comparative study on indoor fungi growth …eprints.uthm.edu.my/9876/1/menega_subramaniam.pdfdengan...
TRANSCRIPT
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON INDOOR FUNGI GROWTH
INCORPORATED WITH DIFFERENT ANTIFUNGAL AND WALL
FINISHINGS
MENEGA A/P SUBRAMANIAM
A thesis submitted in partial of fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of Master in Civil Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
JANUARY 2017
iii
Special Dedication to my beloved family and friends,
for their love, support
and care me.
And
Special Thanks to my lecturers, my supervisor
for all their supports and care.
Sincerely,
Menega Subramaniam
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Assoc Prof
Dr Norshuhaila Binti Mohamed Sunar for her mentorship, encouragements, advices,
guidance, trust, critics and ideas have helped me in finishing my master project.
I also would like to express my special thanks to technician in FTK and FSTPI
Laboratory for the help, and assistance in guiding me for my laboratory testing. Not to
forget, for providing all the apparatus and materials required to run my experiments.
My deepest appreciation is extended to my beloved parents, Mr. Subramaniam
A/L Aplanaidu, and my mother, Mrs. Gouri Parvathi A/P Samidiri for their support,
patience and financial support during my final year project preparations. Not forgetting
my brothers, sister, brother in law and sister in law who always support and pray for
my success in studies.
Finally, my appreciation is to my friends for their support and advice. Thank
You.
v
ABSTRACT
Indoor air quality is important to the health and comfort of building occupants. There
are many sources of pollutants that can be found in the building. One of the sources of
pollutants is fungus. Fungi are present almost everywhere in indoor and outdoor
environments. Building materials supporting fungal growth must be remediated as
rapidly as possible in order to ensure a healthy environment. The goal of this study is
to compare the growth of indoor fungal by using three different antifungals such as
potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate. The indoor fungi were
isolated from selected room at Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
(FKAAS). The objective is to enumerate the growth of indoor fungal after incorporate
with antifungal at different types of wall finishes and evaluate its efficiency. This
research was done on three main substrates which are wood, plasterboard and concrete.
These main materials were each coated with four types of coating which are thin
wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint. The growth rate was
monitored as all the materials was applied with the antifungal. The antifungal has
reduced the growth rate of the fungus but depending on the type of material and coating
that is used. Results shows that for wood substrate, the best antifungal treatment is a
mix of thick wallpaper and calcium benzoate, where the growth stops at 53% (CB 53%
< PS 87% < ZS 90% < CTRL 93%). As for plasterboard substrate, thin wallpaper and
potassium sorbate hinders the growth at 40% (PS 40% < ZS 73% < CB 80% < CTRL
97%) whereas for concrete substrate, acrylic paint and glycerol based paint
incorporated with calcium benzoate renders the growth of fungi to stop at 0%
throughout the test (Acrylic Paint = CB 0% < ZS 7% < PS 7% < CTRL 33%) and
(Glycerol Based Paint = CB 0% < PS 70% < ZS 73% < CTRL 87%). Thus, the best
building material would be concrete with the application of calcium benzoate for paint
type of wall finishing’s.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kualiti udara dalam bangunan adalah penting untuk kesihatan dan keselesaan
penghuni bangunan. Terdapat banyak sumber bahan pencemar yang terdapat di dalam
bangunan. Salah satu sumber bahan pencemar adalah kulat. Kulat hampir wujud di
mana-mana dalam persekitaran dalaman dan luaran. Bahan binaan yang
menggalakkan pertumbuhan kulat mestilah disingkirkan secepat mungkin bagi
memastikan persekitaran yang sihat. Matlamat kajian ini adalah untuk
membandingkan proses penumbuhan bagi kulat tertutup dengan menggunakan tiga
jenis antikulat yang berbeza seperti kalium sorbat, kalsium benzoate dan zink salisilat.
Kulat diasingkan daripada bilik yang terpilih di Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Alam
Sekitar (FKAAS). Objektif penyelidikan ini adalah untuk mengkaji kadar
pertumbuhan kulat setelah ditambah dengan antikulat pada kemasan dinding serta
menilai kecekapan ia berfungsi. Kajian ini telah dilakukan pada tiga bahan utama iaitu
kayu, eternit dan konkrit. Setiap bahan-bahan utama telah disalut dengan empat jenis
lapisan seperti cat yang berasaskan gliserol, cat akrilik, kertas dinding nipis dan tebal.
Kadar pertumbuhan kulat dipantau bersama semua bahan-bahan yang digunakan
dengan antikulat. Antikulat dapat mengurangkan kadar pertumbuhan kulat tetapi ia
bergantung kepada jenis bahan dan lapisan yang digunakan. Keputusan menunjukkan
bahawa rawatan antikulat yang terbaik bagi substrat kayu, adalah gabungan kertas
dinding tebal dan kalsium benzoat, di mana pertumbuhan berhenti di 53% (CB 53%
<PS 87% <ZS 90% <CTRL 93%). Bagi eternit substrat, kertas dinding nipis dan
kalium sorbat menghalang pertumbuhan pada kadar 40% (PS 40% <ZS 73% <CB 80%
<CTRL 97%) manakala bagi substrat konkrit, cat akrilik dan cat berasaskan gliserol
digabungkan dengan kalsium benzoat telah menjadikan pertumbuhan kulat berhenti di
0% sepanjang ujian (Paint akrilik = CB 0% <ZS 7% <PS 7% <CTRL 33%) dan
(Gliserol Berdasarkan Paint = CB 0% <PS 70% <ZS 73% <CTRL 87%). Oleh itu,
bahan binaan yang terbaik ialah konkrit dengan penggunaan kalsium benzoat untuk
jenis cat kemasan dinding.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Significance of Study 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Indoor Environmentl Quality (IEQ) 6
2.3 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) 8
2.3.1 Elements of IAQ problems 8
2.3.2 Factor Affecting IAQ 9
2.3.3 Effect of Poor IAQ 11
viii
2.3.3.1 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) 12
2.3.3.2 Building Related Illness (BRI) 13
2.3.3.3 Environment Tobacco Smoke (ETS) 14
2.3.4 Types of IAQ Pollutant 15
2.3.4.1 Organic Pollutant 15
2.3.4.2 Inorganic Pollutant 16
2.3.4.3 Pyhsical Pollutant 17
2.3.4.4 Biological Agents 17
2.4 Indoor Fungal 19
2.4.1 Types of Indoor Fungal 20
2.4.2 Health Hazard of Indoor Fungi 21
2.5 Building Materials 22
2.5.1 Wood 22
2.5.2 Plasterboard 23
2.5.3 Concrete 24
2.6 Interior Finishes 25
2.6.1 Wallpaper 26
2.6.1.1 Thick Wallpaper 26
2.6.1.2 Thin Wallpaper 27
2.6.2 Paint 27
2.6.2.1 Glycerol Based Paint 28
2.6.2.2 Acrylic Paint 29
2.7 Antifungal 30
2.7.1 Potassium Sorbate 33
2.7.2 Zinc Salicylate 34
2.7.3 Calcium Benzoate 35
2.8 Standard and Guidelines 36
2.8.1 ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale 36
2.8.2 NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods 36
2.8.3 Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality
(ICOP IAQ) 37
2.9 Summary 38
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Location of Sampling Area 41
3.3 Indoor Fungi Sampling Technique 41
ix
3.4 Samples of Indoor Fungi and Total Indoor Fungi Count 43
3.5 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Physical Parameter Reading 43
3.6 Laboratory Works 44
3.6.1 Antimicrobial Test 44
3.6.1.1 Cultivation of Spore 44
3.6.1.2 Suspension of Spore 45
3.6.1.3 Calculation of Suspension of Spore 45
3.6.2 Coating Bio Resistance Material 46
3.6.2.1 Coating Bio Resistance Procedure 49
3.6.2.2 Measurement Technique of Fungal Growth 50
3.6.3 Growth Parameter 51
3.6.3.1 Temperature 51
3.6.3.2 Relative Humidity 52
3.6.4 Summary of Substrate and Wall finishing 52
3.6.5 Summary of Testing 54
3.7 Summary 54
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 54
4.1 Introduction 56
4.2 Suspension of Spore 56
4.3 Quantification of Suspension of Spore 57
4.4 Rating of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 57
4.5 Diameter of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 69
4.6 Percentage of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 82
4.7 Summary 94
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 80
5.1 Introduction
955
5.2 Conclusion
955
5.3 Recommendation for Further Study 97
REFERENCES 99
APPENDIX 112
x
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Definition of Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) According to EN
15251
Elements of Indoor Air Quality problems
The Sources of Indoor Air Contaminant
Symptoms or key signs of ETS
The conditions of mold growth on surfaces
Categories of mold count
Different types of materials used in study
Different types of wall finishing used in study
The antifungal application of the antifungal purposes
Potassium sorbate for antifungal purposes
Zinc salicylate for antifungal purposes
Mold index according to ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale
The Acceptable Range for Specific Physical Parameters According
to ICOP-IAQ by DOSH (2010)
The List of Indoor Air Contaminants and the Acceptable Limits
According to ICOP-IAQ by DOSH (2010)
Performance profile for bioaerosol sampling followed NIOSH
Manual Analytical Method NAM 0800
Scale for evaluation fungal growth (ASTM D5590-00 Standard
Scale)
Summary of wood substrate and wall finishing used
Summary of plasterboard substrate and wall finishing used
Summary of concrete substrate and wall finishing used
Summary of testing conducted
7
9
10
14
18
19
25
29
32
34
35
36
37
37
41
49
52
53
53
54
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
Categories of Indoor Environment Quality
Example of Sick Building
Research Methodology Overview
Biostage impactor with mounting bracket accessories
Sample of wood
Sample of plasterboard
Sample of concrete
Sample of Thick wallpaper
Sample of Thin wallpaper
Fungal Growth Percentage Measurement Technique
Digital Colony Counter
Neubauer Counting Chamber
ASTM Rating of multiple substrate with antifungals
ASTM Rating of wood substrate with multiple antifungal and wall
finishing
ASTM Rating of wood substrate on multiple antifungals
ASTM Rating of plasterboard substrate with multiple antifungal
and wall finishing
ASTM Rating of plasterboard substrate on multiple antifungals
ASTM Rating of concrete substrate with multiple antifungal and
wall finishing
ASTM Rating of concrete substrate on multiple antifungals
Diameter of indoor fungal growth on multiple substrate with
antifungals
Diameter of indoor fungal growth on wood substrate with multiple
antifungal and wall finishing
Diameter of wood substrate with multiple antifungal
7
13
40
42
47
48
48
48
49
50
51
57
59
61
62
64
65
67
68
70
73
74
xii
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
Diameter of indoor fungal growth on plasterboard substrate with
multiple antifungal and wall finishing
Diameter of plasterboard substrate with multiple antifungal
Diameter of indoor fungal growth on concrete substrate with
multiple antifungal and wall finishing
Diameter of concrete substrate with multiple antifungal
Percentage of fungi growth on multiple substrates incorporated
with antifungals
Percentage of fungi growth on wood substrates with multiple
antifungal and wall finishing
Percentage of fungi growth on wood substrate with multiple
antifungal
Percentage of fungi growth on plasterboard substrates with
multiple antifungal and wall finishing
Percentage of fungi growth on plasterboard substrate with multiple
antifungal
Percentage of fungi growth on concrete substrates with multiple
antifungal and wall finishing
Percentage of fungi growth on concrete substrate with multiple
antifungal
77
78
80
81
83
86
87
89
90
92
93
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
% Percentage
0C Degree Celsius
AP Acrylic paint
ASHRAE American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
ASTMD5590-00 American Society for Testing and Materials 5590-00
BRI Building Related Illness
C Concrete
CB Calcium benzoate
CONT Control
DOSH Department of Occupational Safety and Health
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
ETS Environment Tobacco Smoke
FKAAS Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
GBP Glycerol based paint
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
ICOP-IAQ 2010 Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality 2010
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
IEQ Indoor Environment Quality
ISO 7730 International Standard Organization 7730
MEA Malt Extracts Agar for Fungi
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
NMAM 0800 NIOSH Manual Analytical Method 0800
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
P Plasterboard
PS Potassium sorbate
RH Relative Humidity
xiv
SBS Sick Building Syndrome
THICK Thick wallpaper
THIN Thin wallpaper
UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
WHO World Health Organization
W Wood
Z Zinc salicylate
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
B
C
D
E
F
G
Rating for Wood (ANOVA Analysis)
Rating for Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)
Rating for Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)
Diameter for Wood (ANOVA Analysis)
Diameter for Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)
Diameter for Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)
Percentage of Wood (ANOVA Analysis)
Percentage of Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)
Percentage of Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)
Quantification of Suspension of Spore
List of Publication
ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale
Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality (ICOP IAQ)
NIOSH Manual Analytical Method NAM 0800
ASTM D3273-12 Standard Scale
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
127
129
130
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
The human health can be affected by many factors. One of the most common factors
is the air that is inhaled by them. This air that surrounds the building and its exterior
can be classified by using IAQ or Indoor Air Quality. This term is also a part of IEQ
or Indoor Environment Quality. Poor weather condition is due to the increase in
temperature day by day. Therefore, it enhance the growth of indoor fungi and the
people who lives in the polluted environment suffers (Pagliano et al., 2016).
