
the creation of structural foundations.
Oil-well Cements
These types of cements are used for cementing work in the drilling of oil wells
where they are subject to high temperatures and pressures. They usually consist
of Portland or pozzolanic cements with special organic retarders to prevent
premature setting. When added to Portland cements, pozzolanic materials have
the effect of greatly increasing the long-term strength and mechanical properties.
BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES
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The products that can be derived from cement are seemingly endless. Without a
doubt, its main use continues to be in the manufacture of bricks and a testament
to this fact is the current construction boom taking place in faraway lands such
as Dubai, China, India and Brazil, as well as within our twin island state of
Trinidad and Tobago. Cements are also used:
In the manufacture of tiles as a binding agent.
In the production of decorative fixtures and moldings.
As a fireproofing material.
As a sealant to protect iron and steel structures from water and air
corrosion.
For the foundations of heavy machinery, bridge piers, walks, waterworks
dams and reservoir walls, dry-docks, culverts, etc.
To produce re-enforced and pre-stressed concrete (it is used in
conjunction with iron bars and wire meshing which add strength and
flexibility).
As a grouting material (by adding pigments, different colours can be
obtained)
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS MANUFACTURE
As most cement manufacturers do, TCL faces never-ending challenges in its
attempts to control dust during extraction and processing. Operations such as
quarrying, loading, transportation, and mobile crushing typically don't lend
themselves to integrated suppression techniques, yet all of these add to the
potential for releasing vast amounts of dust. Additional concerns but no less
important are those relating to noise and water pollution.
Dust and Particulate Emissions
As was mentioned previously, the main bone of contention with respect to TCLs
entire operation continues to be that of dust and particulate emissions. According
to HSE Manager Amarchandra Maharaj, there arose greater need to do more to
control the dust emissions generated as a result of the companys operations,
since past methods of dust control such as watering with hoses and sprinklers
have become obsolete. The primary target for improving dust suppression at
TCL is the mobile crushing unit. Other contributors to the emissions produced by
cement production are the milling and finish grinding stages, both of which add
significantly to the problems experienced by employees of TCL as well as
residents within the immediate vicinity of the plant.
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CO2 Emissions
The manufacture of cement contributes to greenhouse gases both directly
through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is thermally
decomposed, producing lime and carbon dioxide, and also through the use of
energy, particularly from the combustion of natural gas, the fuel used. It is
estimated that 75-175 kg of CO2 is produced for each tonne of concrete
manufactured, with approximately 50% of it being produced as a result of the
chemical process and 40% via the combustion of fuel.
Wastewater/Liquid effluents
Because of the nature of the wastewater effluent generated by the cement
manufacturing process, it would be detrimental to both the aquatic life as well as
farmers who depend on watercourses for crop irrigation to release this effluent
without their consideration. This generally emanates from the slurrying process
in addition to other washing operations that take place throughout the plant.
Noise Pollution
Most of the noise produced is as a direct result of the heavy machinery involved
in the various processes, in particular the crushing and milling operations. In the
past limestone was extracted via the process of dynamiting, but repeated
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide -
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complaints by the immediate residents to the authorities led to TCL adopting a
safer approach by the introduction of heavy quarrying equipment.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS BY-PRODUCTS
As it was previously mentioned, the main concern with respect to cement
production is dust and particulate emissions and this is no different when it
comes to its related by-products. Since a large percentage of cement goes into
the manufacture of bricks, it is inevitable that some form of pollution will occur
during its production. Known as fugitive emissions, these may take the form of
cement released during the transfer of the product from the supplier to the
customer as well as from the mixing and blending operations of the
manufacturer.
Major contributors to these problems are also construction sites that are
improperly washed down, as the cement particles can inadvertently pollute
watercourses thereby causing them to become acidic as result of the suspended
colloidal particles. With respect to drilling companies, improper well cementing
techniques can result in sea pollution, and hence affects the aquatic marine life.
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CONTROL METHODS
Dust and Particulate Emissions
Air Filtration
As recently as the year 2009, TCL has installed a new system of airborne
particulate emission control known as the Dust Boss DB-60. This system has
been implemented in compliance with ISO 14001: 2004 standards as well as
Trinidad and Tobagos OSH Act and basically controls the dust emitted by the
crushing and transportation aspects of the cement manufacturing process.
Another method of dust control implemented by TCL includes the use of
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) which filter the air and flue gas streams
generated in order to remove the fine dust and smoke particles within them.
These devices are located at strategic locations throughout the plant to collect
these harmful emissions.
Dust Screens
These are basically heavy duty mesh fabrics spread on horizontally mounted
steel frames that minimize the dust escaping from the various plant locations.
Vegetative Barriers
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Natural vegetation such as trees has been planted around the location in order to
reduce the amount of dust that affects the surrounding residents. They are also
extremely effective in aiding in the reduction of CO2 levels.
Wastewater Treatment
For this purpose, TCL has excavated gravity settling ponds in order to allow for
the sedimentation of the particles produced by the various stages of the
manufacturing process. The effectiveness of these ponds depends on an array
of factors such as:
Detention time of the wastewater.
Size and density of the suspended solids.
Temperature and viscosity of the water.
Turbulence as a result of wind.
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FUTURE OF THE CEMENT INDUSTRY LOCALLY &
ABROAD
Due to an ever-increasing construction and industrialization drive worldwide, the
production of cement has reached staggering proportions. Within Trinidad and
Tobago, due to the vast amounts of limestone available it has been estimated
that the production of cement is economically viable for at least two hundred
years. This has placed TCL in an enviable position as the largest manufacturer
and supplier of cement regionally, capable of adequately satisfying the needs of
our Caribbean neighbours.
In a global context, the monumental structures being erected in diverse lands
such as the Burg Al Arab in Dubai, the proposed Belo Monte Dam in Brazil and
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the National Academy of Performing Arts in Trinidad have only been made
possible through the use of cement and its derivatives. Once this desire for
progress remains there will always be a host of organizations such as Trinidad
Cement Limited, available to take up the mantle and keep this appetite satiated.
ILLUSTRATIONS
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Figure 1 showing the cement manufacturing process.
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Figure 2 showing the process flow from production to consumption.
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REFERENCES
www.cement.org/waste
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement
www.patentstorm.us/patents
www.cement.org/tech/cct_images
www.tclgroup.com
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator
www.ceratechinc.com/cement.asp
Britannica encyclopaedia
Class notes
http://www.cement.org/waste/http://www.patentstorm.us/patentshttp://www.cement.org/tech/cct_imageshttp://www.tclgroup.com/http://www.ceratechinc.com/cement.asphttp://www.cement.org/waste/http://www.patentstorm.us/patentshttp://www.cement.org/tech/cct_imageshttp://www.tclgroup.com/http://www.ceratechinc.com/cement.asp