The US Environmental Protection Agency, (2013) stated that the indoor air
pollution is a top five threats to public health, including in office, homes, other indoor
area and makes existing problem worse with poor air quality. It causes harmful if not
managed with properly (Joo et al., 2012). The important about adsorption or
desorption by building materials pollutant are incorporate as basic components of
IAQ model to get some information by any influence of building materials on Indoor
Air Quality (IAQ).
There are many sources of indoor air pollution. These sources include high
temperature and humidity level, poor ventilation, remolding and any activities in or
near a building gives impact on fresh air coming into building (Chenari, Dias Carrilho
& Gameiro Da Silva, 2016). The IAQ of a space also affected by gases such as carbon
monoxide, radon, volatile or organic compounds. Other than that, it is also be affected
by particulates and microbial contaminants such as fungi and bacteria. The presence
of these contaminants in the air, specifically fungus and its spores is not a serious
2
issue until it is inhaled by the body. The fungus that entered the body through the
respiratory system can lead to health problems or also make certain conditions much
worse. Symptoms such runny nose, nasal congestion, eye irritation, cough, asthma
aggravation, fatigue, headaches and difficulty in concentrating are common when
exposed to the fungus.
Wall finishes are decorative elements that are applied on the surface of the wall
for an accessories purpose. It brings the element of beauty and does not have any
major purpose other than another protective layer for the wall while substrate are
materials such as wood, plasterboard and concrete. These items are commonly used
in the construction industry and can be seen on many surfaces in the interior of any
houses (Kontogeorgos & Founti, 2013; Paul, Sree, & Aglan, 2010). All the items that
were previously said have one common problem, it is the fungal infection on the
surface of them (Tanaca et al., 2011; Hoang et al., 2010). Fungi are airborne spore
spreaders that emerge during damp conditions and suitable surfaces for them to breed
on. To overcome this, antifungal chemicals are used on the surfaces of the wall and
its accessories.
Antifungal chemicals prevent the microbial colonization, subsequent growth
and bio-deterioration of the substrate. Besides that, antifungals are eco-friendly as it
is commonly used in food industry (Hwang & Huang, 2014; Heydaryinia, Veissi, &
Sadadi, 2011). Antimicrobial coatings are designed to generate a surface that is easy
to clean. It is also a chemical that kills or inhibit the growth of microorganisms such
as bacteria, fungi, mold and algae (Roden, 2010; Tiller, 2008). Therefore, it is
suggested that the application of antifungal on the wall finishing’s in the building
contributes to protect and prevent the bio-deterioration of the substrate and creates a
healthy environment. This study has been conducted for evaluate the efficiency of
antifungal such as potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate on 4 types
of wall finishing which are the thin wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint
and acrylic paint.
1.2 Problem Statement
Fungi are long known to affect the health of humans in many ways. The common
ways are diseases to crop plants, decay of stored food, human tissue infections and
3
immune system related diseases. A fungus is a heterotrophic and filamentous
organism that depends on external sources of organic carbon and its cells are parasitic
where they absorb nutrients through cell membranes.
Fungi use the air to spread it and therefore, it is classified as an airborne spore
spreader. These spores are the actual danger of the fungi as it poses a great threat
when inhaled into human body by the respiratory system. Therefore, the IAQ is a very
important guide to make sure that the air inside and surrounding a space is safe. This
is important as users to a normal urban home; spend almost 90% of the day in the
homes.
More research need to be carried out on the IAQ issue as it leads to major health
problems. High relative humidity and temperature causes to microbial growth.
Malaysia’s environmental factor is a perfect ground for the growth of indoor fungi.
Therefore, significant research for a sustainable, long term, low cost and
environmental friendly approached is needed to address and to solve the IAQ
problems.
Antifungal on the other hand are the solutions to this problem but the
availability of numerous antifungal in the market and the unknown effectiveness to
fungal types proving to be a disadvantage. The application of antifungal as a bio
resistance compound to inhibit the growth of fungi is a safe product as it was
previously being used as a food preservative which was been consumed by the human
beings. Yet, very few studies have remediated the indoor fungal growth using
antifungals through different substrates and wall finishing’s. Thus, in this study,
antifungal such as potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate was used
to treat the indoor fungal on 4 types of wall finishing which are the thin wallpaper,
thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint. Preference was given to the
lecturer room, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Alam Sekitar (FKAAS), Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) as it was identified with the growth of indoor
fungi.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are:
i. To compare the growth of indoor fungal after incorporated with antifungal
4
(potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate) at different types of
substrates based on rating for 28 days.
ii. To evaluate the antifungal efficiency when use as a coating on substrate (wood,
plasterboard and concrete) for coating bio resistance based on diameter (cm).
iii. To measure the growth rate of indoor fungal on substrate with different wall
finishing (thin wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic
paint) that coated by antifungal and free antifungal based on percentage (%).
1.4 Scope of Study
i. The culture and harvest indoor fungi spores using biostage single–stage viable
cascade impactor attached to a SKC Quick Take 30 (NAM 0800).
ii. The laboratory works for antifungal treatment for indoor fungi using potassium
sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate on thin wallpaper, thick
wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint based on rating, diameter and
percentage (Belloti et al., 2010, ASTM D5590-00).
iii. The laboratory works without using antifungal treatment on thin wallpaper,
thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint based on rating, diameter
and percentage (Vacher et al., 2010, ASTM D5590-00).
iv. The growth rate of indoor fungi was determined with the effect of antifungal
and non-antifungal (Belloti et al., 2013, ASTM D5590-00).
1.5 Significance of Study
The primordial purpose of this study is to compare on remediation process by using
different types of antifungal. Particular antifungal mentioned have a high potential to
treat the indoor fungi growth (Aspergillus Niger sp.) as it was successfully proven in
lab scale. Hence, by applying antimicrobial additives, this method reduces the
building maintenance cost and saves time. This study also leads to better indoor
environment.
The quality of the environment improved and variety of health effect prevented.
Thus, this study serves as the basis for future plans of action. Besides that, this study
which focused on antifungal as the agent in remediation process of fungi growth is an
5
excellent source of environmental friendly. Application of antifungals, acts as an
alternative by avoiding hazardous chemicals on the coating of the buildings. Quality
materials which can sustain longer by adding antimicrobial coatings is an advantage
for the industry too. An added point for the users and to industry is that the antifungal
is cheaper, easily obtained and safe to be used and consumed. It was proven by using
those selected antifungals in the food industry.
This method of application is sustainable too as much consideration given to
sustainable practices due to the need and taking into consideration of present concept
among engineering society. This is in line with the definition of sustainable practices,
where this defined as living life in a way that uses resources in a responsible way.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter describes overview of related theory and previous research relevant to
the study. The intention of this chapter is to give basic information about indoor
environmental and air quality and it’s fundamental. The material and information for
this chapter has been gathered from various reference books and research papers.
2.2 Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)
The quality of a building’s environment in line with the health and well-being of
people who live in particular area is referred as Indoor Environment Quality, IEQ.
The effect of poor IEQ is not only on physical health of the building occupants, but
also on their physiological health (Ahmed, 2007).
Basically, IEQ can be determined by many factors such as lighting, air quality
and damp conditions. Dampness, cleanliness and ventilation characteristics are
associated with building related symptoms (Lee et al., 2012). Therefore, many health
related problem was occurred due to this poor environment. Wong, Mui & Hui (2008)
states that thermal comfort, indoor air quality, noise level and illumination level are
the four aspects to examine the Indoor Environment Quality, IEQ. Air quality and
freshness, the presence of light, thermal comfort and quality of acoustic are the
important factors of IEQ in healing environments, which affect occupant satisfaction
(Lai et al., 2009; Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013).
Variety of contaminants whether from machines inside the buildings, dust cleaners,
renovation works, water damaged building materials, carpets and furnishings,
7
cigarette smoke, perfumes, microbial growth, insects and outdoor pollutants are the
common contaminants faced by the building occupants (Parjo et al., 2015). How
individuals respond to indoor environment can also predicted through the indoor
temperature, relative humidity and the ventilation levels of a building. Energy
consumption of buildings depends significantly on the criteria used for the indoor
environment (temperature, ventilation and lighting) (Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013).
Building related symptoms could be resolved by understanding the sources of indoor
environmental contaminants and by controlling them. There are 6 categories of IEQ
which shown in Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1 tabulated the definition of Indoor
Environmental Quality (IEQ) according to EN 15251.
Figure 2.1: Categories of Indoor Environmental Quality (Robert, 2009)
Table 2.1 Definition of Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
According to EN 15251
Category Explanation
I High level of expectation is recommended for space occupied by very
sensitive and fragile persons with special requirements like handicapped,
sick, very young children and elderly persons.
II Normal level of expectation and should be used for new buildings and
renovations.
III An acceptable, moderate level of expectation and may be used for existing
buildings.
IV Values outside the criteria for the above categories. This category should
only be accepted for a limited part of the year.
IAQ• Air Quality
ILQ• Lighting Quality
ISQ• Sound Quality
IVQ• Vibration Quality
IOQ• Odour Quality
ICQ• Thermal Comfort Quality
8
2.3 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
It is defined as the air quality within and around buildings, because it is concerning
the health with comfort of building occupants. The degradation of indoor air quality
induced by microorganisms (molds, bacteria, fungi) is of growing concern to
international health organization (Leman et al., 2006; Verdier et al., 2014). Indoor air
quality is a major determinant of personal exposure to pollutants in today’s world.
Much time is being spent in numerous different indoor environments by people
(Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013). Norhidayah et. al., (2013) reported that people spend
their lifetimes up to 80% in workplace or homes. Problems caused by microbial,
especially fungal growth do exist in some new buildings (Ismail, Deros, & Leman,
2010; Er et al., 2015; Parjo et al., 2015). IAQ is a part of indoor environmental quality
(IEQ) (Lee et al., 2012). Collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to
pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces and computer modeling of air
flow inside buildings are some of the way involved in determining the IAQ.
Indoor air quality is very important because it is one of the main discomfort
causing factors in a closed space. Removing this discomfort factor causes most people
to feel better. Indoor environment also affects health, productivity and comfort of the
occupants (Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013; Er et al., 2015). However, some pollutants
cause diseases which have no symptoms immediately but will emerged later. Some
examples of the diseases are cancer and respiratory problems (Kris-Etherton et al.,
2002).
2.3.1 Elements of IAQ problems
In any home, there are many types of indoor air pollution that can occur. Some of the
reasons for the pollution to happen are gas, coal and tobacco products which are
common in the kitchen. Other than that, damp carpets, wood furniture’s, heating and
cooling systems and pesticides are also sources of pollution that affect the IAQ of a
space. The unsuitable fitting materials, adhesive and furniture selection are also
contributing to the sources of poor IAQ (Noraini et al., 2013). Mainly, the importance
factor is how much of pollutant is releases and the danger level that the pollutant has.
Age factor of the source and its maintenance are also important in its determination.
9
Elements which involved in development of indoor air quality problems are clearly
shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Elements of Indoor Air Quality problems (EPA, 1991)
Elements Description
Source There is a source of contamination or discomfort indoors, outdoors or
within the mechanical systems of the building.
Heating, Ventilation, and
Air Conditioning
(HVAC)
The HVAC system is not able to control the existing air contaminants
and ensure thermal comfort (temperature and humidity conditions that
are comfortable for most occupants.
Pathways One or more pollutants pathways connect the pollutant source to the
occupants and a driving force exists to move pollutants along the
pathway(s).
Occupants Building occupants are present.
2.3.2 Factor Affecting IAQ
Ventilation is a typical improving method of IAQ of buildings (Lee et al., 2012).
Insufficient ventilation or air circulation builds up the indoor polluted level.
Therefore, many factors affect the IAQ. Indoor, outdoor and HVAC system are the
major three following elements that are involved in the development of indoor air
quality problems. According to Lee et al., (2012) reported that one of the principal
methods to mitigate IAQ problems is the ventilation, which is mainly composed of
active IAQ control by heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and passive
IAQ control by natural ventilation.
The contaminants of indoor air may come within the building and also from
outside of the building (WCB, 2005). The first element is indoor. Personal activities
such as smoking or personal hygiene affects the indoor air quality. The use of
deodorizers, cleaning materials or dust while doing the housekeeping also contributes
to this factor. Indoor air quality will be affected by the emissions of volatile organic
compounds given off by office equipment like photocopier machines and from the
office supplies such as toners, carbonless paper products. Besides that, poor thermal
and humidity comfort and huge number of occupant load do contribute to this factor.
Other factor that affects the IAQ is the outdoor. Vehicle exhaust, pollen, or
industrial pollutants contaminates the outdoor air. The indoor air also polluted due to
the nearby source emission especially from the garbage dumpsters, loading docks or
the re-entrained exhaust from buildings. Radon, underground storage tanks or
10
pesticides are under the group of soil gas that pollutes the air quality. Finally, another
reason that enhances the poor indoor air quality is the microbial from standing water
that is molds or mildew.
The HVAC system classified as one of the affecting elements of poor indoor
air quality. Inadequate distribution of fresh air in ventilation system contributes to
this phenomenon (Gaskin et al., 2012). Unclean air filters, dust in ductwork enhance
the microbiological growth in ductworks and or humidifiers. Inadequate IAQ has
been tied to symptoms including headaches, fatigue, trouble concentrating, and
irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Table 2.3 below shows the Sources of
Indoor Air Contaminant according to EPA, 19911.
Table 2.3 The Sources of Indoor Air Contaminant (EPA, 1991)
Sources Categories Description
Outside Building Contaminated outdoor
air
Pollen, dust, fungal spores, industrial pollutants
and general vehicle exhaust
Emissions from nearby
sources
Exhaust from vehicles on nearby roads or in
parking lots, or garages, loading docks, odors
from unsanitary debris near the outdoor air
intake
Soil gas Radon, leakage from underground fuel tanks,
contaminants from previous uses of the site (e.g:
landfills) and pesticides.
Moisture or standing
water promoting excess
microbial growth
Rooftops after rainfall and crawlspace
Equipment HVAC
system
Dust or dirt in ductwork or other components
microbiological growth in drip pans,
humidifiers, ductworks, coils improper use of
biocides, sealants, and/or cleaning compounds,
improper venting of combustion products and
refrigerant leakage.
Non-HVAC equipment Emission from office equipment (volatile
organis compounds, ozone), supplies (solvents,
toners, ammonia), emissions from shops, labs,
cleaning processes, elevator motors and other
mechanical systems.
Human Activities Personal activities Smoking, cooking, body odors, and cosmetic
odors.
Housekeeping activities Cleaning materials and procedures, emissions
from stored supplies or trash, use deodorizers
and fragrances, airborne dust or dirt (e.g:
circulated by sweeping and vacuuming).
11
Maintenance activities Microorganisms in mist from improperly
maintained cooling towers airborne dust or dirt,
volatile organic compounds from use of paint,
caulk, adhesives, and other products, pesticides
from pest control activities and emissions from
stored supplies.
Buildings
Components and
Furnishing
Locations that produce
or collect dust or fibers
Textured surfaces such as carpeting, curtains,
and other textiles, open shelving, old or
deteriorated furnishings materials containing
damaged asbestos.
Unsanitary conditions
and water damage
Microbiological growth on or in soiled or water
damaged furnishings, microbiological growth in
areas of surface condensation, standing water
from clogged, or poorly designed drains, dry
traps that allow the passage of sewer gas.
Chemical released from
building components or
furnishings
Volatile organic compounds or inorganic
compounds.
Other
Sources
Accidentals events Spills of water or other liquids microbiological
growth due to flooding or to leaks from roofs,
piping, and fire damage.
Special use areas and
mixed use buildings
Smoking lounges, laboratories, print shops, art
rooms, exercise rooms, beauty salons, and food
preparation.
Redecorating/
Remodeling/ Repair
activities
Emissions from new furnishing, dust, and fibers
from demolition, odors and volatile organic and
inorganic compounds from paint, caulk, and
adhesives microbiological released from
demolition or remodeling activities.
2.3.3 Effect of Poor IAQ
Lack of good maintenance practices in some buildings leads to moisture build ups
that, when left alone, results in microbial contamination and higher levels of bio
aerosols (Ayanbimpe, Danjuma, & Okolo, 2003). The primary effect of poor IAQ
that is commonly experienced is health effects. These effects are observed
immediately or even years later. The immediate effect is observed after one exposure
or after many exposures. The symptoms are irritation of the eyes, nose and throat,
headaches, dizziness and are some cases; fatigue (Mendes, 2014). The symptoms are
normally short-termed and are easily treated. The common way, is to simply remove
the person from the polluted environment or remove the pollutant from the
environment. This is only possible when the source of the pollution was identified.
Diseases that observed to the occupants in the poor IAQ environment are asthma,
hypersensitivity pneumonitis and humidifier fever (Mendell et al., 2011).
12
If the immediate pollution is present in an environment, there are also other
factors that contribute to the likelihood of immediate reactions of an occupant.
Firstly, the age of the occupant and also the present medical condition of the
occupant. Other than that, the sensitivity of an occupant to pollutants plays a vital
factor in this matter. This is because some people are sensitive to biological
pollutants whereas some are sensitive to chemical pollutants.
The drawback of this immediate effect that it is commonly diagnosed as cold
or other viral diseases; therefore, it is hard to distinguish whether the symptoms are
caused by poor IAQ indoors or just a flu reaction. The simplest way to identify the
presences of pollutants in a space, is by checking the symptoms of an occupant after
left the place. If it does, poor IAQ is present in the space. The effect is much worse
by inadequate outdoor air supply.
Long term effects arise after years of exposure and the most common effects
are respiratory diseases, heart diseases and cancer. A much deeper research has to be
conducted to identify the real causes and problems that are present in the long term
effects.
2.3.3.1 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
Situations in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects
which appeared to be connected to time spent in a building but there are no specific
illness or caused that identified is referred as sick building syndromes (Kawamura et
al., 2006; Khan & Karuppayil, 2012). Sick building is pointed out as it marks the
imperfection of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems (Aizat et
al., 2009).
In addition, other reasons of sick building are said due to the contaminants
produced by out gassing of some types of building materials, molds, volatile organic
compounds (VOC), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone, light industrial chemicals
used within or because of lack of adequate fresh air intake or air filtration. Takigawa
et al., (2012) reported that chemical substances have been considered the main factor
associated with SBS symptoms in Japan, because of the people affected live in newly
built or renovated houses. Building related disease include infectious diseases spread
from the building services. Legionnaires’ disease and diseases spread from worker to
worker within a building, such as virus infections are some of the examples. It is also
13
included any toxic reactions to chemicals used within the building, or derived from
fungi growing within a building (Burge, 2004). Figure 2.2 shows an example of a sick
building.
Figure 2.2: Example of Sick Building (Hardt, 2014)
2.3.3.2 Building Related Illness (BRI)
Health effects that are experienced by the occupants of certain buildings range from
severe effects (asthma, allergic response, cancer risks) to a series of mild symptoms,
generally non-specific in nature, which exhibit an association with the indoor
environment, particularly indoor air. There are symptoms that showed from
occupants if the buildings have BRI such as cough, chest tightness, fever, chills, and
muscle aches. These symptoms are clinically defined then the result were identified
the causes (WCB, 2005). Collectively, all such health effects are termed as ‘building-
related illness’ and many arise from identifiable causes, for example specific
pollutants, poor ventilation, humidifier fever, poor thermal comfort, poor lighting,
psychosocial factors (Burge, 2004).
There are many factors that can be related to the building illness. Job stress,
ergonomic stress, lighting, noise and temperature extremes are some of it. Hence, the
common building illness according to Zhang et al., (2012) are itching, burning eyes,
irritated skin, nasal congestion, fatigue, dry irritated throats, nausea, headaches,
humidity problems, unacceptable noise levels, adverse ergonomic conditionally,
14
improper temperature conditions and inadequate ventilation. It may occur
individually or combined (Zhang et al., 2012).
2.3.3.3 Environment Tobacco Smoke (ETS)
A significant indoor air pollutant is environment tobacco smoke (ETS). It is the term
used to describe a complex airborne mixture of gases and particles that results from
tobacco smoking in buildings. ETS is a complex mixture of particulates, CO, CO2,
formaldehyde and many volatile compounds, some of which cause cancer. ETS is a
combination of two forms of smoke from burning tobacco products which side stream
smoke (SS) such as cigarette, pipe or cigar and also mainstream smoke (MS) such as
the smoke exhaled by the smoker (Dresbach & Sanderow, 2008). It is also referring
to the exposure to tobacco smoke not from own smoking, but from others cigarette,
cigar or pipe. Those who exposed to this type of environment are classified as second
hand smoke. Moreover, inhaling environmental tobacco smoke is called as in
voluntary or passive smoking. Tobacco smoke can irritate the respiratory system, and
in allergic or asthmatic persons, often results in eye and nasal irritation, coughing
wheezing, sneezing, headache, and other sinus problems (IREM, 2006).
ETS can also be described as the material in indoor air that originates from
tobacco smoke. Many of the toxic agents and carcinogens that are present in
mainstream smoke are contained in the ETS but in diluted form. ETS do increase the
risk of heart disease in nonsmokers.
ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area
with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS free air. ETS
space requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a
non-smoking environment. Table 2.4 shows the symptoms of ETS for all ages.
Table 2.4 Symptoms or key signs of ETS (EPA, 1991)
Categories Symptoms or Key Signs
Adults Rhinitis/pharyngitis, nasal congestion, persistent cough
Conjunctival irritation
Headache
Wheezing (bronchial constriction)
Exacerbation of chronic respiratory conditions.
Infants and
children Asthma onset
Increase severity of, or difficulty in controlling, asthma
Frequent upper respiratory infection and/or episodes of otitis media
Snoring
Repeated pneumonia, bronchitis
15
2.3.4 Types of IAQ Pollutant
Pollution is the presence of a pollutant also known as unwanted substances in the
environment and is often the result of human actions. Pollution has a detrimental
effect on the environment. Animals, fish and other aquatic life, plants and humans all
suffer when pollution is not controlled. A pollutant is a substance that pollutes the air,
water or land. This term is used to describe things in the environment that do not
belong. Indoor air quality pollutants can be divided into four. They are the organic
pollutant, inorganic pollutant, physical pollutant and also biological pollutant (Kampa
& Castanas, 2008). Below are some of the common types of air pollutants.
2.3.4.1 Organic Pollutant
A variety of organic compounds are emitted into the atmosphere by natural and
human activities. Organic compound basically can be divided into two categories
namely the primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. The primary pollutants are
those emitted directly from the sources while the secondary pollutants are those that
formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among the primary pollutants and
normal atmospheric constituents.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds which are resistant to
degradation and persistent in the environment, with half lives of years in the soil or
sediment and days in the atmosphere. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic
chemicals that adversely affect human health and the environment around the world.
Because it is transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can
and do affect people and wildlife far from where it is used and released. POPs persist
for long periods of time in the environment and accumulate and pass from one species
to the next through the food chain (Kampa & Castanas, 2008). Humans mainly ingest
POPs from food and drinking water, but also from the air (mainly by breathing in dust
particles) and through the skin (through direct contact with the chemicals). The
highest concentrations of POPs are generally found in marine mammals and humans,
both of which are at the top of the food chain.
Some POPs are used as pesticides. Pesticides enter indoor areas via use and
storage, track-in by people and pets from outdoors area, or outdoors air entering the
home (Nishioka et al., 1999). Pests that pesticides control include insect, plants,
16
rodents and microorganisms (EPA, 2001). Others are used in industrial processes as
well as in the production of goods such as solvents, polyvinyl chloride and medicines.
POPs leads to death and illness including disruption of endocrine, reproductive and
immune systems. It also affects the neurobehavioral disorders and cancers.
2.3.4.2 Inorganic Pollutant
Inorganic air pollutants of various kinds, including gases and particles are focused in
this type of pollutant. Inorganic air pollutants consist of many kinds of substances.
Many solid and liquid substances become particulate air contaminants. Another
important class of inorganic air pollutants consists of oxides of carbon, sulfur, and
nitrogen. Inorganic pollutants contribute to a great extent in composition variations
of the atmosphere and are mainly due to combustion of fossil fuels (Katsouyanni,
2003; Kampa & Castanas, 2008). Carbon monoxide is a directly toxic material that is
fatal at relatively small doses. Carbon dioxide is a natural and essential constituent of
the atmosphere, and it is required for plants to use during photosynthesis. Carbon
monoxide (CO) is a colorless, non-irritant, odorless and tasteless toxic gas which
produces by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels such as wood, petrol, coal,
natural gas and kerosene (WHO, 2010). There is also probable that during combustion
there is incomplete combustion which also produces high concentration of carbon
monoxide in indoor environment (WHO, 2010).
However, CO2 turn out to be the most significant air pollutant of all because of
its potential as a greenhouse gas that causes devastating global warming. Oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen are acid-forming gases that causes acid precipitation. A number
of gaseous inorganic pollutants enter the atmosphere as the result of human activities.
Those added in the greatest quantities are CO, SO2, NO, and NO2. These quantities
are relatively small compared with the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Other
inorganic pollutant gases include NH3, N2O, N2O5, H2S, Cl2, HCl, and HF. Substantial
quantities of some of these gases are added to the atmosphere each year by human
activities.
As people breathe, the carbon dioxide in a building increases above that level
and peaks after several hours. If carbon dioxide concentrations get too high, the air
gets stale and people will not be comfortable.
17
2.3.4.3 Physical Pollutant
Physical pollution is the most recognizable among other types of pollution. The
physical contamination includes gas particulates contaminant, dust, carbon dioxide,
roofing asphalt odors, lighting, noise and biological contaminants such as bacteria
and mold (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012; OHS, 2012). Physical pollution is what referred
to as trash and is the direct result of human actions. In other words, nature does not
produce physical pollution because in natural systems, all byproducts or wastes are
eventually recycled back into the environment. For example, in nature, a fallen tree
degrades and eventually return nutrients to the soil.
However, physical pollutants, such as discarded water bottles and plastic bags
along with waste materials from industrial or manufacturing processes, do not
naturally degrade and accumulates or leach chemicals into the ground or water
supplies as it breakdown. Physical pollutants are often sent to landfills, which are
designated areas for trash disposal in which the waste is dumped and then covered by
soil. The combustion byproducts such as smoke and carbon monoxide are regular
indoor contaminant that produced from fuel combustion for heating system or
ventilation (Schierow & Bearden, 2012).
Landfills keep physical pollutants confined to one area, and many modern
landfills are lined with layers of clay or plastic to prevent leakage. However, as buried
waste products and organic matter decompose, it releases methane gas, carbon
dioxide and other gases that are harmful to the environment.
2.3.4.4 Biological Agents
Biological pollutants are or were living organisms that promote poor indoor air
quality. It travels through the air and often invisible. Biological pollutants consisting
of complex and varying mixtures of particles suspended in the breathing air, which
vary in size and composition, and are produced by a wide variety of natural and
anthropogenic activities (Kampa & Castanas, 2008; Poschl, 2005). Biological agents
said as airborne which can be inhaled into lungs. Some biological pollutants even
damages surfaces inside and outside of the house. Basically it needs two things to
grow which are the nutrients and moisture.
18
Biological contaminants include bacteria, molds, mildew, viruses, animal
dander and cat saliva, house dust, mites, cockroaches, and pollen. The carbon dioxide,
moisture, odors, and microbes such as fungi are generating from humans and their
household pets simply through normal living processes (Hallowell, 2010). Moisture
condition in the building normally come from plumbing roof, window leaks, flooding
and condensation on cold surface cause by high humidity (OSHA, 2011).
By controlling the relative humidity level in a home, the growth of some sources
of biological can be minimized. A relative humidity of 30-50 percent is generally
recommended for homes. Standing water, water-damaged materials, or wet surfaces
also serve as a breeding ground for molds, mildews, bacteria, and insects. House dust
mites, the source of one of the most powerful biological allergens, grow in damp,
warm environments. These areas include pillows, mattresses, carpets, soft
furnishings, soft toys and even clothing (THH, 2013).
Some biological contaminants trigger allergic reactions, including
hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic rhinitis, and some types of asthma (Bonetta et
al., 2010). Infectious illnesses, such as influenza, measles, and chicken pox are
transmitted through the air. Molds and mildews release disease-causing toxins.
Symptoms of health problems caused by biological pollutants include sneezing,
watery eyes, coughing, and shortness of breath, dizziness, lethargy, fever, and
digestive problems.
Some diseases, like humidifier fever, are associated with exposure to toxins
from microorganisms that grows in large building ventilation systems. However,
these diseases also traced to microorganisms that grow in home heating and cooling
systems and humidifiers. Children, elderly people, and people with breathing
problems, allergies, and lung diseases are particularly susceptible to disease-causing
biological agents in the indoor air. Mold have the condition for growth on surfaces
which shown in the Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: The conditions for mold growth on surfaces (La Muth, 2008)
No. Conditions
I Temperature range above 40oF and below 100oF
II Mold spores
III Nutrient base (most surfaces contain nutrients)
IV Moisture
19
Molds are measured by particles per unit meter (pcm) then translated into the
number of spores in a one-meter cube of air. The Table 2.6 below shows the
categories of mold count (La Muth, 2008).
Table 2.6: Categories of mold count (La Muth, 2008)
Particles (pcm) Categories
0 – 500 low
500 – 1500 moderate
> 1501 high
2.4 Indoor Fungal
Fungi are ubiquitous components of indoor human environments. The contact
between humans and microbes occurs are the most (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012). A
neutral role is played by majority of these organisms, but some are detrimental to
human lifestyles and health. People may be exposed to indoor contaminants in the
air, tap water, or dust by inhalation, skin contact, or mouth (Schierow & Bearden,
2012). Recent studies that used culture-independent sampling methods demonstrated
a high diversity of indoor fungi distinct from that of outdoor environments (Visagie
et al., 2014).
Reduced fungal exposure is reasonably be expected to improve the health (EPA,
2008). Ito, (2013) mentioned that fungal contamination recognized as one of the
serious problem in terms of health and aesthetic impact in indoor environment.
Prevention and elimination of fungi from the home environment are done by the
removal of moisture from the indoors and proper maintenance of air filters aid in.
According to Ozolinsh & Jakovich (2013), a negative influence’s on the building’s
sustainability and human health occurred when mould grows under high moisture.
Fungi are prevalent and it are threat to public in indoor environments (Khan &
Karuppayil, 2012; Crawford et al., 2015). Dilute bleach solution is used to cleaned
small areas of present contamination, which kills viable colonies and removes the
mycelia. If fungal contamination is not addressed early, substantial damage occurs,
requiring professional remediation. Regular inspection and cleaning prevents many
fungus-related problems.
The air in many indoor environments also contains spores. Bellotti et al., (2013)
states that fungi are heterotrophic organisms that commonly colonize organic
building materials like coatings, which metabolized by it. Indoor fungi of these spores
20
are as contaminants when the fungi have colonized indoor substrates. It gradually
destroys things it grows on. Actually the outdoor air may be the source of the spores
whenever fresh air is introduced. In addition, many indoor locations serve as
amplification sites for the growth of fungi. Such sites include carpeting, upholstered
furniture, showers, shower curtains, other bathroom fixtures, potted plants, and the
soil around potted plants. Anytime moisture or even high humidity is available, spores
germinates and fungi grows and produce thousands of new spores utilizing organic
material in these sites (Er et al., 2015). Pasanen et al., (2000) reported that the hyphal
growth and sporulation of the fungus on moist wallpaper accrued within one day of
incubation.
In buildings with central HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
systems, properly maintained in-system or in-duct filters removes many of the spores
present. The HVAC system itself served as an amplification and dissemination site
for fungal spores. Therefore, fungi found growing on air filters as well as in the ducts
(Burge, 2004). Routine maintenance prevents this from occur.
2.4.1 Types of Indoor Fungal
The species of fungi grows easily on the surface materials. Nutrients and energy
sources was used as to produce spores as dispersal and survival units. Some fungi are
beneficial to human as it were used as antibiotics. Micro fungi are important in certain
condition. Kanaani et al., (2009) found that Aspergillus, Penicillium and
Cladosporium were the fungal genera frequently occurring indoors, in both Australia
and other places in the world.
It plays the role as decomposers of dead organic matter and recycled into the
ecosystem. Discoloration occur when the presence of fungi at outdoor. It gives impact
to the indoor environment such as the volatile product and unpleasant odors.
Furthermore, the presence of the nutrient, temperature, pH and moisture accelerates
the growth of fungi (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012; Er et al., 2015). Fungi shows a growth
response to climates (temperature and relative humidity) (Angumeenal &
Venkappayya, 2004). Therefore, fungi do function as sensors to climate.
In commonly the water in the material is considered as the important element
for growth of fungi in outdoor or indoor. There are many species of indoor fungi.
21
Verdier et al., (2014) states that the microorganisms the most frequently detected on
indoor building materials are (i) fungi genera Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus
and Stachybotrys, and (ii) Gram negative bacteria and mycobacteria (Visagie et al.,
2014).
2.4.2 Health Hazard of Indoor Fungi
The inhalation of the spores, mold, fragments of the molds, or can lead to health
problems or make certain health conditions worse. Many of the molds produce
mycotoxins (Sivakumar, Singaravelu, & Sivamani, 2014). Mycotoxins are the
metabolites or by products from mold (Nielsen, 2002; Rajasekar & Balasubramanian,
2011). It has been identified as toxic to human. According to Belloti et al., (2013)
fungal growing inside buildings affect people’s health by producing quite toxic
mycotoxins. Therefore, human immune system is slowly worn down by these toxins.
It leads to allergic and respiratory problems (Nielsen, 2002). The most commonly
reported symptoms include runny nose or nasal congestion, eye irritation, cough or
congestion, aggravation of asthma, fatigue, headaches and difficulty in concentrating.
Molds can also exacerbate the symptoms of allergies including wheezing, chest
tightness, shortness of breath as well as nasal congestion and eye irritation. People
who are immune-suppressed or recovering from surgery are usually more susceptible
to health problems from molds.
There are no accepted standards for molds sampling in indoor environments or
for analyzing and interpreting the data in terms of human health. Most studies are
then based primarily on baseline environmental data rather than on human dose-
response data. Neither OSHA or NIOSH, nor the EPA has set a standard or PEL for
molds exposure.
Indoor mold is unsightly and smelly, but the potential problems are more
serious than that. By definition, actively-growing mold damages the material it lives
on, thereby impairing structural integrity. In addition, mold is associated with some
unwanted health effects in humans, including allergies and infections. More than 600
species of fungi are exposed to human and less than 50 are identified and have been
described in epidemiologic studies on indoor environments (Khan & Karuppayil,
2012).
22
2.5 Building Materials
Building materials are any type of material used in building construction and
structures. Wood, plasterboard and concrete are commonly used for construction
(Gutarowska, 2010). Building materials and surfaces are the places where various
species of bacteria and fungi have been found growing (Hoang et al., 2010). Building
materials such as drywall may not allow the moisture to escape easily (EPA, 2008).
These organisms cause corrosion and degradation of materials and components of
building materials and thereby load the indoor air environment with harmful spores
and substances, thus leading to poor indoor air quality, sick building syndrome and
building-related diseases.
Due to their harmful effect to the environment, residual toxicity and
carcinogenic nature, treatment of decay in buildings by synthetic antifungals has now
been restricted. Moreover, the constant use of chemicals may induce resistance in a
target organism. This concern has encouraged researchers to research for efficient
method to prevent and cure the harmful effects of microbes in an eco-friendlier
manner (Sundis et al., 2012).
2.5.1 Wood
It is a decorative treatment done with wooden panels on the walls in various designs.
Wood is an organic and heterogeneous material and susceptible to mold growth
(Viitanen, 2000). The material used can be plywood or wood covered with veneer or
laminate. Studies have shown materials with strong concentrations of organic carbon
like cellulose or carbonates (wall paper, wood-based building materials) are more
favorable to the development of mold than those with lower carbon content (plaster,
glass wool) (Vacher et al., 2010). It’s proven that fungal breakdowns the plant
material which are rich in lignin and cellulose (Meier et al., 2010).
Residences suffer mold attack, especially in wood-frame housing. Timber –
framed houses had higher daily amplitudes of humidity and temperature than the
heavyweight houses (Kalamees, Korpi, Vinha, & Kurnitski, 2009). Due to their
porosity and nutritional components, wood and wood - based building products are
highly susceptible to mold infestation (Chen, Yang, & Wu, 2009; Polizzi et al., 2012).
23
Lee et al., (2012) reported increased employment of wood-based composites,
synthetic interior finish materials have caused indoor pollutants, and air tightness has
aggravated IAQ problems. Gao et al., (1991) reported that when fungi grow on solid
substrates, their mycelia are tightly intermingled with the substrate.
The critical limit for mold growth on wood is around RH 75-80% which
constant ambient air humidity (Ojanen et al., 2010). However, higher relative
humidity around 90% is required for fungal growth (Viitanen, 2000). Factors that
contributes to the indoor fungi growth are temperature, weather and humidity
(Clausen & Yang, 2007). According to Clausen & Yang, (2003) an ideal fungicide
for prevention of indoor mold growth on wood-based materials needs to specifically
prevent spore germination and provide long-term protection under conditions of high
humidity. Besides, Clausen & Yang, (1998) affirm the development of synergistic
antifungal to protect wood in interior applications has been of particular interest since
the recent increase of indoor mold infestations.
2.5.2 Plasterboard
This material is also known as wallboard and also gypsum board. The plasterboard is
made of gypsum plaster which is pressed between 2 thick sheets of paper. Surface of
building materials (plasterboard, mortar, etc.) are generally highly porous and rough
(Verdier et al., 2014). The use of gypsum by the construction industry is attribute to
its many favorable technical characteristics such as process ability, lightweight,
resistance to fire, and reduction of sound (Kontogeorgos & Founti, 2013). Pereira et
al., (2011) highlighted that it is also used for the interior coating of walls and ceilings.
On the other hand, excess water could be absorbed by capillary movement into
gypsum and that may serve as a reservoir of water and nutrients, favoring conditions
for microbial growth (Gai, 2009; Parjo et al., 2015). Plasterboard are able in various
size and length as it is ready made walls. For residential wall and ceiling, 10mm thick
of plasterboard size usually used (Gai, 2009). According to Vacher et al., (2010),
among all the materials currently used in construction, plasterboards can be sensitive
to the development of mold in extreme moisture conditions. In damp environments,
these materials provides favourable environmental to proliferation and growth of
24
microorganisms (Friman, 2010; Singh & Chittenden, 2010; Verdier et al., 2014; Parjo
et al., 2015).
2.5.3 Concrete
This is a material composed by water, cement and aggregate of large and small size.
Additives are also added into the mix to increase and achieve the strength expected
by the user. When these ingredients are mixed together, a fluid mass is formed which
can be molded into the desired shape (Do et al., 2005). When left to cool, it hardens
and have a strong strength within the material (Zong jin Li, 2011). Miller et al., (2012)
states that concrete is the most widely used material in civil engineering for different
kind of application. Huge number of existing concrete structures worldwide need
effective and durable repair (Tayeh, et al., 2012).
The high alkalinity of mortar and concrete is known to prevent bacteria and
fungus from growing on their surface. However, as neutralization (or carbonation)
progresses, microorganisms such bacteria and fungi begin to colonize on or within
concrete (Park et al., 2009). In addition to the visible discoloration, fungi also have
deteriogenic effects on concrete and stone surfaces (Giannantonio et al., 2009).
According to Andersen et al., (2011) Aspergillus furnigatus, Aspergillus melleus,
Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Chaetomium spp., Mucor racemosus,
Mucor spinosus are commonly found fungi species on the concrete surface.
Suggested relative humidity of fungal growth by some authors are at 85-95% for non-
wetting conditions (Pasanen et al., 2000; Verdier et al., 2014). Moisture management
is a critical component for controlling fungal growth on construction materials
(Hoang et al., 2010).
When organisms are growing inside a building, discomforting odor can occur
and structure inhabitants infected with harmful diseases (Park et al., 2009).
Environmental factors such as water availability, pH, climatic exposure, nutrient
sources, and parameters such as mineral composition, type of cement, as well as
porosity and permeability of rock material affects the microbial colonization (Dubey
& Jain, 2016). Table 2.7 shows the different types of material used in the study.
99
REFERENCE
Abe, K., & Murata, T. (2014). A prevention strategy against fungal attack for the
conservation of cultural assets using a fungal index. International
Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 88, 91–96.
Ahmed, A. M., & El-Katatny, M. H. (2007). Entomopathogenic fungi as
biopesticides against the Egyptian cotton leaf worm, Spodoptera littoralis:
between biocontrol-promise and immunelimitation. Journal of Egyptian Society
of Toxicology, 1–26.
American Society for Testing and Materials. (2014). Standard Test Method for
Determining the Resistance of Paint films and Related Coatings to Fungal
Defacement by Accerelated Four - Week Agar Plate Assay. United State:
D55900-00
Andersen, B., Frisvad, J. C., Søndergaard, I., Rasmussen, I. S., & Larsen, L. S.
(2011). Associations between fungal species and water-damaged building
materials. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77(12), 4180–4188.
Anderson, G., & Palombo, E. a. (2009). Microbial contamination of computer
keyboards in a university setting. American Journal of Infection Control, 37(6),
507–509.
Angumeenal, A. R. (2004). Growth kinetics of heavy metal adapted Aspergillus
niger during citric acid biosynthesis. Journal of Scientific & Industrial
Research, 63(July), 610–613.
APHA 2012, Standard phytoplankton counting technique (Section 10200F.2).
Astoreca, A., Magnoli, C., Ramirez, M. L., Combina, M., & Dalcero, A. (2007).
Water activity and temperature effects on growth of Aspergillus niger, A.
awamori and A. carbonarius isolated from different substrates in Argentina.
International Journal of Food Microbiology, 119(3), 314–318.
100
Ayanbimpe, G., Danjuma, W., & Okolo, M. (2003). Relationship Between Fungal
Contamination of Indoor Air and Health Problems of Some Residents in Jos.
Cdn.Intechopen.Com.
Banach, M., Szczygłowska, R., Pulit, J., & Bryk, M. (2014). Building Materials with
Antifungal Efficacy Enriched with Silver. Chemical Sciences Journal, 5(1), 1–
5.
Bellotti, N., & Romagnoli, R. (2014). Assessment of Zinc Salicylate as Antifouling
Product for Marine Coatings. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research,
53, 8–13.
Bellotti, N., Salvatore, L., Deyá, C., Del Panno, M. T., del Amo, B., & Romagnoli,
R. (2013). The application of bioactive compounds from the food industry to
control mold growth in indoor waterborne coatings. Colloids and Surfaces. B,
Biointerfaces, 104, 140–144.
Bonetta, S. S., Mosso, S., Sampò, S., Carraro, E., & Sampo, S. (2010). Assessment
of microbiological indoor air quality in an Italian office building equipped with
an HVAC system. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 161(1), 473–
483.
Burge, P. S. (2004). Sick building syndrome. Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, 61(2), 185–190.
Chapman, J. S. (2003). Biocide resistance mechanisms. International
Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 51, 133–138.
Chen, F., Yang, X., & Wu, Q. (2009). Antifungal capability of TiO2 coated film on
moist wood. Building and Environment, 44(5), 1088–1093.
Chenari, B., Dias Carrilho, J., & Gameiro Da Silva, M. (2016). Towards sustainable,
energy-efficient and healthy ventilation strategies in buildings: A review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 59, 1426–1447.
Choi, Y., Joe, I., Lee, S., & Oh, K. (2009). An experimental study on the ignition
and emissions characteristics of wallpapers. Journal of Mechanical Science and
Technology, 23(10), 2839–2847.
Clausen, C. A., & Yang, V. (2007). Protecting wood from mould, decay, and termites
with multi-component biocide systems. International Biodeterioration &
Biodegradation, 59(1), 20–24.
Clausen, C. A., & Yang, V. W. (1998). Multi-component Biocide Protects Wood
101
from Fungi and Insects in UC2 Applications, 91(Dl), 31–35.
Clausen, C. A., & Yang, V. W. (2003). Mold inhibition on unseasoned southern pine.
The International Research Group on Wood Preservation, 1–9.
Crawford, J. A., Rosenbaum, P. F., Anagnost, S. E., Hunt, A., & Abraham, J. L.
(2015). Indicators of airborne fungal concentrations in urban homes:
Understanding the conditions that affect indoor fungal exposures. Science of
The Total Environment, 517, 113–124.
Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) Malaysia. (2010). Industry
Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality, 45.
Dishes, P., Brush, P., & Substrate, T. (2014). Standard Test Method for Determining
the Resistance of Paint Films and Related Coatings to Algal Defacement 1, 09
(Reapproved 2013), 4–7.
Do, J., Song, H., So, H., & Soh, Y. (2005). Antifungal effects of cement mortars with
two types of organic antifungal agents. Cement and Concrete Research, 35(2),
371–376.
Dresbach, Sereana H., and Sanderow, Lewis., (2008). Environment Tobacco Smoke.
The Invisible Environmental Fast Sheet Series
Dubey, S., & Jain, S. K. (2016). Effect of Humidity on Fungal Deteriogens of
Ancient Monuments , International Research Effect of Humidity on Fungal
Deteriogens of Ancient Monuments. International Research Journal of
Biological Sciences, 3(February), 84–86.
EPA, (1991). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Effect of Poor Indoor
Air Quality & Types of Indoor Pollutant.
EPA, U. S. (2008). Mold Remediaiton in Schools and Commercial Buildings EPA
402-K-01-001, September 2008, (September).
Er, C. M., Sunar, N. M., Leman, a M., Othman, N., Emparan, Q., Parjo, U. K.,
Ideris, N. A. (2015). The Evaluation of Indoor Microbial Air Quality in Two
New Commissioning Higher Educational Buildings in Johor, Malaysia. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 774, 1068–1072.
Er, C. M., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A M., Othman, N., Gani, P., Jamal, N. A, Parjo, U.
K. (2015). In Vitro Inhibitory Assay of an Isolated Indoor Airborne Fungus
from an Institutional Building of Computer Education by Using Potassium
Sorbate. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 774, 1091–1095.
Er, C. M., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A. M., & Othman, N. (2015). Direct growth
102
inhibition assay of total airborne fungi with application of biocide-treated malt
extract agar. MethodsX, 2, 340–344.
Er, C. M., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A. M., Othman, N., Emparan, Q., Parjo, U. K.,
Ideris, N. A. (2015). The Evaluation of Indoor Microbial Air Quality in Two
New Commissioning Higher Educational Buildings in Johor, Malaysia. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 773-774(MAY), 1068–1072.
Er, C. M., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A. M., Othman, N., Kalthsom, U., Jamal, N. A., &
Ideris, N. A. (2015). The biocidal effect of potassium sorbate for indoor
airborne fungi remediation. Desalination and Water Treatment, (February), 1–
6.
Felicia, W., Jacobs, D., Mitchell, C., Miller, D., and Meryl, H.K., (2007). Research
Mini-Monograph Improving Indoor Environmental Quality for Public Health:
Impediments and Policy Recommendations, Environmental Health Perspective,
Vol 115(6), pp.953-957.
Friman, J. (2010). Comparative Study on Mould Growth on Plaster Boards treated
with Biocides.
Fungi, P. C. (1991). BIOTECHNOLOGY Received 12th July Yong Gao , Tao Chen
and Colette Breuil * Chair of Forest Products Biotechnology , Department of
Wood Science , University of British Columbia , Vancouver , B . C . Canada
V6T 124 A modified ergosterol analysis method , inc, 7(9), 621–626.
Gai. (2009). Plasterboard and Other Internal Lining Materials- Plasterboard Ain't
Just Plasterboard. Retrieved October 11, 2014, from Grand Acclaim Interiors:
www.grandacclaiminteriors.com
Gaskin, S., Taylor, M., Bentham, R., & Pisaniello, D. (2012). Understanding and
managing risks associated with fungal contamination in indoor environments.
The University of Adelaide : Final Report.
Giannantonio, D. J., Kurth, J. C., Kurtis, K. E., & Sobecky, P. A. (2009). Effects of
concrete properties and nutrients on fungal colonization and fouling.
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 63(3), 252–259.
Gutarowska, B. (2010). Metabolic activity of moulds as a factor of building materials
biodegradation. Polish Journal of Microbiology / Polskie Towarzystwo
Mikrobiologów = The Polish Society of Microbiologists, 59(2), 119–24.
Hallowell, M.R. (2010). "Safety risk perception in construction companies in the
Pacific Northwest of the USA." Construction Management and Econimics,
103
28(4): 403-413.
Heydaryinia, A., Veissi, M., & Sadadi, A. (2011). A comparative study of the effects
of the two preservatives, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate on Aspergillus
niger and Penicillium notatum. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology, 4(4),
301–307.
Hoang, C. P., Kinney, K. A., Corsi, R. L., & Szaniszlo, P. J. (2010). Resistance of
green building materials to fungal growth. International Biodeterioration &
Biodegradation, 64(2), 104–113.
Hochmannova, L., & Vytrasova, J. (2010). Photocatalytic and antimicrobial effects
of interior paints. Progress in Organic Coatings, 67(1), 1–5.
Hwang, C.-A., & Huang, L. (2014). The Effect of Potassium Sorbate and pH on the
Growth of Listeria Monocytogenes in Ham Salad. Journal of Food Processing
and Preservation, 38(4), 1511–1516.
Ibrahim, M., Rabah, A. B., Liman, B., & Ibrahim, N. T. (2011). Effect of
Temperature and Relative Humidity on the Growth of Helminthosporium
fulvum. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 19(2011), 127–129.
IREM. (2006, June). Indoor Air Quality. Retrieved September 30, 2014, from
Institute of Real Estate Management.
Ismail, S. H., Deros, B. M., & Leman, A. M. (2010). Indoor air quality issues for
non-industrial work place. International Journal of Research and Reviews in
Applied Sciences, 5(3), 235–244.
Ito, K. (2013). Integrated Numerical Simulation with Fungal Spore Deposition and
Subsequent Fungal Growth on Bathroom Wall Surface. Indoor and Built
Environment , 22 (6 ), 881–896.
Joo, J., Zheng, Q., Lee, G., Kim, J. T., & Kim, S. (2012). Optimum energy use to
satisfy indoor air quality needs. Energy and Buildings, 46, 62–67.
Joshi, M., Ali, S. W., Purwar, R., & Rajendran, S. (2009). Ecofriendly antimicrobial
finishing of textiles using bioactive agents based on natural products. Indian
Journal of Fibre and Textile Research, 34(3), 295–304.
Kalamees, T., Korpi, M., Vinha, J., & Kurnitski, J. (2009). The effects of ventilation
systems and building fabric on the stability of indoor temperature and humidity
in Finnish detached houses. Building and Environment, 44(8), 1643–1650.
Kamaludin, N.S (2013). The phycoremediation of botrycoccus sp to treat greywater.
UTHM: degree's project report
104
Kampa, M., & Castanas, E. (2008). Human health effects of air pollution.
Environmental Pollution, 151(2), 362–367.
Kanaani, H., Hargreaves, M., Ristovski, Z., & Morawska, L. (2009). Fungal spore
fragmentation as a function of airflow rates and fungal generation methods.
Atmospheric Environment, 43(24), 3725–3735.
Katsouyanni, K. (2003). Ambient air pollution and health. British Medical Bulletin,
68, 143–156.
Kawamura, K., Vestergaard, M., Ishiyama, M., Nagatani, N., Hashiba, T., & Tamiya,
E. (2006). Development of a novel hand-held toluene gas sensor: Possible use
in the prevention and control of sick building syndrome. Measurement, 39(6),
490–496.
KEMI, (2012, March). Biocide Treated Article - AN Internet Survey. Retrieved
September 20, 2013, from Swedish Chemicals Agency: www.kemi.se
Khan, Haleem A.A & Karuppayil, M. S. (2012). Fungal pollution of indoor
environments and its management. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 19(4),
405–426.
Kontogeorgos, D. A., & Founti, M. A. (2013). A generalized methodology for the
definition of reactive porous materials physical properties: Prediction of
gypsum board properties. Construction and Building Materials, 48, 804–813.
Kris-Etherton, P. M., Hecker, K. D., Bonanome, A., Coval, S. M., Binkoski, A. E.,
Hilpert, K. F., Etherton, T. D. (2002). Bioactive compounds in foods: their role
in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The American Journal
of Medicine, 113 Suppl (01), 71S–88S.
Lai, A. C. K., Mui, K. W., Wong, L. T., & Law, L. Y. (2009). An evaluation model
for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) acceptance in residential buildings.
Energy and Buildings, 41(9), 930–936.
LaMuth, J., (2008). Indoor Air Quality: Dust and Mites, The Invisible Series
Environment Fact Sheet Series, Ohio State University, pp.1-3.
Lee, M. C., Mui, K. W., Wong, L. T., Chan, W. Y., Lee, E. W. M., & Cheung, C. T.
(2012). Student learning performance and indoor environmental quality (IEQ)
in air-conditioned university teaching rooms. Building and Environment, 49(1),
238–244.
Leman, A M., Omar, A R., Husain, A., Halmi, M. A, & Adam, N. M. (2006).
Monitoring of Indoor Air Quality for Improvement of Safety and Health Factor
105
Towards Sustainable Work. In Proceeding Of The International Symposium &
Exhibition On Sustainable Energy & Environment (ISESEE (pp. 173–179).
Madan, R. K., & Levitt, J. (2014). A review of toxicity from topical salicylic acid
preparations. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 70(4), 788–
792.
Mandal, J., & Brandl, H. (2011). Bioaerosols in Indoor Environment - A Review
with Special Reference to Residential and Occupational Locations. The Open
Environmental and Biological Monitoring Journal, 41(1), 83–96.
Mariz, Inês de F.A., Ian S. Millichamp, José C. de la Cal, J. R. L. (2010). High
performance water-borne paints with high volume solids based on bimodal
latexes. Progress in Organic Coatings, 68(3), 225–233.
Markov, Bera, Anski, & Ranogajec, J. (2014). Development of a Quantitative
Method for Testing the Antifungal Effect of Façade Paints With Biocides, 138-
142.
MDH, (2014). Drug & Supplement - Potassium Sorbate. Retrieved on October 23,
2014 from Website: http://www..md-health.com/Potassium Sorbate. html.
Meier, C. L., Rapp, J., Bowers, R. M., Silman, M., & Fierer, N. (2010). Fungal
growth on a common wood substrate across a tropical elevation gradient:
Temperature sensitivity, community composition, and potential for above-
ground decomposition. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 42(7), 1083–1090.
Mendell, M. J., Mirer, A. G., Cheung, K., Tong, M., & Douwes, J. (2011).
Respiratory and Allergic Health Effects of Dampness, Mold, and Dampness-
Related Agents: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence. Environmental
Health Perspectives, 119(6), 748–756.
Miller, A. Z., Sanmartín, P., Pereira-Pardo, L., Dionísio, A., Saiz-Jimenez, C.,
Macedo, M. F., & Prieto, B. (2012). Bioreceptivity of building stones: A review.
Science of the Total Environment, 426, 1–12.
Mohd, N., Noraini, R., Leman, A. M., Sayuti, A., & Abidin, Z. (2013). Building and
Indoor Environment : A Study on Three Stages of a New Building
Commisioning. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
3(3), 63–68.
Mroz, Z., Jongbloed, A. W., Partanen, K. H., Vreman, K., Kemme, P. A., & Kogut,
J. (2000). The effects of calcium benzoate in diets with or without organic acids
on dietary buffering capacity/apparent digestibility, retention of nutrients, and
106
manure characteristics in swine. Journal of Animal Science, 78(July), 2622–
2632.
Nielsen, K. F. (2002). Mould growth on building materials. Secondary metabolites,
mycotoxins and biomarkers. Building.
Nikolov, A., & Ganchev, D. (2011). In vItro antifungal examination of potassium
sorbate towards some phytopathogens. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural
Science, 17(2), 191–194.
Nishioka, M.G.; Burkhorlder, H.M, M.C.; Brinkman, M.C. Distribution of 2,4
Dischlorophenoxyacetic Acid in Floor Dust throughout Homes Following
Homeowner and Comercial Lawn Applications: Quantitative Effects of
Children, Pets, and Shoes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33, 1359-1365.
Norhidayah, A., Chia-Kuang, L., Azhar, M. K., & Nurulwahida, S. (2013). Indoor
Air Quality and Sick Building Syndrome in Three Selected Buildings. Procedia
Engineering Malaysian Technical Universities Conference on Engineering &
Technology, 53, 93–98.
OHS. (2012). Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). Retrieved October 28, 2014, from
Occupational Health and safety Bulletin, Alberta:
www.employment.alberta.ca/ohs-legistration
Ojanen, T., Viitanen, H., Peuhkuri, R., Lähdesmäki, K., Vinha, J., & Salminen, K.
(2010). Mold Growth Modeling of Building Structures Using Sensitivity
Classes of Materials. Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of
Buildings XI, 1–10. Retrieved from
Oluwole Folorunso, C., & Hamdan Ahmad, M. (2014). Variance in paint
maintenance frequency in tropical salty environment. Structural Survey, 32(4),
286–298.
OSHA. (2011). Indoor Air Quality in Commercial and Institutional Buildings.
Retrieved October 24, 2014, from Occupational Safety and Health
Administration: www.osha.gov
Pagliano, L., Carlucci, S., Causone, F., Moazami, A., & Cattarin, G. (2016). Energy
retrofit for a climate resilient child care centre. Energy and Buildings, 127,
1117–1132.
Parjo, U. K., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A. M., & Er, C. M. (2015). Effect of Fungal
Growth on the Surface of Painted Plasterboards. Advances in Environmental
Biology, 9(20), 15–19.
107
Parjo, U. K., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A M., Gani, P., Emparan, Q., & Er, C. M. (2015).
Coating Bio-Resistance Test of Different Wall Finishing for Isolated Indoor
Fungal Treatment by Using Potassium Sorbate Biocide on Wood. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 774(2), 1384–1388.
Parjo, U. K., Sunar, N. M., Leman, A M., Ideris, N. I. A, Gani, P., Emparan, Q., &
Er, C. M. (2015). Indoor Fungal Treatment by Using Potassium Sorbate as Bio-
Resistance Coating for Different Plasterboard Wall Finishings. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 774, 1116–1120.
Parjo, U. K., Sunar, N. M., A.M. Leman, P.Gani, Q. Emparan, E. C. M. (2014). 3rd
Scientific Conference on Occupational Safety and Health- Sci-Cosh 2014, (2),
in press.
Park, S.-K., Kim, J.-H. J., Nam, J.-W., Phan, H. D., & Kim, J.-K. (2009).
Development of anti-fungal mortar and concrete using Zeolite and Zeocarbon
microcapsules. Cement and Concrete Composites, 31(7), 447–453.
Pasanen, A.-L., Kasanen, J.-P., Rautiala, S., Ikäheimo, M., Rantamäki, J.,
Kääriäinen, H., & Kalliokoski, P. (2000). Fungal growth and survival in
building materials under fluctuating moisture and temperature conditions.
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 46(2), 117–127.
Paul, R., Singh, V., Tyagi, R., Singh, A., & Dubey, D. (2010). Micro-elements work
for the growth and total soluble protein production in Aspergillus niger at
different concentrations. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology, 4(1), 291–
296.
Paul, T., Sree, D., & Aglan, H. (2010). Effect of mechanically induced ventilation
on the indoor air quality of building envelopes. Energy and Buildings, 42(3),
326–332.
Pereira, A., Palha, F., De Brito, J., & Silvestre, J. D. (2011). Inspection and diagnosis
system for gypsum plasters in partition walls and ceilings. Construction and
Building Materials, 25(4), 2146–2156.
PEREIRA, E. P. R. de A. F. Fariau. M. P. (2013). Optimizing the use of potassium
sorbate and sodium metabisulphite for the chemical and microbial stability of
carbonated coconut water Otimizando o uso de sorbato de potássio e
metabissufito de sódio para a. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 125–132.
Persily, A. (2015). Challenges in developing ventilation and indoor air quality
standards: The story of ASHRAE Standard 62. Building and Environment
108
Journal, (xxx), 1–9.
Polizzi, V., Adams, A., De Saeger, S., Van Peteghem, C., Moretti, A., & De Kimpe,
N. (2012). Influence of various growth parameters on fungal growth and volatile
metabolite production by indoor molds. Science of the Total Environment, 414,
277–286.
Poschl, U. (2005). Atmospheric aerosols: Composition, transformation, climate and
health effects. Angewandte Chemie - International Edition, 44(46), 7520–7540.
Postgraduados, C. De. (2011). Effect of Temperature and Relative Humidity on,
1(311), 42–53.
Rajasekar, a., & Balasubramanian, R. (2011). Assessment of airborne bacteria and
fungi in food courts. Building and Environment, 46(10), 2081–2087.
Ravikumar, H. R., Rao, S. S., & Karigar, C. S. (2012). Biodegradation of paints: a
current status. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 5(1), 1977–1987.
Rochoel, F., Rosa, L., Giese, E. C., Frans, R., Dekker, H., Pelayo, J. S., & Barbosa,
A. D. M. (2008). Microbiological contamination of water-based paints from an
industry in the state of Paraná , Brazil Contaminação microbiológica de tintas à
base d ’ água de uma indústria do estado do Paraná , Brasil. In Ciências Exatas
e da Terra, Londrina (pp. 85–92).
Roden, K. (2010). Biocides in antimicrobial paints. Microbiology Australia, 31(4),
198–200.
Rowney, D. (2012). Art Materials. Retrieved December 3, 2012, from www.daler-
rowney.com.
Ryu, S. H., & Moon, H. J. (2014). Mould germination and the growth rate on
wallpapers with different physical properties and the surface structures. Indoor
and Built Environment , 23 (1 ), 171–179.
Sarbu, I., & Sebarchievici, C. (2013). Aspects of indoor environmental quality
assessment in buildings. Energy and Buildings, 60, 410–419.
Schierow, L.J. & Bearden, D.M. (2012, July 23). Federal Programs Related to
Indoor Pollution by Chemicals. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from
congressional Research Service: www.crs.gov
Singh, T., & Chittenden, C. (2010). Efficacy of essential oil extracts in inhibiting
mould growth on panel products. Building and Environment, 45(10), 2336–
Sivakumar, V. K., Singaravelu, G., & Sivamani, P. (2014). Original Research Article
Isolation , Characterization and Growth Optimization of Toxicogenic Molds
109
from Different Animal Feeds in Tamilnadu. International Journal of Current
Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3(9), 430–445.
Smilanick, J. L., Mansour, M. F., Gabler, F. M., & Sorenson, D. (2008). Control of
citrus postharvest green mold and sour rot by potassium sorbate combined with
heat and fungicides. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 47, 226–238.
Smit, W., Waart, D. R. De, Struijk, D. G., & Krediet, R. T. (2000). AND PATIENTS,
20, 557–565.
Stanojevic, D., Comic, L., Stefanovic, O., & Solujic-Sukdolak, S. (2009).
Antimicrobial effects of sodium benzoate, sodium nitrite and potassium sorbate
and their synergistic action in vitro. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science,
15(4), 307–311.
Sundis, M.S.A., Baharuddin, S., Sulaiman, A.K. & Shaida, F.S. (2012).
Antimicrobial Activity of Spermine Alkaloids From Samanea Saman Against
Microbes Associated With Sick Building. International Conference on
Environment, Chemistry and Biology, 150-155.
Sungho Lee, Gideoc Kwon, Jinkyu Joo, Jeong Tai Kim, S. K. (2012). A finish
material management system for indoor air quality of apartment buildings
(FinIAQ). Energy and Buildings, 46, 68–79.
Syazwan Aizat I., Juliana J., Norhafizalina o., Azman Z. A., K. J. (2009). Indoor Air
Quality and Sick Building Syndrome in Malaysian Buildings. Global Journal
of Health Science, 1(2), 126 – 135.
Takigawa, T., Saijo, Y., Morimoto, K., Nakayama, K., Shibata, E., Tanaka, M.,
Kishi, R. (2012). A longitudinal study of aldehydes and volatile organic
compounds associated with subjective symptoms related to sick building
syndrome in new dwellings in Japan. Science of the Total Environment, 418,
61–67.
Tanaca, H. K., Dias, C. M. R., Gaylarde, C. C., John, V. M., & Shirakawa, M. a.
(2011). Discoloration and fungal growth on three fiber cement formulations
exposed in urban, rural and coastal zones. Building and Environment, 46(2),
324–330.
Tayeh, B. A., Abu Bakar, B. H., Megat Johari, M. A., & Zeyad, A. M. (2012). The
Role of Silica Fume in the Adhesion of Concrete Restoration Systems.
Advanced Materials Research, 626, 265–269.
The Hillingdon Hospitals (THH, 2013)., NHS Foundation Trust. Dust Mite Allergy.
110
Retrieved on October 22, 2014, from Website:
http:/www.thh.nh.uk/documents/_Patients/PatientLeaflets/paediatrics/
allergies/P1018-Dust_Mite_Aallergy_A4_May13.pdf.
Tiller, J. C. (2008). Coatings for Prevention or Deactivation of Biological
Contamination. Developments in Surface Contamination and Cleaning -
Fundamentals and Applied Aspects, 1013–1065.
Tortorano, A. M., Viviani, M. A., Biraghi, E., Rigoni, A. L., Prigitano, A., & Grillot,
R. (2005). In vitro testing of fungicidal activity of biocides against Aspergillus
fumigatus. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 54(Pt 10), 955–7.
UKFG, (2014). United Kingdom Food Guide. Calcium Benzoate. Retrieved on
October, 24, 2014, from Website http://www.ukfoodguide.net/e213.htm
UKFSA, (2014). UK Food Standard Agency. Chemical Properties of Calcium
Benzoate. Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers. Retrieved on
October 21, 2014 from Website: http://www.food.gov.uk/
Vacher, S., Hernandez, C., Bärtschi, C., & Poussereau, N. (2010). Impact of paint
and wall-paper on mould growth on plasterboards and aluminum. Building and
Environment, 45(4), 916–921.
Verdier, T., Coutand, M., Bertron, A., & Roques, C. (2014). A review of indoor
microbial growth across building materials and sampling and analysis methods.
Building and Environment, 80, 136–149.
Vesper S.J., Wong W., Kuo C.M., Pierson D.L. Mold species in dust from the
International space station identified and quantified by mold-specific
quantitative PCR. Research in Microbiology.2008;159:432-435.
Viitanen, H. (2000). Mould growth on painted wood. Virtualvttfi, 1(9), 1–9.
Visagie, C. M., Hirooka, Y., Tanney, J. B., Whitfield, E., Mwange, K., Meijer, M.,
Samson, R. A. (2014). Aspergillus, Penicillium and Talaromyces isolated from
house dust samples collected around the world. Studies in Mycology, 78(1), 63–
139.
WCB, (2005). Indoor Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners, Managers, and
Occupants. National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data,
pp.130.
WHO, (2009). WHO Guidelines For Indoor Air Quality: Dampness And Mould.
Retrieved October 15. 2014, from World Health Organization, Europe:
www.euro.who.int
111
WHO, (2010). World Health Organization. Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality:
Sellected Pollutants, pp. 55-89.
Wong, J. K. W., Skitmore, M., Buys, L., & Wang, K. (2014). The effects of the
indoor environment of residential care homes on dementia suffers in Hong
Kong: A critical incident technique approach. Building and Environment, 73,
32-39.
Wong, L.T, K.W. Mui, P. S. H. (2008). A multivariate-logistic model for acceptance
of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in offices. Building and Environment,
43(1), 1–6.
Zhang, X., Sahlberg, B., Wieslander, G., Janson, C., Gislason, T., & Norback, D.
(2012). Dampness and moulds in workplace buildings: Associations with
incidence and remission of sick building syndrome (SBS) and biomarkers of
inflammation in a 10year follow-up study. Science of the Total Environment,
430, 75–81.
Zongjin Li; Advanced concrete technology; 2011.